Climate science and technology (John Holdren)

The Climate-Change Challenge Today: The Science and the Technological Options John P. Holdren Teresa & John Heinz Professor of Environmental Policy Harvard Kennedy School Professor of Environmental Science and Policy Harvard Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences and former Assistant to President Obama for Science & Technology and Director, White House Office of Science & Technology Policy (January 2009 – January 2017)

A Compendium from Recent Talks September 2017

A few basics

Essence of the energy-climate challenge • Without energy there is no economy • Without climate there is no environment • Without economy and environment there is no material well-being, no civil society, no personal or national security The essence of the challenge is that the world has long been getting most of the energy its economies need in ways that are now seriously disrupting the climate its environment needs.

A few basics

EJ/year

World Energy & 1850-2000 Growth of world population prosperity from 1850 to 2000 brought a 20-fold increase in energy use.

500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0

Gas Oil Coal Nuclear Hydro + Biomass

1850 1875 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 Growth rate 1850-1950 was 1.45%/yr, Year driven mainly by coal.

From 1950-2000 it was 3.15%/yr, driven mainly by oil & natural gas.

A few basics

Energy, economy, & CO2 in 2015 population (millions)

ppp-GDP (trillion $)

energy (EJ)

fossil E (percent)

fossil CO2 (MtC)

World

7343

113.3

613

82%

9290

China

1371

19.4

139

84%

2570

USA

319

17.4

101

86%

1500

India

1311

7.9

39

74%

610

Russia

144

3.5

31

88%

420

Japan

127

4.9

20

92%

340

World Bank 2016, BP 2016

A few basics

Electricity Supply, 2015 About 37% of primary energy is used to generate electricity

Net Electricity (billion kWh)

World

USA

China

24100

4300

5800

of which... fossil

67%

67%

73%

hydropower

16%

6%

19%

6%

7%

5%

11%

20%

3%

other renewable nuclear

Fossil fuels still supply 2/3 of the world’s electricity.

A few basics

Terminology: “global warming” is a misnomer That term implies something…

• uniform across the planet, • mainly about temperature, • gradual, • quite possibly benign.

What’s actually happening is…

• highly nonuniform, • not just about temperature, • rapid compared to capacities for adjustment • harmful for most places and times A more descriptive term is “global climate disruption”.

A few basics

Climate change is not just about temperature.

Climate = weather patterns, meaning averages, extremes, timing, spatial distribution of…

• hot & cold • cloudy & clear • humid & dry • drizzles, downpours, & hail • snowfall, snowpack, & snowmelt • breezes, blizzards, tornadoes, & typhoons Climate change entails disruption of the patterns.

Global average T is just an index of the state of the global climate system as expressed in these patterns. Small changes in the index correspond to big changes in the system.

Outline of the rest of the presentation THE SCIENCE: What We Know • The pace, character, & causes of climate change • The ongoing impacts on people & ecosystems THE SCIENCE: What We Expect, What More We Fear, What We Can Hope • Projections of future climate change & its impacts • The leverage of remedial action THE TECHNOLOGICAL OPTIONS • Mitigation: Reducing emissions, increasing sinks, managing solar radiation • Adaptation: Preparedness & resilience THE PATH FORWARD

The Science: What We Know “Everyone is entitled to his own opinion, but not his own facts.�

Daniel Patrick Moynihan

What We Know: The pace, character, and consequences of climate change

Rapid warming of the atmosphere is ongoing 2016 was the hottest year on record, 2015 2nd, 2014 3rd

Shaded rectangles are decadal averages; each decade since the 1970s has been warmer than the last.

What We Know: The pace, character, and consequences of climate change

There was no “hiatus” “Hiatus means “pause”. The claim that there was a pause in warming for 10-15 years after 1998 rests on the fact that the anomalously high 1998 T (boosted by a strong El Niño) was not exceeded until 2005 and was about the same as the 2009 and 2013 values.

This claim “cherry picks” specific dates to compare, as opposed to the scientific procedure of finding the best-fit straight line through all the years in the period of interest. By that standard, warming was slower between 1998 and 2013 than in the preceding 15 years, but it didn’t pause (red line is best fit).

What We Know: The pace, character, and consequences of climate change

First half of 2017 was the 2nd hottest Jan-Jun on record despite absence of El NiĂąo

What We Know: The pace, character, and consequences of climate change

The Arctic, West Antarctic Peninsula, and mid-continents are warming much faster than the global average

NASA

What We Know: The pace, character, and consequences of climate change

The ocean stores most of the excess heat

Over 90% of the excess heat trapped by anthropogenic greenhouse gases is stored in the ocean.

What We Know: The pace, character, and consequences of climate change

Arctic sea-ice shrinkage is setting new records

2002-2015

Sea-ice loss doesn’t raise sea level, but it does accelerate Arctic warming.

What We Know: The pace, character, and consequences of climate change

Antarctic sea-ice is in trouble, too

2002-2015

Sea-ice loss in Antarctic allows the land ice to flow into the sea.

What We Know: The pace, character, and consequences of climate change

Glaciers worldwide have been shrinking for decades Muir Glacier, Alaska, 1941-2004

August 1941

August 2004

NSIDC/WDC for Glaciology, Boulder, compiler. 2002, updated 2006. Online glacier photograph database. Boulder, CO: National Snow and Ice Data Center.

What We Know: The pace, character, and consequences of climate change

Loss of ice from Greenland is accelerating Land-ice loss from melting & accelerated calving of icebergs raises sea level.

Reference level (zero point) is 1st half of 2009

Post-2010 decline is faster than pre-2010.

Waleed Abdalati, from GRACE, December 2014

What We Know: The pace, character, and consequences of climate change

Antarctica as a whole is losing ice, too

Data from GRACE (Velicogna and Wahr 2013)

What We Know: The pace, character, and consequences of climate change

Rate of sea-level rise is speeding up Monthly values 3-month running mean 1992-2016 trend = 3.3 mm/yr 2010-2016 trend = 6.0 mm/yr

Loss of land ice, thermal expansion, pumping of groundwater all contribute.

WMO 2017

What We Know: The pace, character, and consequences of climate change

Sea-level rise is not uniform (!)

The Earth is not a bathtub. It’s a rotating ball, non-uniformly heated (experiencing non-uniform thermal expansion), where winds and ocean currents pile up water against the barriers formed by continents.

What We Know: The pace, character, and consequences of climate change

That humans are the cause is irrefutable • The rapidly rising use of fossil fuels after 1750, augmented by landuse change, produced a pace of increase in atmospheric concentrations of CO2, CH4, and N2O unprecedented in Earth’s history. The attribution to humans is scientifically ironclad.

• When the effects of the concurrent buildup of atmospheric particles are accounted for, these human-caused increases in CO2, CH4, N2O, and industrial HFCs explain essentially all of the observed increase in global-average temperature over this period.

• Not just the magnitude but the spatial and temporal patterns of the warming match what basic physics and climate models say should be the result of the observed GHG buildups.

• Under the natural influences on Earth’s climate, Earth had been cooling for 6500 years up to 1750--and would have continued to cool if human-caused warming had not dominated after that.

What We Know: The pace, character, and consequences of climate change

Humans caused the big greenhouse-gas increases since 1750.

Compared to natural changes over the millenia, the spike in concentrations of CO2 & CH4 in the past 250 years is extraordinary.

It’s clear humans caused the CO2 spike because fossil CO2 lacks carbon-14, and the drop in atmospheric C-14 fraction resulting from the fossil-CO2 additions is measurable.

IPCC AR4, WG1 SPM, 2007

What We Know: The pace, character, and consequences of climate change

Human influences explain all of the recent T increase Human vs natural influences 1950-2010 (º C)

Human well-mixed GHGs Net human influence Human particulates + short-lived GHGs Solar variability + volcanoes

T (C) IPCC AR5, WG1 SPM, 2013

What We Know: The pace, character, & consequences of climate change

Human “fingerprint� on recent climate change Top panel shows human & natural influences 1880-2005 Bottom panel shows computer simulation, when fed these influences, reproduces the temps that were observed

Source: Hansen et al., Science 308, 1431, 2005.

What We Know: The pace, character, and consequences of climate change

Computer models of human-caused GHG influence on temperatures match observations on all continents

IPCC AR4 WG1 SPM, 2007 Black lines are decadally averaged observations. Blue bands are computer models with natural forcings only. Pink bands are computer models with human + natural forcings.

What We Know: The pace, character, and consequences of climate change

Humans reversed 6,500 years of natural cooling Years before present

°C departure from 1960-90 average

Blue band is one-sigma uncertainty range (68% confidence interval). The data show how a longterm natural cooling trend has been suddenly reversed by anthropogenic warming over the last century.

Marcott et al. SCIENCE vol 339, 2013

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

Climate change is already causing harm Around the world we’re seeing, variously, increases in • floods • drought • wildfires • heat waves • coral bleaching • ocean acidification • coastal erosion & inundation • power of the strongest storms • permafrost thawing & subsidence • expanding impacts of pests & pathogens • altered distribution/abundance of valued species All plausibly linked to climate change by theory, models, and observed “fingerprints”

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

Ongoing harm: Heavier downpours ďƒ more floods Percentage increase, between 1958 and 2012, in the amount of precipitation falling in the heaviest 1% of precipitation events in each region.

By far the biggest increase was in the Northeast.

Source: USGCRP, Assessment of Climate Change Impacts in the United States, May 2014

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

Downpours  Floods (continued) “Hundred-year” floods now occur once a decade or more in many places.

Three “five-hundred-year” floods occurred in Houston in three years.

East Baton Rouge, LA, August 2016: Up to 20 inches of rain in 3 days

Hurricane Harvey brought >50 inches of rain over 5 days to parts of Texas in August 2017.

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

Ongoing harm: drought

• Mountains get more rain, less snow, • Higher temperatures = bigger losses yielding more runoff in winter and to evaporation. leaving less for summer.

• More of the rain falling in extreme • Earlier spring snowmelt also leaves events = more loss to flood runoff, less runoff for summer. less moisture soaking into soil.

• Altered atmospheric circulation patterns can also play a role.

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

Drought is up in many regions: Amazon

Precipitation index for Brazil, 1/15 – 12/16

WMO 2017

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems 12

Ongoing harm: wildfires 1010

88

Millions of acres burned annually in U.S. wildfires 1981 - 2015

Contributing factors are heat, drought, more dead trees killed by pests, and more lightning in a warming world.

66

44

22 Data from National Interagency Fire Center

00

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

What We know: Impacts

Ongoing harm: Wildfires • 3.4 million acres had already burned in the USA in 2017 by the beginning of July.

• The fire season in the USA is about 3 months longer than it was 40 years ago.

• The average fire is much bigger & hotter than before.

Small wildfires burn at 13001400F; big ones can burn at 2000F or more, spreading faster, with far greater risks for firefighters.

• In Alaska, even the tundra has experienced wildfires in recent years.

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

Ongoing harm: huge increase in heat waves Probability distribution for Jun-Jul-Aug temperature anomaly on land in the Northern Hemisphere. Baseline normal distribution is for 1951-80.

Hansen at al., PNAS, 2012

Standard Deviations Portion of Northern Hemisphere land experiencing > 3Ďƒ summer heat in a given year increased from 0.1-0.2% in 1951-80 to 10% in 2001-2011—a 50- to 100-fold increase.

35

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

The observed changessmall shift in average T comes with big increases in extremeswere to be expected.

Original climate

Altered climate

Temperature This is a fundamental property of the “normal” distribution of anything.

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

Working outdoors is already difficult & dangerous in the hottest months in many regions

Wet Bulb Global Temperatures (WGBT) are 1980-2009 averages for hottest month.

IPCC AR5, WGII, Figure 11-5

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

Ongoing harm: Coral bleaching

Jarvis Reef, South Pacific (courtesy WHOI) “As of February 2017, the ongoing global coral bleaching event continues to be the longest and most widespread ever recorded.� https://coralreefwatch.noaa.gov/satellite/analyses_guidance/global_coral_bleaching_2014-17_status.php

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

Ongoing harm: Ocean acidification About 1/3 of CO2 added to atmosphere is quickly taken up by the surface layer of the oceans (roughly, the top 80 meters).

The link is that dissolved CO2 forms weak carbonic acid (H2O + CO2 ďƒ H2CO3), lowering the pH.

World Bank / Potsdam Institute Nov 2012

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

Ongoing harm: Death of coral reefs in Florida Keys Florida’s coral reefs are being devastated by multiple stresses, of which warming water and acidification are the most important.

Less than 10% of the reef system is now covered by living coral. (Red circles show percentage declines since 1996.)

Diving, snorkeling, fishing, & eating seafood are threatened mainstays of the Florida Keys economy.

NASA Aqua satellite imagery. Washington Post, 26 June 2017

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

Ongoing harm: thawing/subsiding permafrost

Russia

Fairbanks, AK Norwegian Polar Institute, 2009

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

Ongoing harm: rising sea ďƒ coastal inundation

EPA 2016

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

Ongoing harm: rising sea ďƒ coastal erosion

Cape Cod Times

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

Ongoing harm: stronger storms • 10/12: Sandy, largest ever in Atlantic • 11/13: Haiyan, strongest in N Pacific • 10/15: Patricia, strongest worldwide • 10/15: Chapala, strongest to strike Yemen • 02/16: Winston, strongest in S Pacific • 04/16: Fantala, strongest in Indian Ocean Winston

Sandy

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

More-devastating cyclones are not coincidence • Tropical cyclones get their energy from the warm surface layer of the ocean (which is getting warmer and deeper under climate change). This means more energy is available for evaporating water from the ocean surface. See figure.

• When the water vapor condenses, it heats the atmosphere. The heated air rises, which lowers pressure at the surface.

• That causes air from surrounding areas to flow inward; the spiral pattern results from Coriolis forces.

• More ocean energy  stronger cyclone. And deeper ocean warm layer means waves churning up cold In the region that spawned Cyclone Haiyan, the Tropical water can’t limit storm’s power.

Cyclone Heat Potential had gone up 20% since 1990.

• Many factors affect the formation and tracks of these storms, but, all else equal, a given cyclone will be more powerful in the presence of a warmer ocean with a deeper warm layer than it would be otherwise. And the higher local sea level is, the worse the storm surge from any given cyclone will be.

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

Ongoing harm: Pest outbreaks Pine bark beetles, with a longer breeding season courtesy of warming, devastate trees weakened by heat & drought in California, Colorado, Alaska‌

USGCRP 2009

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

Climate change and health: influences & contexts

EPA, Climate Change Indicators, 2016

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

Climate change and health (continued)

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

Ongoing harm: impacts on valued species

Shifting patterns in Pacific climate, West Coast salmon survival rates, and increased volatility in ecosystem services

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

Ongoing harm: impacts on valued species

US EPA

What We Know: The ongoing impacts on people and ecosystems

Ongoing harm: Impacts on valued species

The Science: What We Expect, What More We Fear, and What We Can Hope “Prediction is difficult…especially about the future.” attributed to Yogi Berra and Neils Bohr

What We Expect: Projections of future climate change and its impacts

T and impacts grow for decades under all scenarios.

IPCC Scenarios

Last time T was 2ºC above 1900 level was 130,000 yr BP, with sea level 4-6 m higher than today.

Last time T was 3ºC above 1900 level was ~30 million yr BP, with sea level 20-30 m higher than today.

Target of ∆T ≤ 2ºC

Note: Shaded bands denote 1 standard deviation from mean in ensembles of model runs

IPCC 2013

What We Expect: Projections of future climate change and its impacts

The most worrying recent & emerging insights about future impacts involve…

• Impacts of climate change on human health: heat stress, smog intensity, allergies, pathogens & vectors • Growing extremes of wet & dry: droughts, wildfires, hailstorms/downpours/floods • Impacts of rising temperatures and growing extremes on agriculture.

• Impacts on the coastal zone from the combination of sea-level rise and increasingly powerful storms • Impacts of ocean heating & acidification on marine food webs and commercial & subsistence fisheries • Impacts of rapid climate change in the Arctic elsewhere, e.g., Arctic methane release accelerating climate change globally winter extreme weather from weakened polar vortex.

What We Expect: Projections of future climate change and its impacts

Extremes of heat will become much more prevalent

What We Expect: Projections of future climate change and its impacts

Summer heat in SW Europe—history & BAU future Temperature anomaly (wrt 1961-90) °C

July-August T in southwestern Europe

38.

2060s

observations HadCM3 Medium-High (SRES A2)

The 2003 heatwave killed 35,000-70,000 people in France, Spain, & Italy.

2040s

2003

Summers as hot as 2003 will likely be the norm by the 2040s and will be considered unusually cool by the 2060s.

What We Expect: Projections of future climate change and its impacts

US heatwaves at mid-century under BAU

What We Expect: Projections of future climate change and its impacts

Average daily peak WBGT in hottest month

King et al., 2016 When WBGT > 34ď‚°C, heavy outdoor labor leads to heat stroke and death.

What We Expect

Worse wildfires Area burned by wildfires, already up substantially, is destined to go up much more.

Percentages shown are increases in median annual area burned for a 1°C rise in global average temperature, referenced to 1950-2003 averages.

National Academies, Stabilization Targets, 2010

What We Expect: Projections of future climate change and its impacts

Yields of staple crops decline with warming

These declines are without taking into account any increase in major droughts.

National Academies, Stabilization Targets, 2010

What We Expect: Projections of future climate change and its impacts

Droughts to increase over much of the globe Frequency of 4-6 month duration droughts (events per 30 years)

Drought defined as soil moisture below historical 10th percentile value for that calendar month.

events per 30 years 1961-1990 Results shown are the mean of 8 global climate models. Cape Cod drought frequency reaches 5x historical value.

Source: Sheffield and Wood 2008 Climate Dynamics (2008) 31:79–105 DOI 10.1007/s00382-007-0340-z

2070-2099, IPCC A2 scenario

What We Expect: Projections of future climate change and its impacts

Mean sea level could rise 1-2 meters 2000- 2100

NOAA OAR CPO-1, December 2012

What We Expect: Projections of future climate change and its impacts

Sea level: Flooded area with 1 meter rise

What We Expect: Projections of future climate change and its impacts

Storminess is expected to continue to increase.

What We Expect: Projections of future climate change and its impacts

Princeton hurricane model projects increase in landfalling Cat 3-5 hurricanes in the Northeast

These findings are for the IPCC’s RCP4.5 emissions scenario—a mid-range case, not the worst!

Bhatia and Vechhi, Princeton U, 5 April 2017

What We Expect: Projections of future climate change and its impacts

More NE winter extremes from weak polar vortex Rapid Arctic warming weakens polar vortex. The resulting wavy jet stream allows alternating southward incursions of cold air and northward incursions of warm air. Collision of cold Arctic air with moisture-laden air over warmed Atlantic can cause extreme snowfall in the Northeast.

Scientific American blog, January 2014

What We Expect: Projections of future climate change and its impacts

1870, 280 ppm

Continued drop in ocean pH, with profound impacts on marine life Increased acidity lowers the availability of CaCO3 to organisms that use it for forming their shells & skeletons, including corals.

Adverse effects are already being observed.

Coral reefs could be dead or in peril over most of their range by mid to late 21st century.

Steffen et al., 2004

2003, 375 ppm

2065, 515 ppm

What More We Fear: Could sea-level rise accelerate sharply?

Recent studies have shed new light on mechanisms for rapid ice loss from Greenland & Antarctica A 175-km crack in the Larsen C Ice Shelf on the Antarctic Peninsula may presage the shelf’s total disintegration

What More We Fear: Could emissions from Arctic soils spike?

CO2 & CH4 from Arctic soils could wreck the climate

What More We Fear: Spiking methane

Big boost in methane from the Arctic Methane above the Arctic 2000-2015

What More We Fear: Spiking methane

Methane-burst crater in the Siberian tundra

Methane is busting out all over in Siberia. It’s a much more potent greenhouse gas, per molecule, than CO2.

What We Can Hope: The leverage of remedial action

What society can do There are only three options: • Mitigation, meaning measures to reduce the pace & magnitude of the changes in global climate being caused by human activities. • Adaptation, meaning measures to reduce the adverse impacts on human well-being resulting from the changes in climate that do occur. • Suffering the adverse impacts and societal disruption that are not avoided by either mitigation or adaptation.

What We Can Hope: The leverage of remedial action

Concerning the three options…

• We’re already doing some of each.

• What’s up for grabs is the future mix.

• Minimizing the amount of suffering in that mix can only be achieved by doing a lot of mitigation and a lot of adaptation.

– Mitigation alone won’t work because climate change is already occurring & can’t be stopped quickly.

– Adaptation alone won’t work because adaptation gets costlier & less effective as climate change grows.

– We need enough mitigation to avoid the unmanageable, enough adaptation to manage the unavoidable.

What We Can Hope: The leverage of remedial action

Low future emissions produce far less climate change than high future emissions.

IPCC WGII, 2014

Most uncertainty about the future extent of climate change resides in society’s choices, not in the science.

What We Can Hope: The leverage of remedial action

How much emission reduction, how soon?

• Limiting ∆Tavg to ≤2ºC is now considered by many the most prudent target that still may be attainable.

– EU embraced this target in 2002, G-8 & G-20 in 2009

• To have a >50% chance of staying below 2ºC: – atmospheric concentration of heat-trapping substances must stabilize at around 450 ppm CO2 equivalent (CO2e); – to get there, developed-country emissions must peak no later than 2015 and decline rapidly thereafter, and – developing-country emissions must peak no later than 2025 and decline rapidly thereafter.

• CO2 emissions may need to go negative before 2100 to stay below 2ºC; must do so sooner for 1.5C.

What We Can Hope: The leverage of remedial action

How much reduction , how soon? (continued) Emissions pathways & ď „T probabilities

Fawcett et al., SCIENCE, December 4, 2015

What We Can Hope: The leverage of remedial action

Reducing emissions: Everybody must get on board

Adequate mitigation will require addressing most heat-trapping substances across most emitting sectors in most countries.

CO2 and non-CO2 GHG

Sectoral sources of global GHG emissions

Distribution of CO2 emissions among nations

The Technological Options

“Don’t put all your eggs in one basket.”

Folk saying

The Technological Options

Mitigation options REDUCING EMISSIONS • Increased end-use efficiency in buildings, transport, industrial processes • Replace coal-burning electric power plants with wind, solar, & nuclear plants and natural-gas plants with carbon capture • Replace fossil-based transport fuels with electricity and/or cleanly produced hydrogen (for light-duty vehicles) and biofuels and/or hydrogen (for heavy-duty vehicles and aircraft) • Reduce deforestation & forest degradation with incentives plus stricter regulation & enforcement

The Technological Options

Mitigation options (continued) INCREASING SINKS • Increase reforestation and afforestation • Alter agricultural practices to store more soil carbon • Burn sustainably grown biofuels in power plants with carbon capture & sequestration • Develop affordable technological means to capture CO2 from air for sequestration.

MANAGING SOLAR RADIATION • Increase reflectivity of Earth’s surface • Inject reflecting particles into the stratosphere

The Technological Options

Magnitude of the emission-reduction challenge • The trajectory for a 50% chance of T2C calls for 2050 global CO2 emissions to be ~7-9 GtC/yr below BAU • Each of the following avoids 1 GtC/yr (3.64 GtCO2/yr): - energy use in buildings cut 20-25% below BAU in 2050, - fuel economy of 2 billion cars ~60 mpg instead of 30, - carbon capture & storage for 800 1-GWe coal-burning power plants, - 700 1-GWe nuclear plants replacing coal plants, - 1 million 2-Mwe-peak wind turbines (or 2,000 1-Gwe-peak photovoltaic power plants) replacing coal power plants Socolow & Pacala, 2004

The Technological Options

How much nuclear to make a dent?

• How much nuclear would be needed to triple nuclear’s share of world electricity from the 2015 figure of 11% to 33% by 2050, given business as usual electricity growth?

• The answer is ~1800 GWe of nuclear capacity in 2050, or roughly 1400 GWe more than existed in 2015.

• If these 1400 GWe of additional nuclear capacity all replaced what would otherwise have been coal-fired power plants lacking CO2 capture, the avoided emissions would be 2 GtC/yr (C content of avoided CO2).

• So this aggressive nuclear expansion goal yields 2 GtC/yr out of the 7-9 GtC/yr reduction from BAU that we need – an important contribution, but we’ll also need renewables, CO2 capture from fossil, and bigger efficiency increases.

The Technological Options

Solar PV costs falling & deployment soaring

U.S. Mid-Century Strategy for Deep Decarbonization, 11-16

The Technological Options

Global wind-power capacity has also soared

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power_by_country#/media/File:GWEC2016.png

The Technological Options

Investments in energy efficiency are up, too

The Technological Options

Mitigation options with farther to go • CO2 capture & storage from fossil-fuel- and biofuel processing and power plants and from air • Sustainably grown & processed biofuels that don’t compete with food & forests • Increased efficiency in industrial processes • Improved batteries & fuel cells • Improved hydrogen production, storage, & distribution • Advanced fission reactors with low cost, high safety, and proliferation-resistant fuel cycles; or practical fusion • Determination whether any solar-radiation management options are scalable with acceptable costs & risks

The Technological Options

Adaptation possibilities include…

• Developing heat-, drought-, and salt-resistant crop varieties • Strengthening public-health & environmentalengineering defenses against tropical diseases • Preserving & enhancing “green infrastructure” (ecosystem features that protect against extremes) • Preparing hospitals & transportation systems for heat waves, power outages, and high water.

• Building dikes and storm-surge barriers against sea-level rise • Avoiding further development on flood plains & near sea level Many are “win-win”: They’d make sense in any case.

The Technological Options

The limits of adaptation: Crop yield reduction vs global T change with & without adaptation Percentage change in global yield

Rose et al., CLIMATIC CHANGE, online 10 Feb 2016

The Technological Options

Limits of adaptation: Low-lying island nations

WMO State of the Global Climate in 2016

The Path Forward

“If you don’t change direction, you’ll end up where you’re heading.”

Lao Tzu

The Path Forward

The need for (& current lack of) Federal leadership THE OBAMA ADMINISTRATION… • Boosted climate research & monitoring; invested in cleanenergy R&D & incentives; promulgated aggressive efficiency standards; promoted climate-change adaptation • Launched the “Climate Action Plan” with further mitigation, adaptation, & international initiatives; reached agreement with China leading to Paris accords with 195 countries THE TRUMP ADMINISTRATION… • Put climate contrarians in charge at OMB, EPA, DOI, & DOE while leaving most key science positions unfilled; proposed deep budget cuts in climate science & clean energy R&D • Cancelled Obama’s Climate Action Plan & Executive Orders on adaptation; withdrew from Paris accords

The Path Forward

What states, communities, businesses, scientists, philanthropists, & opinion leaders can do • States, communities, & businesses should devise and implement their own mitigation & adaptation plans (as many already have been doing).

• Scientists should continue to…

– monitor & analyze climate change and improve projections; – explain to every available audience what we know, how we know it, how it affects that audience, how we can fix it.

• Philanthropists should seek to fill gaps in climate research & education created by Federal government cutbacks.

• Opinion leaders should refine their ability to explain climate change impacts & remedies and rebut contrarian errors.

• All should let Congress & President Trump know that abdicating U.S. government leadership on climate change is folly.

Supplementary Slides

Science: Misunderstandings

The biggest contrarian confusions “It’s unclear how much of current climate change is due to human activity.”

WRONG! • We know essentially all of it is due to human activity, because...

– There is no known natural source of current global warming that stands up to scrutiny.

– The known natural influences on climate, other than relatively short-term fluctuations, would be cooling the Earth now were it not for human activities.

– The measured warming is consistent in magnitude and pattern with what science predicts as a consequence of the measured (and indisputably human-caused) greenhouse-gas buildup.

Science: Misunderstandings

The biggest contrarian confusions “Earth’s climate has been changing under natural influences for millions of years. So what’s happening now is nothing to worry about.”

FIRST SENTENCE RIGHT. SECOND WILDLY WRONG. • During the eons of natural climate change, nature didn’t “care” about the fate of the species that lived here. Now there are 7.5 billion people whose well-being concerns us.

• The pace of current climate change is 10-100 times faster than the mostly gradual climate changes over geologic timefaster than ecosystems & human systems can adapt.

• In the brief past periods when natural change may have approached current rates, the impacts on ecosystems were catastrophic.

Science: Misunderstandings

The biggest contrarian confusions (continued) “Carbon dioxide is a plant nutrient. The main consequence of increasing its concentration will be a greener, lusher planet.”

PARTLY RIGHT, BUT MOSTLY WRONG! • Some kinds of plants do grow faster under increased CO2, but only if other nutrients (water and nitrogen on land, iron in the ocean, phosphorus in fresh water) are in adequate supply.

• Some parts of the planet (notably the far north) are greening, but the fact that CO2 concentrations continue to rise tells us the greening effect is insufficient to stop the CO2 buildup.

• As the CO2 buildup and resultant warming continue, the CO2 fertilization effect saturates and the stresses of extreme heat, drought, and pest outbreaks overwhelm it.

Science: Misunderstandings

The biggest contrarian confusions (continued) “The uncertainties about future harm are too big to warrant taking expensive action now.”

PERVERSELY WRONG! • The largest part of the uncertainty about future harm is uncertainty about what action society takes. Less action or delayed action means more harm.

• The part of the uncertainty due to incompleteness of the science and imperfections in the models is two-sided: future harm is at least as likely to be bigger than the current “best estimate” (for a given emissions future) as smaller.

• The observed, ongoing harm is more than big enough to warrant action.

India is on a path to improve on its Paris commitments

Climate Action Tracker, 15 May 2017

China is on track to meet its Paris commitments

Climate Action Tracker, 15 May 2017

Trump policies are driving USA away from Paris goals

Climate Action Tracker, 15 May 2017