Harvard GSD Masters of Design Thesis

TEMPERING THE TEMPORARY: IMPROVING THERMAL COMFORT AND HUMAN WELL-BEING IN RELIEF SHELTERS JOËLLE JAHN + SHREEJAY TULADHAR

MDes Energy + Environments Thesis Thesis Advisors: Professors Martin Bechthold + Holly Samuelson

Harvard University Graduate School of Design 1

2

TEMPERING THE TEMPORARY: IMPROVING THERMAL COMFORT AND HUMAN WELL-BEING IN RELIEF SHELTERS JOËLLE JAHN + SHREEJAY TULADHAR

MDes Energy + Environments Thesis Thesis Advisors: Professors Martin Bechthold + Holly Samuelson

Harvard University Graduate School of Design 3

“

IT IS CRITICAL TO STUDY THERMAL CONDITIONS IN REFUGEE SHELTERS TO ENSURE SAFETY AND HUMAN WELL-BEING.

“

06

ABSTRACT

In a world rapidly moving towards urbanization, an immense strain is being put on resource consumption of food, water, energy and land. So far over 65.3 million people have been become displaced worldwide in the struggle over resources (UNHCR, 2016). This figure is predicted to rise exponentially in the future, exacerbated by environmental degradation, anthropogenic climate change, disasters and conflicts especially in the developing countries.

Despite variance in climate, most temporary shelter responses by humanitarian organizations and local governments follow a similar rectangular typology with single layer assemblies. While these shelters are meant to protect and sustain life, they often produce extreme interior thermal conditions that fall into temperature ranges categorized as life threatening to vulnerable populations by the World Health Organization standard.

How can one form fit all? This proposal aims to evaluate fourteen existing shelter types for thermal performance and potential health risks. Using thermal simulations and physical tests, passive techniques coupled with different insulation strategies are analyzed to improve interior thermal conditions. The primary goal of this proposal is to produce a series of guidelines for shelter assemblies with 1) offsite and 2) onsite sourcing that will ensure thermal conditions sustain human health. Additional guidelines will guide designers, builders, and humanitarian workers towards adding onto shelter assemblies in a three-phased approach to achieve thermal conditions that sustain human well-being.

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08

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First, we thank our advisors Martin Bechthold and Holly Samuelson for their unwavering support and countless office hour meetings.

None of this research would have been possible without their expertise and guidance.

We thank Martin for your helping shape our thesis direction through insightful feedback and knowledge of material processes. We would also like to thank Holly for her enthusiasm and expertise in building simulation. Her coursework taught us critical simulation skills that paved the way towards learning to apply thermal simulation to solve human-centered problems.

We would like to thank Salmaan Craig, for guiding us in the final stages of our thesis as a third advisor. We appreciate you for taking the time to help us understand hollow core insulation principles and for pushing us to delve into the physics of choking airflow.

We want to extend our gratitude towards Chris, Burton, Rachel and all of the TA’s at the FABLAB who taught us manufacturing techniques for building our hotbox and material samples.

Another special thanks goes out to Jonathan Grinham for helping us think through our hotbox experiment logistics.

Finally, we thank our family and friends for their continuous encouragement and support in all our pursuits.

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS Adaptive Comfort A theory that proposes a human ability to adapt to the natural environment, and that when given control over their indoor environment humans tolerate a greater range of thermal conditions than what is considered comfortable by ASHRAE standard 55. Indoor adaptive comfort ranges are based on seasonal outdoor temperature mean values (Nicol, F., Humphreys, M., Sykes, O., & Roaf, S., 1995).

Cold Degree Hours (CDH) Term describing the hours that interior thermal conditions are below the adaptive comfort range, or ‘mean’ of comfortable temperatures. Cold degree hours are calculated by multiplying the amount of degrees Celsius below the adaptive comfort threshold by the number of hours. Survivability standards reference the duration of cold stress as a key factor in increasing the risks for illness or mortality due to hypothermia and heart stress (USGCRP, 2016).

Displaced persons Persons who, for different reasons or circumstances, have been compelled to leave their homes. They may or may not reside in their country of origin, but are not legally regarded as refugees (Corsellis & Vitale, 2005).

Emergency shelter Short term shelter that provides life saving support, the most basic shelter support that can be provided immediately after the disaster, usually in the form of a tent (IFRC, 2013).

Extreme Temperatures Temperatures in this range are usually defined by a number of days that an ambient temperature, and either a heat index (measure of temperature and humidity), or a wind chill (measure of wind speed and temperature) is reached. Thresholds for the number of days are set to define average, minimum and maximum daily temperatures. Currently there is no standardized way of defining a heat wave or a cold wave (USGCRP, 2016).

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Hot Degree Hours (HDH) Term describing the hours that interior thermal conditions are above the adaptive comfort range, or mean of comfortable temperatures. Hot degree hours are calculated by multiplying the amount of degrees Celsius above the adaptive comfort threshold by the number of hours. Heat stress related deaths can be based on an absolute theshold. As wetbulb temperatures exceed 35 C, the human body can no longer perspire to cool off . This poses a threat to all humans, irrespective of their health status (Das, S., & Smith, S. C., 2012).

Survivability Thresholds Temperature thresholds for survivability are hard to define. Often, human health plays a big factor towards how much heat or cold stress an individual can tolerate before suffering negative health effects or mortality. Cold stress in an indoor environment under 12 C is considered significant, with 9 C marking a threshold where most healthy humans will not be able to shiver to maintain their body termperature without additional clothing layers or heat source. In heat stress, wetbulb temperatures above 35 C becomes fatal to every human over prolonged hours of exposure. Humans can survive drybulb temperatues far above 35 C, but will suffer health consequences of heat stress. In summary, basic health, hydration and age of the person determine how long a person may be able to survive under extreme temperature stress (USGCRP, 2016).

Internally displaced persons (IDPs) Persons who have been forced to leave their homes due to armed conflict, violence, human rights violations, and/or natural or man-made disasters. Unlike refugees, IDPs remain within their home country’s borders. Legally, they still remain under the protection of their government (even if the government caused the conflict). IDP’s are citizens and are protected under human rights and international humanitarian law (UNHCR, 2012).

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS One room / Core shelters Post disaster household shelters planned and designed as permanent dwellings, to be the part of future permanent housing, allowing and facilitating the future process of extension by the household, following its own means and resources. The aim of a core shelter is to create one or two rooms, providing safe post disaster shelter that reaches permanent housing standards, and facilitates development, but not completing a full permanent house (IFRC, 2013).

Permanent Reconstruction Shelter type that takes place of temporary shelters as a permanent place for the owner to reside.

This is often considered the final stage and end goal of the shelter process.

Progressive shelters Post disaster rapid household shelters planned and designed to be later upgraded to a more permanent status. This is achieved by integrating future transformation and alteration possibilities in structural basis of the unit (IFRC, 2013).

Refugee A refugee is someone outside the country of his former habitual residence which, as a result of such events, is unable or unwilling to return to it. Reasons could be a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, group membership or political opinion. Owing to such fear a refugee can be unwilling to avail himself of the protection of the hosting country (UNHCR, 2011).

Settlement A community of covered living spaces providing a healthy, secure living environment with privacy and dignity to those groups, families, and individuals residing within them (Corsellis & Vitale, 2005).

Shelter A living space that protects humans from the outdoors and provides a secure, healthy living environment with privacy and dignity to those within it (Corsellis & Vitale, 2005).

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T-shelters This term is used to mean either Temporary Shelter or Transitional Shelter (IFRC, 2013).

Temporary shelters Post disaster shelter designed as a shelter solution following the emergency shelter pjase. Cost limitations and construction time frame serve as limiting factors to the quality and life span of the assembly. While most temporary shelters are constrcuted to last for 2 years, this phase of the shelter process often lasts 5 to 10 years (IFRC, 2013).

Transitional shelters Sometimes also referred to as temporary shelters. These post disaster household shelters are built of materials that can be upgraded and reused to become part of more permanent structures, or that can be salvaged from temporary sites and repurposed for constructing permanent locations.

Transitional shelters are designed to help protect displaced persons before they move to a more durable shelter. Transitional shelters respond to the fact that post disaster shelter is often undertaken by the affected population themselves, and that this resourcefulness and self-management should be supported (IFRC, 2013).

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1

2

14

ABSTRACT

07

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

09

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

10

INTRODUCTION

17

BACKGROUND

19

GLOBAL TRENDS

23

TEMPERATURE RELATED HEALTH RISK

3

SHELTER CATALOG

47

INTRODUCTION

49

1. AFGHANISTAN PLASTIC SHELTER

50

27

2. ETHIOPIA BETTER SHELTER

52

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

28

3. HAIT STEEL FRAME SHELTER

54

HYPOTHESIS

28

4. HAIT PLYWOOD SHELTER

56

RESEARCH METHOD

28

5. INDONESIA TIMBER FRAME SHELTER

58

FINAL OUTCOMES

29

6. BANGLADESH ROOF ATTIC SHELTER

60

7. PERU TIMBER FRAME SHELTER

62

8. PHILIPPINES RAISED FLOOR SHELTER

64

9. PHILIPPINES MASONRY SHELTER

66

10. PAKISTAN BRICK + STEEL SHELTER

68

11. INDIA A FRAME SHELTER

70

12. SRI LANKA MASONRY SHELTER

72

13. NEPAL VAULT SHELTER

74

14. NEPAL MASONRY SHELTER

76

TREND ANALYSIS

78

SUMMARY

79

LITERATURE REVIEW

31

SHELTER PROCESS OVERVIEW

33

SHELTER PROCESS STAKEHOLDERS

34

LEGAL DOCTRINES

36

INTERNATIONAL SHELTER STANDARDS

37

THREE-PHASE SHELTER PROCESS

39

TRANSITIONAL SHELTER PROCESS

41

SHELTER GUIDELINES

42

KEY PROCESS DIFFERENCES

44

SHELTER PROCESS SUMMARY

45

4 5

6

STAKEHOLDER INTERVIEWS 81 INTRODUCTION

83

INTERVIEW 1: MÄRTA, BETTER SHELTER

85

INTERVIEW 2: ANSHU SHARMA, SEEDS

7

(RE)DESIGN STRATEGY

135

INTRODUCTION

137

NATURAL VENTILATION REDESIGN

138

87

OFF-SITE REDESIGN

146

INTERVIEW 3: JAMIE JAYE, VOLUNTEER

88

ON-SITE REDESIGN

154

SUMMARY

93

THERMAL ANALYSIS

95

INTRODUCTION

97

METHODOLOGY

97

SIMULATION ASSUMPTIONS

98

CIMATE AND WEATHER DATA

8

PHYSICAL TESTS

167

INTRODUCTION

169

RADIANT HOLLOW-CORE INSULATION

170

RADIANT INSULATION HOT BOX TEST

174

104

SHREDDED JEAN HOT BOX TEST

176

SIMULATION RESULTS

106

CONCLUSION

179

HEALTH RISKS

108

KEY TAKEAWAYS ADAPTIVE THERMAL

112

ROOF MATERIAL ANALYSIS

116

WALL MATERIAL ANALYSIS

117

RETROFIT STRATEGY

119

INTRODUCTION

121

ALTERNATIVE INSULATION

122

RETROFIT STRATEGY CONCLUSION

9 10

DESIGN GUIDELINES RECOMMENDATIONTS

CONCLUSIONS

181 182

189

KEY TAKEAWAYS

190

FUTURE WORKS

191

124

BIBLIOGRAPHY

192

133

IMAGE CREDITS

198

APPENDIX

200

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INTRODUCTION PROJECT BACKGROUND AND OVERVIEW

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MORE PEOPLE ARE BEING DISPLACED BY WAR AND PERSECUTION...BUT THE FACTORS THAT ENDANGER REFUGEES ARE MULTIPLYING TOO.

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Filippo Grandi, UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR, 2016)

BACKGROUND

Since 2015, global forced displacement has reached a record high.

Natural disasters, political instability, and resource scarcity has pushed over 65.3 million people to abandon their homes and seek refuge in temporary settlements. Far worse than the destruction or loss of property, the affected people face a loss of comfort, control over their surroundings, and dignity in the process of displacement.

Currently, 86 percent of refugees are hosted in developing low- and middle-income countries that have trouble meeting the needs of their own people (UNHCR, 2016). Shelter efforts lead by the host country with humanitarian aid from the UNHCR and World Food Program are critically underfunded and pressed for time with rapid influx of more refugees (LĂźcke, M., & Schneiderheinze, C. 2017).

In the process of recovery, current temporary shelter responses built under time and cost constraints fail to meet the primary goal of supporting safety and human well-being. Existing temporary shelter responses produce interior thermal conditions worse than those outside and are actively putting vulnerable populations at risk for temperature-related death and illness. This proposal aims to analyze existing shelters to produce guidelines to improve thermal safety and comfort in temporary shelter.

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3.2 MILLION ASYLUM-SEEKERS

5.2 MILLION

PALESTINIAN REFUGEES

16.1 MILLION

REFUGEES (UNHCR)

40.8 MILLION

INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS

45.2 PERCENT

INCREASE IN DISPLACED PERSONS SINCE 2012

65.3 Million People Displaced (UNHCR, 2016)

TOP 5

REFUGEE ORIGINS

SYRIA AFGHANISTAN SOMALIA SOUTH SUDAN SUDAN

4.9 M 2.7 M 1.1 M .75 M .6 M

TOP 5

HOST

COUNTRIES

TUKEY PAKISTAN LEBANON IRAN ETHIOPIA

2.5 M 1.6 M 1.1 M .95 M .75 M

TEMPERATURE ANOMALY (C)

1.0

0.5

0.0

-0.5 1880

1900

1920

1940

1960

1980

2000

2020

YEAR Global Surface Temperature Rise Relative to 1950-80 Averages (NASA, 2016)

SEVERE WEATHER FATALITIES

200

WEATHER FATALITIES FOR 2015 10 YEAR AVERAGE (2006-2015) 30 YEAR AVERAGE (1986-2015)

150

100

50

0

FLOOD LIGHTNING TORNADO HURRICANE

HEAT

WINTER

WEATHER EVENT 2015 U.S. Natural Hazard Statistics (NOAA, 2016) 22

COLD

WIND

RIPCURRENT

GLOBAL TRENDS

Global trends of anthropogenic climate change, urbanization and resource will continue to exacerbate existing conditions and engender future conflict, especially in developing countries.

CLIMATE CHANGE Rising greenhouse gas emissions are causing warming global temperature, sea level rise, increasing desertification, and altering precipitation (Lu, J., Vecchi, G. A., & Reichler, T., 2007). Climate change is happening at a rate faster than stategies for mitigation can be implemented. Rise in mean global surface tempearature is causing more frequent storms and natural disasters, increasing human displacement beyond most scientific forecasts. Protecting and increasing resiliency of those those most vulnerable to climate change is becoming of uttermost imortance for humanitarian aid delivering shelter solutions (UNHCR, 2016b).

URBANIZATION The world is undergoing the fastest rate of urban growth ever recorded. Currently, 54 percent of the world is living in urban areas. This number is expected to rise to rise to 60% by 2050, adding a approximately 2.5 billion people to the exisiting 4 billion urban dwellers (UN, 2014). This growth will continue to add pressure to the natural environment, exacerbate resource competition, and displace low-income persons leading to increased informal settlements at the periphery of cities.

Indirectly, urbanization is fueling resource driven conflict through large-scale resource demand for infrastructure (KPMG, 2014). Additionally, urbanization is directly putting increased pressure on the environment by releasing greenhouse gases into the air through high energy consumption.

RESOURCE SHORTAGE Climate change, population growth and urbanization are adding increased stress on natural resources. Access to food, potable water, arable land, energy, and precious metals is becoming highly competitve. Sustainable management of resources is at the center of this debate. Countries on the brink of urbanization are racing to acquire enough copper and building materials to lay down infrastructure. In the wake of this resource struggle, conflicts and wars are adding to the commplexity of increasing displacement (KPMG, 2014).

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Global Trend: Urbanization (KPMG, 2014)

24

252

LETTERS

NATURE CLIMATE CHANGE DOI: 10.1038/NCLIMATE2833

LETTERS

NATURE CLIMATE CHANGE DOI: 10.1038/NCLIMATE2833

36 34 32 30 28 26 24

36 34 32 30 28 26 24

Tabuk, Saudi Arabia Tabuk, Saudi Arabia

36 34 32 30 28 26 1980 1990 2000 2070 2080 2090 2100 24 1980 1990 2000 2070 2080 2090 2100

Jeddah, Saudi Arabia 36 34 32 30 28 26 24

36 34 3236 3034 2832 2630 2428

Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

36 34 36 32 34 30 32 28 30 26 28 24 26

1980 1990 2000 2070 2080 2090 2100

36 34 32 30 28 26 24

Jazan, Saudi Arabia Jazan, Saudi Arabia

36 36 34 34 32 32 30 30 28 28 26 26 24 24

26 1980 1990 2000 2070 2080 2090 2100 24 2080 2090 2100

Dhahran, 1980Saudi 1990 Arabia 2000 2070

36 34 32 30 28 26 24

26 24

Bandar-e Mahshahr, Iran

1980 1990 2000 2070 2080 2090 2100

Bandar Abbas, Iran 1980 1990 2000 36 2070 2080 2090 2100

Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

36 34 32 30 28 26 24

26 1980 1990 2000 2070 2080 2090 2100 24 1980 1990 2000 2070 2080 2090 2100 Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

34 32 30 28 26 24

Bandar Abbas, Iran

1980 1990 2000 2070 2080 2090 2100 1980 1990 2000 2070 2080 2090 2100

Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Doha, Qatar

36 36 34 34 32 32 30 30 28 28 26 26 24 24

Mecca, Saudi Arabia

Mecca, Saudi Arabia

1980 2100 19801990 19902000 2000 2070 2070 2080 2080 2090 2090 2100

2080 2090 2100 1980 1980 1990 1990 20002000 20702070 2080 2090 2100 36 34 32 30 28 26 24

Bandar-e Mahshahr, Iran

36 34 3632 3430 3228 3026 2824

Kuwait

24 1980 1990 2000 2070 2080 2090 2100 1980 1990 2000 2070 2080 2090 2100

1980 1990 2000 2070 2080 2090 2100 36 34 32 30 28 26 24

36 34 3236 34 30 32 28 30 26 28 24

Kuwait

Al Hudaydah, Yemen Al Hudaydah, Yemen

1980 1990 2000 2070 2080 2090 2100

1980 1990 2000 2070 2080 2090 2100

36 36 34 34 32 32 30 30 28 28 26 26 24

24

Doha, Qatar

36 34 32 30 28 26 24

36 34 32 30 28 26 24

Dubai, UAE

Dubai, UAE

1980 1990 2000 2070 2080 2090 2100

1980 1990 2000 2070 2080 2090 2100 36 34 1980 1990 2000 2070 2080 2090 2100 1980 1990 2000 2070 2080 2090 2100 32 30 Abu Dhabi, UAE Abu Dhabi, UAE 36 28 36 34 26 34 32 24 32

30 30 28 28 26 26 24 24

36 34 32 30 28 26 24

Al Ain, UAE

Al Ain, UAE

19801980 1990 1990 20002000 2070 2070 2080 2080 2090 2090 2100 2100

1980 2080 2090 21002100 1980 1990 19902000 20002070 2070 2080 2090

Aden, Aden,Yemen Yemen

1980 1990 2000 2070 2080 2090 2100

1980 1990 2000 2070 2080 2090 2100

3

Figure 2 | Time series of the annual maximum TW max for each ensemble member and GHG scenario. Blue, green and red lines represent the historical

Figure 2 | Time series of the annual maximum TW ensemble member and scenario. Blue, green and red lines represent the historical max for each (1976–2005), RCP4.5 (2071–2100) and RCP8.5 (2071–2100) scenarios, respectively.

TWGHG max is the maximum daily value averaged over a 6-h window. The is the maximum daily value averaged over a 6-h window. The (1976–2005), RCP4.5 (2071–2100) and RCP8.5 (2071–2100) scenarios, respectively.

TW max background image was obtained from NASA Visible Earth. background image was obtained from NASA Visible Earth.

Red Sea, a region no permanent human settlements owing to significantly reduceThreshold the severity for of the projected impacts as annual Global Wetbulb Human Adaptability Time Series (Pal, J. S.,with & Eltahir, E. A., 2015) ◦ Red Sea, aclimate. region with no permanent human settlements owing to significantly reduce the severity projected impacts annual its extreme TWmax does not breach the 35 of Cthe threshold in any of theas locations (Fig. 2). Tmax be likelyintoany exceed 55 ◦locations C, except its extreme climate.

TWconsidered breach thewould 35 ◦ Cnot threshold of the max does not at a couple locations where considered (Fig.of2).

Tmax would notthe becurrent likely totemperature exceed 55 ◦is C,already except Received 30 September 2014; accepted 3 September 2015; 26 October 2015accepted 3 September 2015; Fig. 8).the Near Jeddahtemperature and Mecca, is where the published Received online 30 September 2014; at asevere couple(Supplementary of locations where current already rituals of Hajj take place, TW under this and scenario would be only max published online 26 October 2015 severe (Supplementary Fig. 8).

Near Jeddah Mecca, where the about 2 ◦ C warmer thanTW themax current rituals of Hajj take place, underclimate. this scenario would be only References Sherwood, S. C. & Huber, M. An adaptability limit to climate change due to much of the produced in this region eventually ends 1.References ◦ about 2Although C warmer than theoil current climate. heat stress. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107, 9552–9555 (2010). up in the atmosphere and contributes to global climate change, the Sherwood, C. & Huber, M. An adaptability limit Regional, to climateand change due to Although much of the oil produced in this region eventually ends 2.1. Boden, T. A.,S. Marland, G. & Andres, R. J. (eds) Global, National same oil brings significant financial benefits to the region. These heat stress.

Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107, 9552–9555 (2010).

Fossil-Fuel COProc. up in the atmosphere and contributes to global climate change, the 2 Emissions (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, US Department of same benefits enhance the capacity of the region to adapt to climate Boden,2013).

T. A., Marland, G. & Andres, R. J. (eds) Global, Regional, and National same oil brings significant financial benefits to the region. These 2. Energy, change. Electricity demands for air conditioner use, for example, 3. IPCC (OakPhysical Ridge Science National Laboratory, US T. Department Fossil-Fuel CO 2 Emissions Climate Change 2013: The Basis (eds Stocker, F. et al.) of same benefits enhance the capacity of the region adapt climate Energy, 2013). would considerably increase in the future to to adapt to to projected (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2013). change.

Electricity demands for air23conditioner example, IPCC Climate Change 2013: The Physical Basis (eds Stocker, B. C. et al. in Climate Change 2014:Science Impacts, Adaptation, and T. F. et al.) changes in climate and population . Although it use, may for be feasible to 4.3. Hewitson, Vulnerability Barros, R. et al.) Ch. 21 (IPCC, Cambridge would considerably increase in the future to adapt to projected (Cambridge(eds Univ.

Press,V.2013). adapt indoor activities in the rich oil countries of the region, even the 23 Press, 2014).

Hewitson, B. C. et al. in Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and 12 to changes climate andactivities population . Although it mayimpacted be feasible mostin basic outdoor are likely to be severely . In 5.4. Univ.

26 Bindoff, N. L. et(eds al. in Climate 2013: PhysicalCambridge Science Basis Vulnerability Barros, V.Change R. et al.)

Ch.The 21 (IPCC, adapt indoorthe activities in poor the rich oil countries of theAsia region, the contrast, relatively countries of Southwest witheven limited (eds Stocker, F. et al.) Ch. 10, 867–952 (IPCC, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2013).

Univ.

Press,T.2014).

12 mostfinancial basic outdoor activities are likely to be severely impacted will . In 6. Marcella, M. P. & Eltahir, E. A. B. Effects of mineral aerosols on the resources and declining or non-existent oil production

TEMPERATURE RISKS

Climate change has health impacts on all people, but displaced persons at higher risk. Refugees and displaced persons are categorized as vulnerare populations because they are often subjected to more than one health threat on their journey to a finding a permanent home . Exposure to multiple health threats decreases a person’s ability to adapt and increases the risk of temepraturerelated health effects (U.S. Global Change Research Program, 2016).

Longterm forecasts indicate there are peak heat stress limitations to human adaptability; as global wetbulb temperature ,Tw, exceeds 35 C for extended periods in Earth’s hottest regions, dissipation of human metabolic heat will lead to hyperthermia. When our global mean temperature warms by 7C, certain regions of the Earth will become uninhabitable. The continued burning of fossil fuels will eventually cause global mean warming to reach 11-12 C and render the majority of the planet uninhabitable (Sherwood, S. C., & Huber, M., 2010).

Currently global wetbulb temperatures do not exceed 31 C, but predictions state that we are likely to experience Tw of 35 C within the next century. Climate studies indicate that certain regions of the world such as Southwest Asia will become uninhabitable by 2100 as Tw rises above 35 C. The diagram to the left plots several predictions for future wetbulb temperature rise above 35 C in the Middle East (Pal, J. S., & Eltahir, E. A., 2015). In summary, climate change in the short term causes short term extreme weather events and heat stress that will exacerbate health risks in the process of displacement. In the long term, global warming with high certainty will render entire regions uninhabitable and have a critical consequences on mobility and displacement.

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RESEARCH QUESTIONS As global forced displacement is reaching record highs, shelter responses are failing to meet time, cost and/or safety goals. Even the 2016 “Design of the Year� winning flat-pack temporary shelter designed by Better Shelter has recently been forced to recall their shelter due to safety and accessibility concerns (Fairs, M., 2017). Currently, there is no single shelter design that meets all of these needs. Existing shelter assemblies address the time and cost goals, but fail to ensure thermal safety.

Thus, through analysis and thermal modelling of existing shelter responses, can passive building design strategies be used towads thermal safety in the most at risk climate for heat stress, ASHRAE Zone 1A for: a) on-site shelter construction and b) off-site shelter construction Secondly, can existing shelters be retrofitted to acheive thermal safety?

If so, given uncertainty of available materials, is it possible to develop a platform for retrofitting these shelters to allow for flexibility and interchangeability?

HYPOTHESIS A passive temporary shelter design using natural ventilation, solar shading, and minimal insulation can produce a thermally safe interior that promotes human-well being.

RESEARCH METHOD A literature review of topics related to temporary shelter was conducted.

Key topics included: the context of shelter in larger processes, existing thermal analyses of shelters, temperature-related illnesses, and building physics. A case study of fourteen current temporary shelter designs was 28

conducted to document existing strategies. After this survey, stakeholder interviews were conducted to highlight further problems in the current shelter responses.

A thermal analysis of the fourteen shelters was conducted after the research phase had identified thermal issues as a key problem in existing shelters. This process provided quantitative data for different material and ventialtion strategies to help compare performance of different shelter assemblies.

FINAL OUTCOMES Research findings helped guide a groundup redesign (on-site and off-site) and a retrofit strategy for temporary shelters.

The redesign follows a three-phase approach, ensuring essential thermal safety through massing, envelope strategy and adequate ventialtion in Phase 1. In Phase 2, an outdoor shading net is added to help occupants take advantage of comfortable outdoor temperatures and create more opportunities for indoor privacy by adding a transitional outdoor space for social gathering. In Phase 3, a permanent outdoor area is added to provide multiple zones for residents to gather. The opportunity for pesonalizing the outdoor aesthetic and level of privacy is also added. Residents will have the chance to design their own screens and seating areas to best fit their social needs.

A platform of different interchangeable locally available or globally distributed insulation is designed to retrofit existing shelters. The efficacy of locally sourced insulation possibilities such as risk husks, water jugs for thermal mass, shredded jeans and straw is catalogued. Secondly, a radical dematerialization of insulation is explored through prototyping and testing hyper-lighweight hollow-core radiant insulation.

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LITERATURE REVIEW REVIEW OF RELEVANT ARTICLES + PAPERS

4

“

REFUGEES LIVE A CONTRADICTION BETWEEN HAVING A LIFE AND DIGNITY BUT [AT] THE SAME TIME FIGHTING FOR THE RIGHT OF RETURN

32

“

Alessandro Petti, Architect, Founder of Campus in Camps (Petti, 2016)

SHELTER PROCESS OVERVIEW

The following literature review was conducted to provide background and context about the shelter process and its stakeholders.

DISPLACED PERSONS

Shelter Process

GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION

HUMANITARIAN AID + VOLUNTEERS

STAKEHOLDER #1 : DISPLACED PERSONS Displaced persons are the main stakeholders in the shelter process.

They are categorized as either refugees or internally displaced persons (IDPs). While both have fled their homes due to conflict or disaster, refugees differ in that they have left their home country in fear of persecution. Refugees are protected under the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and the Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa, or “refugee law”, which provides the main framework for assistance and protection. Additionally, the Fourth Geneva Convention and Additional Protocol grants refugees additional protection due to vulnerability as “aliens in the hands of a party due to conflict”.

Both refugees and IDPs are protected under domestic law and International Humanitarian Law(IHL) if their displacement was caused by armed conflict (International Committee of the Red Cross, 2010).

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SHELTER PROCESS STAKEHOLDERS STAKEHOLDER #2: HUMANITARIAN AID ORGANIZATIONS Access for relief and humanitarian organizations to displaced persons in armed conflict is guaranteed by international humanitarian law. Parties involved in the conflict are obligated to allow relief organizations to deliver essential supplies such as medicine, blankets and shelter. In recent conflicts, displaced persons have been put in severe danger because regulations have not been respected (International Committee of the Red Cross, 2010). Major humanitarian relief organizations involved in international aid include the United Nations (UN), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), the International Organization for Migration (IOM), Plan, Médecins Sans Frontiers (Doctors without Borders), Habitat for Humanity and Save the Children (Lundgren, J., & Carboni, F. T., 2014).

STAKEHOLDER #3: GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS Local governments are in charge of ensuring aid can be facilitated to displaced persons. Domestic laws protect displaced persons and vary between countries. Currently, all of the financial burden of taking care of refugees and IDPs is placed on the host country. About 86 percent of refugees are hosted by developing countries, who are unable to meet the development needs of their own citizens, let alone added needs of refugees (UNHCR, 2016). Humanitarian assistance from UNHCR and the World Food Program (WFP) is struggling to supplement the funding.

Policy revisions for financial burden sharing of refugee host countries have been drafted and will be discussed at the 2017 G20 summit in Germany Representing the world’s largest economies, G20 leaders will seek to address emergency assistance funding, host country development finance, as well as long-term predictable finance for host countries that facilitate formal economic and social inclusion of refugees (Lücke, M., & Schneiderheinze, C., 2017).

34

fig.12 Idps protected/assisted by unhcr includes people in an idp-like situation since 2007 in millions 14.7

15.6

15.5

2010

17.7

14.4 Global number of conflict-generated IDPsa

23.9 13.7 5.1

4.0

12.8

1995

4.6

4.3

6.0 2000

4.9

6.6 2005 5.4

5.1 4.2

32.3

4.6

2015

37.5

40.8

a

Source: IDMC

individuals, nearlyto10IDPs per cent of the country’s By the end of 2015, the total number of IDPs in Iraq Humanitarian Aid Given

by UNHCR I 1995 - popu2015 (UNHCR, 2016) stood at 4.4 million, compared to 3.6 million reportlation, within one year. Prior to the escalation of the ed at the end of 2014. Thus, Iraq continues to have conflict in 2015, humanitarian needs were acute in fig.3 major refugee-hosting countries | 2014 - 2015 (end-year) the third-largest number of IDPs. The escalation of Yemen, as one of the poorest countries in the Middle armed conflict across the country’s governoeast and North Africa region. The rise in displacement end-2015central start-2015 rates, which began in 2014 with the rise of the Islamic in the country is dramatic when compared with the *Turkey State (also known as ISIS or ISIL) and other non-State internally displaced population at the start of 2015, armed groups, has resulted in new and secondary which consisted of about 330,000 people in a propakistan movements of IDPs across central Iraq and the countracted situation in a few northern governorates. lebanon try’s Kurdistan region. Despite restricted access to Other countries that reported large numbers of Islamic rep. of IDPs Iran included Iraq (808,700), Ukraine (800,000), IDP locations, UNHCR maintained its humanitarian new commitment to providing assistance to hundreds of Sudan (639,500), the Democratic Republic of the ethiopia thousands of individuals in Iraq. Of the 4.4 million IDPs Congo (637,900), and Afghanistan (492,600). These **Jordan reported in that country at the end of 2015, 1.1 million six countries combined accounted for 84 per cent of all new IDPs during 2015. received UNHCR assistance. kenya In Colombia, few IDPs returned to their habitual resDuring 2015, 152,700 IDPs in Sudan were able uganda idences, and the government reported 113,700 newly to return to their habitual residences. However, as displaced people.

With other adjustments to the IDP a result of renewed conflicts and insecurity, the total dr of congo population made at year-end, the total number of IDPs number of IDPs in the country rose to some 3.2 milchad in that country thus rose to 6.9 million at the end of lion IDPs at the end of 2015, compared to 2.1 million 31 2015, compared to 6.0 million 0.00 0.25 0.50 reported 0.75 during 1.00 2014.1.25 a year 1.50earlier.1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 As a consequence, Colombia had the world’s largest Similarly, the violence and human rights abuses in number of refugees (millions) internally displaced population at the end of 2015. northern Nigeria have continued throughout 2015, * Refugee figure for Syrians in Turkey is a Government estimate.

The estimated total number of IDPs in the Syrian with the insurgency entering its sixth year. As a con** Includes 33,300 Iraqi refugees registered with UNHCR in Jordan. The Government estimates the number of Iraqis at Republic from 2014 to 6.6 sequence, the total number of IDPs in the country 400,000Arab individuals at the declined end of March 2015.7.6 Thismillion includesinrefugees and other categories of Iraqis. million in 2015, partly due to some displaced people rose from approximately 1.2 million at the end of 2014 Major Refugee-Hosting Countries | 2014 - 2015 (UNHCR, crossing international borders to seek protection out- 2016) to approximately 2.2 million by the end of 2015, an South Sudan was the country with third-largest numalready present in the country. Nearly all refugees side the country. The Syrian Arab Republic therefore increase of around 964,000 (81%) concentrated esber of newly displaced refugees. The fourth-largest residing in Pakistan, the second-largest refugee-hosthad the second largest IDP population. More than five pecially in the north-east of the country. group of newly displaced refugees originated from ing country, were Afghan, with some having lived years of civil war and armed conflict in the country

35

LEGAL DOCTRINES 1951 GENEVA CONVENTION The 1951 Geneva Convention set standards in the Status of Refugees doctrine that mandate signatory states to protect displaced persons who fled their country of origin due to persectution based on religion, race, nationality, and social or political affiliation. It is recognized in the convention that a critical influx of refugees may burden host countries beyond their means and call for international financial cooperation. There are no rules in place for distributing displaced persons across countries or for sharing hosting costs of refugees (LĂźcke, M., & Schneiderheinze, C., 2017). In 2016, the UN Summit produced the New York Declaration which calls for financial burden and responsibility sharing to be addressed by a new global compact by 2018 (UN, 2016).

INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW International Humanitarian Law protects civilian populations during displacement given they do not partake in hostilities. It prohibits the displacement of civilians, unless it is necessary for civilian protection or imperative military operations. Displacement without this justification is considered a crime against humanity. IHL protects civilians from being attacked by parties involved in armed conflicts. It also prohibits acts of destruction without military reason that threaten the ability of civilian populations to survive (i.e. destruction of crops, health facilities, water and power supplies, or dwellings). Collective punishment of civilians is also considered illegal under IHL (International Committee of the Red Cross, 2010).

36

INTERNATIONAL SHELTER STANDARDS THE SPERE HANDBOOK: HUMANITARIAN CHARTER + STANDARDS The Sphere Project was started in 1997 as a collaborative effort between groups of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and humanitarian organizations to draft the Humanitarian Charter to improves the quality and accountability of humanitarian aid. The outcome of this collaboration is an internationally recognized, standardized document called the Sphere Handbook that sets minimum standards for humanitarian response. This third-party guide is developed for and accepted by the humanitarian sector. The handbook principles are centered on humanitarian aid granting displaced populations access to adequate housing. It sets minimum standards for shelters, settlement development and non-food items. The handbook identifies shelter as a critical determinant for survival in the initial stages of a disaster. In states that in the process of recovery, shelter should provide necessary security, personal safety, and protection from the climate and disease. Additionally, shelter should reestablish human dignity and in restore family and community life (Sphere, 2011).

UNHCR EMERGENCY HANDBOOK Aid organizations have also come up with their own guidelines to supplement the standards given in the Sphere Handbook. Originally published in 1982, the UNHCR Emergency Handbook sets forth standards for delivering agile humanitarian emergency reponses. The 2015 version is designed for digital channels, in order to give real-time updates and strategy advice to humanitarian task forces on location. Entries are organized in seven main topic areas including: emergency preparedness, community protection + empowerment, emergency response delivery, leadership + coordination strategy, staff well-being, security + risk management, and media communication (UNHCR, 2015)

37

1.

EMERGENCY SHELTER

• Purpose: Life saving

intervention immediatley after the conflict/disaster

2.

TEMPORARY SHELTER

• Purpose: Early recovery shelter until permanent solution is found

• Purpose: Final stage of the resettlement program, end goal of processs

• Duration: 1-2 weeks

• Duration: 2 - 10 years

• Duration: permanent

• Capacity: 2-5 persons

• Capacity: 5 persons

• Capacity: varies

• Cost: $200 - $2,000

• Cost: $500 - $10,000

• Cost: $5,000+

Three-Phase Shelter Approach (IFRC, 2011)

38

3.

PERMANENT RECONSTRUCTION

THREE-PHASE SHELTER PROCESS Most of the shelter and re-settlement programs run by governmental and non-governmental organizations postdisaster or conflict follow the same basic three-phase process for re-settlement (IFRC, 2011). This includes:

1. Emergency Shelter: This response is meant as

a life saving intervention meant to be carried out

immediately after the conflict/disaster. Usually

tents, tarps and ropes are distributed. Ideally

this process lasts one to two weeks.

2. Temporary Shelter: Also called a T-Shelter, it is

meant as an early recovery shelter until a more

permanent solution is found. Shelters in this

stage are limited by cost, assembly time, and

material limitations. This phase is expected to

last no more than 2 years, but usually will take

5 years.

3. Permanent Re-Construction: This is the final,

most cost intensive stage of the shelter process.

Reconstruction is the end goal for all shelter and

re-settlement programs. However, people often

spend five to ten years in the temporary shelter

until they can afford to resettle into a permanent

new home.

39

Product vs. Process INCREMENTAL PROCESSS

VALUE TRANSITIONAL APPROACH

THREE-PHASE RECONSTRUCTION

VALUE EMERGENCY RESPONSE

TRANSITIONAL SHELTER

Transitional vs. Three-Phase Approach (IFRC, 2011)

40

PERMANENT RECONSTRUCTION

TRANSITIONAL SHELTER PROCESS Alternatively a new process for re-settlement is gaining popularity amongst Humanitarian Organization since the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, called a Transitional Shelter approach. The IOM Transitional Shelter guideline defines it as “an incremental process which supports the shelter of families affected by conflicts and disasters, as they seek to maintain alternative options for their recovery” (IOM Transitional Shelter Guide, 2012).

Key Features: • • • • •

Upgrade into part of a permanent house Reuse for another purpose Relocate from a temporary site to a permanent location Resell materials to generate income to aid with recovery Recycle for reconstruction

Advantages: • Long-term flexibility and cost savings compared to the Three-Phase Process • More homeowner causing increased sense of ownership • Uses local materials, skills and labor appropriate for local climate and culture • Rehabilitates the community by fueling local economy through purchasing materials and labor • Prevents long-term damage to economic recovery due to imported materials and volunteers putting local laborers out of business

41

SHELTER GUIDELINES SUMMARY OF KEY SHELTER GUIDELINES The following guidelines summarize the minimum standards for facilitating humanitarian aid set forth by the Sphere Handbook (Sphere,2011) and IOM Transitional Shelter Guidelines (IOM Transitional Shelter Guide, 2012).

Key Shelter Guidelines: • Minimum Space per Person: Minimum built-up area of 3.5m2 per person.

Increase as soon as opportunity arises.

• Participatory Design and Construction: Homeowners should be involved

in the design process. Other stakeholders should be involved as well.

Participation of the homeowners and residents should be encouraged in construction if possible. Additional training, skills and tools should be provided.

• Construction Standards: Standards should be agreed on with relevant

authorities prior to project start. In absence of building codes, incremental compliances should be agreed on.

• Consideration for Culture and Privacy: The culture and customs of the

beneficiary must be considered in the design and construction.

• Fire Safety: Fire hazards should be assessed. There should be a minimum

clearance of 2 m between shelters, but twice the height of shelters is preferred. It is necessary to place a firestop every 300 m2 of built space.

• Advocate for Repair: Priority should be given to the repair rather than

new construction of damaged shelters.

SHELTER GUIDELINE DETAILS: CLIMATE + MATERIAL SOURCING The following information was pulled from the Sphere Handbook and IOM Transitional Shelter Guidelines to highlight existing guidelines that address environmental design considersations. Guidelines advocate for locally sourced, climate-specific shelter design solutions. Currently there are no standardized, climate-specific design solutions that have the ability to scale and address the critical volume of shelter demand.

42

• Climate Consideration

- Hot-Humid Climate: Adequate opening for natural ventilation

should be provided. Natural, breathable materials should

facilitate the dissipation of heat and moisture. Avoid direct solar

heat gains through shading.

- Hot-dry Climate: Thermal mass should be added with structural consideration. To increase air flow, designs should make use of a

double roof. Doors and windows should be positioned away from

prevailing winds to block infiltration of hot air.

- Cold Climate: High thermal mass should be used in structures

with daytime occupancy. Lightweight construction with high

insulation should be used in structures with predominant

nighttime occupancy. Infiltration must be reduced and floors

should be insulated and raised.

• Material Sourcing

- Consider local environmental and economic impact of slection

- Prioritize local materials if it benefits delivery and lead times,

avoids transportation problems, supporting local economy, and

reduces in tensions between communities

- Evaluate quality, lifespan, and risk factors implicit in material selection and application technique

- Attempt to re-use salvaged materials from damaged buildings

- Promote repair of existing shelters to prolong material lifespan

and decrease up front cost - Ensure beneficiaries are familiar with materials and construction techniques to ensure future self-sufficiency - Select materials that align with cultural values and standards

43

KEY PROCESS DIFFERENCES Shelter approaches for rehabilitation of displaced persons are in a phase of much revision. The increase in natural disasters and conflict in the past ten years has sparked overhaul of existing techniques. The following passages highlight the key differences in approach.

PRODUCT VS. PROCESS The Three-Phase Reconstruction Process can be viewed as product-only solution. Displaced persons receive tents (emergency shelter), container shelters (temporary shelter) and a house as permanent shelter. This approach is frequently used by the UNHCR because it works best for displaced persons that have no rights to the land that they reside on (UNHCR 2016).

Humanitarian organizations such as the IFRC advocate the approaching shelter and re-setlement as an incremental rehabilitation process. Rather than providing shelter as product, the Transitional Shelter Approach provides shelter in tandem with humanitarian aid to guide displaced persons in recovery. In this approach humanitarian aid provides support, tools, building materials, training, skills, and capital to enable displaced persons to incrementally upgrade housing towards a permanent solution (IFRC, 2011). This solution only works if displaced persons have the possibility to gaining rights or ownership of the land that their shelter resides on. If people do not have rights to the land, there is no motivation to invest in an increasingly permanent shelter (Petti, 2016).

LOCALLY SOURCING MATERIALS VS. INTERNATIONAL SHIPPING Most shelter guidelines suggest sourcing local materials and only importing pre-fabricated shelter systems if local conditions are not permitting. Using local materials promotes the local economy and

44

SHELTER PROCESS SUMMARY labor force, whereas importing materials could have adverse impact on the local economy. Sourcing locally is usually cheaper and avoids potential bottlenecks due to lack of transportation in a post-disaster or conflict scenario. Involving refugees in the labor aspect of their housing process accelerates their rehabilitation of local communities. The use of local materials and culturally familiar techniques may also increase occupant comfort. Adversely, local sourcing of materials can have severe environmental impacts such as deforestation and conflict due to resource shortage. Environmental impacts should be considered when sourcing locally. If no sustainable way to gather materials is available, shelter materials should be imported (IFRC, 2011).

SHELTER PROCESS SUMMARY Post-disaster shelters should reinforce rehabilitation of users. Local government and NGOs should support and guide displaced persons through this process. Design and process approach should reinforce recovery. Successful temporary shelter solutions should not be treated as an incremental process rather than a product. It is important to use locally sourced materials and labor when possible to promote the local economy.

Environmental impacts should be considered when sourcing locally. If no sustainable way to gather materials is available, shelter materials should be imported (IFRC, 2011).

45

46

SHELTER CATALOG CASE STUDY OF TEMPORARY + DISASTER RELIEF STRUCTURES

475

“

THE LADAKH REGION SAW HUNDREDS OF EXPENSIVE PRE-FABRICATED SHELTERS FLOWN IN, NONE OF WHICH WERE REPORTEDLY USED IN THE WINTERS.

48

“

Anshu Sharma, Disaster Management Stategist, SEEDS (India)

INTRODUCTION

Temporary shelter responses around the world make use of a diverse range of materials and geometries. This case study was conducted to gain a deeper understanding of existing temporary shelter responses. The majority of these shelters come fall into material categories of plastic, wood, or masonry. The following information was predominantly extracted from the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent post-occupany reports on temporary shelter solutions (IFRC, 2011) and post-disaster shelters (IFRC, 2013). Additionally, this report includes the lastest prefabricated shelter solution called Better Shelter, created through a collaboration between the UNHCR and the Ikea Foundation (Better Shelter, 2015). This prefabricated shelter is currently scaling globally across UNHCR’s refugee camps and is being tested as the first version of an affordable, flat-pack temporary shelter design.

This catalog serves as the basis for shelter precedent analysis in this thesis.

49

International Federation RedAnalysis Cross and Redof Crescent SectionofB: the Societies shelters

Section B: Analysis of the shelters

B.1 Afghanistan –PLASTIC 2009 – ‘Winterised Shelter’ 1.

AFGHANISTAN SHELTER (2009) B.1 Afghanistan – 2009 – ‘Winterised Shelter’

Photo: Shaun Scales

Photo: Shaun Scales

Summary information

CIVIL CONFLICT This shelter is a rectangular bamboo framed EARTHQUAKE, Disaster: Refugees returning from conflict, Winter 2009 Summary information STRONG WINDS structure with a gable roof and a covered floor Materials: with plastic sheet walls and roof - to DISASTER protect an existing tent Disaster: RefugeesBamboo returningframes from conflict, Winter 2009 2 area of 9 source: m x 4.3Internationally m (38.7 m ). It was built to Material Materials: Bamboo frames with plastic procured sheet walls and roof - to protect an existing tent

protecttooccupants living in tents.

3 days MaterialTime source:build: Internationally procured Anticipated lifespan: 1 year Time to build: 3 days

BAMBOO FRAMED WALLS, PLASTIC SHEET WALLS AND ROOF

MATERIALS

Construction team:layer 7 people fabricating frames, The floor is a thick of compacted soil, and5 people to assemble structures on site Anticipated lifespan: 1 year Number built: 380.are Thismade design later adapated built in larger numbers in Pakistan following flooding the walls and 7roof ofwas aframes, single layer of and Construction team: people fabricating 5 people to assemble structures on site INTERNATIONALLY PROCURED Approximate material cost per shelter: 270 CHF MATERIAL SOURCE plastic bamboo frames are joined Number built:sheeting.

380. This The design was later adapated and built in larger numbers in Pakistan following flooding Approximate project cost: 820 CHF - including all site winterisation works Approximate material cost pergusset shelter:plates 270 CHF together using plywood and bolts.

Approximate project cost: 820inCHF including site winterisation works Frames are embedded the -ground foralladded Shelter Description

3 DAYS

TIME TO BUILD

durability.

Local theascamp used tooccupants living in tents. Each shelter contains one tent, This shelter was labor built toinact a shellwas to protect Sheltererected Description insidethe the frames structure.

It is rectangular in plan and has 1.8m tall side walls and a gable roof. The covered manufacture on-site. floorwas areabuilt is approximately 9m xto4.3m.

The frames are constructed from bamboo poles.

The This shelter to act as a shell protect occupants living in tents. Each shelter contains oneframes tent, are 5 - 7 PERSONS connected using plywood gusset plates and bolts.

The walls and roof are plastic sheeting, and are supported erected inside the structure. It is rectangular in plan and has 1.8m tall side walls and a gable roof. The covered CONSTRUCTION TEAM onisthe bamboo frame and purlins.

Theframes floor isare compacted soil. from The shelter frames were fabricated floor area approximately 9m x 4.3m.

The constructed bamboo poles.

Theshop frames are in This simple framing system is easily assembled the camp and transported to the construction site.

The frames are embedded into the ground for support. connected using plywood gusset plates and bolts. The walls and roof are plastic sheeting, and are supported mass-produced, but plastic sheeting s used soil. The shelter frames were shop fabricated in on the and bamboo frame and purlins.

The floor is compacted 1 YEAR the camp and transported to the construction site.

The frames are embedded into the ground for support. as a temporary solution that should be upgraded.

Shelter Performance Summary LIFESPAN

Occupants on a burning fuel in awhich stovecreate to a lightweight shelter which can be quickly deployed in This style ofrelied construction uses materials Shelter Performance Summary remote locations.

The simple framing systems are of skilled and stay warm.

This design was adapted and built inwell suited to mass fabrication using a$ mix 820 unskilled labour, and thematerials light weight of the building framing does notwhich requirecan thebe usequickly of heavy equipment This style of construction uses which create a lightweight shelter deployed in for great quantitites in Pakistan after a flood crisis.

COST construction.

Bamboo is a durable construction material, and is stronger than most wood species, but remote locations. The simple framing systems are well suited to mass fabrication using a mix of skilled and the plastic sheeting used for the walls and roof should only be considered temporary. The shelter frames should unskilled labour, and the light weight of the building framing does not require the use of heavy equipment for be able to resist the expected wind loads without failing the bamboo, but will most likely deflect significantly construction. Bamboo is a durable construction material, and is stronger than most wood species, but the during strong storms. Given the relatively large span of the frames, snow loads can be problematic and plastic sheeting used for the walls and roof should only be considered temporary. The shelter frames should occupants should be encouraged to reduce snow accumulation on the roof to prevent collapse. be able to resist the expected wind loads without failing the bamboo, but will most likely deflect significantly during strong storms. Given the relatively large span of the frames, snow loads can be problematic and 50 occupants should be encouraged to reduce snow accumulation on the roof to prevent collapse.

Plan View

Roof Framing

Section A

Section B

STRENGTHS • Lightweight and fast to deploy to remote locations • Easily mass-produced with a mix of skilled and unskilled labor • Bamboo is durable, sustainable material choice • Suitable to resist expected earthquake hazards, lightweight structure unlikely to collapse, in an event of collapse it is unlikely to injure occupants SHORTCOMINGS • Plastic sheeting has short lifespan and easily let in cold • Shelter requires additional source of heat • Envelope is flimsy, likely to deflect during strong storms • Structural frames span too far to endure large snow loads

*All information and visuals on this spread are derived from (IFRC, 2013)

51

2. ETHIOPIA BETTER SHELTER (2015)

The pre-fabricated shelter is a metal framed, lightweight plastic shelter with a covered floor

DISASTER

area of 3.3 m x 5.6 m (17.5 m ). It has lockable

CIVIL CONFLICT EARTHQUAKE, STRONG WINDS

2

doors and a solar powered night light. The solar panel also has the ability to charge cellphones.

MATERIALS

STEEL FOUNDATION POLYMER PLASTIC ROOF AND WALLS SOLAR PANEL

The design provides privacy, security and INTERNATIONALLY PROCURED

dignity, and fits up to 5 people.

MATERIAL SOURCE

The shelter can easily be dismantled, moved, 4 - 8 HOURS

reassembled and adapted to different needs and areas of use. Developed together with

TIME TO BUILD

UNHCR and the IKEA Foundation, this flat-pack

4 PERSONS

shippable shelter is the first of its kind to be able to scale globally. It is currently being tested in 9

CONSTRUCTION TEAM

locations. The Ethiopia location was chosen for the purposes of this thesis.

2 YEARS (MODERATE CLIMATE) LIFESPAN

The shelter comes in two 85 kg boxes containing necessary tools, materials, and instruction manuals. Shelter assembly requires only four people and can be completed in 8 hours.

52

$ 1,150 COST

Axonometric View of Flat-Pack Shipping Boxes and Assembled Shelter

Detail of Lockable Door

Solar Panel and LED Light

STRENGTHS • Lightweight, compact, and fast to deploy to remote locations • Easily mass-produced and assembled with mix of skilled and unskilled labor • Provides safety and dignity through lockable doors and access to power • Suitable to resist expected earthquake hazards, lightweight structure unlikely to collapse, in an event of collapse it is unlikely to injure occupants SHORTCOMINGS • Plastic panels has short lifespan and potenital to create a lot of waste • Shelter seems flimsy, total estimated life span has not been field tested • Structural frames too far and need to be reinforced by users • Small windows cause poor daylighting and limited ventilation • No foundation included in flatpack,

*All information and visuals on this spread are derived from (Better Shelter, 2015)

53

Haiti (2010) - Steel Frame Haiti 3.

(2010) Steel FRAME FrameSHELTER (2010) HAITI-STEEL

Photo: Beatriz Garlaschi for Spanish Red Cross Photo: Beatriz Garlaschi for Spanish Red Cross ry information CIVIL CONFLICT This shelter is a galvanized rectangular steel EARTHQUAKE, ary information : Earthquake 2010 STRONG WINDS frame structure with a mono-pitch roof and a er: s: Earthquake Galvanised 2010 steel frame, timber studs, plastic sheeting walls, DISASTER corrugated steel roof sheeting, 2 covered floor area of 3 m x 6 m (18 m ).

It has a foundations, nailsstuds, plastic sheeting walls, corrugated steel roof sheeting, als: Galvanisedbolts, steelscrews frame, and timber BAMBOO FRAMED WALLS, esource: foundations, screws andfrom nailsby suspended floor supported stub columns on Steel bolts, frame: imported Spain, Other materials: sourced locally PLASTIC SHEET WALLS AND ROOF albuild: source: Steel frame: imported from Spain, Other materials: sourced locally 2 days base plates bearing onto the soil. Six columns MATERIALS oted build: 2are daysfixed lifespan: 24 months to rectangular reinforced concrete LOCALLY AND ated lifespan: 24 months ction team: Unknownwith base plates.

INTERNATIONALLY foundations PROCURED uction team: Unknown built: 5100 MATERIAL SOURCE er built:material 5100 cost per shelter: 1700 CHF mate The roof is made of corrugated steel sheeting ximate material cost per shelter: 1700 CHF mate programme cost per 4300 CHF 2 DAYS and secondary steelshelter: roof members that span ximate programme cost per shelter: 4300 CHF between three primary frames. The walls are

TIME TO BUILD

description made from plastic sheeting, nailed onto timbe r description 5 - 7 roof PERSONS ter consists of a galvanised rectangular steel frame with an 8.5 degree mono-pitch and a studsofthat are screwed to the steelsteel frames.

Thewith an 8.5 degree mono-pitch roof and a elter consists a galvanised rectangular frame ed floor. The height to the eaves is 2.55m and 3m to the ridge and thereTEAM is no bracing. The shelter CONSTRUCTION ded floor. windows The height the members eaves is 2.55m and 3m to to the ridge and there is no bracing. The shelter andtodoor are also attached m on plan and has 6 columns spaced on a 3m grid, fixed to 800x800x400mm rectangular reinforced m on planthe and hasframe 6 columns on a 3m grid, fixed to 800x800x400mm rectangular reinforced usingspaced timber studs. foundations steel using a 300x300x6mm base plate and four ordinary bolts per base. The raised floor is 2 YEARS e foundations using a 300x300x6mm base plate and four ordinary bolts per base. The raised floor is ported by 13 additional stub columns on 100x100x6mm base plates bearing directly on to the soil. pported by 13 additional stub columns on 100x100x6mm base platesLIFESPAN bearing directly on to the soil. n structureOverall, is threethe primary framesiswith rectangular hollow section columns. steel frame fairly expensive for in structure is three primary frames with rectangular hollow section columns. a short lifespan. also did not perform wellsecondary roof members spaced at 0.75m claddingsuch is corrugated steel Itsheeting nailed to steel of cladding is corrugated steel sheeting nailed to steel secondary roof members spaced $at4,300 0.75m spanning between the three primary frames.

Timber studs are screwed to the steel members and under seismic activity and heavy winds. s spanning between the three primary frames. Timber studs are screwed to the steel members and c timber sub-framing sub-framingisisused usedtotoform formwindows windowsand and doors. ticwall wallsheeting sheetingisisattached attached to to this. this. Additional Additional timber doors.

rperformance performancesummary summary orted, pre-fabricated is relatively relatively expensive, expensive,but butquick quicktotoconstruct constructonce oncethe the ported, pre-fabricated steel steel frame frame solution solution is 54 the steel steel frame framehas hasvery verylimited limitedlateral lateralstability stabilitybecause because there shave havearrived arrivedin-country. in-country. As As designed, designed, the there is is

Floor Plan

Roof Framing

Section Y

Section X

STRENGTHS • Relatively fast assembly time once imported frame arrived from Spain • Easily mass-produced with a mix of skilled and unskilled labor • Steel frame is durable when spaced properly and has potential for reuse • Raised floor helps prevent flood damage • Potential for upgrading plastic sheeting walls to plywood SHORTCOMINGS • Poor performance under high wind speeds and seismic activity. Structure is designed for max wind speeds of 161 km/h but experienced wind speeds of Hurrican Category C with 217 km/h • Short lifespan of structure due to weak steel reinforcement of structure • Plastic sheeting is very flimsy, and often ruptures when nailed to the studs

*All information and visuals on this spread are derived from (IFRC, 2011)

55

Haiti (2010) - Steel Frame

B.3 Haiti – 2010 – ‘T-Shelter’

4. HAITI PLYWOOD SHELTER (2010)

Photo: Beatriz Garlaschi for Spanish Red Cross

Summary information ry information This shelter is a January timber-framed rectangular EARTHQUAKE, Disaster: Earthquake, 2010 r: Earthquake 2010 FLOOD structure withframed a gable roofwith andplywood a floor area of 3 metal roofing Materials: Wood walls sheathing, on wood trusses, concrete slab floor DISASTER s: Galvanised steel frame, timber studs, plastic sheeting walls, corrugated steel roof sheeting, 2 m x 7bolts, m (21screws mInternationally ). It has cast-in-place Material source: procured concrete e foundations, andanails WOOD FRAMED WALLS WITH PLYWOOD SHEATHING, slab with piersSpain, in the four cornes Time to floor build: 2 –imported 3concrete days from source: Steel frame: Other materials: sourced locally CGI ROOF, CONCRETE SLAB lifespan: 3 between – 5 years piers. build:Anticipated 2 days and stone masonry MATERIALS Construction team: 9 people ated lifespan: 24 months INTERNATIONALLY ctionNumber team: built: are 2,000 The Unknown walls comprised of wood studs with PROCURED built:Approximate 5100 material cost per shelter: CHF MATERIAL SOURCE plywood sheathing.

The shelter has a 1,560 corregated mate Approximate material cost per 1700 CHF2,300 project cost per shelter: CHF steel roof held upshelter: by wooden purlins and trusses. mate programme cost per shelter: 4300 CHF 2 - 3 DAYS The wooden trusses are supported by wood Shelter Description TIME TO BUILD posts along the perimeter. The trusses can be

description This shelter is a rectangular timber framed structure with a gable roof and a covered floor area of approxiprefabricated off-site and shipped to the site.

mately 21 square meters. Wall consists of wood studs with plywood sheathing, and the roof consists of metal lter consists of a galvanised rectangular steel frame with an 8.5 degree mono-pitch9 PERSONS roof and a roofing wood only purlins and trusses.

Thewindow. trusses are supported on wood posts within in the perimeter walls.

Thison shelter has one door and ed floor. height to can the be eaves is 2.55m andand 3mshipped to the ridge and thereTEAM is no The shelter TheThe wood trusses pre-manufactured to theCONSTRUCTION construction site.bracing.

The foundation consists of m on plan and has spacedand on aa 3m grid, fixed to rectangular concrete piers6incolumns the four corners stone masonry wall800x800x400mm in-between the piers.

The floor reinforced is a cast-in-place In summary, this structure isbase veryhas durable and concrete slab. As designed, the shelter only one door and onebolts window. foundations using a 300x300x6mm plate and four ordinary per base. The raised floor is 3-5 YEARS to stub last longer thanon other temporary base plates bearing directly on to the soil. ported byhas 13potential additional columns 100x100x6mm LIFESPAN n structure is three frames rectangular hollow section columns. shelters ifprimary the wood is with treated to prevent Shelter Performance Summary

The plywood andfor timber structural Theweathering. construction techniques used this shelter can produce a very structure with$ 2,300 aatdesign cladding is corrugated steel sheeting nailed to steel secondary roofdurable members spaced 0.75mlifespan much larger than the typical transitional shelter, and can provide the basis for more permanent housing. spanningsystem between primary frames.high Timber studs are screwed to the steel members and The hasthe the three potential to withstand winds COST timber and plywood framing provides a light weight structural system, and with some modification to the ic wall sheeting is attached to this. Additional timber sub-framing is used to form windows and doors. and seismic activity.

anchoring details, can provide excellent performance for both high winds and seismic events. The stone masonry foundation wall raises the floor above the surrounding ground surface, providing resistance to flood damage. To increase the life of the structure, preservative treated wood and/or protective coatings should be performance summary applied to prevent rot and other deterioration of the framing.

orted, pre-fabricated steel frame solution is relatively expensive, but quick to construct once the s have56arrived in-country. As designed, the steel frame has very limited lateral stability because there is

Plan View

Roof Framing

Section A

Section B

STRENGTHS • Prefabricated trusses and frame allows for quick on-site assembly • Lightweight structure of timber and wood with added anchoring can resist seismic events and high winds • Wood is durable, sustainable material choice if treated with protective coating to enhance lifespan and prevent rot; potential permanent shelter • Stone masonry foundation helps shelter resist flood damage SHORTCOMINGS • Concrete piers should be reinforced to support high wind pressure on

plywood shearwalls • Fire hazard due to wooden materials and single exit/window

*All information and visuals on this spread are derived from (IFRC, 2013)

57

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

Section B Analysis of the transitional shelters

onesia, Sumatra, Padang (2009) - Timber frame 5. INDONESIA TIMBER FRAME SHELTER (2009) B.2 Indonesia, Sumatra, Padang (2009) - Timber frame

Summary information Disaster: Earthquake, 2009 This shelter is a timber-framed rectangular Materials: Timber frame, palm fibre roof, concrete bucket foundations and palm matting wall panels EARTHQUAKE, FLOOD Materials source: structure withLocal a pitched roof and a covered floor ormation DISASTER Time to build: 2 days area of 4.5 m x 4 m (18 m2). It has a suspended thquake, 2009 Anticipated lifespan: 6-12 months (residents expected it to last more than 24 months) TIMBER FRAME, PALM FIBER ROOF, floor with coconut wood spanning between joists.

Construction peopleconcrete bucket foundations and palm matting wall panels mber frame, palm team: fibre 5roof, CONCRETE FOUNDATION, Number built: 7000 PALM MATTING WALL PANELS MATERIALS urce: Local Materials cost per shelter: Approximately 350 CHF (2009) Three main portal frames are supported by : 2 days Project cost per shelter: Approximately 500 CHF (2009) LOCALLY

or months three columns and aexpected roof truss.it Rafters PROCURED ifespan:two 6-12 (residents to last more than 24 months) Shelter description MATERIAL SOURCE the trusses. Columns are embedded into team: 5brace people The shelter is a timber framed structure with palm roofing and walls. It measures 4.5m x 4m on plan and is conrete bucket foundations that sit directly on : 7000 3.35m tall to the ridge beam and 2.4m to the eaves. It has a pitched roof of 23.6 degrees.

2 DAYS the isexposed ground.

There no Approximately bracing, but some stability is provided by three portal frames tied together by horizontal members st per shelter: 350 CHF (2009) TIME TO BUILD at ground, eaves and ridge level. Each portal frame is made up of two or three columns and a roof truss with per shelter: Approximately 500 CHF rafters and corner bracing members.

The (2009) corner bracing in the frames provides lateral stiffness. Secondary

The materials usedinclude: in thisfloor structure arejoists entirely non-structural members joists, roof spanning between rafters and transoms to support 5 PERSONS palm matting wall panels.

The require shelter has a suspended floor. This is assumed to be coconut wood boarding local and locals do not any outside tools riptionspanning between the floor joists. The columns are embedded into concrete CONSTRUCTION TEAM foundations that sit bucket or assistance for assembly.

The design can be directly on the structure ground. a timber framed with palm roofing and walls. It measures 4.5m x 4m on plan easily maintained by occupants and upgraded

he ridge beam and 2.4m to the eaves. It has a pitched roof of 23.6 degrees.

Shelter performance summary over time. Structurally, this shelter should only

and is

6 - 12 MONTHS

The shelter is constructed from locally sourced materials that are familiar to the occupants and do not require acing, but stabilitysolution is provided three portal frames tied together by horizontal members besome a short-term due toby vulnerability specialist tools or equipment for assembly.

It can therefore to be quickly constructed after a disaster and is relaves andtively ridge level.

Each portal frame is made up of two or three columns and a roofa truss with simple to maintain and adapt over time, depending on seismic loads and high winds. Extra bracing maythe needs of the occupants. This shelter offers $ 850 good short term design solution that is appropriate high seismic and wind loading. The orner bracing members.

The corner bracing ininareas thevulnerable frames toprovides lateral stiffness.

Secondary extend theofshelter’s lifespan.

The timber frame COSTdeflections. However, if the minor addition bracing would improve its performance significantly and reduce members include: floor joists,byroof joists spanning between rafters and transoms to support shelter is upgraded, for instance replacing should be treated to prevent rot. the matting with roof sheeting or ply, then the roof trusses, frame wall panels.

The shelter has a strengthened, suspendedandfloor.

Thisshould is assumed be coconut wood boarding and foundations will need to be the timber have been to treated. ween the floor joists. The columns are embedded into concrete bucket foundations that sit e ground.

LIFESPAN

58 33

Plan View

Roof Framing

Section X

Section Y

STRENGTHS • Local materials and techniques allow for quick on-site assembly • Lightweight structure of timber and coconut wood with added anchoring can resist flood and wind loads due to permeabilty • Wood is durable, sustainable material choice if treated with protective coating to enhance lifespan and prevent rot SHORTCOMINGS • Concrete piers should be reinforced to support high wind pressure if walls are upgraded to plywood shearwalls • Fire hazard due to palm materials and single exit • Foundation and structure should be reinforced to prevent damage due to seismic events and high winds

*All information and visuals on this spread are derived from (IFRC, 2011)

59

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

gladesh – 2007 – ‘Core-Shelter’ Section B: Analysis of the shelters

6. BANGLADESH SHELTER (2007) B.8 Bangladesh –ROOF 2007ATTIC – ‘Core-Shelter’

This shelter has reinforced concrete columns, a

rmationSummary information

HIGH WINDS, FLOOD

steel framed hip roof, and a covered floor area of DISASTER Disaster: Cyclone Sidr, November 2007 ne Sidr, November 2007 2 4.5 m x 3.2 m (14.4 m ).concrete It has one door and REINFORCED brick exterior Materials: Reinforced columns andthree a steel framed roof. Concrete pier foundations, CONCRETE COLUMNS, STEEL orced concrete columns and a steel framed roof.

Concrete pier foundations, exterior base, andwith bamboo matting windows a raised floor.walls with Corrugated Galvanized Iron (CGI) roofing FRAMEDbrick CGI ROOF,BRICK

oo matting walls with Corrugated Galvanized Iron (CGI) roofing Materials source: Local

Timeground to build: days with a short brick wall to ce: LocalThe is 5 raised

MATERIALS

Anticipated – 5 years 5 days prevent floodlifespan: damage.2 Eight concrete columns Construction team: 3-4 people

into the ground ca. 1.5 m deep span: 2 are – 5 embedded years

EXTERIOR BASE, BAMBOO MATTING WALLS

LOCALLY PROCURED MATERIAL SOURCE

Number built: 1,250

strengthen the structure for high wind loads. eam: 3-4to people Programme cost per shelter: 1,822 CHF - an additional 60 CHF cash grant was provided to shelter owners.

,250

5 DAYS

The foundation contains the columns and is

reinforced by a perimeter concrete grade beam.

Shelter Description

TIME TO BUILD

st per shelter: 1,822 CHF - an additional 60 CHF cash grant was provided to shelter owners.

Wooden beams between thecolumns, columns, This shelter is has span reinforced concrete a steel framed hip roof with metal roofing and bamboo mat 3 - 4 PERSONS walls.

The total covered area is approximately 4.5m x 3.2m, and there is one door and three windows. adding a roof attic ‘mezzanine’ level, TEAM iption The floor is raised above existing grade, and a short brick wallCONSTRUCTION is provided around the perimeter to resist flood waters and windblown rain. The 8 concrete columns are embedded approximately 1.5m into the ground. The as reinforced concrete a steel framedand hip roof with metal roofing and bamboo mat In summary, thiscolumns, structure very durable roof truss is constructed with is steel angles and is anchored to the concrete columns. The consists 2 - 5foundation YEARS covered area is approximately 4.5m x 3.2m, and there is one door and three windows. of the 8 embedded and a perimeter grade beam. There are wooden beams between the has potential to becolumns, disassembled and usedconcrete in LIFESPAN columns approximately 2.1m above the first floor, which allow the addition of a mezzanine level toflood the shelter. d above permanent existing grade, and short brick wall is provided around the perimeter to resist housing.

Theamezzanine level doubles TheThe shelter is designedcolumns to be easily moved by unbolting the columns and roofinto frame with hand tools blown rain.

8 flood-safe concrete are embedded approximately 1.5m the ground.

Theand the as hidden,can storage. materials be re-used as a part of permanent housing reconstruction. Additionally it is$ 1,800 designed so that a structed with steel angles and is anchored to the concrete columns. The foundation consists mezzanine level can be built to provide storage space in case of floods.

COST

ded columns, and a perimeter concrete grade beam. There are wooden beams between the imately 2.1m above the first floor, which allow the addition of a mezzanine level to the shelter.

Shelter Performance Summary

esigned toThis be shelter easily ismoved by unbolting the columns and available roof frame hand tools andthethe constructed with materials that are locally and with o fgood quality given context. e re-usedThe as aroofing part structure of permanent housing reconstruction.

Additionally that a than is complex and requires skilled workers to constructit it.isItdesigned is intendedso to be more a transitional shelter and to space becomeineither permanent can 60 be built to provide storage casea of floods. residence or for the materials to be re-used in new permanent construction. The shelter is tall, which allows for a mezzanine level.

Plan View

Roof Framing

Section A

Section B

STRENGTHS • Local, high quality materials allow for quick on-site assembly • Lightweight structure of steel and bamboo can resist seismic loads.

• High quality materials give it potential to become permanent shelter • Stone masonry foundation helps shelter resist flood damage SHORTCOMINGS • Concrete piers should be reinforced to support high wind pressure; bamboo matting walls likely to detach during high winds • Increasing the column size and roof truss members will help improve

long-term structural performance • Structural frames span too far to endure large snow loads

*All information and visuals on this spread are derived from (IFRC, 2013)

61

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

Section B Analysis of the transitional shelters

eru (2007) - Timber frame

7. PERU TIMBER FRAME SHELTER (2007) B.4 Peru (2007) - Timber frame

Summary information Disaster: Earthquake 2007 y information Materials: Bolaina Timber frame with timber cladding and corrugated metal sheet roofing This shelter is(Bolayna) a Bolaina timber-braced framed EARTHQUAKE, Earthquake 2007 Material source: All materials sourced locally and produced in local fabrication workshops rectangular structure with a flat roof and a floor DISASTER to build: Timber 1 day (4 people : BolainaTime (Bolayna) frame2- )with timber cladding and corrugated metal sheet roofing area of 3 lifespan: m x 6 m24(18 m ). +It has a cast-in-place Anticipated months source: Construction All materials sourced locally and produced in local fabrication workshops TIMBER FRAME, team: 4 people with 1 engineer and 1 project concrete slab floor attached to the frame at all manager to supervise TIMBER CLADDING, uild: 1 day (4 people -) CGI ROOF Number built: 2020 columns to prevent uplift.

MATERIALS Approximate material ed lifespan: 24 months + cost per shelter: Unknown Approximate project cost per shelter: 560CHF

tion team: 4 people with 1 engineer and 1 project manager to supervise LOCALLY The walls are comprised of 6 panels nailed PROCURED built: 2020 Shelter description MATERIAL SOURCE together and connected to wooden members The shelter hasper a Bolaina (Bolayna) timber braced frame, measuring 3m x 6m on plan with a single pitched mate material cost shelter: Unknown using connector plates plastic strapping. roof at four degrees. The shelterand is clad with tongue and groove solid timber board walls and a corrugated mate project cost per shelter: 560CHF fibre cement sheet roof. It is 2.4m high and stands on a new or existing concrete floor slab. In instances where 1 DAY Purlins are nailed on top of the panels to support

a new slab has been used, wire ties wrapped around nails have been cast into the slab and attached to the TIME TO BUILD the central rooflocations beam.to resist uplift. Where existing slabs have been used the shelter has been staked frame at all column escription to posts installed outside the slab. The shelter is constructed as 6 panels which are then nailed together using PERSONS WITH er has aconnecting Bolaina (Bolayna) timber bracedplates frame, 3mAxcentral 6m on with isa41 attached single pitched wooden members, connecting andmeasuring plastic strapping. roof plan edge beam ENGINEER AND In summary, this simple box structure performs 1 PROJECT MANAGER to theThe panels and areispurlins top of this to support roof. timber board walls and a corrugated ur degrees. shelter cladnailed withontongue and groovethesolid CONSTRUCTION TEAM

seismic but ison vulnearble ent sheet well roof.under It is 2.4m highactivity and stands a new or to existing concrete floor slab. In instances where Shelter performance summary

b has been used, wire ties wrapped around locally nails have wind loads.

Materials can be sourced and been cast into the slab and attached to the 1 YEAR This very lightweight, simple box-shelter offers a good design solution in areas vulnerable to seismic loading ll column locations to resist uplift.

Where existing slabs havematerials, been used the shelter has been staked do notnot require special tools forloads. assembly.

Panels but does perform well under wind It uses locally sourced and does not require specialist LIFESPAN or equipment forThe assembly.

Constructing it in panels advantages in terms of speed of construcnstalled tools outside slab. shelter isand constructed as has 6 panels which are then nailed together using ensure the speed of construction overall quality tion and quality control. However, member sizes need to be increased and the foundation fixing improved g wooden members, connecting plates and plastic strapping. A central roof edge beam is attached Increasing the foundation sizeand could in consistancy. order to provide a sound structure under gravity seismic loads. More significant improvements$ 560 are nels andrequired are purlins nailed on top of this to support the roof. to resist high wind loads which may not be practical, for instance large foundations. It is not suitable help wind-proof this temporary shelter.

COST

for upgrading into permanent housing in the long term. The timber should be treated to increase its durability and usefulness to the occupant in the event it is reused. If left untreated it will be more susceptible to rot and erformance summary insects.

ghtweight, simple box-shelter offers a good design solution in areas vulnerable to seismic loading not perform well under wind loads. It uses locally sourced materials, and does not require specialist quipment for assembly. Constructing it in panels has advantages in terms of speed of construc62 45 uality control. However, member sizes need to be increased and the foundation fixing improved

Floor Plan

Roof Framing

Section Y

Section X

STRENGTHS • Locally-sourced, familiar materials allow for quick on-site assembly and easy repair • Timber structure can resist collapse during seismic events • Wood is a durable, sustainable material choice if treated with protective coating to enhance lifespan and prevent rot SHORTCOMINGS • Structure should be reinforced to support high wind pressure • Shelter design is not practical for upgrading it to permanent housing • Fire hazard due to wooden materials and single exit/window

*All information and visuals on this spread are derived from (IFRC, 2011)

63

pines – 2011 – ‘Transitional-Shelter’ B.6 Philippines – 2011 – ‘Transitional-Shelter’

8. PHILLIPPINES RAISED FLOOR SHELTER (2011)

shelter is a rectangular Summary information mation This

coconut wood

framed structure with a single pitch roof and a

Disaster: n, December 2011Typhoon, December 2011

DISASTER

covered floor area of 4.8 m x 3.7 m (17.8 m2). It

TAIFUN, FLOODING STRONG WINDS

Materials: Concrete footings, coconut woodamaken frame, plywood floor,corrugated amaken walls and corrugated iron roo te footings, coconut wood plywood walls and iron roof COCONUT WOOD FRAME has concrete piers andframe, footings to raise itfloor, around Material source: Locally procured

Locally procured 750 mm off the ground as flood protection.

days

CONCRETE FOOTINGS

Time to build: 5 days

MATERIALS

Anticipated lifespan: 5 years

The floor and roof are framed with coconut wood. pan: 5 years

23

MATERIAL SOURCE

panels known as amaken, which are attached

Approximate material cost per shelter: 500 CHF

to the coconut wood frames. The shelter has

erial cost per shelter: 500 CHF one door and two large windows. The light wood Shelter Description

tion

LOCALLY PROCURED

Construction team: 5 people

The exterior walls are made of woven bamboo m: 5 people Number built: 1,823

PLYWOOD FLOOR AMAKEN WALLS CORRUGATED IRON ROOF

5 DAYS TIME TO BUILD

frame can easily be relocated by lifting it off the

This shelter is a rectangular structure with a single pitch roof and a covered floor area of approximately 4.

5 PERSONS x 3.7m. The shelter is supported on concrete piers and footings such that the first floor is raised appr CONSTRUCTION TEAM ctangularwith structure withabove a single pitch roof and covered floor area of approximately 4.8m just750mm a small group of people. mately grade.

The floor anda roof are framed with coconut wood beams and joists. The fl er is supported on and concrete piers and footings that theexterior first floor raisedofapproxiis plywood the roof is corrugated metalsuch roofing.

The wallsisconsist amakan (woven panel 5 YEARS bamboo or palm fastened to the wood frame.

The light frame can be lifted ove grade.

The floor andleaves) roof are framed withcoconut coconut wood beams and weight joists. wood The floor The shelter is relatively durable if the wood is concrete metal piers and movedThe to aexterior differentwalls location by a small number(woven of people.

As designed, the she e roof is the corrugated roofing. consist of amakan panels of LIFESPAN treated prior to construction.

Timber and amaken has one door and two windows. eaves) fastened to the coconut wood frame. The light weight wood frame can be lifted off concrete piers and moving it to a new location

panels be sourced locally.by Construction of and moved tocan a different location a small number of people. As designed, the shelter $500 Shelter Performance Summary two windows. the structure is simple, reducing the need for COST

skilled labor.

Strong storms are expected to provided it is properly treated prior to construction. The tim The timber framing should be relatively durable,

framing this andshelter. amakan wall panels can be built with locally sourced materials, and the simple construc ance Summary damage

reduces the need for skilled labor. Provided the wood posts and roof rafters are adequately anchored to t

g should be relatively provided it issatisfactorily, properly treated prior toshould construction.

Theduring timberstrong storms. supports the durable, shelter should perform but damage be expected adequacy of the roof framing is dependent on theand use the of high qualityconstruction wood. To ensure good per kan wall panels can be floor builtand with locally sourced materials, simple 64 the floor and framing, theroof beams supporting floor joist and roof rafters should be doubled for skilledmance labor.ofProvided the roof wood postsalland rafters are adequately anchored to their

PLAN VIEW

ROOF FRAMING

SECTION A

SECTION B

STRENGTHS • Locally-procured materials can make this shelter quick to build • Simple form with vernacular materials allows for ease of assembly • Adequate shelter performance based on proper connections between components, especially the timber framing and concrete pier connections • Durable as long as wood is treated prior to construction • Suitable to resist expected earthquake hazards and floods, lightweight structure is unlikely to injure occupants in the event of a collapse SHORTCOMINGS • Shelter does not withstand strong storms • Coconut wood and plywood are not rot resistant and will need to be

replaced periodically, especially in wet seasons • Fire hazard due to dry, natural building materials *All information and visuals on this spread are derived from (IFRC, 2013)

65

pines – 2011 – ‘Transitional-Shelter’ B.7 Philippines – 2011 – ‘Transitional-Shelter’

9. PHILLIPPINES MASONRY SHELTER (2011)

shelter is a rectangular masonry and wood Summary information mation This structure with a gable roof and a covered floor

Disaster: 2011 n, December 2011Typhoon, December 2

DISASTER

TAIFUN, FLOODING STRONG WINDS

area of 4 m x 5 m (20 m ). It has concrete columns

Materials: Reinforced concrete columns, masonry andwalls timber walls, timberWOOD roof framing with metal siding FRAMED WALLS, te footings, frame, floor, amaken and corrugated iron roof and coconut half-heightwood masonry wallsplywood embedded in the FLOOR + ROOF, Material source: Locally and internationally procured

Locally procured ground without footings.

days

Time to build: 12 days

MATERIALS

Anticipated lifespan: 5 years

LOCALLY AND INTERNATIONALLY PROCURED

The roof framing is made up of timber trusses pan: 5 years

Number built: 250

and purlins supporting corrugated metal roofing.

m: 5 people Approximate material cost per shelter: 1,550 CHF

23

MATERIAL SOURCE

It is held up by the eight precast concrete

Approximate project cost per shelter: 2,000 CHF

columns. The walls are half masonry and half

erial cost per shelter: 500 CHF wood framing. The floor is a cast-in-place Shelter Description

tion

PLYWOOD SHEATHING METAL ROOFING

12 DAYS TIME TO BUILD

concrete slab. The modular construction allows

This shelter is a rectangular structure with a gable roof and a covered floor area 5ofPERSONS approximately 4.0m x 5.

for the shelter all sidesofwith withexpansion a coveredofbathroom andon vestibule approximately 4.0m x 1.5m. The exterior walls have a half he CONSTRUCTION TEAM ctangularminor structure with a single pitch roof and a covered floor of The approximately modifications. concrete masonry wall with wood framing on top up to thearea eaves. roof consists4.8m of timber trusses

er is supported on concrete piers and footings that the first floor is raised purlins supporting corrugated metal roofing. such The roof framing is supported by eightapproxiprecast concrete colum 5 YEARS located the exterior walls.

The concrete columns and beams masonryand wallsjoists. are embedded ove grade.

The within floor and roof are framed with coconut wood The floorin the ground, The shelter isnot relatively durable if the wood The is floor is a cast in place concrete slab, and the bathroom the plans do specifically call for footings. e roof is corrugated metal roofing. The exterior walls consist LIFESPAN of amakan (woven panels of treated prior to construction.

Use of precast a below grade septic tank.

The modular construction for the shelter allows eaves) fastened to the coconut wood frame. The light weight wood frame canforbeexpansion lifted off in both horizo directions with onlyspeeds minor up modifications the coreofshelter.

It isAs also possible the to deconstruct concrete theaconstruction and moved to a columns different location by smalltonumber people. designed, shelter the shelter $ 2,000 relocation and/or to be included in permanent construction. As designed, the shelter has two doors and two windows. process. The shelter will resist seismic loads and COST windows.

lateral wind forces. In case of storms, the roof is

Shelter Performance Summary ance Summary likely to lift off due to its light weight.

Therelatively concretedurable, and masonry components of thetreated shelterprior are very durable materials, and provided the tim g should be provided it is properly to construction.

The timber components the locally shelter should be materials, durable withand a decent design life.

The use of precast conc kan wall panels can are be treated, built with sourced the simple construction 66 columns allows for quick construction of the roof to provide covered shelter while the exterior walls are c for skilled labor. Provided the wood posts and roof rafters are adequately anchored to their

structed, and allow for possible re-use in more permanent construction. Provided the timber framed por

Plan View

Roof Framing

Section A

Section B

STRENGTHS • Locally-procured materials can make this shelter quick to build • Simple form and half-height masonry wall allows for low skilled labor • Durable as long as coconut wood and plywood is treated prior to construction • Suitable to resist expected seismic loads and lateral winds as long as walls are properly anchored SHORTCOMINGS • Large roof overhang likely to cause uplift of roof during a severe storm • Poor flood resistance due to lack of elevation above grade • Fire hazard of wood framing in the roof could cause building to collapse

*All information and visuals on this spread are derived from (IFRC, 2013)

67

Section B: Analysis of the shelters

10.

STEEL SHELTER (2011) istanB.9 – PAKISTAN 2010 – ‘One Room Pakistan – BRICK 2010 – AND ‘OneShelter’ Room Shelter’

This shelter is a rectangular unreinfoced brick

EARTHQUAKE, FLOOD + FIRE

Summary information

structure with a single pitch roof and a covered DISASTER Disaster: Flood, July 2010 floor area of 4.8 m x 3.9 m (18.72 m2). It has a UNREINFORCED BRICK Materials: Unreinforced brick exterior walls, tile roof supported on steel framing. unreinforced brick footings and foundation walls.

EXTERIOR WALLS, TILE formation ROOF SUPPORTED BY Material source: Locally procured

d, July 2010 Anticipated lifespan: 10 years

MATERIALS

STEEL FRAMING

The roof is made of ceramic tiles. Walls are built

Number built: 875walls, tile roof supported on steel framing. reinforced brick exterior of 230 mm thick unreinforced fire-burned bricks .

ce:

Approximate project cost per shelter: 1,300CHF Locally Theprocured flooring is made from mud plaster and is

LOCALLY PROCURED

MATERIAL SOURCE

fespan: raised 10 years a minimum of 610 mm off the ground. The Shelter Description

VARIES shelter has one one window andwith a few This shelter is adoor, rectangular structure a air flat roof with approximate dimensions of 4.8m x 3.9m. Walls TIME TOsupporting BUILD are built thick unreinforced fire burned brick walls the roof. The roof is constructed near the230mm top of the walls. project vents cost perwith shelter: 1,300CHF with ceramic tiles supported on steel beams, and a cement plaster coating is placed on top of the tiles. The foundation consists of unreinforced brick footings and foundation walls. The mud plastered floor is raised a VARIES The shelter is relatively durable and has the As designed, the shelter has one door and one cription minimum of 610mm above the surrounding ground surface.

CONSTRUCTION TEAM window, along with air vents near the top of the walls. potential to become a permanent shelter.

875

a rectangular structure with a flat roof with approximate dimensions of 4.8m x 3.9m. Walls Materials can be sourced locally and quickly 230mm thick unreinforced fire Summary burned brick walls supporting the roof. The roof10 isYEARS constructed Shelter Performance deployed for shelter construction. The brick walls les supported on steel beams, and a cement plaster coatingLIFESPAN isand placed on top of the tiles. The The construction materials used for this shelter are high quality very durable, and can produce a shelter adn ceramic roof tiles resist strong wind loads. nsists of unreinforced brick foundation walls. simplifies The mud is raised a with a long design life. footings In addition,and the use of local materials theplastered deploymentfloor for shelter construction, The cannot seismic activity.

10mm above the surrounding ground surface.

As designed, thebrick shelter one door andshelter should allow forwithstand a quick response to disaster situations. The walls has and tile roof offer and goodone resistance $ 1,300 to wind loads, but given the weight of the building components, the performance under earthquake loads is with air vents near the top of the walls.

COST not quite as good. The number of air vents at the top of the walls should balance the benefits of additional ventilation versus reductions of the vertical and lateral capacities of the walls.

ormance Summary

on materials used for this shelter are high quality and very durable, and can produce a shelter sign life.

In addition, the use of local materials simplifies the deployment for shelter construction, 68 ow for a quick response to disaster situations. The brick walls and tile roof offer good resistance

PLAN VIEW

ROOF FRAMING

SECTION A

SECTION B

STRENGTHS • Locally-procured materials can make this shelter quick to build • Simple form with vernacular materials allows for ease of assembly • Adequate shelter performance due to high thermal mass and air vent placement along top of the walls • Suitable to resist expected high wind loads, flood, and wind SHORTCOMINGS • Shelter does not withstand seismic activity, heavy weight of roof adds stress on walls until they crumble • Proper floor height site analysis should be performed to guarantee

protection during flood • Expensive, cost of shelter could be reduced by substituting mud blocks

*All information and visuals on this spread are derived from (IFRC, 2013)

69

es – 2011 – ‘Transitional-Shelter’

on

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

Section B Analysis of the transitional shelters

11. INDIA FRAME SHELTER B.3 PakistanA(2010) - Timber frame

(2010)

Summary information Location: Pakistan – Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Gilgit-Baltistan (Northern Areas) This shelter is July made of seven triangular frames Disaster: Flood, 2010 EARTHQUAKE, Materials: Timber frame, pole. corrugated steel roofing and plastic sheeting (bricks and roof insulation FLOOD locally connected by a ridge It has a sheet covered floor DISASTER sourced by homeowners) 2 area of 4.3 m Timber: x 5.7 m (24.5 ). Twointernationally vertical and locally procured Material source: local.

Roofm sheeting: TIMBER FRAME, Time to build: 1 day the ridge pole. The foundation columns support MASONRY WALL, Anticipated lifespan: 24 months PLASTIC SHEETING UPPER, isConstruction buitl byteam: burying rafters and columns CGI ROOF 4 people MATERIALS Number built: 10,000 approximately .3 m deep into the ground on top LOCALLY+ Approximate material cost per shelter: 500CHF

the stone holdings. cemberof2011 Shelter description

INTERNATIONALLY PROCURED

MATERIAL SOURCE

concrete columns, and timber walls, timber roof framing with metal shelter ofmasonry 7us triangular frames, connected by pole. The ridge pole is supported by two AThe low .9 m consists brick wall built inside the frame toa ridge 2.74m high vertical columns at each end. The shelter is 4.3m x 5.7m on plan. It has a low (0.9m) brick

1 DAY protect againstinside floodthe damage store warmth. wall constructed frame toand provide protection against flood damage and retain warmth. The roof TIME TO BUILD is nailed to purlins that is pitched at 44 degrees and is made of corrugated steel sheeting. The sheeting The pitched roof is made from corrugated steel

y and internationally procured

span between the frames. The roof sheeting is laid on top of locally available insulating material and plastic

sheeting.

Plastic sheeting nailed to the purlins sheeting. The foundation of theisshelter is provided by burying the rafters and columns approximately 0.3m

4 PERSONS

in to the the ground top of stone footings.

Guy ropes over onto timberonframe.

Guy ropes underneath thethe roof sheeting have been used to help prevent

5 years uplift under wind loads.

sheeting prevent the roof from uplifting during

CONSTRUCTION TEAM

Shelterwinds. performance summary strong

2 YEARS This shelter presents a simple, low-cost transitional shelter option that is quickly constructed and appropriate for cold climates. The addition of A-bracing in the triangular frame and LIFESPAN more robust foundations wouldThe shelterincrease is relatively durable,oflow shelter significantly the performance thiscost shelter under seismic and wind loading and would be strongly recommended. The shelter uses locally sourced materials that are familiar to the occupants and do not for cold climates. The foundation should be require specialist tools or equipment for assembly. The framing materials can be substituted, for example $500 reinforced helpcanprotect the shelter to from bamboo or cuttotimber be used as an alternative the timber poles detailed here.

This shelter has been COST provided as ‘kit’ which does not include the low level wall which can be provided by the occupants. Alternacollapsing durign seismic and wind stress. tives to brick include concrete blocks, unfired earth bricks and timber.

cost per shelter: 1,550 CHF

cost per shelter: 2,000 CHF

ular structure with a gable roof and a covered floor area of approximately 4.0m 39 70 m and vestibule of approximately 4.0m x 1.5m. The exterior walls have a ha

PLAN VIEW

ROOF FRAMING

SECTION A

SECTION B

STRENGTHS • Locally-procured materials can make this shelter quick to build • Simple masonry with vernacular materials allows for ease of assembly • Adequate shelter performance based on proper connections between components, especially the roof and foundation • Can withstand snowloads if extra purlins are added SHORTCOMINGS • Shelter does not withstand strong storms • Foundation needs to be reinforced to help protect shelter from collapse during seismic activies and floods • Plastic sheeting should be replaced with higher-quality materials

*All information and visuals on this spread are derived from (IFRC, 2011)

71

Section B: Analysis of the shelters

Lanka – 2007 – ‘Core Shelter’

ation

B.10

Sri Lanka – 2007 – ‘Core Shelter’ 12. SRI LANKA MASONRY SHELTER (2007)

Photo: Jake Zarins

Photo: Jake Zarins Summary information

This shelter is a rectangular masonry structure Disaster: Civilroof conflict Sri Lanka with a glable andincovered floor area of 3.5

DISASTER

CIVIL CONFLICT EARTHQUAKE, FLOOD

Materials: Unreinforced masonry exterior walls, metal roofing on timber trusses m x 2.8 m (9.8 m2) with an additonal veranda ct in Sri Lanka Material source: Locally procured UNREINFORCED BRICK measuring 3.4 m x 2.8 m (9.5 m2). The roof is EXTERIOR, CGI ROOF, ced masonry exterior metal roofing on timber trusses Time to build: 5walls, days after fabricating blocks TIMBER TRUSSES made from coconut wood rafters, purlins, and MATERIALS Anticipated lifespan: 10+ years cally procured corrugated iron sheets.

Construction team: 2 - 3 people (Owner driven process with dependence upon skills in immediate famiily)

ys after fabricating blocks

LOCALLY

Number built: 1,000+ PROCURED The foundation is a raised concrete floor built MATERIAL SOURCE n: 10+ years Approximate cost per shelter (including labour and transport): 650 CHF on top(Owner of compacted earth. Perimeter walls 2 - 3 people driven process with dependence upon skills in immediate famiily)

0+

Shelter are built Description into the ground and supported with

5 DAYS

TIME TO BUILD brick footings. exteriorstructure walls are made of roof and an This shelter is a The rectangular with a gable enclosed floor area of approximately 3.5m x per shelter (including labour and transport): 650 CHF 2.8m with an additional covered veranda of approximately 3.5m x 2.8m. The exterior walls are built with unreunreinforced bricks with six masonry piers. All inforced bricks with six reinforced masonry piers. All masonry blocks are fabricated by the shelter occupants 2 - 3 PERSONS bricks can be manufactured on-site by shelter prior to construction. The roof consists of coconut wood rafters and purlins supporting corrugated iron CONSTRUCTION TEAM on sheet roofing.

Theshelter compacted earthdoor and and concrete occupants.

The has one one floor is raised above the surrounding ground surface. The perimeter walls extend into the ground, and are supported on brick footings. The modular construction for the window. angular structure with gable roof and an enclosed areaminor of approximately 3.5m shelter allows for a expansion in both horizontal directionsfloor with only modifications to the core x shelter. As 10+ YEARS nal covered veranda of approximately 3.5m 2.8m. The exterior walls are built with unredesigned, the shelter has one door and onexwindow.

LIFESPAN six reinforced masonry piers. Allallows masonry Modular construction for blocks shelterare fabricated by the shelter occupants Shelter Performance Summary n. The roof consists of coconut wood rafters and purlins supporting corrugated iron expansion along any side. The shelter is relatively $can 650 provide ompacted earth and concrete floorfor is this raised above surface.

The a shelter The construction materials used shelter are of the high surrounding quality and veryground durable, and durable, high quality shelter that can have a long COST with a long design life.

While the materials themselves are durable, the wall thickness and wood nd into the ground, and are supported on brick footings. The modular construction for the member dimensions not sufficient to resist theelements windminor pressures from a full storm, but performance of the lifespan.

Theare wall thickness and timber pansion in both horizontal directions with only modifications to the core shelter.

Asstructural system under the anticipated seismic loads is acceptable. The simplest solutions for the performance under be increased in thickness to make the r has oneshould door and one window. wind load are to either evacuate the shelter during a storm, or to increase the size of the walls and roof framing.

shelter more robust for storms.

nce 72 Summary

terials used for this shelter are of high quality and very durable, and can provide a shelter

PLAN VIEW

ROOF FRAMING

SECTION A

SECTION B

STRENGTHS • Locally-procured materials can make this shelter quick to build • Simple masonry with vernacular materials allows for ease of assembly • Long lifspan of quality materials, potential to become permanent shelter • Good performance under seismic activity and floods SHORTCOMINGS • Shelter does not withstand strong storms and needs to be evacuated • Wall thickness and wood memebers need to be thicker to withstand strong storms with high winds • Coconut wood is not rot resistant and should be treated prior to construction

*All information and visuals on this spread are derived from (IFRC, 2013)

73

ines – 2011 – ‘Transitional-Shelter’

ation

13. NEPAL VAULT SHELTER (2015)

This shelter is a masonry structure with a semicircular roof and covered floor area of 5.5 m x 3m

EARTHQUAKE DISASTER

(16.5 m2). The roof is made from corrugated iron MASONRY, NONSTRUCTURAL WALLS, CGI ROOF

sheets and often covered with a plastic sheet and straw or hay for added thermal mass.

MATERIALS

The interior December 2011features hollow metal supports to hold up the corrugated iron sheeting. Bamboo

LOCALLY PROCURED

ed concrete columns, masonry and timber walls, timber roof framing with metal si rafters add support. The metal supports are MATERIAL SOURCE

reinforced with rebar andprocured earth fill. cally and internationally

ays

2 DAYS TIME TO BUILD

Material availability is a large concern in Nepal.

n: 5 years Galvanized iron sheets are readily available in

urban and rural settings. Stone and bricks can be

3 PERSONS CONSTRUCTION TEAM

salvaged from collapsed buildings. This structure

rial cost per shelter: 1,550 CHF requires no special tools or high skilled labor,

it convenient2,000 for localsCHF to build with their ct costmaking per shelter:

on

1 YEAR LIFESPAN

community.

$ 120 COST

angular structure with a gable roof and a covered floor area of approximately 4.0m room and vestibule of approximately 4.0m x 1.5m. The exterior walls have a half 74 wall with wood framing on top up to the eaves. The roof consists of timber truss

Straw/Hay Roof Plastic Sheet Corrugated Iron Sheet Hollow Metal Supports Bamboo Rafters Rebar Earth Fill

AXONOMETRIC VIEW OF VAULT SHELTER COMPONENTS Figure 6.1. Schematic diagram of semi-circular CGI design

Material availability is a large concern for building shelters in Nepal. Galvanized iron sheets may be readily available in both urban and rural locations because it has commonly been used in the past for residential construction. Similarly, stone or brick can be salvaged from collapsed structures.

An important additional aspect of reconstruction is involvement of the community. In Figure 6.2, community members can be seen assisting in the construction efforts.

STRENGTHS • Locally-procured materials can make this shelter quick to build • Simple masonry with vernacular materials allows for ease of assembly • Lightweight structure unlikely to cause injury in the event of collapse • Character of housing typology is consistant with existing houses • If built properly, shelter will withstand seismic activity SHORTCOMINGS • Additional analysis needs to be perfomed to improve the structural stability • Bricks crumbled during the earthquake and need to be swapped for a different buidling material for added resilience

Figure 6.2. Community members assisting with reconstruction Page 31

*All information and visuals on this spread are derived from (Jampole, E., Chandramohan, R., Frank, T., & Bandelt, M., 2015)

75

ines – 2011 – ‘Transitional-Shelter’ 14. NEPAL MASONRY SHELTER (2015)

A house is made with walls and beams.

A home is made with love and dreams.

This shelter is a rectangular masonry structure

cture might have cracked and collapsed but

All Hands Volunteers will be building homes using an

with a flat roof andearthquake covered floor area of 3 m x 6 resistant design and was adopted from the

what makes a home, love and compassion,

DISASTER

CIVIL CONFLICT EARTHQUAKE, FLOOD

ng the resilient people of Nepal.

2 All Hands

Himalayan Climate Initiative (HCI) Resilient Homes Project. m (18 m ). It has a single door and four windows.

he tangible materials and training to

This design has been approved by the Government of

es.

Nepal National Planning Commission.

ation

The walls are half masonry with a plywood

RO GHAR (HRG) Program: area. upper

MATERIALS

CONCRETE FOOTINGS, UNREINFORCED BRICK, EXTERIOR WALLS, CGI ROOF, PLYWOOD UPPER WALL

Unreinforced masonry half walls

GHAR (HRG) Program: All Hands will

are anchored December 2011 into the foundation with concrete

LOCALLY PROCURED

50 homes in vulnerable villages with

district. Our successful pilot project in

footings. The foundation is made of compacted

andu, culminated in the construction of 35

ed concrete columns, masonry and timber walls, timber roof framing with metal si earth. The plywood walls hold up purlins and

sive program evaluation, and the lessons

UPGRADABLE Over time, the home can be expanded and improved in order to become permanent.

fluenced this upgraded program.

REUSABLE/RESALABLE When the permanent home is complete, the transitional home can be sold, used for parts, or reused for a shop/ business, crop storage, or animals.

rafters to support the corrugated iron roof. cally and internationally procured

har’ translates to ‘Home Sweet home’, which

ression of one’s pleasure or relief at being

ays

one’s own home.

MATERIAL SOURCE

RELOCATABLE Should a homeowner need to relocate, the structure could be disassembled, moved, and reassembled.

5 DAYS TIME TO BUILD

Overall, this shelter is very simple to build but

n: 5 years has poor performance in case of seismic activity. rovides The unreinforced brick walls are likely to crumble

5 PERSONS CONSTRUCTION TEAM

THIS TYPE OF HOUSING CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS

A “HOME” BECAUSE IT HAS THE FOLLOWING during seismic activity.

The foundation is not

CHARACTERISTICS: rial cost perandshelter: 1,550 CHFat a risk for raised therefore puts the shelter •

It is built where the beneficiary’s home originally stood

•

The homeowner is involved in the design process and customization

damage. ct costsevere per flood shelter: 2,000 CHF

on

5 YEARS LIFESPAN

of the home

•

The homeowner participates in the construction as ability allows

•

The design is socially and culturally appropriate

•

It is a dignified shelter solution (including a household toilet)

$ 800 COST

angular structure with a gable roof and a covered floor area of approximately 4.0m room and vestibule of approximately 4.0m x 1.5m. The exterior walls have a half 76 wall with wood framing on top up to the eaves. The roof consists of timber truss

All Hands Volunteers will incorporate Mason Trainings and a PASSA training to build important long-term resiliency and capacity for the entire community, including those for whom we are unable to build a transitional home. By leading the people through an exploration of shelter risks, priorities and solutions, culminating in a tangible project, we educate by engaging. This process empowers and gives a voice to the community, improving its long-term well-being.

These software components are the most notable changes to come out of the pilot evaluation.

DISASTER RISK REDUCTION Participatory Approach to Safer Shelter Awareness (PASSA) is a participatory method of disaster risk reduction (DRR) related to shelter safety created by the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.

The aim of PASSA is to develop local capacity to reduce shelter-related risk by raising awareness and developing skills in joint analysis, learning and decision-making at the community level.

PASSA is a process, facilitated by All Hands, that will guide a group of community members who commit to being a part of creating shelter solutions (PASSA Group) through eight

SAFE CONSTRUCTION TRAINING

participatory activities which enable the participants to do

Government approved technical mason training(s)

the following progressively:

developed by local experts will be provided to encourage safe construction practices. The masonry training will be developed based on community preferences and the common construction practices in the selected community.

THREE DIMENSIONAL DIAGRAM OF SHELTER

•

Develop their awareness of shelter safety issues in their community

•

Identify hazards and vulnerabilities that create risk related to shelter

•

Recognize and analyze causes of shelter vulnerability

•

Identify and prioritize potential strategies to improve shelter safety

•

Make a plan to put those shelter safety strategies into place, based on local capacities

•

Monitor and evaluate progress

nepalrecovery@hands.org hands.org

VOLUNTEERS CONSTRUCTING FRAME

LOCALS SALVAGING MATERIALS

Figure 5.8. Location: Sindhupalchok, Nepal (Source: Reuters)

STRENGTHS

In rural Nepal, stone construction without any mortar is common due to material unavailability.

Through-stones are also seldom placed between wythes of stone courses. The effects of this are seen in Figure 5.9, where the stone wall has delaminated (shed a stone course).

• Locally-procured materials can make this shelter quick to build

• Simple masonry with vernacular materials allows for ease of assembly • Materials have potential to be upgraded, relocated or resold SHORTCOMINGS • Salvaged materials likely to crumble and decrease the structure’s lifespan • Shelter does not withstand strong storms • Walls and structural foundation need to be reinforced • Bad performance under seismic activity and floods

Figure 5.9. Rural Nepal. (Source: Tom Newby) Page 28

*All information and visuals on this spread are derived from (All Hands Volunteers, 2015)

77

78

SUMMARY

This survey of existing shelter responses displays how the diversity of disaster response shelters is determined by material availability, assembly time and budget. Temporary shelters range willdy in cost between $500 and $5,000, yet post occupancy performance evaluations highlight that high price does not always correlate with a good, long-lasting design. It was reported that the majority of these shelters need additonal maintenance and repair in order to last for 2 years (IFRC, 2013).

Performance reports did not cover any performance evaluations in terms of human comfort and well-being. Only material and structural issues were discussed in the reports. None of the sources discussed user accounts of improving these shelters or occupant retrofit strategies for upgrading these shelters. Overall, the performance evaluations done by the IFRC were the most standardized and detailed about documenting shelter designs.

Shelter design performance evaluation is an area of research that needs to be developed further in order for Humanitarian agencies to address the current critical refugee crisis in a more efficient, standardized manner.

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80

STAKEHOLDER INTERVIEWS CONVERSATIONS WITH PEOPLE IN THE SHELTER PROCESS

81

6

“

“

THE RED CRESCENT NEVER ACTUALLY PAID THE ISO-BOX COMPANY AFTER THESE BOXES WERE INSTALLED, SO MANY OF THE PLUMBING, HEATING, AND AC ISSUES WERE NOT ADDRESSED AS A RESULT. Jamie Yang, Refugee Camp Volunteer, Echo 100 Plus, Athens (Greece)

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INTRODUCTION

In order to better understand the shelters analyzed in our case study, a series of conversations with stakeholders were conducted.

Each conversation was focused on gaining a deeper sense of what experiences and challenges the interviewee was facing. Interviews were held wiht Better Shelter, the leading offiste prefabricated shelter supplier, an Indian NGO called SEEDS that leads on-site shelter supplier, and a Echo 100 volunteer in a refugee camp in Athens, Greece. Unfortunately, it was not possible to reach out to shelter residents. The following feedback was used to help dissect current shelter issues and guide the problem analysis direction of the thesis.

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INTERVIEW #1 Märta Terne, Marketing Director, Better Shelter (Sweden)

Better Shelter is currently the leading pre-fabricated shelter company. Funded by the IKEA Foundation and UNHCR, the shelter was designed for ease of assembly, durability, and cost efficiency. Currently, there are over 8,500 Better Shelter units in refugee camps across the globe. Better Shelter recently won the Beazley Design of the Year 2016 Award from the Design Museum in London, an award that honors designs extending design practice, promoting change, and enhancing accessibility. The following is a summary of a short phone conversation with Märta Terne, who kindly agreed to share some of the current triumphs and challenges that the company is facing.

In order to better understand the issues concerning prefabricated shelters, a phone interview was conducted with Märta Terne, Director of Marketing at Better Shelter. In the weeks prior, she indicated how busy the company was due to increasing product demand. Märta started the interview by asking about the scope of our thesis and methodology for evaluating shelters. We shared details about our thermal simulations and inquired about the type of work Better Shelter was doing to evaluate their product. Märta said that the design team was starting to work with existing shelter clusters to improve on their design. She mentioned the difficulties with seasonality that the pre-fabricated shelters have to endure, especially in Niger, where there are three seasons - rainy, windy, and hot.

We inquired about tenant strategies for improving the thermal conditions in these shelters, especially in hot ASHRAE Zone 1 locations. Märta reported that residents often build their own solar shading net with local bamboo poles and fabric from the local market in order to keep the sun out and lower daytime maximum temperatures within the shelter. In addition, Märta stated that the design team was currently busy in designing a Better Shelter 2.0 version in which they were trying to address some of these issues. She also mentioned that she might be able to ship us a sample of the shelter for physical tests. This unfortunately ended up falling through due to the high volume of requests that their company is currently receiving.

84

In summary, our conversation with Märta helped us understand that although this design revolutionizes temporary shelter response in terms of flatpack distribution, 4-hour assembly time and low cost, there is still much work to be done in terms of thermal safety. Due to the nature of the single-layer polyethylene assembly and small windows, there is a critical need for improvement of insulation and ventilation. This interview drove us to contact more people in the shelter process to better understand thermal comfort performance of existing shelter designs.

Update: As of a May 2017, a press release was issued that Better Shelter is recalling all of its existing shelters due to fire safety and accessibility concerns. The UN is currently mothballing 10,000 unused shelters due to these issues. Additional post occupancy evaluations also revealed inadequate natural ventilation, flimsy wall panels and support structure, and lacking proper foundation. In the wave of this criticism, Better Shelter has been accepting criticism and is redesigning a 2.0 version to be released next year (Fairs, 2017).

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INTERVIEW #2 Anshu Sharma, Co-founder and Chief Mentor, SEEDS (India)

The following interview was conducted after attending the Aid Network Conference at the Harvard South Asia Institute on February 14th, 2017. Anshu Sharma leads SEEDS, an Indian NGO that engages in building disaster response relief shelters in South Asia. He has a background in architecture from the School of Planning and Architecture in New Delhi and a PHD in Global Environmental Studies with a concentration in disaster education from Kyoto University. Anshu has led SEEDS flood and earthquake relief shelter education and building efforts in India’s Kashmir region and Nepal.

Q1: In cold climates, what material improvisations have house owners made in order to enhance thermal comfort?

A1: The most effective ones we have found are around increasing the thermal mass. Thick mud walls were what we finally arrived at after doing much experimentation!

Q2: In order to survive harsh winter temperatures, do house owners have a source of internal heating (eg. stove, fire pit)? Is cooking performed within the structure?

A2: Yes, they have a heating device often called a bukhari. It uses local firewood as fuel, and since this is scarce, there are issues around fuel efficiency of such stoves. Cooking if usually performed within the structure, and there are large kitchens that also serve as dining and living rooms, perhaps due to heat optimisation.

Q3: From your personal observations, what design strategies have worked best in extreme climates (both cold and hot)?

A3:

a) Use of earth for thermal mass b) Solar heat gain (or avoiding such gain in hot climates) c) Adapted ventilation techniques. Even thatch roofs that `breathe’ are valuable, and stitching to more permanent slab roofs, though an aspiration based trend, is disastrous in terms of

86

thermal comfort and energy efficiency. In addition, we can share some details of other

houses where thermal simulations will be very interesting to carry out.

Q4. Are there any other observations you would like to share about your experience with designing for adequate thermal performance in shelters?

A4: We ourselves have been thinking of the following houses to compare in terms of thermal qualities: 1. Stabilised compressed earth block walls, with cavities and insulation, and trombe walls in Ladakh (-50C) 2. Local sun dried mud block walls with increased thickness (~750mm) in Ladakh 3. Stabilised compressed earth block walls, circular structures with conical thatch roofs, often in shade of sand dunes in Rajasthan (+50C) 4. A-Frame transitional shelters in Kashmir and Nepal, with winter temperatures upto -10C and snow.

5. Stone masonry housing with tiled roofs in locations in the plains and the arid belt with wide ranging temperature (winter sub zero and summer 45C+) 6. Earth bag, or hybrid concrete bamboo housing in tropical coastal climates (winter 10 to summer 40C, with sea breezes) We had tried using thermal loggers in Leh, but it wasn’t a well organized research and didn’t come out with clear outputs. We are keen to know how the different strategies perform, across the range of climates.

The Ladakh region also saw hundreds of expensive pre-fabricated shelters flown in, none of which were reportedly used in the winters. We don’t have documented evidences, but it seems like it was a colossal waste of money, and it created ugly and non-degradable stock in an ecologically fragile area. There are references to it in a Sphere-India report that may be available online. This was after the Leh floods of August 2010.

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INTERVIEW #3 Jamie Yang, Refugee Camp Volunteer, Echo 100 Plus (Greece)

The following interview was conducted via email with Jamie Yang, a refugee camp volunteer with Echo 100 Plus, an Austrian NGO in Athens, Greece. She has a background in international labor relations from Cornell University and is passionate about giving back in a time where there are not many opportunities to do so.

Q1: Please describe where you volunteered to give us some context about your volunteer experience.

A1: I volunteered at a Syrian refugee camp in a rural forest area in Greece, about 1.5 hours outside of Athens. The camp was on an old, vacated military base, and had some basic warehouse-type structures, but mostly a lot of open forested area. I was staying with the volunteers off-base in a rented house about a 15 minute drive away for safety reasons, so I did not sleep in the camp at any point during my time there.

Q2: What was the climate like where you volunteered? Please describe the indoor and outdoor temperature conditions during your visit.

A2: I was at the camp for the last two weeks of March, which was a lot warmer than it had been previously. My first week averaged about 75-80 degrees, with sun, so it was very hot. The second week was a bit colder and more rainy, averaging in the high 60s. When we were inside, it was definitely a lot colder without the sun – we did most of our work inside a warehouse, so it would be in the low 60’s, requiring a sweatshirt and long pants at all times. At the camp there were not many people that wore shorts or sleeveless shirts when the weather was warm. The women in particular tended to cover their legs and arms, for conservative reasons.

Q3: Were there any times of the day or any tasks that were slightly uncomfortable due to the temperature? What measures were available to you to deal with discomfort (if any)?

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A3: Personally, no. The temperature I experienced was fairly temperate and I was well-dressed for the cold, and it did not get too warm during my time there. However, I had heard from longer-term volunteers that it was very miserable during the winter – the warehouse was not well-insulated at all, and they would wear heavy jackets while working. From residents, I also heard similar feedback.

During the winter months, they were living in ISO-box containers that had built-in heaters that worked on and off inconsistently. These ISO-boxes were gifts from the Red Crescent – the UAE Red Cross. However, the Red Crescent never actually paid the ISO-box company after these boxes were installed, so many of the plumbing, heating, and AC issues were not addressed as a result. Another condition they suffered from was rain – on these dirt fields any amount of rain would cause intense flooding. The camp now has rocks/pebbles all over the campgrounds so that it would not cause muddy flooding.

Q4: Please tell us more about the refugees that were in your camp. Where were they from? How long have they been displaced? What type of family or social structures did you observe?

A4: The camp itself houses about 800 refugees, predominantly from Syria, with some Afghanis and Iraqis as well. I spoke to some that have been at the camp for over a year, though most people had only been there for a few months – the one hope in the camp was that there was at least a small, somewhat steady trickle of people leaving every week, so people held onto that hope that their family would be the next to be granted asylum so that they could leave the camp. In regard to the family/social structure, I saw anywhere between large families (2 parents and 4+ children, to single males who were sent ahead of their family in hopes that they would be able to secure asylum and bring their family still in Syria over to the country where the men were able to obtain asylum). Some of these single males were 17, 18 years old, some were older, fathers, that had children they were leaving behind in Syria to pave the way. There were a lot of children and pregnant women at the

89

INTERVIEW #3 Jamie Yang, Refugee Camp Volunteer, Echo 100 Plus (Greece)

camp – technically, the more children you have, the more “vulnerable” your situation is. It is believed that this increases your chances of getting asylum, as priority tends to go for those who are most vulnerable.

Q5: What types of shelters did the refugees live in? Did you get to look inside any shelters? If so, what conditions did you observe (eg. in terms of privacy, personalization, cleanliness, happiness of occupants) ?

A5: The residents live in ISO-box containers that were installed back in November, just as the cold was starting to settle in. After making friends with a few families while distributing food, I was invited back to their ISO-boxes for tea after my shift. Inside, we witnessed single beds, bunk beds, and cushions on the ground where there was space. There was no real furniture structures inside, though they told me they were used to sitting on the floor. They all left their shoes by the door, and made sure the inside of their ISO-boxes were always clean. Inside, there was only one real space, no doors even between the bathroom/shower area and the sink/makeshift kitchen counter. For some families, up to 11 people were crammed into this one room, which was not ideal at all. However, it was still good to see that they had a sink/toilet/shower within the ISO-box for privacy.

Q6: What was your impression of the comfort of the inhabitants? Did you see any modifications that people made in order to compensate for any shortcomings?

A6: The residents would gather wood from the nearby forest and create benches/tables outside their ISO-boxes for socializing with other friends from other ISO-boxes. They would use warm blankets from the UNHCR distribution to pad these wooden benches and cushions inside the ISObox containers as well. I think that they were not always happy with the living situation, that they were cramped inside a one-room container, but each caravan/ISO-box tried their best to make their living situation as comfortable and cozy as possible. For the ISO-boxes that had children, artwork

90

would be taped to the wall. For some, they built shelves to house dry-food/snacks that they saved up to buy from day trips to Athens. Some families even had TVs (that were bought from Athens) that were streaming satellite TV with Arabic subtitles.

Q7: Are there any other observations you would like to share about your experience? Feel free to include pictures.

A7: To be honest, I was expecting tents with minimal insulation, so I was pleased when I first learned that these containers had AC/heating. It is unfortunate that there is no maintenance to the clear issues being had within the ISO-box, but I think this is such a significant upgrade from the tents.

ISO Box Temporary Shelters and Outdoor Spaces

Interior View of Sleeping Area in ISO Box

Refugee Family’s Personal Pantry and TV Set in ISO Box

Plumbing Fixtures with Mainenance Issues in ISO Box

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SUMMARY

In summary, the stakeholder interviews helped guide this thesis towards a thermal analysis of our shelter catalog. Core themes included the lack of post occupancy evaluations, maintenance and repair issues of ‘high tech’ shelters, and difficulty of standardized onsite and offsite material sourcing for consistent shelter assemblies. These themes open up a discussion of developing shelter solutions that rely on passive design strategies for thermal safety, show flexibility in terms of materials, and allow for a degree of user freedom to manipulate the design post occupancy to enhance comfort. As a starting point for understanding how to design for these parameters, a thermal analysis of our shelter case study was conducted in the next phase.

93

THERMAL ANALYSIS ANNUAL ADAPTIVE COMFORT + HEALTH RISK EVALUATION 7

“

THE FURTHER AWAY CONDITIONS ARE FROM ADAPTIVE COMFORT, THE HIGHER THE LIKELIHOOD OF THERMAL HEALTH RISKS

“

96

INTRODUCTION

The following thermal analysis was performed to compare existing temporary shelters based on annual adaptive comfort, hot degree and cold degree hours to get a better understanding of typical interior thermal performance. A total of fourteen shelters were simulated in ASHRAE climate zones 1 through 5.

This case study critically examines how ASHRAE 55 can redefine thermal safety ranges for temporary shelters. Thermal conditions were analyzed to determine 1) annual adaptive comfort ‘safety range’ and 2) health risk potential in hours outside of this range.

Additionally, a comparative analysis of shelter material performance for wall and roof types was conducted.

The results were used to develop

guidelines for shelter

improvements in a set of climate zones. Furthermore, they were used a design driver for developing a retrofit strategy for existing shelters and a shelter redesign for off-site and on-site construction.

METHODOLOGY Fourteen temporary shelters were 3D modelled in Rhino. Thermal conditions were simulated using the Honeybee plug in for Grasshopper. Simulation weather files were downloaded from the ladybug epwmap and carefully selected for each climate zone. Shelters were simulated in the original location and thirteen representative cities for ASHRAE climate zones 1 to 5. This data was used to analyze thermal performace and evaluate health risk potential in existing shelter designs.

97

SIMULATION ASSUMPTIONS SHELTER GEOMETRY A single zone thermal model was modelled in Rhino 3d based on technical drawings from the shelter catalog. Because most of the shelters were one roomed structure with no attic space, a single zone model was sufficient to accurately represent the shelters thermally.

The envelope was modelled as a single layer of each shelter’s material. Materials included timber, brick masonry, masonry/timber hybrids, plastic sheeting and corrugated metal (CGI). Structural framing materials and supports were not modelled to keep the thermal models simple.

WEATHER FILES Simulation weather files were downloaded from the ladybug epwmap and carefully selected for each climate zone. Shelters were simulated in the original location and thirteen representative cities for ASHRAE climate zones 1 to 5. See weather file section for more details.

MATERIAL SELECTION The material properties values used for common building materials such as timber, masonry, metal were from the default EnergyPlus library. Thin timber such as timber panels, plywoods, woven bamboo mats etc were specified as “25mm wood”. Corrugated metal roof (CGI) was set as the “Metal Sliding” material. Brick masonry was “100mm Brick” with the thickness adjusted based on design specifications. All plastic sheeting was set as “polythene low density”. For sod roofs, the “soil common” material was used.

Materials are modeled to be in new, unweathered condition. It is important to understand that patina or weathering of the corrugated roof is not accounted for. Build up of dark patina will cause the metal roof to absorb more heat and radiate less heat out to the night sky. Simulations do not account for this.

98

Name

G05 25mm wood

Name Roughness

G05 25mm wood MediumSmooth

Roughness(m) Thickness

MediumSmooth 0.0254

ThicknessConductivity(W/m-°K) (m) Thermal

0.0254 0.15

3​ Thermal(kg/m​ Conductivity(W/m-°K) Density )

0.15 608

3​ Density (kg/m​ ) Specific Heat (J/kg-°K)

608 1630

Specific Heat (J/kg-°K) Thermal Absorptance

1630 0.9

Thermal Absorptance Solar Absorptance

0.9 0.5

Solar Absorptance Visual Absorptance

0.5

Source: EnergyPlus Library via Honeybee Visual Absorptance 0.5 for Grasshopper plugin

Name

Polyethylene (low density)

Roughness

Medium Rough

Thickness (m)

0.006

Thermal Conductivity(W/m-°K) 3​

0.33

Density (kg/m​ )

920

Specific Heat (J/kg-°K)

2200

Thermal Absorptance

0.9

Solar Absorptance

0.7

Visual Absorptance

0.7

Source: DesignBuilder materials library (energy simulation software)

Source: EnergyPlus Library via Honeybee for Grasshopper plugin Name Metal Siding Metal Siding Smooth

Name

Clay tile

Roughness(m) Thickness

Smooth 0.0015

Roughness

Rough

ThicknessConductivity(W/m-°K) (m) Thermal

0.0015 44.959

Thickness (m)

0.025

3​ Thermal(kg/m​ Conductivity(W/m-°K) Density )

44.959 7688.86

Name Roughness

3​ Density (kg/m​ ) Specific Heat (J/kg-°K)

7688.86 410

Specific Heat (J/kg-°K) Thermal Absorptance

410 0.9

Solar Absorptance Thermal Absorptance

0.6 0.9

Visual Absorptance Solar Absorptance

0.6

Source: EnergyPlus Library via Honeybee for Grasshopper plugin Visual Absorptance 0.6

Source: EnergyPlus Library via Honeybee for Grasshopper plugin Name Name Roughness Roughness Thickness (m) Thickness (m) Thermal Conductivity(W/m-°K) Thermal Conductivity(W/m-°K) Density (kg/m​3​) Density (kg/m​3​) Specific Heat (J/kg-°K) Specific Heat (J/kg-°K) Thermal Absorptance Thermal Absorptance Solar Absorptance Solar Absorptance Visual Absorptance Visual Absorptance Source: (​Gradillas M.S., 2015)

Thatch (straw) Thatch (straw) Rough Rough 0.075 0.075 0.07 0.07 240 240 180 180 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7

Thermal Conductivity(W/m-°K)

1.00

Density (kg/m​3​)

2000

Specific Heat (J/kg-°K)

800

Thermal Absorptance

0.7

Solar Absorptance

0.7

Visual Absorptance

0.7

Source: ISO 10456 via DesignBuilder materials library (energy simulation software)

Name

Rice Hull

Name Roughness

Rice Hull Rough

Roughness Thickness (m)

Rough Varies

Thickness (m) Thermal Conductivity(W/m-°K)

Varies 0.05

3​

Thermal(kg/m​ Conductivity(W/m-°K) Density )

0.05 120

3​

120 1000

Density (kg/m​ ) Specific Heat (J/kg-°K) Specific Heat (J/kg-°K) Thermal Absorptance

1000 0.9

Thermal Absorptance Solar Absorptance

0.9 0.6

Solar VisualAbsorptance Absorptance

0.6

Source: (​Gradillas M.S., 2015) Visual Absorptance

0.6

Source: (​Gradillas M.S., 2015)

Source: (​Gradillas M.S., 2015)

Name Name Roughness Roughness Thickness (m) Thickness (m) Thermal Conductivity(W/m-°K) Thermal Conductivity(W/m-°K) Density (kg/m​3​) Density (kg/m​3​) Specific Heat (J/kg-°K)

Aluminium Aluminium Smooth Smooth 0.00016 0.00016 160 160 2800 2800 880

Specific Heat (J/kg-°K) Thermal Absorptance

880 0.05

Thermal Absorptance Solar Absorptance Solar Absorptance Visual Absorptance

Name

Soil-earth,common

Name Roughness

Soil-earth,common Rough

Roughness Thickness (m)

Rough Varies

Thickness (m) Thermal Conductivity(W/m-°K)

Varies 1.28

3​

Thermal Conductivity(W/m-°K) Density (kg/m​ )

1.28 1460

3​

Density (kg/m​ ) Specific Heat (J/kg-°K)

1460 880

Specific Heat (J/kg-°K) Thermal Absorptance

880 0.9

0.05 0.15

Thermal Absorptance Solar Absorptance

0.9 0.6

0.15 0.15

Solar Absorptance Visual Absorptance

0.6

Visual Absorptance 0.15 library (energy simulation software) Source: Mikron & DesignBuilder materials Source: Mikron & DesignBuilder materials library (energy simulation software)

Source: CIBSE guide via DesignBuilder Visual Absorptance 0.6materials library (energy simulation software) Source: CIBSE guide via DesignBuilder materials library (energy simulation software)

Simulation Material Specification Details 99

SIMULATION ASSUMPTIONS NATURAL VENTILATION SETTINGS The modelling of the Natural Ventilation into the thermal model was done to simulated the behavior of occupants operating the openings. The assumption is that the openings will stay open when outside conditions is pleasant and the interior starts heating up. In most cases the openings stay open when the outside temperature is between 18°C-40°C. The upper limit was set very high to account for very high outdoor temperatures in certain locations. The lower limit was reduced to 21 - 23°C for winters for colder climate zones. There were no active HVAC systems or fans used for any of the shelters.

OCCUPANT THERMAL LOAD The occupancy of the shelter was modelled to meet the minimum shelter standard of 3.5m2 of floor area per person (.25 persons/m2). This value is consistent with the number of people assigned for each shelter according to the shelter catalog.

INFILTRATION RATE The infiltration rate was set at 0.001m3/s. This value is slightly above the recommended value for a leaky building by ASHRAE at 0.0006m3/s. The assumption was that temporary shelters are less air tight than permanent shelters. Additionally, shelters in tropical climate zones use porous material to take advantage of airflow to increase thermal comfort.

100

Simulation Process Diagram

Build Model Geometry

Apply Weather File

Attach Materials

Set Ventilation and Occupancy

Model Thermal Comfort

Process Diagram

101

SIMULATION ASSUMPTIONS ADDITIONAL LOADS No lighting and equipment or plug loads were added because the shelters had no access to electric grid.

COOKING OUTDOORS According to the Sphere Standard, cooking is not allowed indoors in temporary shelters. Colder climate zones are sometimes allowed an exception, but for the purposes of standardizing simulations the heating load does not include added heat from cooking.

SIMULATION OUTPUTS The annual hourly operative temperature simulation output was plugged into the ASHRAE 55 adpative comfort model in Honeybee. This determined the percentage of the year that . The outputs were also used to generate temperature curve graphs for the hottest and coldest week for that particular weather file.

102

ASHRAE Climate Zones Zone

Description

Weather File

1A

very hot humid

Guantanamo Bay (Cuba)

1B

very hot dry

Metehara (Ethiopia)

2A

hot humid

New Orleans, LA (USA)

2B

hot dry

Cairo (Egypt)

3A

warm humid

Kathmandu (Nepal)

3B

warm dry

Mexico City (Mexico)

3C

warm marine

Bogota (Colombia)

4A

mixed humid

Tokyo (Japan)

4B

mixed dry

Albuquerque, NM (USA)

4C

mixed marine

Anyang (China)

5A

cool humid

Boston, MA (USA)

5B

cool dry

Kabul (Afghanistan)

5C

cool marine

Berlin (Germany)

Simulation Climate Zones and Weather Files

103

WEATHER FILES AND CLIMATE ZONES WEATHER FILES UNDERSTIMATE ACTUAL CLIMATE DATA Weather files for simulations were typical meterological year (TMY) files in EnergyPlus Weather format (EPW). The TMY data set provides a reasobale annual hourly meteorological values that averages weather for a location over a 15 to 30 year timespan. Weather data does not include extreme hot or cold periods in these years. It includes 12 typical meterological months (Jan- Dec) with actual time-series meteorological measurements and modeled solar values. Some values may be interpolated when not enough data exists in the archive (Wilcox, Marion, 2008).

For this project, it is critical to understand that simulations are using typical annual data that is outdated. The most recent TMY3 files take measurements from 1976 to 2005 (Wilcox, Marion, 2008).

It does not factor in global mean surface temperature increase since 2005. Simulated findings for exposure to hot and cold health risk ranges are lower than actual current values.

CLIMATE ZONES Although the Koppen climate classification system is the most widely used climate classification in the world, for the purpose of this simulation and classification, ASHRAE climate classification was used. Even though it was developed for the United States and North America, ASHRAE has published list of climate zones for a number of international cities which were used.

The rationale behind picking ASHRAE climate classification was the simplicity of the climate zone system. The number indicates the relative temperature with 1 being hottest and 8 being coldest.

Trailing letters describe the humidity. Koppen climate classification is similar in that it is divided into 5 large climate zones with letters A to E. However it has many trailing sub groups with each climate zone having two additional sub groups represented by letters preceding the largest group represented by a capital letter.

The Koppen system takes into account vegetation and precipitation as well as average temperature and humidity. This results in climates that have completely different temperatures such as Bwh (hot desert) and Bsk (cold desert) being grouped together due to being arid. The table to the right shows Koppen climate classification equivalents for conversion between the two systems (Pidwirny, 2006).

104

Climate Classification Chart Climate zone

Description

Similar Cities

Koppen Classification

Simulation Weatherfile

Manila (Philippines) Guantanamo (Cuba) Chittagong (Bangladesh) Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka) Hanoi (Vietnam) Kolkata (India) Port-au-Prince (Haiti)

Aw

Tropical savannah climate with dry winters

Guantanamo, Cuba

1A

very hot humid

1B

very hot dry

Metehara (Ethiopia) Palm Springs, CA (US) Amritsar (India)

Bwh

Arid hot desert climate

Metehara, Ethiopia

2A

hot humid

Sao Paolo (Brazil) Orlando, FL (US) Lima (Peru) New Orleans, LA (US)

Cfa

Humid subtropical climate

New Orleans, LA , USA

2B

hot dry

Cairo (Egypt) Tucson, AZ (US)

Bwh

Arid hot desert climate

Cairo, Egypt

Shanghai (China) Athens (Greece) Nairobi (Kenya) Perth (Australia) Kathmandu (Nepal)

Cwa

Temperate, without Dry Season (Humid Subtropical), Warm Summer (Oceanic sub-tropical Highland)

Kathmandu, Nepal

Damascus (Syria) Mexico City (Mexico)

Cwb

Subtropical highland climate

Mexico City, Mexico

3A

warm humid

3B

warm dry

3C

warm marine

Cape Town (South Africa) Madrid (Spain) Istanbul (Turkey) Bogota (Colombia) San Francisco, CA (US)

Cwb

Subtropical highland climate

Bogota, Colombia

mixed humid

Beijing (China) Paris (France) Milan (Italy) London (England) Cuzco (Peru) Tokyo (Japan)

Cfa

Humid subtropical climate

Tokyo, Japan

Bsk

Cold, semi-arid climate

Albuquerque, New Mexico , USA

Bsk

Four-season, monsooninfluenced climate, classified as a semi-arid climate

Anyang, China

Dfa, Dfb

Humid continental climate

Boston, MA, USA

Bsk

Cold, semi-arid climate, precipitation in winter

Kabul, Afghanistan

Cfb

Temperate, Dry winter, Hot Summer (monsoon influenced)

Berlin, Germany

4A

4B

mixed dry

Akkuduk (Kazakhstan) Baku (Azerbaijan) Tabriz (Iran) Yerevan (Armenia) Tbilisi (Georgia) Kamishli (Syria) Albuquerque, NM (US)

4C

mixed marine

Bishkek (Kyrgyzstan) Tashkent (Uzbekistan) Anyang (China) Tulsa, OK (US)

5A

cool humid

5B

cool dry

5C

cool marine

6A

cold humid

6B 7 8

Vienna (Austria) Boston, MA (US) Odessa (Ukraine) Kabul (Afghanistan) Denver, CO (US) Hamburg (Germany) Berlin (Germany)

Stockholm (Sweden) Toronto (Canada) Reykjavik (Iceland) Moscow (Russia)

X

cold dry

La Paz (Bolivia)

X

very cold

Flin Flon, Manitoba (Canada) Monte Cimone (Italy)

X

subarctic

Ft Smith, Northwestern Territorities (Canada)

X

Global Climate Zones and Representative Cities

105

SIMULATION RESULTS ANNUAL ADAPTIVE THERMAL COMFORT The performance for all of the shelters bar one was below 50% for annual adaptive comfort. Except the Afghanistan Plastic Shelter all of the shelters were between 25-50% for annual comfort. The low comfort index for the Afghanistan Shelter can be explained by the much colder climate in Kabul, Afghanistan than for other shelters.

HOT AND COLD DEGREE-HOURS The second graph represents the Degree-hours, a metric which is the product of number of Hours and degree celcius by which the corresponding shelter were above or below the adaptive comfort threshold. This is significant becasue the longer thermal conditions are outside of the safety range of comfort, the higher the likelihood of occupants suffering thermal-induced illness and mortality will be.

The purpose of the chart was to better compare the thermal performance of the shelters as the annual adaptive comfort percentage does not provide metrics by how worse the thermal conditions inside these shelters are beyond the comfort threshold. So now it is easier to compare scenarios where the shelter number of hours the shelter is beyond the comfort threshold and by how many degrees. With just the annual adaptive comfort percentage the scenarios of two shelters with one going above the comfort threshold by 1 degree for 1 hour would be equivalent to another shelter passing the threshold by 10 degrees for 100 hours in the year.

106

Afghanistan Plastic Shelter

Haiti Steel Ethiopia Haiti Plywood Indonesia Palm Bangladesh Roof Peru Timber Framed Plastic Better Shelter Shelter and Timber Shelter Attic Shelter Shelter Shelter

Philippines Raised Floor Shelter

Philippines Masonry Shelter

Pakistan Masonry Shelter

India A Frame Shelter

Sri Lanka Masonry Shelter

Nepal Masonry Shelter

Nepal Vault Shelter 22.1

Annual Adaptive Comfort (%)

9.6

32.7

48.2

46.0

59.4

44.7

49.3

48.5

45.9

33.2

25.3

46.3

34.2

Too Hot (%)

33.8

49.5

40.0

41.7

38.1

32.9

18.3

39.4

35.0

59.0

27.5

53.2

27.2

28.0

Too Cold (%)

56.6

17.8

11.8

12.3

2.5

22.3

32.4

12.2

19.1

7.8

47.2

0.5

38.6

50.0

Main Material

Plastic

Plastic

Plastic

Wood

Wood

Wood

Wood

Masonry

Masonry

Masonry

Masonry

Masonry

Masonry

Metal

Annual Adaptive Comfort Afghanistan Plastic Shelter Ethiopia Better Shelter Haiti Steel Frame Shelter Haiti Plywood Shelter

Shelter Type

Indonesia Timber Frame Shelter Bangladesh Roof Attic Shelter Peru Timber Frame Shelter Philippines Raised Floor Shelter Philippines Masonry Shelter Pakistan Brick + Steel Shelter India A Frame Shelter Sri Lanka Masonry Shelter Nepal Masonry Shelter Nepal Vault Shelter

Percent of Time (Annually)

Annual Hours Outside of Adaptive Comfort Range Afghanistan Plastic Shelter Ethiopia Better Shelter Haiti Steel Frame Shelter Haiti Plywood Shelter

Shelter Type

Indonesia Timber Frame Shelter Bangladesh Roof Attic Shelter Peru Timber Frame Shelter Philippines Raised Floor Shelter Philippines Masonry Shelter Pakistan Brick + Steel Shelter India A Frame Shelter Sri Lanka Masonry Shelter Nepal Masonry Shelter Nepal Vault Shelter

Time (Hours)

107

SIMULATION RESULTS DEGREE-HOURS BELOW COLD HEALTH RISK THRESHOLD (<12째C) The performance of Afghanistan Plastic Shelter here suggests that it is lethal to vulnerable population of sick, elderly and infants without active sources of heat. See graph to the right for more details. The high thermal mass of the thick brick masonry in Pakistan Masonry shelter helped reduce the number of degree hours below the cold health risk zone. Thermal mass proved to be very effective in preventing the indoor operative temperature dipping below the cold health risk threshold.

DEGREE-HOURS ABOVE HOT HEALTH RISK THRESHOLD (<12째C) Most of the shelters resulted in Degree-hours above the hot health risk threshold. Majority of the shelters were in hotter climate zones. These shelters were not sufficient to decrease to prevent overheating above the hot health risk threshold.

TYPICAL HOT WEEK HEALTH RISKS Numerous shelters suffered from overheating due to solar gains. The graph below shows that certain shelters become up to 11째 C hotter than the outdoor air temperature.

Maximum Daily Operative Temperature vs. Outdoor Air Temperature 50.0 46.1

T indoor - Toutdoor = 11 C

45.0 39.9

40.0

39.5

40.3 37.1

36.5 35.0

37.1

36.5 33.9

33.9

35.0

35.0 32.9

33.1

33.9

30.0 Temperature (째C)

Temperature (C)

42.0

Outside Temp

25.0

20.0

15.0

Daily Maximum

Haiti HaitiHaiti Plywood Haiti Plastic Plywood Plastic

Philippines Phillipines Philippines Phillipines Raised Masonry Raised Masonry Floor

Sri Lanka Sri Lanka Masonry Masonry

Pakistan Bangladesh Pakistan Bangladesh Indonesia Indonesia Masonry Roof Attic PalmPalm + Masonry Bamboo Attic Timber Timber

Max Indoor Operative Temperature + Outdoor Air Temp During Hot Week

108

10.0

5.0

Cold Health Risk Degree Hours

Hot Health Risk Degree Hours

109

SIMULATION RESULTS TYPICAL HOT AND COLD WEEKS Typical summer hot weeks and winter cold weeks were simulated to show how shelters interface with health thresholds. Most shelters were thermally unhealthy for users during part of the day.

KEY TAKEAWAYS 1. The internal operative temperatures of the shelters reach the health risk zone during the hottest and coldest week of a typical year.

This presents a health risk to the vulnerable population (Sick and the elderly).

Extreme temperatures are known to increase morbidity rates. The health condition starts to deteriorate and worsen the further away from comfort conditions. The threshold for high & low temperature was set at 35°C & 12°C respectively. The actual temperature threshold may vary due to many factors mainly dependent on location, humidity and mainly the number of hours exposed. The hot threshold was based on the observation that even ceiling fans become ineffective at temperatures about 35°C (World Health Organization Europe, 2009). The cold health threshold was set based on data suggesting that the vulnerable populations are susceptible to cardiovascular problems and strokes beyond this temperature (Collins, 1996).

2. Internal Temperatures mirrored outdoor temperatures except at mid-day.

Majority of the Shelter designs had minimal thermal mass as well as insulation.

Hence the interior temperatures mirrored that of the outdoor. Exception was at mid-days where the temperatures soared extremely high due to heat gain from the mid-day sun. It was very hot when it was hot outside and cold when the outdoors were cold. This meant that the comfort conditions indoor were worse that of outdoor according to ASHRAE Adaptive Comfort model 2010.

110

Typical Hot Week Afghanistan Plastic Shelter Afghanistan Plastic Shelter Ethiopia Better Shelter Ethiopia Better Shelter Haiti Steel Frame Shelter Haiti Steel Framed Plastic Shelter

50

Haiti Plywood Shelter Haiti Plywood Shelter Indonesia Timber Frame Shelter Indonesia Palm and Timber Shelter

Afghanistan Plastic Shelter Ethiopia Better Shelter

Bangladesh Shelter Bangladesh RoofRoof AtticAttic Shelter

Haiti Steel Framed Plastic Shelter

40

Haiti Plywood Shelter

Peru Timber Frame Shelter Peru Timber Shelter

Indonesia Palm and Timber Shelter Operative Temperature (°C)

Indoor Operative Temperature (C)

60

Bangladesh Roof Attic Shelter

Philippines Raised FloorFloor Shelter Philippines Raised Shelter

Peru Timber Shelter

Philippines Masonry Shelter Philippines Masonry Shelter

Philippines Raised Floor Shelter

30

Philippines Masonry Shelter

Pakistan Masonry Pakistan Brick Shelter + Steel Shelter

Pakistan Masonry Shelter India A Frame Shelter

India A Frame Shelter India A Frame Shelter

Sri Lanka Masonry Shelter Nepal Masonry Shelter 20

Sri Lanka Masonry Shelter Sri Lanka Masonry Shelter

Nepal Vault Shelter 32 35

Nepal Masonry Shelter Nepal Masonry Shelter Nepal Vault Shelter Nepal Vault Shelter

10

32 32 C 35 35 C

Health Risk Range (>35 C) 0

Typical Hot Week (Hourly)

Typical Cold Week 40

Afghanistan Plastic Shelter Afghanistan Plastic Shelter Ethiopia Better Shelter Ethiopia Better Shelter Haiti Steel Frame Shelter Haiti Steel Framed Plastic Shelter

30

Haiti Plywood Shelter Haiti Plywood Shelter Indonesia Timber Frame Shelter Indonesia Palm and Timber Shelter

Afghanistan Plastic Shelter

25

Ethiopia Better Shelter

Bangladesh Shelter Bangladesh RoofRoof AtticAttic Shelter

Haiti Steel Framed Plastic Shelter Haiti Plywood Shelter

Peru Timber Frame Shelter Peru Timber Shelter

20

Indonesia Palm and Timber Shelter Bangladesh Roof Attic Shelter

Opetrative Temperature (°C)

Indoor Operative Temperature (C)

35

Philippines Raised FloorFloor Shelter Philippines Raised Shelter

Peru Timber Shelter 15

Philippines Raised Floor Shelter

Philippines Masonry Shelter Philippines Masonry Shelter

Philippines Masonry Shelter Pakistan Masonry Shelter

Pakistan Masonry Pakistan Brick Shelter + Steel Shelter

India A Frame Shelter

10

Sri Lanka Masonry Shelter

India A Frame Shelter India A Frame Shelter

Nepal Masonry Shelter Nepal Vault Shelter 5

12

Sri Lanka Masonry Shelter Sri Lanka Masonry Shelter Nepal Masonry Shelter Nepal Masonry Shelter Nepal Vault Shelter Nepal Vault Shelter

0

32 12 C

Health Risk Range (<12 C) 35

-5

-10

Typical Cold Week (Hourly)

111

KEY TAKEAWAYS 3. High Solar Heat gain from the Roof.

Most of the designs used Metal sheet roofing. No intermediate ceiling was used and the metal roof was exposed to the occupants in the inside. The high solar heat gain at mid-day produced extremely hot interior temperatures.

The interior condition was much better in the shelter that used a ceramic tile roofing. Excessive heat gain was also eliminated in the design that did use a metal roofing but had an attic space that was used for storage.

4. Climate zones dealing with cool-winter and hot-summers were less comfortable Tropical and equatorial climate zones had comfortable winter even though the summers were extreme. Climate zones having hot summers and cold winters had less comfort throughout the year even though the exterior temperature in summer were less extreme than the equatorial ones.

112

SHELTER MATRIX A shelter matrix was produced by running simulation for Annual Adaptive Comfort percentage not only on the original location of the shelter but on other climate zones as well. This was done to assess the thermal performance of the material assembly of the shelter in different climate zones.

THERMAL MASS Pakistan Masonry Shelter with its thick brick masonry and tile roof proved to be very effective in provide relatively better adaptive comfort in colder climates compared to other shelters with very little thermal mass. However it must be noted that the shelter did not perform well in its original climate zone.

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE Shelters with vernacular design such as the Indonesia Palm timber shelter and Philippines raised shelter performed very well in their original climate zone.

Features such as raised floor, and bamboo matting walls with low thermal mass allowing more airflow proved effective in its tropical climate.

METAL ROOF SOLAR GAIN Metal roofs were responsible for trapping a lot of the solar gains. Since shelters did not have a separation between the attic and main living space, this had a significant impact on interior thermal gains.

113

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies Post–disaster shelter:International Ten designs Section B: Analysis of the shelters

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

Post–disaster shelter: Ten designs Section B Analysis of the transitional shelters

ANNUAL ADAPTIVE COM

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies Federation International of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

Post–disaster shelter: Ten designs Section B: Analysis of the shelters Section B Analysis of the transitional shelters

International Federation of Red Cross Redand Crescent Societies International Federation of Redand Cross Red Crescent Societies

Post–disaster shelter: Ten designs Section B: Analysis of the shelters

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies Internatio International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societie

Post–disaster shelter: Ten designs Section Section B Analysis of the transitional shelters

B.6 ‘T-Shelter’ Sumatra, Padang (2009) Peru (2007) - Timb B.2– Indonesia, - Timber frame B.8 Bangladesh – 2007 – B.4 ‘Core-Shelter’ B.1 Afghanistan – 2009 – ‘Winterised Shelter’ B.6 Haiti (2010) - Steel FrameB.3 Haiti – 2010

Photo: Beatriz Garlaschi for Spanish Red Cross

Photo: Shaun Scales

CLIMATE ZONE ORIGINAL LOCATION

1A 1B 2A

AFGHANISTAN PLASTIC SHELTER

ETHIOPIA ‘BETTER SHELTER’

HAITI STEEL FRAME SHELTER

HAITI PLYWOOD SHELTER

INDONESIA TIMBER FRAME SHELTER

BANGLADESH ROOF ATTIC SHELTER

PERU TIMBER FRAME SHELTER

Summary information Summary information Summary information Sum Summary information Summary information Disaster: Earthquake 2010 Disaster: Earthquake 2007 Disaster: Cyclone Sidr, November 2007 Disaster: Refugees returning from conflict, Winter 2009 Materials: sheeting walls, corrugated steel 2010 roof sheeting, Disaster: Earthquake, 2009 (Bolayna)pier Timber frame Dis Materials: Reinforced concrete columns and a Materials: steel framedBolaina roof. Concrete foundatio Earthquake, January Materials: Bamboo frames with plastic sheet walls and roof - to protect an existing tent Galvanised steel frame, timber studs, plastic Disaster: concrete foundations, bolts, screws and nails base, and bamboo matting walls with CorrugatedMaterial Galvanized Iron (CGI) roofing sourcedMa Materials: Timber frame, palm fibre roof, concrete bucket foundations and palm matting wall panels source: All materials loc Material source: Internationally procured Materials: Wood framed walls with plywood sheathing, metal roofing on wood trusses, concrete slab floor Material source: Steel frame: imported from Spain, Other materials: sourced locally Materials source: Local Materials source: Local Time to build: 1 day (4 people - ) Ma Time to build: 3 days Material source: Internationally procured Time to build: 2 days Anticipated lifespan: 24 months + Time to build: 2 days Time to build: 5 days Anticipated lifespan: 1 year Tim Anticipated lifespan: 24 months Time to build: 2 – 3 days Construction team: 4 people with 1 engi Anticipated lifespan: 6-12 months (residents expected it to last more than 24 months) Anticipated lifespan: 2 – 5 years Construction team: 7 people fabricating frames, 5 people to assemble structures on site team: Unknown Construction Ant Anticipated lifespan: 3 – 5 years Number built: 2020 Construction team: 5 people Construction team: 3-4 people Number built:following 5100 flooding Number built: 380. This design was later adapated and built in larger numbers in Pakistan Con Construction team: 9 people Approximate material cost per shelter: Number built: 7000 Number built: 1,250 Approximate material cost per shelter: 1700 CHF Approximate material cost per shelter: 270 CHF Num Approximate project cost per shelter: 5 Number built: 2,000 Materials cost per shelter: Approximately 350 CHF (2009) Programme cost per shelter: 1,822 CHF - an additional 60 CHF cash grant was provided to Approximate project cost: 820 CHF - including all site winterisation works Approximate programme cost per shelter: 4300 CHF Summary information

App

Approximate material cost per shelter: 1,560 CHF Approximately 500 CHF (2009) Project cost per shelter:

Shelter description Shelter Description Shelter description Approximate project cost per shelter: 2,300 CHF The shelter has a Bolaina (Bolayna) timbe She Shelter roof description The shelter a tent, galvanised rectangular steel frame with an 8.5 degree mono-pitch and a This shelter is has reinforced concrete columns, a steel framed hip roof with metal roofing a This shelter was built to act as a shell to protect occupants living in tents. Each shelter consists contains of one roofx at fourand degrees. is clad w walls. The total covered area is approximately 4.5m 3.2m, there isThe oneshelter door and three floor. to the eaves is 2.55m and 3mShelter to the ridge and there is no bracing.

The is shelter erected inside the structure. It is rectangular in plan and has 1.8m tall side wallssuspended and a gable roof.The Theheight covered Description This The shelter a timber framed structure with palm roofing and walls. It measures 4.5m x 4m on plan and is fibre cement sheet roof. It is 2.4m high and is 3 x 6 mpoles. on plan and has 6 are columns spaced on a 3m grid, fixed to 800x800x400mm rectangular reinforced floor area is approximately 9m x 4.3m. The frames are constructed from bamboo The frames The floor is raised above existing grade, and a short brick wall is provided around the perime x3 3.35m tallframed to the structure ridge beam and 2.4m to theand eaves.

It has afloor pitched roof of 23.6 degrees.

This shelter is a rectangular timber with a gable roof a covered area of approxia new has been used, wire 1.5m ties wrap connected using plywood gusset plates and bolts. The walls and roof are plastic sheeting, and are supported concrete foundations using a 300x300x6mm base plate and four ordinary bolts per base. The raised floor is waters and windblown rain. The 8 concrete columns are slab embedded approximately into mat matelybase 21 square Wall consists of soil. woodbut studs withstability plywood sheathing, the roof consists of metal frame at all locations to resist on the bamboo frame and purlins. The floor is compacted soil. The shelter frames were shop in stub columns on 100x100x6mm rooftied truss is constructed with steel angles and is anchored tocolumn the concrete columns.

Theuplif There is no bracing, some is provided byand three portal frames together by horizontal members also supported by fabricated 13 additional plates meters. bearing directly on to the isfou p roofing on wood purlins and trusses. The trusses are supported on wood posts within in the perimeter the camp and transported to the construction site. The frames are embeddedThe intomain the ground forissupport. thethree 8 walls. embedded and a perimeter grade beam.

Therethe areslab. wooden bea to posts installed outside Thebam she structure three primary frames with rectangular hollow section columns. at ground, eaves and ridge level. Each portal frame is made up of twoofor columnscolumns, and a roof truss with concrete The wood trusses can be pre-manufactured and shipped to the construction site. The foundation consists of columns approximately 2.1m above the first floor,connecting which allowwooden the addition of a mezzanine le members, connecting the rafters and corner bracing members. The corner bracing in the frames provides lateral stiffness. Secondary The roof cladding is corrugated steel sheeting nailed to steel secondary roof spaced concrete piers in themembers four corners andata0.75m stone masonry wall in-between the piers. The floor is a cast-in-place to the panels and are purlins nailed on top The shelter is designed to be easily moved by unbolting the columns and roof frame with ha Shelter Performance Summary has members floor roof joists spanning between rafters and transoms to support intervals spanning between the three primary frames. Timber studs are screwed to the non-structural steel and concrete slab.

As designed, the members shelter has only oneinclude: door and onejoists, window. materials can be re-used as a part of permanent housing reconstruction. Additionally it is de palm matting wall panels. The shelter has a suspended floor. This is assumed to be coconut wood boarding This style of construction uses materials which create a lightweight shelter which can bewall quickly deployed in the plastic sheeting is attached to this. Additional timber sub-framing is used to form windows and doors. mezzanine level can be built to provide storage space in case of floods.

Shelter performance summary remote locations. The simple framing systems are well suited to mass fabrication using a mix of skilled and spanning between the floor joists. The columns are embedded into concrete bucket foundations that sit She unskilled labour, and the light weight of the building framing does not require the use of heavy equipment for Shelter Performance Summary This very lightweight, simple box-shelter o directly on the ground.

Shelter performance summary Shelter Performance Summary The construction. Bamboo is a durable construction material, and is stronger than most wood species, but the but does not perform well under wind load The expensive, construction used foronce this shelter can produce a very durable structure with a design lifespan This imported, buttechniques quick to construct the fram plastic sheeting used for the walls and roof should only be considered temporary.

The shelterpre-fabricated frames shouldsteel frame solution is relatively This shelter is constructed with materials that are locally available and o fgood quality gi tools or equipment for assembly. Constru much thanlateral the typical transitional shelter, can provide the basis for more permanent housing. The have arrived in-country. As designed, the steel frame has larger very limited stability because there is and Shelter performance summary be able to resist the expected wind loads without failing the bamboo, but willmaterials most likely deflect significantly red The roofing structure is complex and requires skilled workers to construct it. It is intended tion and quality control. However, membe andseismic plywood provides a light weight structural system, and with some modification to the during strong storms. Given the relatively large span of the frames, snow no loads can in bethe problematic andAs such, it does not performtimber bracing walls or roof. well under andframing wind The loading*.

Significant sup a transitional shelter and to do become either a permanent residence or for the materials to b shelter is constructed from locally sourced materials that are familiar to the occupants and not require inallows order for to aprovide a sound structure ade und details, can provide for both high winds and seismic events.

The stone occupants should be encouraged to reduce snow accumulation on the roof to prevent collapse. alterations are required to improve its performance include anchoring modifications to foundations, steel excellent members performance and permanent construction.

The shelter is tall, which mezzanine level. specialist toolsabove or equipment for assembly. can therefore be quickly constructed masonry foundation wall raises the floor the surrounding groundIt surface, providing resistance to flood after a disaster and is relarequired to resist high wind loads which m bracing in the walls and roof. man frame performs adequately for offers seismica loads. The frame is not sufficient to resist the high simple to maintain and adapt overwood time,and/or depending on thecoatings needsThe ofshould the occupants.

This shelter damage. To increase the lifetively of the structure, preservative treated protective be for upgrading into permanent housing in th walls remain in place through a strong The storm, however it is anticipated that the woven wall p good deterioration short term design solution that is appropriate in areas vulnerable to high seismic and wind loading. applied prevent other and usefulness to the eve * Note: This analysis is based on higher basic wind speeds than weretoagreed byrot theand shelter cluster and opera-of the framing. under such conditions. Due to the high quality materials and design, theoccupant only wayintothe improv minor addition of bracing would improve its performance significantly to and reducethe deflections. if the insects. increase sizes of theHowever, columns and the members of the roof truss. tional organisations in Haiti - see assumptions below (p58).

Shelter Description

shelter is upgraded, for instance by replacing the matting with roof sheeting or ply, then the roof trusses, frame and foundations will need to be strengthened, and the timber should have been treated.

57

29

2B

43

33

3A 3B 3C 4A 4B 4C 5A 5B

5C

CLIMATE ZONE WEATHER FILES

114

1A

1B

2A

2B

3A

3B

3C

4A

Guantanamo Bay (Cuba)

Metehara (Ethiopia)

New Orleans, LA (USA)

Cairo (Egypt)

Kathmandu (Nepal)

Mexico City (Mexico)

Bogota (Colombia)

Tokyo (Japan)

4

Albuque (U

MFORT SHELTER MATRIX

onal Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies es

n B: Analysis of the shelters

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

Post–disaster shelter: Ten designs Section B: Analysis of the shelters

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

Section B: Analysis of the shelters

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

Section B Analysis of the transitional shelters

Section B: Analysis of the shelters

Pakistan – 2010 – ‘One Shelter’ B.10 frame Sri Lanka – 2007 – ‘Core Shelter’ 6 Philippines – 2011 –B.7 ‘Transitional-Shelter’ ber frame Philippines – 2011 –B.9 ‘Transitional-Shelter’ B.3 Room Pakistan (2010) - Timber

Photo: Jake Zarins

PHILIPPINES RAISED FLOOR SHELTER

PHILIPPINES MASONRY SHELTER

PAKISTAN BRICK +STEEL SHELTER

INDIA A FRAME SHELTER

SRI LANKA MASONRY SHELTER

A house is made with walls and beams.

NEPAL VAULT SHELTER

NEPAL MASONRY SHELTER

A home is made with love and dreams.

Summary information Summary information Location: Pakistan – Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Gilgit-Baltistan (Northern Areas) Physical infrastructure might have cracked and collapsed but All Hands Volunteers will be building homes using an Disaster: Typhoon, December 2011 Disaster: Civil conflict in Sri Lanka Disaster: Flood, July 2010 Disaster: Flood, July 2010 the other half of what makes a home, love and compassion, earthquake resistant design and was adopted from the e with timber cladding and corrugated metal sheet roofing saster: Typhoon, December 2011 ons, brick exterior Materials: Reinforced concrete columns, masonry and timber walls, timber framing withtileMaterials: metal Timber on frame, roofing and plastic sheeting (bricks and roof insulation Materials: Unreinforced masonry exterior walls, metal roofing on timber is still intactlocally among the resilient people trusses of Nepal. All Hands Himalayan Climate Initiative (HCI) Resilient Homes Project.

Materials: Unreinforced brickroof exterior walls, roof siding supported steelcorrugated framing. steel sheet cally andConcrete producedfootings, in local fabrication workshops aterials: coconut wood frame, plywood floor, amaken walls and corrugated iron roof aims to provide the tangible materials and training to This design has been approved by the Government of sourced by homeowners) Material source: Locally and internationally procured Material source: Locally procured Material source: Locally procured replace lost homes.

Nepal National Planning Commission.

Material source: Timber: local. Roof sheeting: internationally and locally procured aterial source: Locally procured Time to build: 12 days Time to build: 5 days after fabricating blocks Anticipated lifespan: 10 years Time to build: 1 day me to build: 5 days Anticipated lifespan: 5 years Anticipated lifespan: 10+ years ineer and 1 project manager to supervise Number built: 875 Anticipated lifespan: 24 months HAMRO RAMRO GHAR (HRG) Program: ticipated lifespan: 5 years Number built: 250 Construction team: 2 3 people (Owner driven process with dependence upon skills in immediate famiily) HAMRO RAMRO GHAR (HRG) Program: All Hands will Construction team: 4 people Approximate project cost per shelter: 1,300CHF begin by building 50 homes in vulnerable villages with nstruction Approximate material cost per shelter: 1,550 CHF Unknown team: 5 people Number built: 10,000 Number built: 1,000+ in Sindhupalchok district. Our successful pilot project in mber built: 1,823 Approximate project cost per shelter: 2,000 CHF 560CHF Halchowk, Kathmandu, culminated in the construction of 35 Approximate material cost per shelter: 500CHF Shelter Description Approximate cost per shelter (including labour and transport): 650 CHF o shelter owners.

mmary information

Summary information

Summary information

homes, an extensive program evaluation, and the lessons

proximate material cost per shelter: 500 CHF Shelter Description

UPGRADABLE

REUSABLE/RESALABLE

RELOCATABLE

Should a homeowner learned which influenced this upgraded program.

Over time, the home When the permanent This shelter is a rectangular structure with a flat roof with approximate dimensions of 4.8m x 3.9m. Walls need to relocate, the can be expanded and home is complete, the Shelter description structure could be are built with 230mm thick unreinforced fire burned brick walls supporting the roof. The Shelter roof is constructed Description improved in order to transitional home can ‘Hamro Ramro Ghar’ translates to ‘Home Sweet home’, which become permanent. disassembled, moved, be sold, used for parts, The consists 7 triangular frames, a ridge by two er braced frame, measuring 3m x 6m on planThis withshelter a single withroof ceramic supported on of steel beams, and ashelter cement plasterofcoating is placed onconnected top of theby tiles.

The pole. The ridge pole is supported and reassembled. is apitched rectangular structure with a gable and atiles covered floor area approximately 4.0m x 5.0m or reused for a shop/ elter Description is used as an expression of one’s pleasure or relief at being and bamboo mat This shelter is a rectangular structure with a gable roof and an enclosed floor area of approximately 3.5m x storage, business, crop returning to one’s own home. foundation consists of unreinforced and foundation walls. The mud end. plastered floor isisraised 2.74m high vertical columns at each The shelter 4.3m ax 5.7m on plan. It has a lowin or (0.9m) brick withand a covered bathroom and vestibule of approximately 4.0m x 1.5m.

The exteriorbrick wallsfootings have a half height tongue and groove solid timber board walls a corrugated or animals. ewith windows.

2.8m with an additional covered veranda of approximately 3.5m x 2.8m. The exterior walls are built with unres shelter is a rectangular structure with a single pitchmasonry roof andwall a covered floor area of approximately 4.8m 610mm theconsists surrounding ground surface. designed, the shelter hasprotection one door against and oneflood damage and retain warmth. The roof concrete top up toofthe eaves.above The roof of timber and Asinside walltrusses constructed the frame to provide d stands on a new or existing concrete floor slab.

In instances where with wood framing onminimum inforced bricks with six reinforced masonry piers. All masonry blocks are fabricated by the shelter occupants eter to The resistshelter flood is supported on concretepurlins 3.7m. piers and footings such that the roofing. first floor isroof raised approxisupporting corrugated metal The framing is supported by eight precast concrete columns window, along with air vents near the top of the walls. is pitched at 44 degrees and is made of corrugated steel sheeting.

The sheeting is nailed to purlins that pped around The nails have been cast into the slab and attached to the prior to construction. The roof consists of coconut wood rafters and purlins supporting corrugated iron o the 750mm ground. tely above grade. The floor and roof are framed withexterior coconut wood and joists. and Themasonry floor walls are embedded in the ground, and located within the walls.

The beams concrete columns Alland Hands span between the frames. The roof sheeting sheet is laid roofing. on top of locally available earth insulating plastic ft. Whereconsists existing been used the shelter has been stakedwalls consist of amakan (woven panels of The compacted and material concrete floor isprovides raised above the surrounding ground surface. The undation plywood and the slabs roof ishave corrugated metal roofing.

The the plans doexterior not specifically call for footings. The floor is a cast in place concrete slab, and thesheeting. bathroomThe hasfoundation of the shelter is provided by burying the rafters and columns approximately 0.3m perimeter walls extend into the ground, and are supported on brick footings. The modular construction for the Shelter Performance Summary ams elter between isor constructed as 6fastened panels which arecoconut thenanailed together using mboo palmthe leaves) to the wood frame.

The tank. light weight woodconstruction frame can be off below grade septic The modular forlifted the shelter allows for expansion in both horizontal THIS TYPE OF HOUSING CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS in to the ground on top of stone footings. Guy ropesallows over the sheetinginhave used todirections help prevent evel to theand shelter. shelter forroof expansion bothbeen horizontal with only minor modifications Ato“HOME” the core shelter.

AsTHE FOLLOWING gconcrete plates plastic rooflocation edge beam attached BECAUSE IT HAS piers andstrapping. moved toA acentral different by with ais small of people. As the shelter directions onlynumber minor modifications to designed, theThe core shelter.

It is also possible to deconstruct the shelter for construction materials used for this shelter are high quality and very durable, and can produce a shelter uplift under wind loads.

CHARACTERISTICS: designed, the shelter has one door and one window. pone oftools this to support roof. and thetwothe relocation and/or to be included in permanentwith construction.

As designed, the shelter has two doors and two sand door and windows. a long design life. In addition, the use of local materials simplifies the deployment for shelter construction, esigned so that a windows. and should allow for a quick response to disaster situations. The brick walls and tile roof offer good resistance • It is built where the beneficiary’s home originally stood Shelter performance summary • The homeowner is involved in the design process and customization Performance Summary to wind loads, but given the weight of the building components, the performance under Shelter earthquake loads is elter Performance Summary of the home Shelter Performance Summary simple,balance low-costthe transitional shelter option that is quickly constructed and approprinot quite as good. The number of air vents atThis the shelter top of presents the wallsashould benefits of additional The homeowner in the construction as ability allows The construction materials used for this shelter are of high quality and very durable, and• can provideparticipates a shelter offers a good design solution in areas vulnerable to seismic loading e timber framing should be relatively durable, provided it isand properly treated prior to construction. timber ventilation versus of the vertical andate lateral capacities ofThe the addition walls. of A-bracing for climates. in the triangular more foundations would• The design is socially and culturally appropriate masonry components of the shelterThe are veryreductions durable materials, and provided thecold timber with a long designframe life. and While the robust materials themselves are durable, the wall thickness and wood member ds. It uses locally sourced materials, and doesThe not concrete require specialist • It is a dignified shelter solution (including a household toilet) ming andcontext. amakan wall panels can be builtcomponents with locallyare sourced materials, and the be simple construction significantly increase the performance of this shelter underare seismic and windto loading and wouldpressures be strongly treated, the shelter should durable with a decent design life.

The use of precast concrete iven the dimensions not sufficient resist the wind from a full storm, but performance of the structural ucting it in panels has advantages in terms of speed of construcduces need wood posts are adequately anchored tocovered their shelter while the exteriorrecommended. materials that are familiar seismic to the occupants and do not The simplest solutions for the performance under to bethe more thanfor skilled labor. Provided thecolumns allowsand for roof quickrafters construction of the roof to provide walls are con- The shelter uses locally sourced system under the anticipated loads is acceptable. er sizesthe need to be increased and the foundation improved pports shelter butfixing damage should be expected strong storms.

The be re-used in new should perform satisfactorily, Theare framing materials can the be substituted, foraexample structed, and allow for possible re-useduring in more permanent construction.

Provided the timber require framed specialist portion tools or equipment for assembly. wind load to either evacuate shelter during storm, or to increase the size of the walls and roof framing. der gravity andfloor seismic loads.

More is significant improvements are equacy of the and roof framing dependent on the of high quality wood.

To ensure good perforof the walls areuse properly anchored to the lower masonry walls and to the roof framing, the performance ofcut thetimber can be used as an alternative to the timber poles detailed here. This shelter has been bamboo or may not be practical, for instance large foundations.

Itfor is not suitable ofloads the floor supporting floor roof rafters shouldbebeadequate. doubled However, up. shelter lateral windjoist andand seismic loads should there is not enough shelter weight to which does not include the low level wall which can be provided by the occupants. Alternaprovided as ‘kit’ hnce wind if theand roof framing, all the beams he long term.

The timber should be treated to increase its durability resist uplift loads for full wind speeds. Provided the roof trusses are adequately braced at each tives paneltopoint panels will detach brickthe include concrete blocks, unfired earth bricks and timber. ent it is reused. is If left untreated it will be more susceptible to is rotadequate and wood framing with the exception of the truss overhangs. The large overhangs of the top chords ve performance are not sufficiently strong to resist the anticipated uplift loads from a full storm.

erque, NM USA)

ORIGINAL LOCATION

1A 1B 2A

39

79

4B

CLIMATE ZONE

73

45

93

87

65

2B 3A 3B 3C 4A 4B 4C 5A 5B

5C

ADAPTIVE COMFORT LEGEND 4C

5A

5B

5C

Anyang (China)

Boston, MA (USA)

Kabul (Afghanistan)

Berlin (Germany)

0-10% 10-20% 20-30% 30-40%

40-50% 50-60% >60% 115

MATERIAL ANALYSIS Simulations were run on the same climate file: Guantanamo from the climate zone 1A. The shelters were categorized based on the material of the roof or walls. Simulations were done with different shelter types on the same climate/ location to highlight thermal performance of material choices.

ROOF TYPE ANALYSIS The line graph on the right compares operative temperatures of shelters with different roof materials when simulated in the same climate zone 1A (Guantanamo weather file) during the hottest week of the year.

The shelter types were categorized based on roof types: metal roof Haiti Plywood shelter), plastic roof (Better shelter), tile roof (Pakistan masonry shelter), metal roof with attic (Bangladesh Roof Attic Shelter). With the exception of the roof attic shelter, all others were overheated in comparison with the outside air temperature at mid-day. The metal roof attic shelter (Bangladesh Roof Attic Shelter) was the standout performance with very little overheating over the outside air temperature. It can probably be explained by 45

Outside temperature

Timber (Indonesia Palm Timber)

the attic space acting as the buffer zone allowing the occupied space below it Plastic (Better Shelter)

40

Masonry (Pakistan Masonry)

to have cooler interiors. This is despite the fact that in terms of material it has Masonry + Timber (Phillipines Masonry + Timber)

35

a corrugated metal roof which does cause overheating during the mid-day.

30

Roof Material Comparison - Hottest Day of the Year 25 45

Legend 45

40

Outside Air Temperature (C) Outside temperature

Temperature (C)

20

Metal Roof + Attic (Bangladesh Roof Attic Shelter) Timber (Indonesia Palm Timber)

35

Metal Roof Shelter) (Haiti Plywood Shelter) Plastic (Better

40

Tile Roof (Pakistan Masonry Shelter) Masonry (Pakistan Masonry)

15

Plastic Roof (Better Shelter) Masonry + Timber (Phillipines Masonry + Timber)

30

Outside temperature

35

Health Risk Range (>35 C)

Metal Roof + Attic (Bangladesh Roof Attic Shelter) Adaptive Comfort Metal Roof (Haiti Plywood Shelter) Tile Roof (Pakistan Masonry Shelter)

25

10

30 20

5

25

15

10 0

20

1

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3

5

0

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9

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15

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22

23

24

Time (Hour)

15

1

10

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

Range (24 < T comfort < 29)

WALL TYPE ANALYSIS The line graph on the right compares operative temperatures of shelters with different roof materials when simulated in the same climate zone 1A (Guantanamo weather file) during the hottest week of the year.

The shelter types were categorized based on roof types: metal roof Haiti Plywood shelter), plastic roof (Better shelter), tile roof (Pakistan masonry shelter), metal roof with attic (Bangladesh Roof Attic Shelter). With the exception of the roof attic shelter, all others were overheated in comparison with the outside air temperature at mid-day.

The metal roof attic shelter (Bangladesh Roof Attic Shelter) was the standout performance with very little overheating over the outside air temperature. It can probably be explained by the attic space acting as the buffer zone allowing the occupied space below it to have cooler interiors. This is despite the fact that in terms of material it has a corrugated metal roof which does cause overheating during the mid-day.

45

Outside temperature Timber (Indonesia Palm Timber) Plastic (Better Shelter)

40

Masonry (Pakistan Masonry) Masonry + Timber (Phillipines Masonry + Timber) 35

Wall Material Comparison - Hottest Day of the Year 30 45

Outside temperature

Legend

Timber (Indonesia Palm Timber) Outside Air Temperature (C) Outside temperature Plastic (Better Shelter) Timber (Indonesia Timber Frame Shelter) Timber (Indonesia Palm Timber)

45

25 40

Masonry (Pakistan Masonry) Plastic (Better Shelter) Plastic (Better Shelter)

Temperature (C)

40

Masonry + Timber (Phillipines Masonry + Timber) Masonry (Pakistan Masonry Shelter) Masonry (Pakistan Masonry)

20 35

Masonry + Timber ( Philippines Masonry Shelter) Masonry + Timber (Phillipines Masonry + Timber) 35

30

10 25

25

5 20

20

0 15

Health Risk Range (>35 C) Adaptive Comfort Range (24 < T comfort < 29)

15 30

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5 0

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RETROFIT STRATEGY PASSIVE TECHNIQUES + ALTERNATIVE INSULATION SOLUTIONS

8

“

“

DEVELOPING A PLATFORM FOR RETROFITTING THE EXISTING BUILDING STOCK OF TEMPORARY SHELTERS

120

INTRODUCTION

The results of the thermal simulation pointed out alarming truths about the health dangers that existing temporary shelters present.

In order to address this issue, a strategy for retrofitting existing shelters using passive techniques and alternative insulation was developed.

TEST SCENARIO: A-FRAME SHELTER The A-frame shelter was chosen as a test scenario for retrofit improvements. This design had been built by many humanitarian organzations and NGOs in South Asia including: Pakistan (UN Habitat), Afghanistan (UNHCR), Kashmir, India and Nepal (SEEDS).

Benefits of this shelter include the use of low cost materials, simple construction techniques, low-skilled labor, and an earthquakeresistant structural frame. This transitional shelter can be transitioned into a permanent shelter or disassembled and reused in other constructions.

Retrofit Strategies â&#x20AC;˘ Passive Techniques

- Dynamic Roof Shading

- Roof Pond

- Sod Roof

- Water Wall â&#x20AC;˘ Insulation Materials - Rice Hull - Straw - Plastic Bags + Bottles - Shredded Denim - Earth Bags - Other Natural Materials 121

ALTERNATIVE INSULATION The scarcity of building materials post-disaster or conflict is well documented phenomenon (Chang, Wilkinson & Potangaroa, 2010). Re-purposing natural and untapped resources from the local material stream as alternative insulation has great potential for improving thermal conditions in temporary shelters.

The use of natural materials for insulation offers health advantages over conventional insulation.

Conventional synthetic insulation is petroleum-based and energy-intensive to manufacture.

Research indicates that it can cuse respiratory illness due to off-gasing of VOCs and buildup of toxic mold (Wolley, 2006). Natural materials, on the other hand, are more breathable and can be safer to use when designed in a well-ventilated assembly.

Alternative insulation materials are readily available, affordable, and durable enough for short-term lifespan structures. In permanent construction, natural materials frequently fail to meet necessary longevity and durability standards. Due to the relatively short life-span of temporary shelters, repurposed natural materials become feasible.

Additionally, plastics and salvaged materials have been investigated by researchers as readily available insulation materials (Gradillas, 2015). It should be noted that health risks and longterm exposure to these plastics has not been evaluated and that these materials could cause harmful VOCs, toxic mold in poorly ventilated assemblies, and increased birth defect and cancer risk due to benzene exposure (American Cancer Society, 2016).

The following list of alternative insulation materials was compiled as a platform for retrofitting cavity spaces in temporary shelters.

ALTERNATIVE INSULATION MATERIALS Rice Hulls Rice hulls are agricultural waste from the encasings of rice. Rice hulls have insulative values similar to synthetic insulation. It has a thermal conductivity of 0.0359 W/(m°C) (Olivier, 2013). It is a fireproof and vermin proof material. Use of rice hull insulation in bags has been documented by 122

prior thesis work on low income housing in India (Gradillas, 2015).

Straw Mats Straw has been historically used as a building materials in the form of thatch roof and more recently as straw bales. Straw from various crops such as wheat or rice have be used as an insulating material as well. Straw can be hand woven into mats. Mats have been used in Chineses greenhouses as movable insulation for passive solar design (Decker,2015).

Plastic Bags + Bottles Insulation created from recycled plastic bags and bottles in Nepal and other Himalayan regions has been documented by Huys Advies (Advies, 2004). Recycled polyethene plastic bags were tested by Gradillas in low income housing (Gradillas, 2015). However, it should be noted that this insulation is likely to release antimony and pthalates under any exposure to heat which is proven to cause cause cancer and birth defects over longterm exposure (American Cancer Society, 2016).

Recycled Denim Recycled denim has been used as an insulation material commercially. Currently, Ultratouch by Bonded Logic Manufacturers is the leading commerical denim insulation. Recycled denim insulation can be producted on-site using a shredder and jeans. Further information on this is included in the physical test section.

Fire-Proofing Natural Insulation Besides rice hull, all other natural materials are flammable. However, treating the material with borax will make the material flame retardant (Woolley, 2008). Borax is made from boric acid and considered relatively safe if exposure is to shortterm. Health effects include shortterm irritation of eye and throat (Kegley, et. al., 2016).

Other Natural Insulation Materials Other natural insulation materials are earthbags, cellulose, wood fiber, coconut wood fiber, wool, flax and hemp insulation (Woolley, 2008). Local availablilty for these renewable materials varies and is based on local ecology and material streams.

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RETROFIT STRATEGY

A Frame Shelter Baseline Building Before Retrofit

RETROFIT PLATFORM: ROOF INSULATION + PASSIVE SOLAR A platform for retrofit techniques to improve thermal conditions in cold months for temporary shelters was developed. The test scenario for this platform was performed on an A-Frame shelter in ASHRAE climate zone 3A using Kathmandu, Nepal as our weather file.

ROOF INSULATION The geometry of single-story temporary shelters causes roof-dominated heat gains and losses. This test scenario simulates rice hull insualtion, water walls, sod roof, and roof pond with dynamic straw insulation strategies. In many post-disaster and conflict scenarios there is a scarcity of building materials.

The design criteria for the material selection of insulation was affordability and availability in local material streams.

PASSIVE SOLAR Passive solar techniques were used to store daytime solar radiation. Either a translucent panel was used or the corrugated metal room was slid down to allow solar radiation into the shelter. Water barrels were added on the far wall to increase the thermal mass of the shelter. During night time, the glazing was covered with movable insulation made of straw mats to prevent heat loss.

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3 x 3 Timber Purlin 7” Cavity w. Rice Hull in Fabric/sangbags Corrugulated Metal Roof 6mm Plywood/ Bamboo matting panel

A FRAME SHELTER DETAIL OF ROOF INSULATION

DAYTIME PASSIVE SOLAR HEAT GAIN

7” Rice Husk Insulation in Bags Corrugated Metal Roof

9” Brick/Earthbag Masonry 55 Gallon Water Barrels 3 x 5 Beam for Timber A-Frame

18” Stone Masonry w. Mud Mortar

INSULATED ROOF AT NIGHT

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RETROFIT STRATEGY RICE HULL INSULATION TEST Rice hulls, an agricultural by-product of rice production, were chosen for its insulative, vermin and fireproof properties. The hulls were packed into bags in the 6” cavity space between the metal roof and rafters. A layer of plywood or bamboo matting was used on the underside to secure the insulation.

The simulations to the right are a thermal simulation of rice hull roof insulation during a cold winter week in Guantanamo, Cuba. The addition of rice husk insulation in the roofs helps the indoor condition to avoid the health risk threshold of 12°C. As can be seen, there is a point of diminishing returns for roof thicknesses greater than 6”.

WATER WALL TEST Using Passive solar techniques and the addition of water barrels for thermal mass, the indoor conditions almost reached comfort conditions of 18°C. Again there is a point of diminishing returns for additional water.

ROOF POND TEST Water has one of the highest thermal masses. This property can be exploited to achieve passive solar heating and radiative night time cooling using a roof pond. This is done using a flat roof with less than 30° inclination covered with water stored in black plastic bags. The water bags collect solar heat during the day and are covered after sunset with movable insulation to prevent the loss of heat to the surroundings. At night, the stored heat is re-radiated to the occupied space below through the metal roof. Movable insulation such as straw mats can be used to achieve this.

One notable disadvantage of this scheme is its limitation to single-story shelters. Temporary shelters are usually single-story dwellings, so this is not

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Test for Rice Hull Roof Insulation 25

20

Outside Outsidetemperature Temperature

Temperature (C)

15

Baseline Baseline 1”/2.5cm insulation 1" Roof insulation 3”/7.5cm insulation 3" Roof Insulation

10

6”/15cm insulation 6" Roof Insulation

9”/22.5cm insulation 9" Roof Insulation

5

Adaptive comfort lowerbound Lowerbound Threshold Adaptive Comfort

Cold health 12°C WHOrisk Recommended 0

-5

Cold Week (Dec 30 - Jan 5) CLIMATE ZONE : 3A WEATHER FILE: KATHMANDU (NEPAL)

Cold Week Insulation Comparison: Rice Hull, Water Wall, Sod + Roof Pond 30

25

Temperature (C)

20

Outsidetemperature Outside Temperature

Baseline Baseline

15

6”/15cm 6" Roof Rice hull roof insulation Insulation

Passive water wall Watersolar wall 3" 10

6”/15cm Sod SOD roof 6" roof 3”/7.5cm Roof pond 3" Roof pond Adaptive Adaptivecomfort lowerbound comfort

5

Cold health Cold Healthrisk Risk

0

-5

Cold Week (Dec 30 - Jan 5) CLIMATE ZONE : 3A WEATHER FILE: KATHMANDU(NEPAL)

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RETROFIT STRATEGY cause for concern in most designs. Other disadvantages are that the movable insulation requires manual operation and that the effectiveness of the scheme is heavily reliant on user behavior and insulation material selection.

For cooling, this scheme can be reversed. The movable insulation is applied during the daytime to prevent the water bags gaining heat. At night the insulation is removed and the water bags are exposed to the night sky to lose heat through radiation. This cools the roof for the next day and hence cools the space with the metal roof allowing easy transfer for heat.

ROOFPOND WINTER TEST For testing its performance as passive solar heating for winter situation in simulation, an additional zone on top of the roof was added which included water. The depth of the water was varied. The test was performed for Kathmandu, Nepal in climate zone 3A during the coldest week.

The result of the simulation is shown in the graph of temperature curves to the right. The roof pond performs significantly better than the baseline which is just a single layer of corrugated metal (CGI) sheet. Increase in depths does improve the temperature indoors. However there is a diminishing return after 6” with very little gain in temperature after that.

The recommended thickness or depth of the roof pond is 6”. The simulation verifies the thumb rule from the book which recommended 3-6” depth.

According to the simulation results the roof pond above 6” helps to lift the temperature of the shelter above the cold health risk threshold of 12°C barely but was far away from the adaptive comfort threshold of almost 18°C.

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Hot Week Insulation Comparison: Rice Hull, Water Wall, Sod + Roof Pond 45

outside Temp Outside temperature

Temperature (C)

40

Baseline Baseline

3”/7.5cm pond 3" Roof Rof pond 6”/16cm Sod SOD roof 6"roof

35

Plastic sheeting shade Plastic shadingroof Shading Roof shade w. Radiant Plastic Sheet Shadinginsulation w. Radiant insulation

30

Adaptive comfort upper bound Adaptive Comfort Upperbound

Hot health risk Healt risk

25

20

Hot Week (Jul 23 - Jul 29) CLIMATE ZONE : 1A WEATHER FILE: GUANTANAMO(CUBA)

Roof Pond Depth Test 25

20

Outside Temperature

Temperature (°C)

Temperature (C)

15

Baseline 1" Roof pond 3" Roof pond

10

6" Roof pond 9" Roof pond 12" Roof pond Lowerbound Threshold Adaptive Comfort

5

12°C WHO Recommended

0

-5

Cold Week (Dec 30 - Jan 5) CLIMATE ZONE : 3A WEATHER FILE: KATHMANDU (NEPAL)

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RETROFIT STRATEGY SOD ROOF TEST A sod roof was simulated with regular soil on top of the CGI roof. Similar to roof pond scheme, a thin layer of sod is spread on top of the corrugated metal to add thermal mass. Varying thickness and depth of the soil was tested to find the optimum sod depth.

Sod rooofs are widely used in Scandinavian vernacular cottages and contemporary green roof desings to add thermal mass. The benefit of sod is that soil is the most readily available material to mitigate thermal swings. Sod roofs do not require any specialized labor or additional materials. It is a socially sustainable material because it reinforces the local economy and does not have long leed times for site delivery. Sod a simple, inexpensive solution that provides added benefits of fire and vermin- proofing.

The disadvantage of this solution is that it adds additional weight to the structural members of the shelter requiring stronger (thicker) structural members which in turn increases costs. By limiting the thickness of the soil to 2-6â&#x20AC;?, structural members do not need to be reinforced (Meijer,2009). Shelters with heavy roofs are vulnerable to seismic activities and should not be used in earthquake prone zones.

HOT AND COLD CLIMATE SIMULATION A simulation was performed with a soil layer added on top of the corrugated metal roof. Tthe sod roof was tested to find the optimum thickness. The simulation was run for the hot week in a tropical climate 1A (Guantanamo Bay) and coldest week for climate zone 3A (Kathmandu).

The result of the simulation shows that the sod roof is effective at reducing the overheating at mid-day compared to the baseline of just corrugated metal

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roof. Thickness of 6”(150mm) appears to be the most effective after which there is a diminishing return. The Sod roof is effective at removing the operative temperature of the shelter out the health risk threshold of 35°C. 3” thickness is sufficient for it.

The sod roof was also tested for a winter scenario in climate zone 3A. Because the sod roof acts as thermal mass, the operative temperature of the shelter during the night is improved compared to the base line of just the corrugated metal roof. However the operative temperature was still below the health risk threshold of 12°C at a large thickness of 9”(225mm), although the temperature did get pretty close to the threshold. Compared to a rice hull insulation with water wall, it performed poorly.

Shading the roof proved to be a very effective solution. In the simulated scenario a plastic sheeting or canvas was used to shade the roof assuming the air below the sheeting and the roof does not get trapped and heated. This scenario proved to be very effective and the performance was even better than the Sod roof of 9” thickness. This is due to most of the heat gain coming from solar radiation. A proper shade which blocks radiation is hence very effective at reducing overheated interior conditions.

Roof shading is most effective since the shelter is roof-dominated.

To further test this, the entire shelter was shaded with a hypothetical giant shade. This caused almost no difference in temperature between the indoor and outdoor conditions.

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CONCLUSION

In summary, these passive strategies and alterntive insulation materials can be used to retrofit existing shelters to prevent interior temperatures from reaching the health risk zone.

The retrofit platform for alternative insulation materials is a catalog of materials that should serve as an introductory guide for designers, volunteers and homeowners to retrofit the huge buildingstock of existing shelters. This list compiles the most common current strategies for improvised insultion. Ultimately, this platform is an effort to educate and provide examples of untapped resources in current local material streams.

These materials in combination with passive heating and cooling strategies can help produce safer interior temperatures. The test scenario applies these designs to the A Frame shelterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s roof, but would have similar benefits in roof-dominated, single-story temporary shelters.

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SHELTER (RE)DESIGN OFF-SITE AND ON-SITE STRATEGIES

8

“

(RE)DESIGNING SHELTERS FOR LOCAL AND GLOBAL PRODUCTION TO ACCOUNT FOR DIFFERENT DISASTER SCENARIOS

“

136

INTRODUCTION

The following redesign takes into account the need for shelter designs to address thermal well-being and safety through passive design strategies. Currently, temporary shelters in hot humid climates are the most critical for redesign, since health risks are more likely to arise in the hottest parts of the globe. Additionally, antropogenic climate change is exacerbating annual thermal record high temperatures and redesign can benefit this climate zone the most. Based on the current critical demand of temporary shelters in ASHRAE Zone 1A (hot humid climate) needs designs that support human well-being. An on-site and off-site redesign solution was developed to address this concern. The simulation weather file used was Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. It should be noted that this is a historical weather file and that current conditions have risen and will be up to five percent worse than given estimations.

Natural ventilation calculations were performed to achieve sufficient air exchanges to couple the interior temperature with the outside air to inhibit worsening baseline exterior thermal conditions. The redesign follows an incremental approach to upgrading shelter.

Phases of this incremental approach focus on supporting basic health and thermal safety in the baseline stage 1. Stages 2 and 3 focus on developing a spatial response to supporting social and psychological well-being. In Stage 2, moveable outdoor shading screens are added to increase the availability of informal spaces, enhancing the privacy of the interior and adding a transitional space to the design. In phase 3, permanent outdoor spaces are added to establish a more permanent veranda.

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NATURAL VENTILATION ANALYSIS Natural ventilation is used for the purpose of bringing in fresh airand cooling for all the shelters analyzed. Primary reason for a passive ventilation system is to keep the costs down. The shelters have no access to any power and all systems are passive. It must also be noted that people in these locations are used to using natural ventilation. Most of the locations also have potential for using natural ventilation for large parts of the year.

For natural ventilation to provide sufficient cooling, the size and locations of the openings must be carefully designed according to the climate and the context.

For hot and humid climates such as ASHRAE climate zone 1A, providing constant, fast moving air movement is the only feasible cooling solution. Air movement has an impact on how humans sense heat or temperature. The chart below shows the impact of air speed on sensible temperature. Air movement helps move the boundary layer of air surrounding the skin thus allowing greater heat loss with the skin giving sense to perceived coolness.

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Effects of Air speed on sensible temperature Source: Menchaca, A. (2016)

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NATURAL VENTILATION ANALYSIS NATURAL VENTILATION CALCULATION FORMULAS Buoyancy induced ventilation or buoyancy ventilation is the natural ventilation type considered for the analysis. Wind induced ventilation was not considered as it is highly location specific and cannot rely on design alone for the scheme to work.

Insect screens also need to factored into the calculations as they severely reduce the airflow but they are required especially in tropical climate zones to reduce vector borne diseases.

The following formulas (Menchaca,2016) were used in the natural ventilation analysis. Assumptions are that each adult produces 140W (ASHRAE handbook of fundamentals 2001) of heat and there are 3.5m2 per person. The only source of heat gain used in the calculation is heat gained by occupant, solar heat gain is ignored. There are no other source of heat gain such as equipment due to lack of power from grid in these shelters.

Flow-rate due to natural ventilation is as follows, Flow-rate = Pressure losses X Driving pressure Where, Pressure losses are loss energy lost by air due to turbulence, at the openings, ducts, filters etc.

Effective area for openings at different levels is calculated by Flow-rate due to natural ventilation is as follows, Flow-rate = Pressure losses X â&#x2C6;&#x161;Driving pressure Driving pressure is caused by wind, buoyancy or fans

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Effective area= (ACd)eff = 1/√1/(ACd2+....+ACdn)2 Note: The effective area for windows with the airflow at same direction (for buoyancy ventilation, windows at same level) is added.

Where, Cd = discharge coefficient a constant representing energy lost, Value for it is 0.65 for clear openings, 0.25 for screens with 60% of area free, A= Area of opening Again, Flow-rate due to buoyancy ventilation is calculated as, Flow-rate = {(ACd)eff √ (β.ΔH.q)}2/3 Where, β= 0.0000545m4/s3 ΔH= Height difference between center of two openings at different level q= Internal heat gain which for this case is only due to occupants.

Overheating by the occupant heat or the difference between outdoor and indoor temperature is calculated as follows, Overheated (ΔT) = Heat gains(q) / ρ.Cp..Flow-rate Where, ρ = Density of air with value 1.2kg/m3 Cp. = Specific heat capacity of air with value 1000J/(kg°K) The air changes per hour (ACH) is calculated with the following formula, ACH = flow-rate X 3600/(ρ .Cp.)

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NATURAL VENTILATION ANALYSIS NATURAL VENTILATION ANALYSIS OF EXISTING SHELTER 1)ON-SITE SOLUTION (HAITI PLYWOOD SHELTER) Window = 1.2m2

Door = 2.4m2

Height difference between openings = 0.2m When only window is opened with the door closed: Flow-rate = 0.056m3/s Air Changes per Hours (ACH) = 2.7 Overheated or Temperature Differential ( ΔT) = 11.6°C When both the door and window are opened: Flowrate = 0.203m3/s ACH =11.9 ΔT = 3.2°C When insect screen used( Cd= 0.25) When only window is opened with the door closed: Flowrate = 0.0379m3/s ACH = 1.83 ΔT = 17.13°C When both the door and window are opened: Flowrate = 0.107m3/s ACH =1.83 ΔT = 6°C

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2) OFF-SITE SOLUTION(BETTER SHELTER) Window(4 nos.) = 0.16m2 (each)

Vents (2 nos.) = 0.16m2

Height Difference = 1m

Flow-rate = 0.111mm3/s Air Changes per Hours (ACH) = 9 ΔT = 5.2°C When insect screen used( Cd= 0.25)

Flow-rate = 0.07m3/s ACH = 4.72 ΔT = 10.23°C

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NATURAL VENTILATION ANALYSIS PROPOSED NATURAL VENTILATION FOR RE-DESIGN 1)ON-SITE REDESIGN SOLUTION (HAITI PLYWOOD SHELTER) Window (4 Nos.)= 0.9m2 (each)

Vent = 3.6m2

Height difference between openings = 1.55m Flow-rate = 0.56m3/s Air Changes per Hours (ACH) = 32.8 Overheated or Temperature Differential ( ΔT) = 1.16°C When insect screen used( Cd= 0.25): Flow-rate = 0.29m3/s ACH = 17.5 ΔT = 2.16°C WHEN ACCOUNTING FOR SOLAR CHIMNEY Exposed Metal roof heat gain(12-1pm, 22 Jul)= 7.59kW Flowrate = 1.1m3/s ACH =64.5 ΔT = 0.59°C When insect screen used( Cd= 0.25): Flow-rate = 0.59m3/s ACH = 34.6 ΔT = 1.08°C

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2) OFF-SITE SOLUTION(BETTER SHELTER) Using min. ventilation standard of 5% wall area for windows & vents for the Better shelter.

Window(4 nos.) = 0.45m2 (each)

Vents (2 nos.) = 1.8m2

Height Difference = 0.9m

Flow-rate = 0.292m3/s Air Changes per Hours (ACH) = 24 ΔT = 2°C

When insect screen used( Cd= 0.25) Flow-rate = 0.155m3/s ACH = 12.8 ΔT = 3.76°C MINIMUM VENTILATION STANDARDS

Using min. ventilation standard of 5% wall area for windows & vents for the same Haiti plywood shelter Window = 2.9m2

Vents = 2.9m2

Height Difference = 1m

When insect screen used( Cd= 0.25):

Flow-rate = 0.422mm3/s Air Changes per Hours (ACH) = 20.44 ΔT = 1.54°C Flow-rate = 0.222m3/s

ACH = 10.78 ΔT = 2.9°C

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0ff-Site Redesign

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Better Shelter (existing), ACH = 9 Off-Site Redesign (modified) ACH = 20.5 For detailed calculations see natural ventilation analysis section

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OFF-SITE SOLUTION Currently, the leading designs for prefabricated shelters are not addressing critical thermally-induced health concerns in ASHRAE ZONE 1A. Better Shelter is currently the leading UNHCR modular shelter. As of May 2017, it was recalled due to fire-safety, accessiblilty and general ventialtion concerns. UNHCR and the IKEA Foundation are currently pushing for this design to aid people all over the globe. Due to this massive existing modularity challenge, our first redesign addresses off-site solutions.

Not all ecologies can support extracting materials locally without depleting existing supplies. Prefabricated shelters help support places where sustainable material sourcing is not possible. Additionally, this design strategy cuts out the need for skilled labor due to highly standardized assembly procedures. The benefit of this strategy is that stakeholders can assemble shelter solutions within a dayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s worth of work. However, with standardized soltuions replacement and maintenance issues arise since often off-site materials are associated with longer lead times.

The redesign addresses fundamental ventilation and solar heat gain issues through 1) increased window-to-wall ratio to improve ventilation.

2) optimized openings and radiant insulation strategy, and 3) added outdoor solar shading for increasing useable square footage to suport social and psychological well-being.

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Design Approach: Incremental Upgrades INCREMENTAL APPROACH

Phase 1

This

phase-wise

design

approach

is

an

incremental process to add shading to the shelter to keep it from overheating due to solar gain. It also adds shaded semi-outdoor spaces which

increases the habitable area of the shelter.

Phase 1 In this phase, the main pre-fabricated shelter (Better shelter) is assembled.

Phase 2 Phase 2 A roof shade which is a part of better shelter is appled. roof overhang is added to shade the walls and create a semi-outdoor space.

Phase 3 Phase 3 For the last phase Screen walls are added on the East and west side to create more intimate spaces which which can be used for activities such as cooking, socializing and play area for childern.

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OFF-SITE SOLUTION (RE)DESIGN STRATEGY Currently, no single prefabricated shelter addresses the needed constraints of cost implications, assembly time, and thermal safety. This redesign seeks to address the primary need of supporing human health and well-being, as well as social and psychological well-being in subsequent stages as shelters become incrementally customized and developed. The design criteria for the first stage were to address critical ventilation and solar heat gain resistance objectives. In tandem with improved ventialtion due to better WWR, a radiant insulation prototype was hotbox tested and simulted to radically decrease solar gains while also dematerializing existing insulation.

LIGHTWEIGHT DESIGN The off-site solution addresses existing design problems by 1)re-evaluating ventilation and solar gains, 2) acknowledging the need for light-weight dispatch, and 3) conceding that successful, scalable designs currently follow a western form that currently is not up for redesign. Shelters that are currently built must meet the preconceived â&#x20AC;&#x153;sophisticatedâ&#x20AC;? notion of western space design. Interviews with the Indian disaster risk management strategist Anshu Sharma, as well as refugee camp volunteer Jamie Yang have indicated that user happiness and well-being is determined by meeting these standards for shelter. Additionally, CRITICAL AIR FLOW In order to address the critical need for appprorpriate ventilation in temporary shelters, the baseline prefabricated shelter ventilation standards of Better Shelter were analyzed and expaned to create a modular shelter with appropriate air flow. Calculations for the baseline and redesing ventilation standards are included in the appendix.

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Hollow Core Radiant Insulation

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PERFORMANCE DESIGN THERMAL PERFORMANCE The interior conditions of the shelter avoids the health risk zone in terms of operative temperature in the case of both a hot, humid climate and an extreme cold climate.

HOT HUMID CLIMATE In the case of climate zone 1A, the operative temperature stays below 35°C. Larger windows and vents enhance the ventilation aiding in cooling. The interior temperature is slightly below the outdoor temperatures. Radiant hollow-core insulation and improved ventilation keeps the interior space from overheating.

EXTREME COLD CLIMATE The off-site shelter performed remarkably well when simulated in climate zone 5B (Kabul, Afghanistan). Even without active heating, the interior temperatures remain between 15-20°C. This is remarkable. Radiant hollowcore insulation provides high insulation in this case where the coldest temperatures are -10°C.

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Hot Humid Climate 45

Temperature (°C)

40

35

Outside temperature Outside Temperature

Baseline Baseline 30

Hollow-core Added hollow radiant core radiant insulation

Adaptive comfort lower-bound Adaptive comfort upperbound

Cold health risk Health Risk

25

20

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Hot Week (Jun 17 - Jun 23) CLIMATE ZONE : 1B WEATHER FILE: METEHARA(ETHIOPIA)

Cold Climate 25

20

Temperature (°C)

15

10

Outside temperature Outside temperature Baseline Baseline Hollow-core added customradiant insulation

5

Adaptive comfortThreshold lower-bound Adaptive Comfort Cold health risk risk Cold Health 0

-5

-10

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Cold Week (Jan 14 - Jan 23) CLIMATE ZONE : 5B WEATHER FILE: KABUL(AFGHANISTAN)

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0n-Site Redesign

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ON-SITE SOLUTION DESCRIPTION The re-designed shelter has a raised floor for flood risk areas. The attic acts as a buffer space between the solar heat gained by the corrugated metal roof and the occupied space below. The attic also allows storage of goods. The walls can be made out of low lightweight thermal mass materials. For this design small woven timber planks used to make walls known as â&#x20AC;&#x153;clissageâ&#x20AC;? technique. This is a traditional Haitian material technology.

For enhanced ventilation suitable for hot humid climate, 4 windows are used two in each side to take advantage for when there is wind. Primarily buoyancy ventilation is used with the 4 windows and a large vent at the top on the north facade. This opening also allows in ample day-lighting. The part of the metal roof without an attic space acts as a solar chimney further enhancing the ventilation.

Constructed in three phases, there are presences of well shaded porches on three sides creating semi-outdoor spaces, enlarging the cramped habitable space that can be used. It allows for a cool shaded space for socialization and for children to play. With added screen walls on the east west facade, the space can be used as a kitchen and dining space as cooking is not allowed inside the shelter to minimize fire risk.

Moreover the semi outdoor space along with the screen walls shades the walls of the shelter and prevents solar heat gain inside the shelter.

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ON-SITE SOLUTION LESSONS LEARNED FROM SHELTER ANALYSIS FOR CLIMATE ZONE 1A

• Improve Ventilation. Increase opening sizes, may be add chimneys for better airflow.

• Roof is a major source of heat gain,It must be mitigated it with insulation, shading or other measures. Having roof attic is a good strategy.

• Solar heat gain is the major source of heat gain for the shelter; proper shading of wall and roof can make the interior temperature mirror the exterior air temperature.

FEATURES

• Raised floor • Attic space for storage. Also provides buffer space preventing overheating of occupied space.

• Ample ventilation with four windows, two on each side provides cooling.

• Buoyancy ventilation with open vent at the top of north facade also enhances

Day lighting. Also acts as a solar chimney

• Three phased incremental upgrade for solar shading creating semi-outdoor spaces.

• Design replicable for hot humid climates( climate zone 1A)

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FRONT ELEVATION 0

0.5

1.5

3

0

PLAN 0.5

1.5

3

Attic space metal roof

Solar chimney

canvas shading

SECTION

0

0.5

1.5

3

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ON-SITE SOLUTION INCREMENTAL APPROACH Phase 1 In this phase, the main shelter is built. It is suitable for habitation allowing the homeowners to move in.

Phase 2 Gradually the home-owners can add shades. This creates a semi-outdoor space. Eventually a raised portico is built with roof members to support more shades.

Phase 3 For the last phase Screen walls are added on the East and west side to create more intimate spaces which can be used for cooking. The screens can be made out of any materials but for this design perforated metal has been used as Haiti has a local metal crafting industry.

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Design Approach: Incremental Upgrades PHASE 1

PHASE 2

PHASE 3

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PERFORMANCE DESIGN THERMAL PERFOMANCE The redesigned shelter outperforms the baseline design which was the Haiti plywood shelter. The interior temperature almost mirrors the outdoor temperature. More

importantly

the

indoor

temperature almost never crosses the health risk threshold of 35°C. The redesigned shelter performing better is mostly due to the attic acting as a buffer space.

The enhanced ventilation with high vents and well shaded walls also contribute.

Interestingly there is not much performance benefit from adding extra insulation both radiant and conventional.

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45

40

Temperature (C)

35

Outside Outsidetemperature Temperature

Redesign RedesignOperative temperature Operative Temperature

Baseline

30

Baseline

Adaptive comfort upperbound Upperbound

25

20

15

Hot Week (Jul 23 - Jul 29) CLIMATE ZONE : 1A WEATHER FILE: GUANTANAMO(CUBA)

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Interior view of the shelter

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Semi outdoor space can be used for activities like cooking

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PHYSICAL TESTS RADIANT INSULATION AND SHREDDED DENIM HOT BOX TESTS

1678

“

“

RADICALLY DEMATERIALIZING INSULATION THROUGH LIGHT-WEIGHT RADIANT HOLLOW-CORE DESIGN

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INTRODUCTION

The following physical tests were performed to test the efficacy of two insulation assemblies. The testing was performed using a styrofoam hotbox set up with one side exposed to the ambient air and one side completely enclosed in the styrofoam box. A heating pad was placed on the interior between the styrofoam face and interior-facing material sample side. Thermal sensors were placed on the interior and exterior face of the material sample. Finally, a heatflux sensor was hooked up to the exterior face of the material sample to test the W/m2 transmitted. These tests were performed to verify calculated and/or existing u values for 1) radiant, hollowcore mylar insulatoin adn 2) shredded denim insulation.

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RADIANT HOLLOW-CORE INSULATION AIR AS INSULATOR: HOLLOW-CORE DESIGN STRATEGY Radiant insulation can radically reduce solar heat gains. Highly reflective materials reflect radiant heat instead of absorbing it. However, these surfaces are still subject to conduction. Still air is known to be one of the worst conductors (and best insulators). However, air has the inherent desire to flow and will convect heat as soon as it is in motion. In the right conditions, a boundary layer of air will form around a surface and keep air completely still.

Hollow-core design makes use of optimum material layer spacing to keep air still in this boundary layer. Boundary layers may be laminar or turbulent depending in the Reynolds number. The higher the Reynolds number, the more likely the air will behave in a turbulent fashion. In order to design for air to be still, the Nusselt number (Nu) must also be calculated. The Nusselt number is a ratio of convective to conductive heat transfer across the boundary layer. For air to be still and resist convection, the Nusselt number must be greater than or equal to 2 (Craig, S., 2012).

The boundary layer size is determined by difference in temperature between surfaces and layer spacing. The smaller the difference in temperature, the thicker the boundary layer will be. In order to design for greater temperature differences between surfaces without using a great amount of radiant material, multi-layered assemblies can be designed.

OPTIMIZING THE AMOUNT OF LAYERS In order to design radiant insulation for a range of climate zones, the radiant hollow-core insulation was layered to cover temprature swings from a delta T ranging from 5 to 40 C. The graph to the right indicates the performance of hollow-core assemblies with different delta T values. When the number of air cavities reaches n=4, the hollow-core insulation performs well in the entire delta T range. This amount of cavities will produce radiant insulation that is the most versatile for temporary shelter applications in different climates.

170

Choking the Air Flow

Too Thin

Just Right

Too Wide

Air Movement at Different Layer Spacing (Van Dyke, 1982)

Optimum Layers for Different Climate Zone Applications Mylar Insulation U value = 0.3

25

R- [-]

20 T=5 10

15

20

30

10

5

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Cavities (n) Finding the Right Amount of Layers (Craig,S., 2012) 171

AIR CAVITY SIZE + DESIGN OPTIMIZING AIR CAVITY SIZE Air acts as a good insulator up to a certain cavity thickness. After a thickness of roughly 3 cm, there is a diminishing point of return to the u value, or resistance to heat transfer. The greater the spacing, the more likely the air will start to move and convect heat. Under 3 cm, air has the capacity to be a better insulator than most insulative materials at comparable thickness. The graph to the right indicates the insulative properties of a single cavity of air at different temperatures (grey shaded area). The green line indicates rice hull insulation and its increasing insulative values (decreasing U) as thickness rises. By stacking air cavities of this optimum thickness shaded in red, super thin, layered radiant insulation can achieve better U values than conventional insulation materials.

RADIANT INSULATION DESIGN Calculations were performed to design a radiant, hollow-core assembly out of mylar. This assembly has four 2 cm air cavities and five .5 mm Mylar layers for a total insulation thickness of 8.3 cm. Calculations for this assembly and input values are included in the appendix. Layers are reinforced by plastic fins in order to ensure that the air space is held constant at 2 cm. These bridges between layers are alternated at 20cm intervals to eliminate the possibility of thermal bridging, or heat transfer through conduction.

The render of the final design on the right shows a 40 cm x 60 cm sample of the radiant insulation. Velcro squares can be attached on the top and sides to keep the hollow-core, soft insulation taut in a roof assembly. By keeping the assembly lightweight and soft, it can be rolled up for minimal footprint and easy shipping and transport.

172

Optimizing Air Cavity Size 5 4.5

Air Rice Hull

Sweet Spot (2-3cm)

U Value (W/m2K)

4 3.5 3

c =1

2.5 c = 80

2 1.5 1 0.5

0

0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11

Thickness - L (m) Finding the Right Air Cavity Size (Craig,S., 2012)

Radiant Hollow-Core Mylar Insulation Sample

173

HOT BOX TEST HOT BOX TEST A hot box test was performed to evaluate calculated values for this 4 cavity, 5 layered mylar assembly. The following pictures show the hot box experiment details and set up. Five layers of 30 cm x 30 cm mylar were spaced out with 2 cm air cavities. The mylar was encased in a wooden frame to ensure constant spacing. The interior layer contained a heating pad sandwiched between the styrofoam and interior facing mylar layer. A thermal sensor was hooked up to both the exterior and interior facing layers. A heat flux sensor was secured to the exterior layer. With the lid closed, the heating pad was turned on at a low wattage and run for 4 hours to ensure steady state measurement. After 4 hours, the data set was collected for a total of one hour to ensure accurate u value results.

TEST RESULTS Simulation results beat the calculated value of .31 w/m2K. The sample was tested in two delta T=20 and one delta T =10 scenario to observe the actual u value. Test results ranged from u= .28 to .24. Calculations do not account for the mylarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s radiation, and therefore test results are slightly lower than calculated.

To be conservative and not overestimate insulative value of the radiant sample, the u value from experiment 1 of u= .28 was chosen to represent the mylar insulation.

174

Experiment 1 Calculated U Value Heat Flux (w/m2) = Q/A

6.5

ΔT =

20

U= Q/AΔT

0.33

Experiment U Value U= Experiment 2

Experiment 1

Calculated U Value

Calculated U Value Heat Flux (w/m2) = Q/A ΔT =

Detail of Thermal and Heat Flux Sensors

U= Q/AΔT

Heat Flux (w/m2) = Q/A

6.5

10 0.30

Experiment U Value

U= Experiment 1

3

= 20 and Power Source SetΔT Hot Box Up U= Q/AΔT 0.33

Experiment U Value

U=

0.28

0.27 Experiment 3

Experiment 2

Calculated U Value

0.28

Calculated U Value

Calculated U Value

Heat Flux (w/m2) = Q/A

6.5

Heat Flux (w/m2) = Q/A

3

Heat Flux (w/m2) = Q/A

ΔT =

20

ΔT =

10

ΔT =

20

U= Q/AΔT

0.33

U= Q/AΔT

0.30

U= Q/AΔT

0.33

Experiment U Value 0.28

U=

Radiant Hollow-Core Experiment 2Mylar Insulation Test U Values Calculated U Value 3 0.30

height

H=

length

L=

width

W=

total wall volume

HLW =

U=

0.27

Experiment 3 φ =

air volume fraction [4]

Calculated Value solid volume to airU fraction

Heat Fluxair(w/m2) # vertical cavities = Q/A thickness of air = space ΔT thickness of solid U= Q/AΔT

1- φ =

20

0.300

U= Q/AΔT

0.33

0.083

m

Experiment U Value m

U=

g=

9.81

m2/s

β=

0.00343

1/K

length of heated or cooled geometry

H=

0.300

m

0.24

0.007

m3

temperature difference [3]

ΔT =

10

K

0.970

-

thermal diffusivity of air [5]

α=

0.0000208

m2/s

-

ta =

0.020

m

ts = 0.33

accelaration due to gravity

thermal expansion coeffiecient for air [1]

m

0.030

20

Rayleigh Number

0.300

4.000

kinematic viscosity of air [6]

v=

0.000015

m2/s

Rayleigh number

Ra (H,ΔT) =

2.91E+07

W/m2K

0.001 [9]

m

heat transfer coefficient

h=

3

0.025

W/mK @ 20C

length of heated or cooled geometry

L=

0.083

m

0.155

W/mK

thermal conductivity of air

kf =

0.025

W/mK

Nusselt Number [11]

Nu = [12]

9.9

-

R=

35.735

K/W

R=

35.735

K/W

U=

0.311

W/m^2.K

0.028

w/mk

ka =

thermal conductivity of solid

ks =

of all layers combined [13] R value in terms of φ

U=

6.5

ΔT =

n = 6.5

thermal conductivity of still air

Experiment U Value

0.24

Experiment 3

Heat Flux (w/m2) = Q/A

10Hollow Core Geometry

ΔT = U= Q/AΔT

U=

0.27

Calculated U Value

Heat Flux (w/m2) = Q/A

Experiment U Value

Experiment U Value

Experiment U Value

U=

6.5

0.24

35.735

Calculated Values for Test Sample Q=UAdT

0.280

U=QAdT

2.798

W

0.003412969283

Radiant Hollow-Core Mylar Layer Set Up

175

SHREDDED DENIM HOT BOX TEST SHREDDED DENIM INSULATION The feasability of self-made recycled denim insulation was tested in this study.

The denim sample was produced by shredding 10 cm x 10 cm squares of recycled denim through a cross-cut paper shredder. The resulting loose denim fiber was then packed into a 3 cm thick, 30 cm x 30 cm sample to test the u value of the assembly. The density of this sample was 65 kg/m3.

HOT BOX TEST A hot box test was performed to compare self-made recycled denim against commercial denim insulation u values. The following pictures show the hot box experiment details and set up. A 3 cm thick layer of shredded denim was tested.

A 30 cm x 30cm wooden frame with a thin layer of paper was used to ensure constant spacing and hold the loose fill in place. The interior layer contained a heating pad sandwiched between the styrofoam and interior facing denim. A thermal sensor was hooked up to both the exterior and interior facing layers. A heat flux sensor was secured to the exterior layer. With the lid closed, the heating pad was turned on at a low wattage and run for 4 hours to ensure steady state measurement. After 4 hours, the data set was collected for a total of one hour to ensure accurate u value results.

TEST RESULTS Simulation results performed slightly worse than commercial denim at .51 W/ m2K. The sample was tested in two delta T=10 scenario. Future tests might be needed in order to ensure that the sample would perform well in greater temperature differences.

176

Detail of Thermal and Heat Flux Sensors

Shredded Denim Sample Detail (3 cm)

Insulation Comparison at Different Thicknesses Insulation Thickness

0.6

8 cm

0.5

15 cm 0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0

Radiant Hollowcore

Rice Hull

Shredded Denim

Straw

Commercial Denim

Alternative Insulation Materials vs. Radiant Insulation Strategies

177

178

CONCLUSION

In summary, these tests show the efficacy of shredded denim and radiant hollow-core insulation. The most notable takeaway is that the use of air as an insulator in radiant insulation has the possibility of radically dematerializing insulation. The graph on the previous page shows that in comparison, radiant insulation achieves a u value of .28 in just 8 cm, while rice hulls achieve a u value of .32 in double that (15 cm!).

Radiant insulation has the possibility of being incorporated into both on-site and off-site design solutions. Due to the sensitivity of the 2 cm air cavity thickness and structual integrity of the assembly, the radiant insulation needs to be manufactured in an off-site factory.

The lightweight quality of this insulation design makes it extremely easy to ship and airdrop in remote locations.

The jean insulation has benefits of being able to be manufactured on-site. In the conversation with Anshu Sharma, it was indicated that post-disaster relief often includes clothing donations that often do not fit the needs of users. This type of insulation would be a great use for surplus denim, if access to power and paper shredders is available. It should be noted that it does require 15 cm of this insulation to achieve a u value of .51 W/m2K, and that other insulations such as rice hulls or radiant insulation would be more effective. Given the uncertainty of material availbility in post-disaster scenarios, shredded jeans provide another option to improve the thermal performance of otherwise uninsulated temporary shelters.

179

180

DESIGN GUIDELINES RECOMMENDATIONS FOR BETTER THERMAL CONDITIONS AND HEALTH OUTCOMES

1818

RECOMMENDATIONS The recommendations are based on the thermal analysis of the shelters from the shelter catalog. These include design suggestions as well as catalog of solutions with multiple solutions to achieve thermally safe interior conditions.

It is divided up into Hot Humid, Hot dry, cold and very cold climate zones.

1)HOT HUMID CLIMATES (ASHRAE CLIMATE ZONES 1A,2A) PROVIDE MINIMUM VENTILATION STANDARD Based on the analysis of the natural ventilation of the existing shelters, minimum ventilation standard was set so that natural ventilation can provide enough cooling. In hot and humid climates, it is necessary to have high air-flow to provide passive cooling as there are hardly any other alternatives.

The Minimum ACH(Air changes per hour)should be 20.

Minimum Air change per hour value was set based on the fact that naturally ventilated building usually have ACH value ranging for 20 to 50.

To achieve 20 ACH, the following requirements must be met.

5% of total wall Area must be operable windows 5% of total wall Area must be vents 1m height difference minimum between window and vents Insect screens could be a required for several locations as tropical climates .They are usually hot and humid having the risk of vector borne diseases such as malaria. Insect screens greatly reduce the airflow from the openings based on the size of the pores in the insect screens.

Having a high ACH value of 20 ensures that even if insect screens are used, adequate ventilation can be provided.

182

AVOID SOLAR GAINS The thermal analysis showed that almost all of the heat gains inside the shelter was due to solar heat gains. Avoiding or minimizing solar heat gains from the roof, walls and openings insures that the interior temperature stay similar to outdoor temperature. Because the shelters are roof dominated and have few windows which happen to be small, most of the solar heat gain is through the roof. The following design suggestions helps reduced overall solar heat gain.

• Shaded Openings All the openings must be shaded. Awning openings that are opaque is a clever way to provide local shading to the window and keeping the cost of the shelter down by avoiding glass.

• Roof shade If the roof does not have sufficient insulation or the shelter doesn’t have an attic space, the roof must be shaded as it is the major source of solar heat gain.

• Shade the shelter walls The walls must be shaded as far as possible. Depending upon the latitude of the location, deep overhangs helps shade the southern facade while the East and West facade needs either vertical louvers or additional walls.

183

RECOMMENDATIONS ROOF MODIFICATIONS CATALOGUE As mentioned in the previous paragraphs, roof is the major source of heat gain.

A catalogue of design solutions and insulation must be used based on local context to insure healthy interior thermal conditions.

• Avoid single layer CGI (corrugated metal) roof A single envelope metal roof exposed directly to the occupied space produced very high temperatures when analyzed. Therefore, they must be avoided. The solutions below offer ways to use the CGI material and still avoid the high interior temperatures.

• Shade the roof/ Double roof Shading the entire roof is a simple yet effective way to minimize heat gains provided the space below the shade is well ventilated.

• Roof pond (3”or 7.5cm Max) with movable insulation: A roof pond system is one of the most effective means of passive cooling.

It works by keeping a body of water shaded and insulated during the day and exposing it to the nighttime sky so that heat loss occus due to radiation. For a movable insulation, woven straw mats are an option.

Water can be stored in black plastic bags on the metal roof. The CGI metal roof helps dissipate and conduct heat.

The depth of the roof pond system should be limited to 3” or 7.5cm as there is a diminishing return on performance with increased depths.

The system is ideal if there is where cooling demand is greater such as high occupancy spaces like classrooms.

The disadvantage are daily manual operation, clear night time sky. and increased structural requirement.

184

• Sod roof (6” or 15cm Max) A sod roof uses soil from the site itself. This solution is deal for more remote locations where materials are not available. The sod roof can uses the CGI metal roof as the base for the soil. Higher thickness than the recommended 6”/15cm should not be used due to diminishing return on interior temperature conditions and increased structural costs.

• Attic space An attic space act as a buffer space keeping the solar heat gain off from the occupied space below it. It is very effective in keeping the occupied space temperatures from getting too high. It can also be used as an extra storage space.

INSULATION STRATEGIES Insulating materials keep the interior space from overheating.Some insulation strategies are as listed below.

• Radiant insulation (Aluminium foil, mylar etc): Radiant insulation uses materials with very high emissivity that reflect heat back to the source.

It prevents heat gain via radiation.

• Radiant hollow core: Hollow core walls with radiant insulation incorporated forms a very effective insulation material. it works by preventing air between its multiple layers from convecting. this requires the gap between the cores to be very precise.

• Insulating materials: Rice hulls, shredded denim, plastics,straw

185

RECOMMENDATIONS 2) HOT DRY CLIMATES (ASHRAE CLIMATE ZONES 1B AND 2B) This type of climate is not explored in this study. IOM shelter guide recommends using high thermal mass materials, and small openings to prevent hot air from entering the shelter.

3) COLD CLIMATES (ASHRAE CLIMATE ZONES UP TO 3) For climate zones up to 3, passive solar techniques are sufficient.

PASSIVE SOLAR TECHNIQUES Passive solar techniques of storing daytime heat using thermal mass and reradiating it at night is sufficient to maintain healthy interior thermal conditions.

AVOID SINGLE LAYER CGI ROOF A metal CGI roof loses heat to the exterior very quickly and has no insulating properties making the interior too cold for healthy conditions particularly at night.

ROOF INSULATION CATALOG For passive solar technique to work, the heat stored during the day must be retained. Since the roof is the greatest source of heat loss, hence it must be insulated. A single layer metal CGI loses all the heat from the interior. The following are natural insulation materials that are inexpensive and could be found locally. Also suggested are the thickness based on diminishing returns after certain thickness.

• Shredded Denim( treated with borax to make it flame retardant) • Rice Hull (6” or 15cm recommended) • Straw • Plastics • Radiant Hollow core ( mentioned in previous section)

186

ROOF STRATEGIES Besides insulation there are also the following design strategies that work as passive solar techniques. They also work well for dealing with heat gain for summer time.

• Roof pond (3” or 7.5cm Max) w. Movable straw insulation The operation must be reversed from the previous section i.e the water must be exposed to the sun during the day and the roof covered with movable insulation during the night to prevent the heat gained during the day from being lost.

• Sod roof (6” or 15cm max, recommended 3” or 7.5cm) Although this design solution can be used for insulation, it is the least effective solution from among the study. It does not make the interior temperature to rise to insure health conditions. It must only be used when there are no other alternatives.

WALL STRATEGIES According to the thermal analysis, materials with high thermal mass are highly effective in cold climates. Water stored in barrels can to be used to increase thermal mass as water has one of the highest thermal mass. Thermal mass is more effective at raising the interior temperatures at night if the shelter is insulated from the exterior. For colder climates, the walls must be insulated for thermal mass to be able to re-radiate the heat. Otherwise it is all lost.

4) COLDER CLIMATES (ASHRAE CLIMATE ZONE 4 ONWARDS) Based on the thermal analysis, for climate zones 4 and upwards, passive techniques alone may not be sufficient to maintain healthy interior conditions. .

Based on literature review, for dealing with colder climates the best case solution is Prefabricated shelters to insure less infiltration (air tight construction) with built-in insulation.

187

188

CONCLUSION FINAL TAKEAWAYS AND FUTURE DIRECTION

8 189

KEY TAKEAWAYS QUALITY OF INTERIOR CONDITIONS AS SHELTER DEMAND INCREASE

The demand for shelters both permanent and temporary is certain to rise in the future because of factors like increased urbanization and anthropogenic climate change. Since 2012, there has been a 45 percent increase of displaced persons. In an effort to meet these demands maintaining healthy thermal conditions in the interior needs to be a priority. It is critical that designers develop solutions that have the potential to scale globally and support human well-being.

PEOPLE DESERVE BETTER; IT IS ABOUT DIGNITY The plight of the people having to live in sub standard temporary shelters

cannot be ignored. the people deserve better. They are forced to live in shelters the designers themsleves could never tolerate to live in.

OPPORTUNITY TO TEST ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS Temporary shelters have a limited lifespan much shorter than their

permanent counterparts. because of theses, the durability requirements and standards are less rigorous. this presents an opportunity to use newer/ alternative materials .

POTENTIAL TO CONTRIBUTE IN DEVELOPMENT OF LOW COST, PERMANENT SHELTER.

Opportunities to explore alternative materials combined with short lifespans means many iterations of a temporary shelter can be built and tested.

Lessons learned in this iterative process not only improve the shelter response but also contribute in development of low cost permanent shelters.

There are some parallels between these two types of shelter due similar cost constraints.

190

FUTURE WORKS FIELD TEST THE SOLUTIONS EXPLORED

The immediate work will be to field test the solutions explored in this study. Currently the study relied extensively on simulations to develop the solutions and recommendations. Actual physical tests conducted in real world scenarios would be needed to verify the validity of the solutions suggested. Particularly the various insulation startegies need to be field tested to test for feasiblity. As mentioned in the simulation assumptions, metal roofs were assumed to have no patina. Metal roofs with patina would absorb more heat in the day time and radiate less heat out at the night sky. Testing weathered or salvaged material assemblies would give more accurate simulation results.

EXPAND THE LIST OF BUILDING MATERIALS/INSULATION The study focused on the use of natural materials that are locally available , cheap and non toxic. The list of these materials could be expanded.

EXPLORE THE USE OF HOLLOWCORE INSULATION FOR COLDER CLIMATES The solutions suggested in this study were limited to ashrae climate zone 3

using only passive techniques. however the off-site solution explored using radiant hollow-core walls has possibilities for use in even colder climates if the construction is pre fabricated to insure air tightness.

191

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UNHCR (2012). Toolkit and Guidance for Preventing and Managing Land and Natural Resource Conflict. Retrieved March 5, 2017, from http://www.un.org/en/events/ environmentconflictday/pdf/GN_Renewable_Consultation.pdf UNHCR. (2015). Emergency Handbook: A Guide to Agile, Effective and Community Based Humanitarian Emergency Response. Retrieved May 06, 2017, from https://emergency.unhcr. org/ UNHCR. (2016). Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2015. Retrieved April 27, 2017, from http://www.unhcr.org/en-us/statistics/unhcrstats/576408cd7/unhcr-global-trends-2015. html UNHCR. (2016b). Climate Change, Natural Disasters and Human Displacement: A UNHCR Perspective. Retrieved May 4, 2017, from http://www.unhcr.org/4901e81a4.pdf United Nations Interagency Framework Team for Preventive Action. (2012). Renewable Resources and Conflict: Toolkit and Guidance for Preventing and Managing Land and Natural Resources Conflict. Retrieved March 5, 2017, from http://www.un.org/en/events/ environmentconflictday/pdf/GN_Renewable_Consultation.pdf Wilcox, S., & Marion, W. (2008, May). Users Manual for TMY3 Data Sets (Rep.). Retrieved May 7, 2017, from National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy website: http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy08osti/43156.pdf U.S. Global Change Research Program. (2016). The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment. Crimmins, A., J. Balbus, J.L. Gamble, C.B. Beard, J.E. Bell, D. Dodgen, R.J. Eisen, N. Fann, M.D. Hawkins, S.C. Herring, L. Jantarasami, D.M. Mills, S. Saha, M.C. Sarofim, J. Trtanj, and L. Ziska, Eds. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC,312 pp. http://dx.doi.org/10.7930/J0R49NQX

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Woolley, T. (2008). Natural building: a guide to materials and techniques. Ramsbury: Crowood Press.

World Health Organization Europe. (2009). Improving Public Health Responses to Extreme Weather and Heat-Waves. Retrieved March 19, 2017, from http://www.euro.who.int/__data/ assets/pdf_file/0010/95914/E92474.pdf?ua=1

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197

IMAGE CREDITS

The following image credits are listed in order of appearance and coordinate with the number listed in the bottom right hand corner of each image. Any images or graphics without citation were created by the authors.

Title Page. Better Shelter. (2016). A Better Shelter [Digital image]. Retrieved May 4, 2017, from http://www.bettershelter.org/about/ 1. Augustino, J. (2005, September 1). New Orleans, September 2005 [Neighborhoods throughout the area remain flooded as a result of the failure of the Federal levee system during Hurricane Katrina]. Retrieved May 4, 2017, from https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:FEMA_-_19176_-_Photograph_by_Jocelyn_Augustino_taken_on_09-01-2005_in_ Louisiana.jpg 2. KPMG. (2014). Urbanization: The Evidence of Change [Digital image]. Retrieved May 4, 2017, from https://assets.kpmg.com/content/dam/kpmg/pdf/2014/02/future-state2030-v3.pdf 3. Pal, J. S., & Eltahir, E. A. (2016, February). Time series of the annual maximum TWmax for each ensemble member and GHG scenario [Digital image]. Retrieved May 4, 2017, from https://www.nature.com/nclimate/journal/v6/n2/full/nclimate2833.html 4. Van der Merwe, A./UNICEF. (2015). Flooded church in Bangula, Nsanje District, Southern Malawi [Digital image]. Retrieved May 4, 2017, from http://www.irinnews.org/ photo/201501201731300632/flooded-church-bangula-nsanje-district-southern-malawi 5. Ikea Foundation. (2015). Ikea Flat Pack Refugee Shelter [Digital image]. Retrieved May 4, 2017, from https://www.ikeafoundation.org/pressrelease/better-shelter-ikea-foundationand-unhcr-ready-to-improve-life-for-thousands-of-refugee-families/ 6. Kavanagh, A. (2016, December 23). New Refugees Find Hope, Help, and Some Resistance in the Granite State [Digital image]. Retrieved May 11, 2017, from http://nhpr.org/post/newrefugees-find-hope-help-and-some-resistance-granite-state#stream/0 7. IKEA Foundation. (2015). Better Shelter Prototype units during an 18-month test run at Kobe refugee camp in Dollo Ado, Ethiopia [Digital image]. Retrieved May 11, 2017, from http:// www.mnn.com/your-home/remodeling-design/blogs/ikeas-better-shelter-refugee-housingunits-heading-to-iraq

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8. Noy, F., & UNHCR. (2014, January). A Refugee Settlement Rises Again in Northern Uganda [Digital image]. Retrieved May 11, 2017, from https://www.flickr.com/photos/25857074@ N03/12901250653

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APPENDIX SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF NATURAL VENTILATION WITH DIFFERENT OCCUPANCY HEAT GAINS The assumption of occupant load of 140W for an adult male engaged in moderate office work was used from the table below

SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF NATURAL VENTILATION WITH DIFFERENT OCCUPANCY HEAT GAINS The assumption of occupant load of 140W for an adult engaged in moderate office work was used from the table below

200

CALCULATION INPUTS FOR RADIANT HOLLOW-CORE INSULATION

Hollow Core Geometry Hollow Core Geometry

Rayleigh Number Rayleigh Number

height

height

H=

H =0.300

0.300 m

m

accelaration due accelaration to gravity due to gravityg

length

length

L=

L =0.083

0.083 m

m

thermal expansionthermal coeffiecient expansion for air coeffiecient [1] forβair=[1]

β 0.00343 =

width

width

W=

W =0.300

0.300 m

m

length of heated or length cooled of heated geometry or cooled geometry H=

H =0.300

=

HLW0.007 =

0.007m3

m3

0.970 -

-

φ= solid volume to air solid fraction volume to air 1fraction

1- φ0.030 =

HLW total wall volume total wall volume air volume fraction air[4] volume fraction φ [4]=

φ =0.970

n= # vertical air cavities # vertical air cavities

n =4.000

4.000 -

-

ta =0.020

0.020 m

m

0.001 [9] m

m

ts thickness of solidthickness of solid

=

ts0.001 = [9]

temperature difference temperature [3] difference [3] ΔT

0.030

ta = thickness of air space thickness of air space thermal conductivity thermal of still conductivity air ofka still=air

ka =0.025

W/mK 0.025 @ 20CW/mK @ 20C

kssolid = thermal conductivity thermal of solid conductivity of

ks =0.155

0.155 W/mK

R [13] = of all layers combined of all layers [13] combined

R= 35.735

35.735 K/W

R= 35.735

35.735 K/W

U =0.311

0.311 W/m^2.K

U=

0.028

0.028 w/mk

35.735

35.735

Q=UAdT

Q=UAdT 0.280

0.280W

U=QAdT

U=QAdT 2.798

2.798

m

10 K

K

thermal boundarythe la

α0.0000208 =

0.0000208 m2/s

m2/s

ΔT of single cav

v0.000015 =

0.000015 m2/s

m2/s

accelaration due ac to

2.91E+07-

-

Rayleigh numberRayleigh number Ra

(H,ΔT) = Ra (H,ΔT) 2.91E+07 =

thermal expansionthermal coeffiecie

thermal diffusivitythe o heat transfer coefficient heat transfer coefficient

h=

length of heated or length cooled of heated geometry or cooled geometry L=

W/mK

thermal conductivity thermal of airconductivity of airkf

=

= [12]

h= 3

3W/m2K

W/m2K

L =0.083

0.083 m

kf =0.025

0.025 W/mK

W/mK

9.9 -

-

Nu = [12] 9.9

m

kinematic viscosity kine o

Ra = gβ(H^3)θ/

K/W K/W

Nu = .364(ta/H)*Ra(H Nu =

W/m^2.K

0.003412969283 0.003412969283

blending parame

w/mk W

Choking the flow C N

Boundary Layer

g=

9.81

m2/s

H=

0.300

β=

0.00343

1/K

Ra =

2.91E+07

-

ed geometry

H=

0.300

m

δ=

0.01839

m

thermal boundary layer [2]

m

nce [3]

ΔT =

10

K

f air [5]

α=

0.0000208

m2/s

ΔT of single cavity

θ=

2.5

K

of air [6]

v=

0.000015

m2/s

accelaration due to gravity

g=

9.81

m2/s

Ra (H,ΔT) =

2.91E+07

-

thermal expansion coeffiecient for air [7]

β=

0.00343

1/K

thermal diffusivity of air [8]

α=

0.0000208

m2/s m2/s

ficient

h=

3

W/m2K

kinematic viscosity of air [10]

v=

0.000015

ed geometry

L=

0.083

m

Ra = gβ(H^3)θ/αv

Ra(H,θ) =

2,911,872

kf =

0.025

W/mK

Nu = [12]

9.9

-

03412969283

1/K

0.300 m

=

gravity

[11]

m2/s

=

ient for air [1]

y of air

ΔT = 10

9.81m2/s 0.00343 1/K

thermal diffusivitythermal of air [5]diffusivity of air [5]α

Rayleigh Number

ber

=

g = 9.81

kinematic viscosity kinematic of air [6]viscosity of air [6]v

Nusselt Number [11] Nusselt Number [11] Nu R value in terms of R value φ in terms ofRφ=

=

ta =

0.020

m

H=

0.300

m

Nu = .364(ta/H)*Ra(H,θ)^(1/4)

Nu = [14]

1.0024

-

blending parameter

c=

3

ta =

0.011

m

H=

0.3

m

Nu

1.0530

-

Choking the flow Nu = 1

201