For Sam
CHAPTER 1 The Science of Psychology 1
CHAPTER 2 The Brain and Behavior 42
CHAPTER 3 Sensation and Perception 84
CHAPTER 4 States of Consciousness 126
CHAPTER 5 Learning 168
CHAPTER 6 Memory 204
CHAPTER 7 Thinking, Intelligence, and Language 245
CHAPTER 8 Human Development 284
CHAPTER 9 Motivation and Emotion 331
CHAPTER 10 Personality 369
CHAPTER 11 Social Psychology 406
CHAPTER 12 Psychological Disorders 446
CHAPTER 13 Therapies 497
CHAPTER 14 Health Psychology 527
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Name Index NI-1
Subject Index SI-1
xix
The Science of Psychology 1
1 Defining Psychology and Exploring Its Roots 2
The Psychological Frame of Mind 3
Psychology as the Science of All Human Behavior 4
Psychology in Historical Perspective 6
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Where Is Everybody? 9
2 Contemporary Approaches to Psychology 9
The Biological Approach 9
The Behavioral Approach 10
The Psychodynamic Approach 10
The Humanistic Approach 11
The Cognitive Approach 11
The Evolutionary Approach 11
The Sociocultural Approach 12
Summing Up the Seven Contemporary Approaches 12
3 Psychology’s Scientific Method 14
4 Types of Psychological Research 18
Descriptive Research 18
Correlational Research 21
PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Big Data in Psychological Science 24
Experimental Research 25
INTERSECTION: Cognitive Psychology and Health Psychology: How Can We Combat COVID-19 Misinformation Online? 27
Applications of the Three Types of Research 30
5 Research Samples and Settings 31
The Research Sample 31
The Research Setting 32
6 Conducting Ethical Research 34
Ethics Guidelines 34
The Ethics of Research with Animals 35
The Place of Values in Psychological Research 36
7 Learning About Psychology Means Learning About You 37
Encountering Psychology in Everyday Life 37
Appreciating Psychology as the Science of You 38
SUMMARY 40
KEY TERMS 40 ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 41
2 The Brain and Behavior 42
1 The Nervous System 43
Characteristics of the Nervous System 43
Pathways in the Nervous System 44
Divisions of the Nervous System 45
2 Neurons 47
Specialized Cell Structure 47
The Neural Impulse 48
Synapses and Neurotransmitters 50
Neural Networks 55
3 Structures of the Brain and Their Functions 55
How Researchers Study the Brain and Nervous System 56
How the Brain Is Organized 58
INTERSECTION: Neuroscience and Language: What Is a Word to a Dog? 59
The Cerebral Cortex 64
The Cerebral Hemispheres and Split-Brain Research 67
Integration of Function in the Brain 70
4 The Endocrine System 71
5 Brain Damage, Plasticity, and Repair 73
The Brain’s Plasticity and Capacity for Repair 73
PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Protecting the Athlete’s Brain 74
Brain Tissue Implants 75
6 Genetics and Behavior 76
Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA 76
The Study of Genetics 77
Genes and the Environment 79
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: How Should We Think About Genes and Behavior? 81
SUMMARY 82
KEY TERMS 83
ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 83
3 Sensation and Perception 84
1 How We Sense and Perceive the World 85
Page vii
The Processes and Purposes of Sensation and Perception 85
Sensory Receptors and the Brain 87
Thresholds 90
Perceiving Sensory Stimuli 93
Sensory Adaptation 95
2 The Visual System 96
The Visual Stimulus and the Eye 96
Visual Processing in the Brain 100
Color Vision 102
Perceiving Shape, Depth, Motion, and Constancy 104
3 The Auditory System 109
The Nature of Sound and How We Experience It 109
Structures and Functions of the Ear 110
Theories of Hearing 112
PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Are You Listening Safely? 113
Auditory Processing in the Brain 114
Localizing Sound 114
4 Other Senses 116
The Skin Senses 116
The Chemical Senses 118
INTERSECTION: Sensation, Perception, and Social Psychology: Do False Beliefs about Race Affect Pain Treatment? 119
The Kinesthetic and Vestibular Senses 121
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Could You Be Fooled into Thinking You Have Six Fingers? 123
SUMMARY 124
KEY TERMS 125 ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 125
4 States of Consciousness 126
1 The Nature of Consciousness 127
Defining Consciousness 128
Consciousness and the Brain 128
Theory of Mind 128
Levels of Awareness 129
INTERSECTION: Consciousness and Social Psychology: Could Robots Make Us Kinder to Each Other? 130
2 Sleep and Dreams 133
Biological Rhythms and Sleep 133
Why Do We Need Sleep? 135
Stages of Wakefulness and Sleep 137
Sleep Throughout the Life Span 140
Sleep and Disease 141
Sleep Disorders 141 Dreams 144
3 Psychoactive Drugs 146 Uses of Psychoactive Drugs 146 Types of Psychoactive Drugs 148
PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Responding to the Opioid Crisis 153
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Does Legalized Medical Marijuana Reduce Opioid Abuse and Overdoses? 158
4 Hypnosis 160
The Nature of Hypnosis 160
Explaining Hypnosis 161
Uses of Hypnosis 162
5 Meditation 163 Mindfulness Meditation 164
Lovingkindness Meditation 164
The Meditative State of Mind 165
Getting Started with Meditation 165
SUMMARY 166
KEY TERMS 167
1 Types of Learning 169
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Do Machines Actually Learn? 171
2 Classical Conditioning 172
Pavlov’s Studies 172
Classical Conditioning in Humans 175
PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Marketing Between the Lines 179
3 Operant Conditioning 180
Defining Operant Conditioning 181
Thorndike’s Law of Effect 181
Skinner’s Approach to Operant Conditioning 182
Shaping 183
Principles of Reinforcement 183
Applied Behavior Analysis 190
4 Observational Learning 191
INTERSECTION: Learning and Social Psychology: Can Observational Learning Lead to Bias? 193
5 Cognitive Factors in Learning 195
Purposive Behavior 195
Insight Learning 196
6 Biological, Cultural, and Psychological Factors in Learning 198
Biological Constraints 198
Cultural Influences 200
Psychological Constraints 200
SUMMARY 202
KEY TERMS 203
ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 203
6 Memory 204
1 The Nature of Memory 205
2 Memory Encoding 206
Attention 206
Levels of Processing 207
Elaboration 208
Imagery 209
3 Memory Storage 210
Sensory Memory 211
Short-Term Memory 212
Long-Term Memory 215
Page viii
INTERSECTION: Sleep and Developmental Psychology: How Do Naps Allow Babies to Separate Episodic and Semantic Memories? 218
4 Memory Retrieval 223
Serial Position Effect 224
Retrieval Cues and the Retrieval Task 224
Special Cases of Retrieval 226
PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Using Psychological Research to Improve Police Lineups 231
5 Forgetting 233
Encoding Failure 233
Retrieval Failure 234
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: How Can We Understand the Experience of Déjà vu? 237
6 Tips from the Science of Memory—for Studying and for Life 238
Organizing, Encoding, Rehearsing, and Retrieving Course Content 238
Autobiographical Memory and the Life Story 240
Keeping Memory Sharp 241
SUMMARY 242
KEY TERMS 244 ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 244
7 Thinking, Intelligence, and Language 245
1 The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology 246
2 Thinking 248 Concepts 249
Problem Solving 250
Reasoning and Decision Making 251
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Can Artificial Intelligence Be Racist? 257
Thinking Critically and Creatively 257
INTERSECTION: Cognition and Motivation: Why do people believe in conspiracy theories? 259
3 Intelligence 260
Measuring Intelligence 262
Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence 265
Genes, Environment, and Group Differences in IQ 267
Extremes of Intelligence 268
Theories of Multiple Intelligences 270
4 Language 272
PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: What Do the Words We Use on Social Media Reveal about Us? 273
The Basic Properties of Language 273
Language and Cognition 274
Biological and Environmental Influences on Language 277
Language Development over the Life Span 280
SUMMARY 282
KEY TERMS 283
ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 283
8 Human Development 284
1 Exploring Human Development 285
Research Methods in Developmental Psychology 285
How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Development? 286
Do Early Experiences Rule Us for Life? 286
Nature, Nurture, and You 287
Three Domains of Development 288
2 Physical Development 289
Prenatal Physical Development 289
Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood 291
Physical Development in Adolescence 294
Physical Development in Adulthood 296
3 Cognitive Development 299
Cognitive Development from Childhood into Adulthood 299
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: When Is Your First Memory? 303
Cognitive Processes in Adulthood 306
INTERSECTION: Developmental Psychology and Cognitive Psychology: Can Young Children Be More Rational Than Adults? 307
4 Socioemotional Development 309
Socioemotional Development in Infancy 309
Erikson’s Theory of Socioemotional Development 311
5 Gender Development 319
Biology and Gender Development 320
Cognitive Aspects of Gender Development 320
PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Human Identities and the Changing Gender Landscape 321
Socioemotional Experience and Gender Development 322
Nature and Nurture Revisited: The John/Joan Case 322
6 Moral Development 323
Kohlberg’s Theory 323
Critics of Kohlberg 324
Moral Development in a Socioemotional Context 325
7 Death, Dying, and Grieving 326
Terror Management Theory: A Cultural Shield against Mortality 326
Kübler-Ross’s Stages of Dying 327
Bonanno’s Theory of Grieving 327
Carving Meaning Out of the Reality of Death 328
8 Active Development as a Lifelong Process 328
SUMMARY 329
KEY TERMS 330
ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 330
9 Motivation and Emotion 331
1 Theories of Motivation 332
The Evolutionary Approach 332
Drive Reduction Theory 333
Optimum Arousal Theory 333
2 Hunger and Sex 335
The Biology of Hunger 335
Obesity 337
INTERSECTION: Developmental Psychology and Social Psychology: Are There “Boy Foods” and “Girl Foods”? 338
PSYCHOLOGY :
The Biology of Sex 340
Cognitive and Sensory/Perceptual Factors in Sexuality 342
Cultural Factors in Sexuality 342
Sexual Behavior and Orientation 344
3 Beyond Hunger and Sex: Motivation in Everyday Life 349
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs 349
Self-Determination Theory 350
Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation 352
Self-Regulation: The Successful Pursuit of Goals 352
4 Emotion 353
Biological Factors in Emotion 354
Cognitive Factors in Emotion 357
Behavioral Factors in Emotion 358
Sociocultural Factors in Emotion 360
Classifying Emotions 361
Adaptive Functions of Emotions 362
5 Motivation and Emotion: The Pursuit of Happiness 364
Biological Factors in Happiness 364
Obstacles in the Pursuit of Happiness 364
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: How Does Money Relate to Happiness? 365
Happiness Activities and Goal Striving 366
SUMMARY 367
KEY TERMS 368
ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 368
10 Personality 369
1 Psychodynamic Perspectives 370
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory 370
Psychodynamic Critics and Revisionists 374
PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: What’s Your Type? 376
Evaluating the Psychodynamic Perspectives 377
2 Humanistic Perspectives 378
Maslow’s Approach 379
Rogers’s Approach 379
Evaluating the Humanistic Perspectives 381
3 Trait Perspectives 381
Trait Theories 382
The Five-Factor Model of Personality 383
INTERSECTION: Personality and Social Psychology: Do Personality Traits Predict Prejudice? 387
Evaluating the Trait Perspective 388
4 Social Cognitive Perspectives 389
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory 389
Mischel’s Contributions 390
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Does It Really Matter How Long a Child Waits for That Second Treat? 393
Evaluating the Social Cognitive Perspectives 394
5 Biological Perspectives 394
Theories Linking Personality and the Brain 395
Personality and Behavioral Genetics 398
Evaluating the Biological Perspectives 398
6 Personality Assessment 399
Self-Report Tests 399
Projective Tests 401
Other Assessment Methods 402
SUMMARY 404
KEY TERMS 405 ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 405
11 Social Psychology 406
1 Defining Social Psychology 407
Features of Social Psychology 407
2 Social Cognition 409
Person Perception 409
Attribution 412
The Self as a Social Object and Social Comparison 413
Attitudes 414
Persuasion 416
PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Making the Sale! 417
3 Social Behavior 418
Altruism 418
Page x
INTERSECTION: Social Psychology and Motivation: What Happens When We Don’t Get a Chance to Help? 420
Aggression 422
4 Close Relationships 426
Attraction 427
Love 428
Models of Close Relationships 429
5 Social Influence and Group Processes 430
Conformity and Obedience 430
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: What Happened in the Stanford Prison Experiment? 434
Group Influence 434
Social Identity 437
Prejudice 438
Improving Intergroup Relations 441
SUMMARY 444
KEY TERMS 445
ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 445
12 Psychological Disorders 446
1 Defining and Explaining Abnormal Behavior 447
Three Criteria of Abnormal Behavior 447
Culture, Context, and the Meaning of Abnormal Behavior 448
Theoretical Approaches to Psychological Disorders 449
Classifying Abnormal Behavior 450
Final Terms and Cautions 451
2 Neurodevelopmental Disorders 452
Autism Spectrum Disorder 452
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 456
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Does Birth Month Predict ADHD Diagnosis? 457
3 Anxiety and Anxiety-Related Disorders 459
Generalized Anxiety Disorder 459
Panic Disorder 460
Specific Phobia 461
Social Anxiety Disorder 463
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 463
OCD-Related Disorders 465
4 Trauma and Stress-Related Disorders 465
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 466
PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Sexual Victimization on Campus 468
Dissociative Disorders 469
5 Disorders Involving Emotion and Mood 471
Depressive Disorders 471
Bipolar Disorder 474
6 Eating Disorders 476
Anorexia Nervosa 476
Bulimia Nervosa 477
Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa: Causes and Treatments 477
Binge-Eating Disorder 478
Binge-Eating Disorder: Causes and Treatments 478
7 Schizophrenia 479
Symptoms of Schizophrenia 480
Causes of Schizophrenia 481
8 Personality Disorders 484
Antisocial Personality Disorder 484
Borderline Personality Disorder 486
9 Suicide 488
10 Combatting Stigma 490
Consequences of Stigma 491
Overcoming Stigma 492
INTERSECTION: Clinical Psychology and Social Psychology: How Does the Stigma of Mental Illness Affect Social Interactions? 493
SUMMARY 494
KEY TERMS 496
ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 496
13 Therapies 497
1 Approaches to Treating Psychological Disorders 498
The Psychological Approach to Therapy 498
The Biological Approach to Therapy 498
The Sociocultural Approach to Therapy 500
2 Psychotherapy 501
Central Issues in Psychotherapy 501
INTERSECTION: Neuroscience and Psychotherapy: Does Oxytocin Reflect the Therapeutic Alliance? 503
Psychodynamic Therapies 504
Humanistic Therapies 506
Behavior Therapies 507
Cognitive Therapies 508
Therapy Integrations 511
PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Seeking Therapy? There Is Probably an App for That 512
3 Biological Therapies 513
Drug Therapy 513
Antipsychotic Drugs 515
Electroconvulsive Therapy and Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 517
Psychosurgery 518
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: Who Should Decide What Treatment Is Best for a Person? 519
4
Sociocultural Approaches and Issues in Treatment 520
Group Therapy 520
Family and Couples Therapy 521
Self-Help Support Groups 521
Community Mental Health 522
Cultural Perspectives 523
SUMMARY 525
KEY TERMS 526
ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 526
14 Health Psychology 527
1 Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine 528
The Biopsychosocial Model 529
Connections between Mind and Body 529
2 Making Positive Life Changes 530
Theoretical Models of Change 530
The Stages of Change Model 531
3 Resources for Effective Life Change 534
Motivation 534
Social Relationships 535
Religious Faith 536
Personality Characteristics 537
CHALLENGE YOUR THINKING: How Powerful Is the Power of Positive Thinking? 539
4 Toward a Healthier Mind (and Body): Controlling Stress 540
Stress and Its Stages 540
Stress and the Immune System 541
Stress and Cardiovascular Disease 542
Stress and Cancer 543
Stress and Prejudice 544
Cognitive Appraisal and Coping with Stress 544
INTERSECTION: Health Psychology and Social Psychology: Can Weight-Based Bias Affect the Health Consequences of Obesity? 545
Strategies for Successful Coping 546
Stress Management Programs 548
5 Toward a Healthier Body (and Mind): Behaving as If Your Life Depends upon It 548
Becoming Physically Active 549
Eating Right 550
PSYCHOLOGY IN OUR WORLD: Environments That Support Active Lifestyles 552
Quitting Tobacco Use 553
Practicing Safe Sex 553
6 Psychology and Your Good Life 555
SUMMARY 556
KEY TERMS 557
ANSWERS TO SELF-QUIZZES 557
■ Glossary G-1
■ References R-1
■ Name Index NI-1
■ Subject Index SI-1
