Controlling Architecture; Algorithms, Patterns and Standards

Controlling Architecture; Algorithms, Patterns and Standards

By Jessica Guy

This dissertation is submitted to Kingston University towards part fulfilment of the MArch degree.

Written by Jessica Guy. K1926010 2

Contents 5

Acknowledgements

7

Preface

9

Chapter 1;

Role of genetic algorithms in the future of architectural design

27

Chapter 2;

Pattern language as a measure of successful architecture

45

Chapter 3;

The rise of prefabrication and standardisation

65

Bibliography

73

List of Figures

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4

Acknowledgements Throughout the research and writing of this dissertation, I have received immense support and assistance. I would like to thank my tutor, Matthew Wells, for inspiring my developing interests, as well as his incredibly insightful guidance throughout the year.

To my friends and family, thank you for supporting me through my endless questions and for the willingness to always proofread and relay feedback, even without an architectural background.

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P re fac e The progression of the architect into a distinguished vital role in society came over time, as responsibility and design shifted hands from builders, to sculptors, to artists. The narrowing of this role to what we know the architect to be today came from the way in which one designs architecture, and the tools one uses to do so. This dissertation investigates a range of methods which control the design of architecture, to varying intensities.

Chapter 1 explores the role of generative design through computational methods such as algorithms, which allow the designer to resolve complex problems at a speed the human brain cannot currently do. As technology and possibilities become more extensive, the architecture and construction industry must combat new issues through innovative ways of working.

Genetic Algorithm’s ‘think’ and use success & failure as measures as they evolve designs into the final chosen design, not dissimilarly to our iterative design process.

Whilst the United Kingdom has a prescribed route to becoming an architect, there is room for non-trained designers to create buildings.

There are also differences depending on country and education level, as to what degree designers are trained before they can create architecture.

Pattern theory is just one of the ways in which designing spaces was made simpler for both the experienced architect and the non-trained person, as explained in Chapter 2. By providing rules and guidance, the visualisation of space and what contributes to well-designed spaces, becomes possible for anyone.

Streamlining the components in design led us to the surge of prefabrication and standardisation across the 20th century. Chapter 3 discusses Walter Gropius’ work in pioneering prefabrication and standardisation in Germany, whilst also looking at the application of standardisation in more modern schemes. The construction industry has had a revitalisation in using completely prefabricated systems in the last 20 years, leaving us as architects with the opportunity to become more cost & energy efficient as we further our designs.

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Chapter 1;

Role of genetic algorithms in the future of architectural design

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Introduction The last 100 years have seen vast advancements in computational technology beginning from the invention of the computer during the Second World War. The development of architectural design was changed drastically with the ability of computers, superseding the ability of humanity. This ability in combination with the increasing possibilities in construction, propelled architecture into another level of complexity when comprehending physicality. Architects & designers alike were very quickly given the tools to allow our designs to take new explorations, with less scope for the impossible. The role of the architect has changed throughout time, across cultures, to be both the builder and the artist. The heavier the reliance on computers, the larger change we are likely to see in the role of the architect as we know it today, especially as authorship becomes less apparent.

With such a fast movement into parametric design, we looked towards other fields to support our complexities. This is where Genetic Algorithms play a significant part in the future of architectural design.

Genetic Algorithms were developed by John Holland in the 1960s to use an evolutionary approach for optimisation1. Basing it’s theory on evolutionary biology, the algorithm works through a series of parameters, creating options which then produce offspring, and continue evolving until they reach the best selection of design options for the human user to identify and select2. The algorithm is comprised of the following stages; 1. Start 2. Fitness 3. New Population 4. Selection 5. Crossover 6. Mutation 7. Accepting This then results a computerised test to assess the selection, and if this does not satisfy all parameters, then this will loop back to no.2 Fitness, until a series of optimal options are presented to the user.

1 Fasoulaki, Eleftheria. 2007. “Genetic Algorithms in Architecture: a Necessity or a Trend” (unpublished Master of Science in Architecture, Computation Group, Massachusetts Institute of Technology) p2 2 Ibid 10

Figure 1. Design metrics used by Autodesk to generate an office fit out

The process itself is typically used in conjunction with other softwares, as these new methods have not become widely used as of yet3.

This tool can be used for form-generating as well as many practical tectonic applications for mechanical and structural issues to name a few.

Autodesk used multi-objective genetic algorithms to generate an office fit out that would suit the needs of all 300 employees, by quantifying surveyed data4 (fig 1), while world renowned architects Fosters + Partners used a genetic algorithm to optimise massing that was “highly responsive to the environmental conditions, [and] maximises outside views” (Foster + Partners, 2020) for their proposal of the new headquarters for Alibaba in Shanghai5. Parametric design isn’t new, however the use of genetic algorithms and their ability to evolve is novel in the architecture industry, and is only just starting to affirm its role in design.

In June 2019, the UK became the first ‘major economy’ to introduce new laws requiring the country to bring down our greenhouse gas emissions to net zero, by the year 2050, in comparison to figures from the early 1990s6.

The construction industry is responsible for approximately 40% of our energy consumption in the UK7, thus demanding significant change in the way we build, should we wish to achieve our target. Alongside wellthought out environmental strategies for new buildings, an energy efficient refurbishment scheme is thought to be the most efficient use of cost when reducing the environmental impact of buildings8.

3 The Living, an Autodesk Studio. 2017. Project Discover: An Application of Generative Design for Architectural Space Planning (New York, NY, USA: Autodesk) [accessed 31 October 2020] 4 Ibid 5 https://www.archdaily.com/931599/foster-plus-partners-to-designalibabas-new-hq-in-shanghai 6 Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy, “UK Becomes First Major Economy To Pass Net Zero Emissions Law”, GOV. UK, 2020 <https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-becomes-firstmajor-economy-to-pass-net-zero-emissions-law> [Accessed 20 November 2020].

7 Ibid 8 Yair Schwartz, Rokia Raslan and Dejan Mumovic, “Implementing Multi Objective Genetic Algorithm For Life Cycle Carbon Footprint And Life Cycle Cost Minimisation; A Building Refurbishment Case Study”, energy, Volume 97 (2016), 58-68.

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By adapting existing architecture, we not only are not adding to the environment as we would in new buildings, but we are lessening the emissions currently being created by existing buildings.

In order to assess the environmental impact of a building, a Life Cycle Assessment (hereby referred to as LCA) can evaluate both the existing conditions and the potential effect of materials and processes throughout the life cycle of a building, also known as the ‘cradle to grave’ approach9.

The assessment has been formalised by both ISO and EN standards, as well as individual requirements from the Building Research Establishment (BRE) who dictate BREEAM ratings. The buildings global warming potential is evaluated through converting the environmental impacts into CO2e, which then defines the life cycle carbon footprint of the building.

The LCA also calculated the life cycle costs, which factors in the costs of procuring and constructing a building, as well as the costs accumulated throughout the operation, maintenance and the demolition.

Preferably, the analysis stated above would be accomplished iteratively through the whole of the design process, from start to finish. In reality, this doesn’t happen in practice as architects generally don’t have the ability through both lack of resources and expert knowledge to make this part of their work10. The case study undertaken at the Institute of Environmental Design at The Bartlett, London, examines the computational efficiency search tools that can process and compare design iterations, through multi-objective genetic algorithms in order to encourage and aid architects in making more knowledgeable decisions during the beginning of the design process11. The study addresses the use of optimisation methods in the early design stages when identifying the optimal measures for a refurbishment to minimise both the life cycle cost and the life cycle carbon footprint, as well as the impact of using these analyses to support vital design decisions over existing prevalent performance based methods.

9 “Life Cycle Assessment”, Designingbuildings.Co.Uk, 2020 <https:// www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Life_cycle_assessment> [Accessed 12 November 2020].

10 Yair Schwartz, Rokia Raslan and Dejan Mumovic, “Implementing Multi Objective Genetic Algorithm For Life Cycle Carbon Footprint And Life Cycle Cost Minimisation; A Building Refurbishment Case Study”, energy, Volume 97 (2016), 58-68.

11 Ibid 12

The life cycle energy use is classified into two types; the embodied component and the operational component12. Embodied energy refers to the energy consumed in the delivery of the building; including manufacturing, installation, construction and disposal of materials13.

Operational energy refers to the energy consumed in the use of the building: including the heating/cooling, ventilation, electricity & gas, computers and other types of equipment14.

The scope in this tectonic study focuses on the research undertaken by Schwartz, Raslan and Mumovic, of the Institute of Environmental Design at The Bartlett, and their study of a building refurbishment project. The project in question is a council housing complex in central Sheffield, built in the late 1950s. The building was celebrated in the early years of its occupation, but deteriorated in the 1980s until the building became vacant.

It was only in the late 1990s was the building recognised for its unique design and was given Grade II* listed building status under Historic England15. This status prompted a design competition for the buildings refurbishment and revival. The competition was subsequently won by Urban Splash who worked with architects Hawkins\Brown and Studio Egret West in the completion of the first Phase of the project16.

The case study concentrates on a particular area of the housing blocks in two different orientations, north and south, due to the difference in operational energy calculations i.e the effect of orientation on the thermal massing.

12 Ibid 13 “Carbon: Embodied And Operational - The Institution Of Structural Engineers”, Istructe.Org, 2020 <https://www.istructe.org/ resources/guidance/carbon-embodied-operational/> [Accessed 20 November 2020].

14 Ibid 15 “PARK HILL, Sheffield - 1246881 | Historic England”, Historicengland.Org.Uk, 2020 <https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/thelist/list-entry/1246881> [Accessed 26 November 2020].

16 Amy Frearson, “Park Hill Phase 1 By Hawkinsbrown And Studio Egret West”, Dezeen, 2020 <https://www.dezeen.com/2013/07/22/parkhill-phase-1-by-hawkinsbrown-and-studio-egret-west/> [Accessed 26 November 2020].

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The buildings are studied independently to determine how this orientation and therefore the operational energy, effects the buildings life cycle carbon footprint17. The main problem with the initial building was that its envelope performed very poorly thermally, which was due to the exposed access on every third floor. The design of the facade left a large surface area open to the elements, allowing for a high amount of heat loss. However the refurbishment prioritised keeping the main concrete frames, as this was one of the important architectural features that led to the high calibre the building has been held at. The building envelope was thus disassembled to retain the exposed and uninsulated existing concrete structure, and to re-clad the building with a much better performing facade18. Maintaining this concrete structure did keep the aesthetic of the original design, though it allowed for an higher chance of the risk of thermal bridging, which is typically associated with both a high energy consumption as well as the production of mould internally in the units19. The primary architectural intervention was therefore this new facade, whereby this use of a multiobjective genetic algorithm (MOGA) explores the relationship between the life cycle carbon footprint and the components of the facade, focusing on the optimal wall build ups, window to wall ratio and the thermal bridging insulation. As this study does only look at a small part of the refurbishment, this has been considered a pilot study at a small scale20, to later be used at a larger scale, once there is a more solid understanding of the application of genetic algorithms within these calculations and design decisions.

The building was modelled in SketchUp before being exported into an input data file (energyplus.idf) in order to define the thermal properties in a piece of software named EnergyPlus. This includes factors such as weather file data, rates of occupancy and the HVAC (heating, ventilation and air conditioning) system, also known as the ‘genes’ that were to be optimised. EnergyPlus then used a parametric simulation to create the generation of new individuals and then send these to the MOGA to search for the optimal design choice.

17 Yair Schwartz, Rokia Raslan and Dejan Mumovic, “Implementing Multi Objective Genetic Algorithm For Life Cycle Carbon Footprint And Life Cycle Cost Minimisation; A Building Refurbishment Case Study”, energy, Volume 97 (2016), 58-68.

18 Ibid 19 Ibid 20 Ibid 14

Figure 2. Research design diagram

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The optimisation was stopped when it reached a maximum number of generations, which is one of two options with a multi-objective genetic algorithm; the algorithm can also be stopped once their hasn’t been a distinct improvement in multiple generations, which can be set as per the designers requirements21.

There were 9 genes (parameters) set out, as seen in fig 3, with a range of possible values each, amounting to a total number of possible combinations at 55,296. Also seen in fig 4, 10 scenarios were implemented in the optimisation algorithm. The study uses BRE guidelines to indicate 60 years as the expectant building life span. The calculations were also based on a life cycle catalogue of the building materials used along with the environmental impacts and costs of each material. The multi-objective genetic algorithm code was therefore required to calculate the LCCF and LCC for every model made. The first calculation compared the embodied component with cost and the second calculation compared the OERC (operational energy-related carbon) with cost22.

The 10 scenarios were simulated using a powerful server at the DeMontfort University, which took approximately 6 hours to simulate each combination, as opposed to the 10 hours that it took for a normal computer to do, with the specification i7 Intel Processor and 6.0GB RAM23.

The algorithm found one singular optimal model for the WCDH (waste combustion district heating) scenario and found multiple optimal models for the gas boiler scenario. The results are distinguishable into four obvious groups of individuals, with or without an additional brick layer and with or without the thermal bridging insulation. Of all of the optimal individuals results, they each had selected the thickest available insulation provided to them, which resulted in a reduction of between 10 - 20% in the LCCF and the LCC24. The results favoured Building B as it costs less to construct and operate, as well as emitting less CO2 over the lifespan of the building.

21 The Living, an Autodesk Studio. 2017. Project Discover: An Application of Generative Design for Architectural Space Planning (New York, NY, USA: Autodesk) [accessed 31 October 2020] 22 Yair Schwartz, Rokia Raslan and Dejan Mumovic, “Implementing Multi Objective Genetic Algorithm For Life Cycle Carbon Footprint And Life Cycle Cost Minimisation; A Building Refurbishment Case Study”, energy, Volume 97 (2016), 58-68.

23 Ibid 24 Ibid 16

Figure 3. Table 3, Genes and possible values

Figure 4. Table 4, Scenarios examined in this study

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Its preferable orientation and spatial arrangement lend it to an increase in solar gains and provide optimal conditions for passive heating, when compared to Building A25.

In both figures 5 & 6, we can see the embodied and operational CO2 emissions of each individual model, with WCDH and natural gas heating, respectively. Each dot represents a single result with a particular set of properties, also known as genes, where the red dots are the ‘pareto front’, a phrase which is given to a result by which none of the criteria can be improved without another criteria suffering as a result. In both graphs, the results show that solving the puncture of thermal heat loss in the facade, by insulating the thermal bridge, as well as the external walls can attain a reduction of approximately 15% OERC (operating energy-related carbon) values, because of the choice of the thickest available insulation, as mentioned prior. There was no optimal individual that chose to use brick, which suggests that the materials embodied CO2, along with the minor addition it provided to the building’s performance, did not make it a preference from the point of view of the life cycle.

25 Ibid 18

Figure 5. Waste combustion district heating, embodied/operational CO2 (building a, building b)

Figure 6. Natural Gas heating system, embodied/operational CO2 (building a, building b)

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Fig 7 compares the OERC emissions over the lifespan, taken as 60 years, of the original building, the refurbished design and the optimal design, with WCDH considered as the heating source, where the optimal design is represented as a mean of the operational energy related emissions of all of the optimal designs, and does not reflect the range. This is where we can truly admire the possibilities that a multi-objective genetic algorithm can provide us in the architectural industry. The original design for the refurbishment is shown to achieve a 13% reduction in operational energy consumption throughout its lifespan in comparison to the original building, whilst the optimal refurbishment design is able to achieve a sizeable 29% reduction. Fig 7 also shows us the LCCF comparisons, whereby the original refurbishment design emits approximately 20% (around 200 kgCO2/m2) more CO2 than the original building. In prior LCCF studies26, embodied component values of new buildings are typically between 300-700 kgCO2/m2 , which leads us to believe that the act of refurbishment does reduce a large amount of the CO2 in comparison to starting afresh by demolishing and rebuilding the complex. Furthermore, the optimal alternative still showed that the building could have been refurbished with an even lower LCCF than the original refurbishment design, similar to that of the original, untouched building’s LCCF. The study concludes the paper with a few key takeaways. The study was seen as successful as the MOGA did produce optimal design solutions that were shown to improve the energy consumption results, especially in comparison to the original refurbishment design. Although the team were happy with the set of optimal designs generated, they did state that the tools were not simple and that there was an obvious lack of integration27.

Should one not be well versed in thermal simulation, genetic algorithms and the knowledge surrounding it, they might struggle to utilise such a powerful tool to its full potential.

26 Leif Gustavsson, Anna Joelsson and Roger Sathre, “Life Cycle Primary Energy Use And Carbon Emission Of An Eight-Storey WoodFramed Apartment Building”, Energy And Buildings, 42.2 (2010), 230-242 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2009.08.018>.

27 Yair Schwartz, Rokia Raslan and Dejan Mumovic, “Implementing Multi Objective Genetic Algorithm For Life Cycle Carbon Footprint And Life Cycle Cost Minimisation; A Building Refurbishment Case Study”, energy, Volume 97 (2016), 58-68.

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Figure 7. Non-refurbished, refurbished and optimal buildings - 60 years LCCF breakdown

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Figure 8. Design of structural model of Beijing National Aquatics Centre

The whole process also required 4 separate tools, thus leaving a large amount of room for human error between them, which could be decreased should there be a single tool that warrants the same results. Overall the multi-objective genetic algorithm was successful in finding optimal solutions in a set of different scenarios; this produced models that had the lowest LCCF and LCC, with much better CO2 payback time than the original refurbishment scheme. The best models still chose to have small south facing windows, as they were seen to embody more CO2 than they save, a design decision that may have not been quantified in such a way should it be done by a human designer.

Interestingly, when the optimisation results were compared to other performance based methodology, it showed that through typical LCCF analysis, the design solutions would have been very different. It is not a new practice to consider the annual energy consumption in the design of a building, however this study provides evidence to suggest that these different methods of informed design can lead to very different conclusions and have a large impact on the way we continue to design.

Another notable tectonic use of genetic algorithms in architecture was in the design of the Beijing National Aquatic Centre by PTW Architects and ARUP (engineers), for the 2008 Summer Olympics and Paralympics.

The project, also known as the water cube pavilion, provided a structural design challenge for ARUP. The engineering company developed a script that would automatically select the sizes of elements, optimised using a genetic algorithm28. The algorithm checked the distribution of forces throughout the structure iteratively, providing the design team with the ability to test and receive feedback within 25 minutes of each iteration29.

The director of ARUP Sport stated that “using parametrics, I was able to investigate far more alternatives. We building version 34 because it was better. But version 1 would have worked fine ... I could do in a morning what used to take a month”. It wasn’t that the skilled design team couldn’t create a good and suitable design, it was that the algorithm could test far 28 Inês Alexandra do Côrro Caetano, “An Algorithmic Framework For Facade Design” (unpublished Master of Science in Architecture, Instituto Superior Técnico, 2015).

29 “Generative Design Is Changing The Face Of Architecture | Cadalyst”, Cadalyst.Com, 2020 <https://www.cadalyst.com/cad/buildingdesign/generative-design-is-changing-face-architecture-12948> [Accessed 29 November 2020].

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Figure 9. Beijing National Aquatics Centre

more options than the human design team could, and thus come up with a better, optimised design that saved time and money. ARUP estimated that they saved approximately $10 million on the design costs alone by using this new way of designing structures.

Mario Carpo, a lecturer in Architectural History at the Bartlett School of Architecture, has specialised in the history of cultural technologies over the last 30 years, including the use of algorithms in architectural design30.

The book, The Alphabet and the Algorithm (2011), highlights our use of new digital technologies as a ‘paradigm shift’ to a ‘digital revolution’; implying something was broken to begin with, rather than a change of direction in the field. He discusses Alberti’s invention of architectural design as we know it; the idea of the identical copy. The ability for designers to copy their designs accurately onto paper and furthermore into the built project allowed for architecture to maintain authorship to the architect. No longer was there room for interpretation or for the architect to be present; an architect’s drawings could be widespread and accurately constructed. Whilst this was a grand change for the designer, it did also adapt the status of what the architect has authorship of; “when did architecture evolve from its pristine autographic status as a craft (conceived and made by artisan builders) to its modern allographic definition as an art (designed by one to be constructed by others)?” (Carpo, 2011). The digital advancements over the last 30 years allow for allography to be far more seamless and achievable as BIM is used more commonly. Whilst the digital gives us the ability for absolute allography, it also provides variability which in turn diminishes the identical copy that furthered architectural design through Alberti31. Solving the issue of identical copies through computational methods has given the architectural industry much more certainty in design and construction, but not without its own set of new hurdles that we must overcome to maintain the role and authorship of the architect. It is possible we are no longer maintaining ‘designed by one to be constructed by others’, but are moving onto ‘designed by a computer to be constructed by one too’.

30 “Prof Mario Carpo”, The Bartlett School Of Architecture, 2021 <https://www.ucl.ac.uk/bartlett/architecture/people/prof-mario-carpo> [Accessed 2 May 2021].

31 Mario Carpo, The Alphabet And The Algorithm (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2011).

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Conclusion In An Evolutionary Architecture (Frazer, 1995), Frazer evaluates the place of both genetic algorithms and further evolutionary techniques in architecture, as ‘tools’32. He does not use the term ‘tool’ to imply that these new methods of working are as simple as a tool one may find on a computer, but are to be encouraged as a separate and apparent design technique. The use of these algorithms aren’t to negate the current beauty of architectural design, but are an additional choice in comprehending vast amounts of information, especially as our designs become increasingly complex. They aren’t introduced to reinforce our existing ways of working, but are clearly a design method in itself. Further into his collection of works, Frazer comments on the role of the architect within evolutionary architecture, suggesting the role of the ‘extended architect’33. The role of the architectural designer defined by Alberti and described by Carpo, has changed in the digital revolution to support the notion of an extended version of what we attribute the architect to be. The study described previously on Park Hill in Sheffield represents this role of the extended architect. The researchers were clearly aware of the drawbacks of using such techniques, but didn’t treat the new tools as something that must become part of the everyday architectural practice, instead represented their findings as concrete evidence to suggest new ways of working that won’t necessarily work for all architects. The expectation in this growing field isn’t for change, but for the room & possibility to adapt.

As expected with the invention of the computer, we will always strive to further our technological capabilities, and genetic algorithms are an important part of the next phase of these advancements. The beginning of genetic algorithms in architecture focused on form generation, likely due to the way computer-aided design also started; through computer modelling34. Lars Hesselgren, director of research at PLP Architecture and co-founder of SmartGeometry group, leaders in generative design, stated “there is a big difference between designing architecture as opposed to recording it properly ... Computers haven’t done much but record until recently, and the ability to record is not the most important thing we do” when referencing the role of computers and algorithms in architecture. In 32 John Frazer, An Evolutionary Architecture (London: Architectural Association, 1995). P57-61 33 Ibid. P100 34 Ibid P101 24

our role in the construction industry, it is key that we maintain our work in solving problems through ever-growing complexities that come with the evolution of the design industry and further, the human mind. We are in a fantastic position in our current times with a solid grasp on creating identical architecture for those who do not wish to change, combined with the next generation of architects who provide a mix of the comfort of the known, and the ambition to be innovative and bridge the gap to the next stage of architecture.

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Chapter 2;

Pattern language as a measure of successful architecture

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Introduction Generative design, including genetic algorithms, stems from science and mathematics, but the algorithmic approach to architecture began through reading and establishing patterns. Pattern theory is known as a set of rules for architecture, based on the way humans interact with the built environment1. Christopher Alexander is best known for his work in pattern language, from software design to his numerous publications around design and the building process. His book A Pattern Language, the second in a set of three, was produced as a handbook on design created in collaboration with a collection of his students2.

Alexander states that patterns can be interpreted as individual hypotheses and that “each pattern represents our current best guess as to what arrangement of the physical environment will work to solve the problem presented”3.

The choice of classifying a particular architectural solution as a pattern, thus deeming it successful, bases itself on a similar method of working as that of genetic algorithms discussed in the previous chapter. We investigated the means to how the algorithm functions; working through multiple generations until it achieves the best solution against the parameters set out. Pattern Architecture works in a similar way, albeit without the reliance on computer-aided design. Alexander categorises patterns individually into 3 categories of variance; 2 asterisks (**), 1 asterisk (*) or no asterisk ( )4. These can be explained respectively; this solution provides a summary of all possible ways of solving the issue, this solution has made progress towards a summary but can be improved upon and finally, there has not been a summary made and there are many ways of solving this issue. Furthermore, Alexander continues to compare the density of patterns to that of poetry. Each word in a sentence is used for multiple reasons when combined together in a poem. There is typically a layer of meaning throughout each sentence, which Alexander has compared to the combination of multiple patterns identifying multiple solutions in one space. Once more, this density of solutions is solved 1 "A Theory Of Architecture Part 1: Pattern Language Vs. Form Language", Archdaily, 2021 <https://www.archdaily.com/488929/a-theoryof-architecture-part-1-pattern-language-vs-form-language> [Accessed 8 January 2021].

2 Christopher Alexander, A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction (New York: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1977).

3 Ibid 4 Ibid 28

Figure 1. Sketch showing rooms with light on two sides by Christopher Alexander

in a similar way to that of the genetic algorithm favoured; upon each generation, the algorithm would select designs that could satisfy more than one successful parameter at a time, over the designs that were only successful against a singular parameter.

A Pattern Language was published in 1977, far before the current reliance on computer aided design and making that we find in our current architectural offices. Alexander also began a lengthy collaboration with Nikos Salingaros, a mathematician known for his work in architectural theory, when working on The Nature of Order in 1982, which we shall discuss further into this paper. When discussing Alexander’s pattern theory, Salingaros states that he believes artificial intelligence will include pattern theory and be able to independently create successful solutions under the supervision of the controlling architect5. This discussion from Salingaros was published in 2016, whereby algorithms already had a significant place in the forward movement of the architectural industry.

Considering the extensive development of pattern theory in software architecture, it is reasonable to assume Salingaros imagines an equally thorough relationship between pattern theory and algorithms to emerge in the near future.

In The Patterns of Architecture, Salingaros criticises Unité d’Habitation due to its lack of natural light from at least 2 walls in a room. It was in the extensive research undertaken to complete Christopher Alexander’s A Pattern Language that claims this amount of light to warrant this particular pattern as a necessity, when designing architecture6.

In pattern 159, Alexander even uses Le Corbusier’s project as an example of a complete neglect for the use of the pattern and goes as far to call the effect of ignoring this pattern “very disturbing”7. The pattern named 159 Light on two sides of every room **, bases itself on the prerequisite patterns 107, 106, 109 and 116, ensuring the buildings rooms are roughly already in the chosen position.

5 Nikos Salingaros, The Patterns Of Architecture (CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform., 2016).

6 Nikos Salingaros, The Patterns Of Architecture (CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform., 2016).

7 Christopher Alexander, A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction (New York: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1977).

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Figure 2. Photograph of Living Space from Kitchen in Unité d’Habitation

Figure 3. Photograph of Kitchen from Dining Area in Unité d’Habitation

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Alexander’s research is based on experiments drawn out over a number of years, informally through his colleagues and their friends perception of rooms; in any space they might find themselves in, would people avoid rooms that were lit on only one side? This concluded that “those rooms you intuitively recognise as pleasant, friendly rooms have the pattern; and those you intuitively reject as unfriendly, unpleasant, are the ones which do not have the pattern” (Alexander, 1977). Part of the reason why Alexander claims this pattern to be more important than any other in the success of a room8, is the additional social atmosphere affected by the light condition achieved with two sources of natural light. As well as the negative criticisms of the lack of light in Unité d’Habitation, are the positive comments on the social structure of the building. The pattern 159 states the importance of light when reading expressions and motion of people and that “the light on two sides allows people to understand each other” (Alexander, 1977). Whilst the ignorance of Le Corbusier led to long, thin flats in plan that were dark in the centre, Philip Powell compared the design choice to that of Victorian homes and thus believed the negation was not as much of a significant failure as other critics had suggested9.

Le Corbusier’s Cité radieuse in Marseille, part of his wider project Unité d’Habitation was built between 1947 - 1952 in collaboration with painter Nadir Afonso and has been highly commended as one of Corbusier’s best works. The building project in Marseille became known as Unité d’Habitation as it was the prototype and the first of many of its name, and thus shall be referred to as Unité d’Habitation for the rest of this chapter. The building did however become the focus of some controversy and discussion amongst other architect’s in the 1950s10.

Comments documented in the Architectural Review May 1951 criticised the sociological character, humanity, craftsmanship and the internal environments created, to name one collection of sources that we shall discuss further into this analysis.

8 Ibid P748 9 Kenneth Easton, Kenneth Easton and Nikolaus Pevsner, "Views On Le Corbusier's Unite D’Habitation - Architectural Review", Architectural Review, 2021 <https://www.architectural-review.com/essays/views-on-lecorbusiers-unite-dhabitation> [Accessed 28 January 2021].

10 Kenneth Easton, Kenneth Easton and Nikolaus Pevsner, "Views On Le Corbusier's Unite D’Habitation - Architectural Review", Architectural Review, 2021 <https://www.architectural-review.com/essays/views-on-lecorbusiers-unite-dhabitation> [Accessed 28 January 2021].

31

Peter Blake, a renowned architectural critic known for his take on modernism in particular, criticised both Le Corbusier and fellow famous architect Mies van der Rohe on their lack of understanding towards the average person’s ability to live and work in these spaces, when designing them11. He continues to fault the children’s bedrooms as “mere closets, six feet wide, some with no windows” (Blake, 1977). This critique is contrasted with Kozlowsky’s opinion in his book The Architecture of Childhood (1968), stating that Le Corbusier prioritised the needs of children as central to the design concept12. Le Corbusier said “we are setting up an extraordinary network of services for raising children, extending from infancy to adolescence... This youth will be the king of it’s own household”.

The pattern 137 Children's Realm* details the importance of a 'continuum of spaces' for children to play when designing a family home13. Alexander details in this pattern the significance of a child's play space to the functioning of the whole family; for example pattern 136 Couple's Realm* could not be achieved without the consideration of the child's needs14. The design of the flat in plan allows children to maintain their private space, albeit malleable with a separating partition, along with a route from the entrance of the flat down to these bedrooms being in line with Alexander's requirements; the places a child requires should "form one continuous geometrical swath" (Alexander, 1977). This 'swath' should allow children a variety of different environments within the home, all following a general route, avoiding the separate adult space, with both room for privacy and to inspire creativity. Peter Blake further argues against the child's space stating that "this was great for an artist and his mistress, but for kids there was no privacy - and no place to go but out. But then Le Corbusier didn't have children". Blake's criticisms appear based on a preconceived notion of Le Corbusier's abstract nature, against opposing opinions suggesting the Unité d'Habitation was designed for children.

11 Lee Wohlfert, "What's Wrong With Modern Architecture? Plenty, Says Critic Peter Blake", PEOPLE.Com, 2021 <https://people.com/archive/ whats-wrong-with-modern-architecture-plenty-says-critic-peter-blakevol-8-no-11/> [Accessed 24 January 2021].

12 "Where Did The Children Play? Part 1 – Returning To Le Corbusier’s Vision", Housing And Wellbeing In Glasgow, 2021 <http:// glasgowhousing.academicblogs.co.uk/where-did-the-children-play-part-1returning-to-le-corbusiers-vision/> [Accessed 26 January 2021].

13 Christopher Alexander, A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction (New York: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1977).

14 Ibid 32

Figure 4. Title Page photo for Pattern 136 Couple's Realm*

Figure 5. Sketch separating room types to give children & parents own space

33

Figure 6. Photograph of children drawing on wall in Unité d’Habitation

Figure 7. Photograph of children playing on the roof of Unité d’Habitation

34

Whilst housing children in high-rise flats became a larger issue in the 1950s, Margaret Willis of Living in Flats (1952), discussed at a 1955 RIBA symposium, that the Unité was praised for the services placed for children outside of the flats themselves15. This included the school, nursery and paddling pool on the roof. The figures 6 & 7 show us the success of the incorporation of these services into the housing complex, when concerned for childcare and child well-being. In The Nursing Schools (1968), Le Corbusier criticises the image of suburbia and high rise buildings that lack this addition of amenities and services into the fabric of the building16.

A further debated design aspect of the Unité was the addition of amenities within the building, including shops, schools, roof gardens, hotels, theatres and the gymnasium. As documented in Oeuvre complète, volume 7 (Corbusier, 1965), the building's level 7 and 8 boasted a shopping centre "containing a fish, butcher, milk, fruit and vegetable shop as well as a bakery, a liquor and drug store"17. Featuring in the Architectural Review May 1951, the Housing Division of the London County Council Architect's department debated the recent completion of the Unité d'Habitation18.

The architects Thurston William and W G Howell contrasted opinions on the addition of amenities in the building. William criticised the sociological character of the inclusion of the shops stating that "one can well imagine that the housewife will have little need and less inclination ever to leave the building at all for days on end", as well as defining this design strategy as dominating, rather than liberating19.

15 "Where Did The Children Play? Part 1 – Returning To Le Corbusier’s Vision", Housing And Wellbeing In Glasgow, 2021 <http:// glasgowhousing.academicblogs.co.uk/where-did-the-children-play-part-1returning-to-le-corbusiers-vision/> [Accessed 26 January 2021].

16 Ibid 17 "Unité d'Habitation, Marseille, France, 1945", Fondationlecorbusier.

Fr, 2021 <http://www.fondationlecorbusier.fr/corbuweb/morpheus.aspx? sysId=13&IrisObjectId=5234&sysLanguage=en-en&itemPos=58&itemC ount=78&sysParentId=64&sysParentName=home> [Accessed 15 January 2021].

18 Kenneth Easton, Kenneth Easton and Nikolaus Pevsner, "Views On Le Corbusier's Unite D’Habitation - Architectural Review", Architectural Review, 2021 <https://www.architectural-review.com/essays/views-on-lecorbusiers-unite-dhabitation> [Accessed 28 January 2021].

19 Ibid 35

In opposition, W G Howell argued that the Unité merely supplied options to the residents between the nearest shops, to the amenities within the building, and saw this as a positive choice that most would not have20. The argument of the positioning of the amenities within the building prompts more than one appropriate pattern. Firstly, 19 Web of Shopping* values a variety of independent stores, locating them around stores of similar services with a dense population of potential customers21. Pattern 31 Promenade** encourages a backbone of the shopping district at the heart of the community, placed within 10 minutes walking distance of most homes, uniting areas of activity into one high traffic pedestrian street22.

Lastly, patterns 46 Market of Many Shops** and 87 Individually Owned Shops** state that there must be separate places to enjoy shopping over one large chain store, and communities should maintain the personal quality of the owners of the shop being the ones running the shop, respectively23. It is worth noting at this point that only patterns 31, 46 and 87 are marked as ** in the selection above, thus having more weight in terms of the research substantiating their objectives24. Whilst the pattern language doesn't have patterns explicitly based on the presence of shops within the building of the home itself, the closest patterns have been chosen here for comparison.

Utilising levels 7 & 8 to provide a street of shops satisfied the pattern 31 Promenade**, all within 5 minutes walking distance from any apartment, whilst the variety and ownership of the stores satisfied patterns 46 & 87.

With approximately 1600 residents, the shops would easily satisfy the basic requirements of pattern 19 Web of Shopping*.

The shopping street was a key part of the concept of complete modern housing that Le Corbusier was prototyping on this project. "Other land uses should be designed into the same buildings as the residences: shops and schools, roof garden and hotels, theatres and gymnasia - to form a ' unite d’habitation’" (Coleman, 1985).

20 Ibid 21 Christopher Alexander, A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction (New York: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1977).

22 Ibid 23 Ibid 24 Christopher Alexander, A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction (New York: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1977).

36

Figure 8. Photograph of Levels 7&8, shopping street, in Unité d’Habitation

Whilst this intention was deemed widely ambitious and generally successful, as of 2014 most of the shops had closed down and had been replaced by businesses such as architects and medical practitioners25.

As a final analysis on the application of the pattern language, we will be looking closer at the balconies featured as part of each apartment in the Unité d'Habitation. With 12 stories of apartments, the balconies are the closest access outside for the residents, without returning to the ground floor and vacating the building. When discussing the newlycompleted building, both Philip Powell and Kenneth Easton referred to the balconies as "minimum size box balconies" and "cramped", respectively26.

Contrastingly, when discussing the comparison of the Unité to the Gorbals in Glasgow, Wright praised the balconies as a safe alternative for children to play on, as opposed to the busy road below27.

Achieving the highest classification in A Pattern Language (1977), 167 SixFoot Balcony** describes the proper use and methods to achieve successful balconies. Alexander uses 6 feet (approximately 1828mm) as the definitive measure of the in-between 'goldilocks' dimension to achieve a well designed space28. The balconies at the Unité fall just short of this defined distance at 5 ft 6 inches (approximately 1676mm). Whilst Alexander does appreciate that defining an exact distance is difficult, he does dictate that balconies under 6ft "might as well not be there", and that balconies over 6ft are almost never not used29.

25 Amy Frearson, "Brutalist Buildings: Unité d'Habitation By Le Corbusier", Dezeen, 2021 <https://www.dezeen.com/2014/09/15/ le-corbusier-unite-d-habitation-cite-radieuse-marseille-brutalistarchitecture/> [Accessed 28 January 2021].

26 Kenneth Easton, Kenneth Easton and Nikolaus Pevsner, "Views On Le Corbusier's Unite D’Habitation - Architectural Review", Architectural Review, 2021 <https://www.architectural-review.com/essays/views-on-lecorbusiers-unite-dhabitation> [Accessed 28 January 2021].

27 "Where Did The Children Play? Part 1 – Returning To Le Corbusier’s Vision", Housing And Wellbeing In Glasgow, 2021 <http:// glasgowhousing.academicblogs.co.uk/where-did-the-children-play-part-1returning-to-le-corbusiers-vision/> [Accessed 26 January 2021].

28 Christopher Alexander, A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction (New York: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1977).

29 Ibid 37

As the Unité's balconies are so close to this almost arbitrary number, we can in this essay appreciate the balcony as both a success and a failure, when adhering to the strict pattern language. Alexander's guidance not only suggests the balconies to be at least 6ft deep, but also to be partly recessed into the building, and be partially enclosed for privacy. We can see in figure 9, that the balconies are not only enclosed between apartments for privacy, but are recessed into the building with the brise soleil acting as a sun shelter, a design feature popularised by Le Corbusier.

Whilst the criticisms brought to attention above do have merit, especially when considering these balconies as not adhering to pattern 167, it is also important to consider how the balconies were actually inhabited.

The pattern bases its rules on the use of a balcony almost as a separate living space, so henceforth unusable space should it not be large enough.

When looking at images of the balconies at the Unité from indoors, it appears that the balconies were inhabited less as separate spaces, but more as extensions of the spaces which they joined. The benefit of the Mediterranean weather enjoyed at the Unité d'Habitation allows for the outdoor space to merge with the indoors. Fig 11 also documents a moment when children are using this inbetween space. As children are generally smaller than fully grown adults, we can also assume their relationship with the 'cramped' balconies is very different to that of Kenneth Easton's.

38

Figure 9. Plan & Section of Unité d’Habitation

39

Figure 10. Photograph of balcony from living area in Unité d’Habitation

Figure 11. Photograph of children using private balcony in Unité d’Habitation

40

When critiquing a design project against a particular architectural theory, it is also vital one must critique the theory itself. Michael J Dawes and Michael J Ostwald analysed and classified 28 criticisms from design professionals dated between 1979 - 2015 on Christopher Alexander's book 2 of 3, A Pattern Language (1977)30. The book is thought to be the most widely read architectural theory published due to the user-friendly style of writing, appealing to both professionals and non-professionals alike31.

Alexander's motivation for the book came from his known critiques of the modernist movement which was said to produce "examples of uncomfortable and inhospitable spaces" (Dawes and Ostwald, 2017). The book supposedly romanticised the world view of architecture, denying any alternative way of life to that which he deems. One of the sources Dawes and Ostwald describe, Kohn, believes Alexander established his idea of 'good design' on works from Medieval Europe or on his own projects, which Kohn describes as "the hodgepodge stone, half-timber, and clapboard houses of Southern England, where he grew up"32. The pattern language is said to be based on Alexander's notion of the perfect lifestyle, rejecting any experiences that do not adhere to the same narrative.

Although the book was a collaborative piece, there was a significant lack of engagement or partnership with any architecture and design professionals33. The evidence used to justify the pattern's rules, could therefore be considered "superficial, pseudo-scientific and little more than personal preference" (Dawes and Ostwald, 2017). The critical analysis of Alexander's book also describes two instances of Alexander's design work where the patterns failed the users; firstly a housing project in Mexicali where Alexander spent 2 weeks experimenting with paint colours for the cornice which the client and staff deemed 'unnecessary', and secondly in a social housing scheme in Lima where the use of pattern 188 Bed Alcoves created 'claustrophobic cells'34.

30 Michael J Dawes and Michael J Ostwald, Christopher Alexander’s A Pattern Language: Analysing, Mapping And Classifying The Critical Response, City, Territory And Architecture, 2017.

31 Ibid 32 Ibid 33 Ibid 34 Ibid 41

It is worth noting, whilst this paper addresses the design of a project in the South of France, the criticisms that were raised in the above paper do point to the narrow scope of which the patterns are based on; the ideal English life. Alexander does comment on various locations throughout the world in his work, and their subsequent climates as an example, although it is important to consider that the evidence supporting his patterns may be less applicable to France than they first appeared.

Conclusion Following on from the first chapter, this piece aims to appreciate generative design at its foundation, in pattern theory. Christopher Alexander's work not only erupted into architectural theory, but into software design, leading to the technology that invented Wikipedia35. The research on patterns is said to have been some of the inspiration of New Urbanism, an urban design movement which gained momentum in the United Stages in the beginning of the 1980s36. Whilst Alexander's work has been imperative in our strive towards a rule-based, algorithmic approach to architecture, it was highly criticised upon its release. This is to be expected with a new unknown theory, but that does not diminish it's weight in the field of architecture. A Pattern Language provided non-professionals with a handbook of rules and guides to creating well designed, human-scale spaces, based on thorough research and evidence. Given the controversy at its time and up to this day, it was appropriate to consider the Unité d'Habitation, Marseilles, as a test subject against the rules of Alexander's Patterns, in order to measure its success at a human scale. If viewed independently of any analysis of the pattern language itself, the Unité can be seen to have multiple successes and failures. The failures of the project seemed to have arisen where Le Corbusier sacrificed human comfort for the overriding concept of the Vertical City. It is not for this piece of writing to justify the architectural & conceptual choices of Le Corbusier over the social & human choices, but to analyse the project from the point of view of the inhabitants, whom arguably, are the best judges of architectural 35 Ward Cunningham and Michael W Mehaffy, Wiki As Pattern Langu, Plop '13: Proceedings Of The 20Th Conference On Pattern Languages Of Programs, 2013.

36 Michael J Dawes and Michael J Ostwald, Christopher Alexander’s A Pattern Language: Analysing, Mapping And Classifying The Critical Response, City, Territory And Architecture, 2017.

42

design. Although we have argued many opinions in this paper, this project still boasts multiple residents that have lived in the Unité all of their lives, therefore from their lasting happiness and comfort, we can call Le Corbusier's prototype, a success37.

Christopher Alexander encouraged, in A Pattern Language (1977), that his patterns were not the only answer to design, but were from the research undertaken by him and his collaborative team38. The book motivated the reader to adjust, deny and create new patterns, to inspire a new stage of architectural design, both among us in the field, and for the general layperson39. This attitude, combined with the technologies we gained as a result of Alexander's work, maintains his research as a valuable undertaking to the recent history of architectural design.

37 Amy Frearson, "Brutalist Buildings: Unité d'Habitation By Le Corbusier", Dezeen, 2021 <https://www.dezeen.com/2014/09/15/ le-corbusier-unite-d-habitation-cite-radieuse-marseille-brutalistarchitecture/> [Accessed 28 January 2021].

38 Christopher Alexander, A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction (New York: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 1977).

39 Ibid 43

44

Chapter 3;

The rise of prefabrication and standardisation

45

Introduction Our discussion thus far has focused on different methods of controlling and regulating the way in which we design architecture, to be both cost and time effective, and to ease and streamline the process. Algorithms and pattern theory are both methods which look to standardise the design process and aim to reduce the never-ending series of questions and parameters that an architect must consider. Whilst these are both relatively new concepts, and even more recently become part of built projects, standardisation has been part of the way we design for much longer.

Standardisation in itself can play somewhat of a passive role of the design process, without the designer always being aware of the place in which it holds. When discussing standardisation in terms of sociology, Grossman states "successful standardisation may involve some participants remaining unconscious of its presence", noting the standardisation of both the railway gauge and MP31. He continues throughout his writing to expand on the creation and furthermore standardisation of metrology for both the British Yard and onto the metric system; a clear example of a standard used as a necessity in the construction industry.

Although a standard of measurement may be a classic example of the standard coming to fruition, we continue to see standards arising elsewhere over history. In 17th Century Paris, the urban square became a standard directly relating to a royal status2. Moving into 19th century Paris, Bressani details the move from solely standardisation into combining this with mass customisation, with the city's urban scale design dictated by zoning ordinances, but allowing for individually designed façades3.

This use of standardisation and customisation together allowed for the regularity and control of the city to be held by urban designers, whilst architects and designers alike could continue to maintain unique ownership & authorship over their creations when at pedestrian level4.

Another instance of standardisation growing in architecture took place in the 1930s and continued throughout the second World War. Ernst Neufert, a renowned German architect led the way in the standardising architecture at an ergonomic scale. In 1936 he created the bestselling book Bauentwurfslehre (translate to Architect's Data), which has become a staple 1 Jonathan H. Grossman, "Standardization (Standardisation)", Critical Inquiry, 44.3 (2018), 447-478 <https://doi.org/10.1086/696912>.

2 Martin Bressani, Mass Customisation And Standardisation, An Urban Dialectic (Quebec: McGill University, 2015).

3 Ibid 4 Ibid 46

Figure 1. Human figures measured in Architect's Data by Ernst Neufert

architectural piece of writing still used up to the present day, with over 30 German editions and translations into 17 languages5. The book came after 15 years of collecting data about building, in order to rationalise and standardise design for future architects and students6. Neufert was also one of the first students at the Staatliches Bauhaus, whilst working at Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer's architecture practice. It's not surprising for Neufert to have pursued the issue of rationalising architecture having studied at the Bauhaus, who's manifesto is a testament to standardisation itself7. The Bauhaus focused on the unity of all of the arts; an innovative approach to teaching craft that combined the architect, painter and sculptur alike into "a new guild of craftsmen, free of the divisive class pretensions" (Gropius, 1919). The goal of the Bauhaus was to rationalise the creative industry into one capable role8, just as Neufert went on to standardise architectural components, having honed his skills as the first of many new craftspeople.

Gropius was arguably the most prominent figure in the progress of standardisation over the 20th century, starting with his work for Peter Behrens, artistic advisor of Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft (AEG), the vast German electronics company. It was under Behrens that Gropius learned the collaboration between industry and art, with his first housing project providing homes for AEG factory workers9. His inspiration also largely came from Fordism; the efficiency that Henry Ford achieved in the mass production & assembly line of automobiles. Both first hand experience and the release of Ford's biography translated to German in 1924 led to Gropius' significant contribution in the rationalisation of architecture through 2 design methods; the construction kit and the assembly line.

5 "Ernst Neufert", Bauhauskooperation.Com, 2021 <https://www. bauhauskooperation.com/knowledge/the-bauhaus/people/the-bauhausentourage/ernst-neufert/> [Accessed 1 March 2021].

6 Ibid 7 "Manifesto Of The Staatliches Bauhaus", Bauhausmanifesto.Com, 2021 <https://bauhausmanifesto.com/> [Accessed 1 May 2021].

8 Ibid 9 Atli Seelow, "The Construction Kit And The Assembly Line— Walter Gropius’ Concepts For Rationalizing Architecture", Arts, 7.4 (2018), 95 <https://doi.org/10.3390/arts7040095>.

47

The 1920s saw many experimental housing projects from Gropius, testing the assembly line in the first prefabricated housing scheme in Germany (Splanemann Settlement), as well as House 16 & 17 employing two variations of the construction kit10. The assembly line system saw large concrete slabs produced on site and arranged with a gantry crane, with workers stationed on singular repetitive tasks to become an expert at them, as a machine would work, but the project did not achieve the 30-40% cost reduction anticipated, and only achieved a 5% reduction.

The construction kit experiments were based on the honeycomb system and the big construction kit system, both featuring customisability and 'totipotency', a phrase used in biology to describe "the ability of individual elements to form a larger unity"11. It was after House 16 & 17 that Gropius altered his goal from constructing entire houses individually, to standardising the production of individual elements and assembly on site, but only in accordance with tested floor plans. He then proposed a method of construction seeing the separation of load-bearing and nonload-bearing elements, with more scope to prefabricate the non-loadbearing parts of the home. In Wohnhaus-Industrie of 1925, Gropius wrote that "standardisation and serial production of doors, windows, stairs, cornices, installations and interior components (...) is well underway to be perfected"12.

Gropius' most famous experiment in social housing in Germany was the project Dessau Torten. The relocation of the Bauhaus from Weimar to Dessau provided Gropius with not only the opportunity for a grand new building, but to showcase a novel building method simultaneously.

In the years 1926-1928, the project saw 316 row houses completed in 3 construction phases, with the first 2 houses built and furnished in under 3 months at an astonishing speed13. The project comprised of 3 types of houses and 6 total variations, with the goal being to provide low rent with as much rationalisation as possible14. Gropius was careful to draw detailed plans at 1:20 before any contracts had been awarded, so to ensure every service had been given full attention with all dimensions dictated, 10 Ibid 11 Ibid 12 Atli Seelow, "The Construction Kit And The Assembly Line— Walter Gropius’ Concepts For Rationalizing Architecture", Arts, 7.4 (2018), 95 <https://doi.org/10.3390/arts7040095>.

13 Ibid 14 Ibid 48

maximising efficiency and economy. The conception of Dessau Torten saw complete prefabrication considered, but was too expensive and thus they relied on lightweight prefabricated elements in a semi-dry construction method whereby one man could carry each hollow concrete block. The project was also one of the first to use a planned schedule with all tasks and construction phases, known as an Arbeitsgraph (work-graph), similar to the scheduling we see on site now. Whilst Gropius did not achieve the cost reduction anticipated, there were many successes of his experimental social housing scheme, with the vast time saved being most prominent.

As Gropius learned from all of his experiments, he concluded that Dessau Torten would require heavy machinery and a larger volume of homes in order to meet the 50% cost reduction, over the 5-25% the project resulted.

Gropius made a list of 7 demands on the construction industry; improve lightweight panels, improve window mechanisms, invent a lightweight material to rival the use of brick, produce flexible lightweight walls, heat meters, mechanical ventilation systems and lastly new facade materials15.

Writing on Gropius, Seelow states that Gropius' principles only recently "gained a new relevance through digital design tools and robot-assisted fabrication. Therefore one can only hope that the pioneering work undertaken by Gropius will be transferred to the digital age", in 201816.

Digital design tools have already allowed designers to drastically reduce the time taken to create detailed drawings, let alone the time and waste saved on site as a result of this. Less room for error on site equates to a reduction in both physical waste and time waste, allowing for a higher efficiency in construction. Although Gropius didn't have the technology that we do now, his ideology has been implemented as we have gained the skills, to gradually improve the energy-efficiency of construction over the 20th century, which we shall discuss further into this paper.

15 Ibid 16 Ibid 49

Following the years of Gropius' experiments, the spike of social housing to combat the housing shortage from damage after the second World War lead to the dense application of standardisation and prefabrication in many housing schemes across the country. Though this spike dwindled in the 1960s after 1.5 million houses were built, there has been a recent resurgence into social housing to combat our current housing crisis, using standardised methods of design to improve speed and cost efficiency17. The Liverpool-based practice shedkm created the 'townhouse'; an innovative research concept based on prefabricated units. The company states their concept is "a direct challenge to the established typologies of the major UK house builders"18. The concept features modular planned units, constructed off site and built to order. Each houses 'shell' contains the stair, kitchen and bathroom, carefully placed in order to maximise the customisable rooms with services already considered. The customisability is one of the key selling points for the concept, with over 130,000 possible combinations of design, chosen by the buyer19. The series of layouts can also work between one to six bedroom homes, with easy addition/removal of further floors. Upon choosing the floor-plan layout, the buyers are then given more options through a variety of finishes, or choosing to fit out the space themselves. All of the work on this concept came from 4 years of prototypes and research, with the company stating that this isn't a finished concept, but endeavour to learn from each scheme created and to improve20.

Shedkm's concept has been realised in 3 built projects in the North of England. Their most recent and largest application of the townhouse concept is in the Irwell Riverside project in Salford, Manchester. The site had seen many unfulfilled proposals and had been vacant for a number of years, although there has been a new sense of gentrification in this area of Manchester in more recent years. The 72 terraced townhouses are a mix of 2 and 3 storeys in parallel rows, to maximise views out to River Irwell and to provide a 'strong sense of community' with 2 main streets. Having completed in 2018, Irwell Riverside has continued to be in high demand, and is currently sold out of townhouses but still offers some homes to rent. The popularity of the project gives hope to a revitalised relationship between the people of Britain and prefabricated architecture.

17 ("The History of Council Housing" 2021) 18 ("town house - shedkm" 2021) 19 Ibid 20 ("town house - shedkm" 2021) 50

Figure 2. Irwell Riverside by ShedKM being craned onto site

51

Figure 3. Construction sequence at Oxley Park

Figure 4. Oxley Park housing type L - red indicates central service zone

52

Perhaps the ability for mass customisation is the selling point that attracts a variety of people, creating a diverse community, directly contrasting to that of the negative connotations of prefabricated communities in the 20th century. The surge for social housing began after a need from the First World War, which directly resulted in the Home Fit for Heroes Act of 1918, specifically aimed to restart building work for the working class21. This need was soon overshadowed by the Second World War as priorities were redistributed. After WWII, the housing crisis became even worse, with a higher demand on a variety of housing types, requiring a fast and efficient construction method. The mass provision of social housing for the working class and war veterans led to untested large scale prefabricated housing22. The pressure of demand meant quick production and construction, but lacked in quality, leading to prefabrication quickly receiving a negative association to poorly-designed architecture23. The British public knew prefabrication at a large scale and weren't commonly aware of the varying scales of both prefabrication & standardisation, including their differing applications and benefits. The tradition of masonry construction also made a new construction method become a prominent choice, with many assuming prefabricated homes to have a much shorter lifespan. The revitalisation of standardisation in Britain's current climate provides us with an opportunity to remove the existing negative thoughts surrounding prefabrication. Shedkm's innovative concept has taken off very successfully, but will be an interesting theory to monitor over time, to accurately judge how Britain perceives this new method of standardisation.

Considering a tried and tested prefabricated unit in the UK, we further our analysis onto Oxley Park. The British political party, the Labour Party, have always included the housing crisis in their manifestos as a major concern.

21 Julia Park, One Hundred Years Of Space Standards: What Now?, 2017 <http://housingspacestandards.co.uk/> [Accessed 30 March 2021].

22 Anthony Craig, Richard Laing and Martin Edge, The Social Acceptability Of Prefabrication And Standardisation In Relation To New Housing (Aberdeen: The Robert Gordon University, 2000) <http://www4. rgu.ac.uk/files/CraigLaingEdge2000.pdf> [Accessed 22 February 2021].

23 Ibid 53

As detailed in their 2005 manifesto, whilst they were in power, the labour party expressed the housing need in multiple chapters, ranging from Quality of Life: Excellence for All, to Families: Choice and support at work and at home24. During his time as Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, along with his deputy Prime Minister John Prescott, launched the Design for Manufacture competition, offering council-owned land up to developers to challenge them into designing high-quality homes with the construction cost of just £60,000 per unit25. The competition was run by English Partnerships on behalf of the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, now known as the Department of Housing, Communities and Local Government, and featured 4 pilot sites across the Midlands to provide up to 1000 homes. The most prominent site was Oxley Park, Milton Keynes which resulted in 145 homes being built. After the 3 stage competition process, the Richard Rogers Partnership emerged triumphant. Rogers was famously known for his innovative work on the Pompidou Centre in Paris and the Lloyds Building in London. Rogers responded to the brief by creating house typologies that could be adapted using modern methods of construction to the site location, the user's needs and the size of house required. Similarly to the concept described previously by shedkm, Rogers design standardised the serviced spaces, bathrooms and kitchens, as well as the facade treatment and the 'ecohat' ventilation system, leaving ancillary rooms as customisable elements in the floor-plan26. These standardised parts of the design were manufactured off site and transported to site to be assembled, as we have seen previously in standardised and prefabricated systems. This concept left the "remainder treated as a highly flexible shell unencumbered by services and structural peculiarities"27.

Rogers' rationalisation also left room for customisation, allowing for changes in cladding to "adjust to vernacular of the area by appropriating

24 "The Labour Party Manifesto 2005", Newsimg.Bbc.Co.Uk, 2005 <http://newsimg.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/LAB_uk_manifesto.pdf> [Accessed 24 March 2021].

25 Liquid Co, "Government Launches Design For Manufacture Competition", Housebuilder Magazine, 2005 <https://www.housebuilder.co.uk/news/government-launches-design-for-manufacturecompetition-2005-04-06/> [Accessed 20 March 2021].

26 "Eumiesaward - Oxley Wood", Miesarch.Com, 2021 <https://www. miesarch.com/work/1439> [Accessed 22 March 2021].

27 Ibid 54

colour & textures"28, and therefore the Oxley Park project was designed as a possible future precedent. Just as Gropius & shedkm, Rogers' plans were in his words, 'thoroughly tested' to ensure that the standardisation and customisation of the units worked for a variety of types and size of families29. Gropius showed us the start of standardisation in architecture with his successes and his fails, which were to be expected as the pioneer of the movement. The more recent development proposals by shedkm allow us to analyse modern applications of prefabrication and standardisation, although we need more time to see how the projects settle in to site and with inhabitation over time. With Rogers' Oxley Park having completed in 2007, we are in a good position to both appreciate the modern application and to see how it has been received over the last 14 years.

Whilst the design concept seemed well thought out as a new way to create affordable housing, it seems that Oxley Park lost success due to its quality.

7 years after its completion, a report was undertaken by the consultancy company GHPC and commissioned by the developer Taylor Wimpey after complaints from residents; 16 of which had lodged official claims with the National House Building Council30. Although NHBC had inspected and approved the scheme, there were preventable issues such as the cladding having a ventilation gap of 30mm under the minimum 50mm suggested

by NHBC standards. The project thus suffered from major water ingress throughout the timber frame, window junctions and roofs. The report carefully does not point blame but does state that these issues are the result of "poor detailing and poor construction"31. Rogers' practice released a statement moving blame onto both the developer and contractors, stating that it was a "design and build project so contractors were responsible for final detailed design"32. Although there seems to be failures within the project, Rogers' learned from their mistake as they moved onto their next affordable housing scheme by using standard detailing unlike the bespoke window details at Oxley Park.

28 "Eumiesaward - Oxley Wood", Miesarch.Com, 2021 <https://www. miesarch.com/work/1439> [Accessed 22 March 2021].

29 Ibid 30 Laura Mark, "What Went Wrong At Oxley Woods?", The Architects’ Journal, 2014 <https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/news/what-wentwrong-at-oxley-woods?blocktitle=top-story&contentid=7861> [Accessed 26 March 2021].

31 Ibid 32 Ibid.

55

The project was successful in its innovation and testing and according to Prescott, the residents were generally happy with the scheme. Linda Inoki, chair of Xplain, providing better architecture for Milton Keynes, expressed that "we need an exemplar development to show prefabricated homes can be a pleasure to live in. Oxley Woods obviously isn't it"33. Oxley Woods also seems to have been misrepresented in its costs; whilst the scheme is known for its £60,000 home, this purely relates to the construction costs with homes sold for over £180,000 once the developers had factored other costs in34. The project also was asked to supply 30% affordable housing, to which they provided 33%, with 30 out of the 43 affordable houses assigned, being the £60,000 home. Although the aim of the £60,000 home was to combat the housing crisis in collaboration with the council and government, the lack of private low-cost housing continues to fuel the negative relationship between standardisation & prefabrication and affordable housing from the post WW2 era. Oxley Park boasts a 39% £60,000 house provision in the accommodation schedule, but these homes only made up 26% of the private housing compared to the 70% of affordable housing. The competition posed an opportunity to rejuvenate the representation of prefabricated housing as a cost-effective and sustainable choice to all types of housing, without being part of a tick-box exercise for developers to provide affordable housing. It appears that even with almost 100 years of tried and tested examples of prefabrication and standardisation, the industries of architecture and construction haven't quite found their symbiotic relationship yet.

33 Ibid 34 Andy Sharman and Jim Pickard, "Lord Prescott’S £60,000 Homes ‘Are Rotting’", Ft.Com, 2014 <https://www.ft.com/content/d163240a-dc3f11e3-8511-00144feabdc0> [Accessed 26 March 2021].

56

As Architects attempt to chip away at the housing crisis across the country, the density and costly housing in London requires a specific approach.

Pocket Living are a developer, launched in 2005 with the sole objective of creating affordable housing for "young, middle earning Londoners who contribute to their city in so many ways"35. The company's design ethos focuses on not using space standards as a restrictive minimum, but as a positive challenge to work towards; most of their accommodation is their original design, the 38m2 1 bedroom, 1 person flat36. Pocket work with a variety of sized architectural practices whom value community and providing well designed compact spaces. The development of their one person flat even had the approval of the Mayor of London in 2013, securing them their minimum space standard along with an interestfree loan of £21.7 million to develop 400 homes in 8 London boroughs37.

Pocket have completed over 20 projects throughout London using standardised design "ideal for modular construction", that can reduce the overall programme time-scale by 40% and on-site waste by up to 75%38.

The developer worked with the various councils to achieve a Section 106 agreement that ensures these homes built for the young professional, stay with the young professional, through a thorough vetting process on any potential buyers39. The thermally efficient flats, produced off-site were recently built on the West Green scheme in Haringey, London. The scheme comprised of ninety-three 1 bed, 1 person flats, making up 74% of the accommodation schedule, as well as seventeen 2 bed, 2 person flats and sixteen 3 bed houses40.

35 "Pocket: Affordable New Homes In London", Pocketliving.Com, 2021 <https://www.pocketliving.com/> [Accessed 27 March 2021].

36 Ibid 37 "Pocket-Sized Flats Provide A Start For The Young First-Time Buyer", The Guardian, 2013 <https://www.theguardian.com/housingnetwork/2013/dec/19/pocket-size-flats-young-first-time-buyer> [Accessed 28 March 2021].

38 "Pocket: Affordable New Homes In London", Pocketliving.Com, 2021 <https://www.pocketliving.com/> [Accessed 27 March 2021].

39 Ibid 40 Pocket Living LLP, Report For Consideration At Planning SubCommitee (London: Haringey Council, 2017) <https://www.minutes. haringey.gov.uk/documents/s91124/Keston%20Centre%20draft%20 committee%20report.pdf> [Accessed 27 March 2021].

57

Figure 5. Pocket Living scheme at West Green, Haringey

Figure 6. Pocket Living's 38m2 typical flat layout

58

The 2 bed, 2 person flats fall below the technical space standards, but was a result of compromise with the council, since there only currently exists a standard for 2 bed, 3 person or 2 bed, 4 person41. Both of these options for a 2 bed currently comprise of larger flats and therefore are too expensive for 2 people to purchase together in central London, allowing Pocket to invent their own standard to fill in gaps in the rigid government space standards42. Whilst Pocket haven't disclosed their research as a typology to be learned from as shedkm have, it is evident that they have posed a successful solution for the housing crisis by using a well designed compact standardised unit to maximise area on site as well as both cost and time efficiency.

The basis of Pocket's 38m2 one bedroom flat comes from the rigorous housing standards applied by the UK government as 'nationally described space standards'. The 2015 document has become a staple in designing any housing, and is especially vital in social housing projects. Whilst this document is intended as a minimum standard, it is often used as the maximum and as more of a tick-box exercise, due to the pressures of achieving vast quantities of housing quickly43. This document came from the Housing Standards Review, launched in 2012, as a means to streamline existing space standards, to replace various documents provided by nongovernmental bodies44. The history of space standards in the UK began after the Great Fire of London, initially dictating, in the London Building Act 1667, that all houses were to be built in brick or stone and further prescribed wall thickness and building storeys45.

41 Ibid 42 "Pocket: Affordable New Homes In London", Pocketliving.Com, 2021 <https://www.pocketliving.com/> [Accessed 27 March 2021].

43 Matthew Carmona, Nick Gallent and Reetuparna Sarkar, Space Standards: The Benefits, Housing Standards: Evidence And Research (London: University College London for CABE, 2010) <https://files. cambridge.gov.uk/public/ldf/coredocs/rd-h-200.pdf> [Accessed 1 April 2021].

44 "Technical Housing Standards - Nationally Described Space Standard", Designingbuildings.Co.Uk, 2021 <https://www. designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Technical_housing_standards_-_ nationally_described_space_standard> [Accessed 30 March 2021].

45 Julia Park, One Hundred Years Of Space Standards: What Now?, 2017 <http://housingspacestandards.co.uk/> [Accessed 30 March 2021].

59

The late 1800s saw the Public Health Act requiring houses to be self contained with sanitation and water, as well as 'bye-laws' becoming apparent in most towns describing minimum street widths, room heights and basic amenities of the home, to name a few46. These changes saw the rise of the terraced house across the UK, with over 2.5 million constructed between 1870-191047. The first major acknowledgement of housing quality and standards came from the Tudor Walters Committee report in 1918, which considered type and arrangement of rooms, as well as providing the first set of minimum space standards for the 'non-parlour house', 'parlour house', 3 bedroom sizes and the parlour48. Throughout the 20th century, there were various changes to the housing act, from pressure post war to build, to the 1949 Housing Manual which dictated a long-term programme for housing typology.

In 1961 we saw 'Homes for Today and Tomorrow', a report by the Parker Morris Committee setting standards for public housing. The Parker Morris Standards were based on the idea that "homes are more than just units on a development plan and building homes fit for today and tomorrow has to be about more than just the bottom line"49, the comparison of which can be seen in figure 7. The report favoured building as a long-term investment; to build too large allows room for growth and change as opposed to being stuck with too small, thus requiring redevelopment when society outgrows it. An example of this comes from Julia Park, an expert in standards and housing policy, stating that the Parker Morris standards are underpinned by paternalism and the assumptions of the male and female roles in the home as "ridiculously sexist and out-dated"50.

46 Ibid 47 Ibid 48 Ibid 49 Jules Birch, "Building Homes Fit For Tomorrow: The Lessons From Parker Morris", Inside Housing, 2019 <https://www.insidehousing.co.uk/ comment/comment/building-homes-fit-for-tomorrow-the-lessons-fromparker-morris-60237> [Accessed 31 March 2021].

50 Julia Park, One Hundred Years Of Space Standards: What Now?, 2017 <http://housingspacestandards.co.uk/> [Accessed 30 March 2021].

60

Figure 7. Space standards comparison table

61

The view on housing standards changed drastically when the Conservative Party came into power in the 1980s and development became less about good spaces designed for the human, but more about maximising units and value51. Whilst there was variations to this view and the relevant legislation at the end of the 20th century and into the 21st, the 2015 technical space standards that we now use, were the first nationally applied space standards across the UK52.

Conclusion The 20th century saw great leaps in standardisation through Gropius, German Architecture and the great world events that pressured areas of architecture into becoming more inventive. These leaps didn't come without failure, as we have seen throughout Gropius' thorough & iterative testing of built homes, a method of learning that we don't usually get to appreciate in architecture due to the extensive cost of constructing spaces.

Prefabrication and mass customisation has seen a wide range of opinions throughout the years, through rushed post second World War housing, to embracing the efficiency of standards in the 21st century. Developers and architects like shedkm and Pocket Living, can see technical standards and methods like prefabricated construction as exciting opportunities, over design hindrances. On the other hand, Oxley Park came as a challenge to developers, directly from the government, and not out of their own desire to rationalise architecture. The housing crisis provides us with a new chance to create well-designed, efficient spaces for people to enjoy, that won't be resented as we evolve. The possibilities for standardising architecture are endless, and have only just begun. In Germany, the Stuttgart University utilised robotics as a method of prefabricated construction, manufacturing an innovative, lightweight timber shell off site53. The flexibility of the robot allowed for complex panels, easily 51 Jules Birch, "Building Homes Fit For Tomorrow: The Lessons From Parker Morris", Inside Housing, 2019 <https://www.insidehousing.co.uk/ comment/comment/building-homes-fit-for-tomorrow-the-lessons-fromparker-morris-60237> [Accessed 31 March 2021].

52 Julia Park, One Hundred Years Of Space Standards: What Now?, 2017 <http://housingspacestandards.co.uk/> [Accessed 30 March 2021].

53 Blaine Brownell, "Robots Prefab A Timber Shell In Germany", Architect, 2014 <https://www.architectmagazine.com/technology/robotsprefab-a-timber-shell-in-germany_o> [Accessed 1 April 2021].

62

assembled quickly once on site54. The technology comprised with the relationship we have with the construction industry, allows architects to work smarter in rationalising design decisions, whilst maintaining the beauty of architecture.

Although some see standards as a hindrance in design, they provide both an exciting challenge to work towards, as well as ensuring equality in sufficient living space across the country. The ability for mass customisation gives us a wider range of possibilites for the future of standardisation, prefabrication and rationalisation in architecture.

This dissertation has discussed three contrasting methods for designing architecture; considering algorithms to create for us, a pattern language to guide us and lastly, standards to aid us in regulation. These methods of design have also led to questions on authorship in architecture and the role of the architect. The architect's role was derived over years of different crafts and trades unifying into one master builder, but this may not be the future for the role of the architect. It is possible to see the authorship of the architect become further removed as we allow computers to think more creatively, learning from past precedents. Pattern theory may also provide the basis to suggest the architect creates spaces with the intention of others learning from them, as part of a larger series of rules. If we as designers are to become the ones who decide what is or isn't rationalised, could the role of the architect become much larger and hold even more power than it does now.

There may be no obvious answer to where the design of architecture may take us, but the last 150 years has set us up in a fascinating position for the future. Controlling design methods allows us as architects to ensure high quality, tested buildings that have the possibility of having a longer valuable life span, than buildings that are too quickly erected and further, demolished. For now, we must continue to work with advancements and allow them to better our work and better the reasons we build, for the people.

54 Ibid 63

64

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Figures Chapter 1

Figure 1. Design Metrics (from left to right: adjacency preference, work

style preference, buzz, productivity, daylight and views to the

outside). The Living, an Autodesk Studio. 2017. Diagram Figure 2. Research Design Diagram. Yair Schwartz, Rokia Raslan and

Dejan Mumovic, “Implementing Multi Objective Genetic

Algorithm For Life Cycle Carbon Footprint And Life Cycle Cost

Minimisation; A Building Refurbishment Case Study”, nergy,

Volume 97 (2016), 58-68. Flowchart Figure 3. Table 3 Genes and possible values. Yair Schwartz, Rokia

Raslan and Dejan Mumovic, “Implementing Multi Objective

Genetic Algorithm For Life Cycle Carbon Footprint And Life Cycle

Cost Minimisation; A Building Refurbishment Case Study”, energy,

Volume 97 (2016), 58-68. Table Figure 4. Table 4 Scenarios examined in this study. Yair Schwartz,

Rokia Raslan and Dejan Mumovic, “Implementing Multi Objective

Genetic Algorithm For Life Cycle Carbon Footprint And Life Cycle

Cost Minimisation; A Building Refurbishment Case Study”, nergy,

Volume 97 (2016), 58-68. Table Figure 5. Waste combustion district heating, embodied/operational CO2 (building a, building b). Yair Schwartz, Rokia Raslan

and Dejan Mumovic, “Implementing Multi Objective Genetic

Algorithm For Life Cycle Carbon Footprint And Life Cycle Cost

Minimisation; A Building Refurbishment Case Study”, nergy,

Volume 97 (2016), 58-68. Graph Figure 6. Natural gas heating system, embodied/operational CO2

(building a, building b). Yair Schwartz, Rokia Raslan

and Dejan Mumovic, “Implementing Multi Objective Genetic

Algorithm For Life Cycle Carbon Footprint And Life Cycle Cost

Minimisation; A Building Refurbishment Case Study”, nergy,

Volume 97 (2016), 58-68. Graph

73

Figure 7. Non-refurbished, refurbished and optimal buildings - 60

years LCCF breakdown. Yair Schwartz, Rokia Raslan

and Dejan Mumovic, “Implementing Multi Objective Genetic

Algorithm For Life Cycle Carbon Footprint And Life Cycle Cost

Minimisation; A Building Refurbishment Case Study”, nergy,

Volume 97 (2016), 58-68. Graph Figure 8. Design of structural model of Beijing National Aquatics Centre.

Computer model rendering Figure 9. Beijing National Aquatics Centre. Photo

74

Chapter 2 Figure 1. Sketch showing rooms with light on two sides. Christopher

Alexander. Drawing from A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction Figure 2. Living space taken from kitchen in Unité d’Habitation. Didier

Gaillard- Hohlweg, ArchDaily. 2018. Photograph Figure 3. Kitchen fom Dining Area in Unité d’Habitation. Didier Gaillard-

Hohlweg, ArchDaily. 2018. Photograph Figure 4. Title page photo for Pattern 136 Couple's Realm*. Christopher

Alexander. Page extract from A Pattern Language: Towns,

Buildings, Construction Figure 5. Sketch separating room types to give children & parents own

space. Christopher Alexander. Drawing from A Pattern Language:

Towns, Buildings, Construction Figure 6. Children drawing on chalkboard partition wall in Unité

d’Habitation. Lucien Hervé. 1968. Photograph Figure 7. Group of children playing on roof of Unité d’Habitation. Lucien

Hervé. 1968. Photograph Figure 8. Shopping street on levels 7 & 8 Unité d’Habitation. Graham

McKay. 2017. Photograph Figure 9. Plan & Section of Unité d’Habitation. Fondation Le Corbusier.

Drawing Figure 10. Balcony from living area of Unité d’Habitation. Guillermo

Hevia García. 2012. Photograph Figure 11. Children using their private balcony in Unité d’Habitation.

Lucien Hervé. 1968. Photograph

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Chapter 3 Figure 1. Human figures measured. Architect's Data, Ernst Neufert. 1936.

Diagram Figure 2. Irwell Riverside, Manchester. shedkm. 2019. Photograph Figure 3. Construction sequence at Oxley Park, Milton Keynes. Richard

Rogers Partnership. 2007. Diagram Figure 4. Oxley Park Housing Type L. Richard Rogers Partnership. 2007.

Drawing Figure 5. West Green, London. Pocket Living. 2021. Photograph Figure 6. Typical 38m2 flat layout. Pocket Living. 2005. Drawing Figure 7. Space standards comparison Table. Julia Mark. 2017. Diagram

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