8 Elements of the Last Mile

An Architects’ Catalog of Designs for the Last Mile of Parcel Delivery

Elements of the Last Mile

MICRO HUB DARK STORE

CURB

CARGO BIKE

HUB

HUB

ROUTE

ROUTE

MOBILE DEPOT DRONE LOCKER

HUB

ROUTE

hub.

micro hub

SIZE

Micro hubs are small warehouses located in urban areas usually ranging from 5,000-10,000 square feet. Compared to their suburban counterparts, micro hubs have a smaller footprint and capacity, but make up for their size by being able to take advantage of urban infill sites and small parcels to create a network of dispersed locations in the city.

AUXILLARY

Due to their strategic urban location, they have the potential to incorporate other functions that can reap the benefits of location, network and flow. Katsela et al. raise 4 categories of value-added services that share similar architectural needs: value generation, value capture, demand driving and EV support. Some examples include package recycling, central kitchens, rest stops and tool lending libraries.

VERTICALITY

Micro hubs are small warehouses located in urban areas usually ranging from 5,000-10,000 square feet. Compared to their suburban counterparts, micro hubs have a smaller footprint and capacity, but make up for their size by being able to take advantage of urban infill sites and small parcels to create a network of dispersed locations in the city.

TECHNOLOGY

Dark Stores are urban retail stores that have converted a portion or all of its sales floor into warehouse storage. Their proximity and small inventory allow deliveries to homes in as little as 15 minutes in New York City. Some allow customers to enter and shop, while others require all orders to be placed online.

dark store

LAYOUT

Dark Stores are urban retail stores that have converted a portion or all of its sales floor into warehouse storage. Their proximity and small inventory allow deliveries to homes in as little as 15 minutes in New York City. Some allow customers to enter and shop, while others require all orders to be placed online.

LOOPHOLE

Dark Stores operate in a zoning grey area. Maintaining a small storefront allows these spaces to be zoned as retail, so they can retain prime real estate locations in the city, necessary in order to reduce delivery time.

FACADE

These spaces have made little effort to engage with the urban environment. The name “Dark Store” may have originated from the lack of visibility into these spaces: many have covered display windows with branding and advertisement, preventing passers-by from looking inside and seeing the crude interiors.

LOCATION

There are currently 108 dark stores in New York City, primarily in denser, wealthier residential neighborhoods in Manhattan and Brooklyn.

mobile depot

PHYSICAL AND TEMPORAL

There are several definitions for a mobile depot. The term mobile may refer to a hub’s physical mobility, such as trucks with sorting and loading capabilities, or its temporal quality, such as temporary structures and pop-up spaces, or both.

Pop up lockers and collection centers can be set up in temporarily unused urban areas. They not only provide convenience, but also add interest and activity to underutilized spaces. The location and duration of the pop up should respond to real time monitoring of customer demand. For example, end of year pop up lockers near retail stores can reduce crowding inside stores.

MOBILE DEPOT AS HUB

Trucks are an example of physically mobile depots. When trucks are used as warehouses, they are able to bring sorting and packing facilities closer to the destination, when permanent sites for warehouses are not available in the neighborhood. The mobility of trucks allows the system to handle surges efficiently, while not occupying prime locations when delivery demands are lower.

AS ROUTE

Modified trucks can carry pre-loaded last mile delivery vehicles like cargo bikes. Bringing them closer to their destination can reduce the final distance travelled when permissible. After the cargo bike is unloaded, the truck may have travelled closer to speed up the next cycle of deliveries.

AS END

Trucks can also become part of the end phase. Trailers are modified to become operable as lockers. By moving the truck around constantly, either following a schedule or rerouting on demand to meet customer needs, it reduces truck idling and subsequently illegal parking time.

route.

curb

THE LAST 50 FEET

Scholars have defined the last 50 feet of delivery as the space extending from the curbside to the drop off point. This space crosses path with vehicles, pedestrians and cannot be easily mechanized, hence plays important role in the urban environment.

UNLOADING

Trucks are frequently seen occupying curbside space for unloading. Logistically, it is the most straightforward way to unload goods, whether legitimate or not. Occupancy of the curb is temporary, but it comes at an opportunity cost of other functions of the curb. NYDOT’s Loading Zone Expansion Project has already installed more than 2,000 loading zones citywide, prioritizing neighborhoods with high density of residential and commercial activities. The initiative was able to reduce double parking on some streets by 73%.

LOADING / PICK UP

The pandemic accelerated the rate of adoption of contactless technology. Some larger stores in the city offer curbside pickup, with designated parking zones permissing 12 to 20 minutes of parking. See: Collection Point.

COMPETING USES

The unassuming curb performes more functions outside of the delivery space. Bike sharing stations, trash cans, outdoor seating and street buskers compete against logistics companies for the same limited linear square feet of space.

Greg Lynn’s Curbside Pavilion combines functionality with exaggerated forms and materials to create a whimsical and practical symbol for the curbside pickup experience.

cargo bike

DEFINITION

Cargo bikes are human-powered, sometimes electrically assisted vehicles that has 2-4 wheels. They are usually designed to carry one standard pallet, loaded either on the front or rear of the bike. Cargo bikes are suitable for last mile deliveries in extremely dense urban areas where traffic speeds are slow.

LIMITATIONS

With the prevalence of urban warehouses, last mile distances are greatly shortened, which makes cargo bikes more efficient than trucks when roads are congested.

The speed limit for cargo bikes is currently 15 miles an hour. It is not permitted on sidewalks and only recently approved for bike lanes.

ADOPTION

After several years of planning and consideration, NYDOT approved the use of electric pedal-assisted cargo bikes in bike lanes in March 2024. The department’s pioneering cargo bike model was fondly nicknamed “Cargi B” through an internet contest.

Many of the major logistics carriers such as DHS, UPS and FedEx have also developed their own cargo bike design.

CARBON REDUCTION

Since the Commercial Cargo Bike program launched in 2019, the popularity of Cargo Bikes as a last mile vehicle has increased greatly. In 2022, over 5 million parcels were delivered by bike, translating to over 650,000 metric tons of CO2 reduced compared to traditional truck deliveries.

DIMENSIONS

Currently, cargo bikes must not be more than 4 feet wide, 10 feet in length and 7 feet in height. NYDOT is planning to increase the maximum length to 16 feet, approximately the size of a compact car.

The cargo bike struggles to achieve a balance between cargo efficiency and a small frame that does not obstruct the bike lane.

drone

CURRENT STATISTICS

The current generation of drones can travel up to 9 miles, which is far greater than the average distance of the last mile in cities. Autonomous charging stations can extend its maximum distance.

They cruise at an elevation of around 300 feet, with a maximum speed of 65 miles per hour, carrying loads of up to 5 pounds.

RAPID DEVELOPMENT

Funding for the drone industry increased 7 fold in the last 2 years. Delivery drones have been increasingly approved by the Federal Aviation Administration. They are already widely used in selected neighborhoods, mainly used in the medical industry for delivery of urgent medical supplies, such as prescription medication or blood. Drone deliveries are becoming no more expensive nor difficult than ground based vehicular deliveries.

Some of the largest companies in the market are DroneUp, Zipline, Wing and Amazon, with many emerging startups. Relevant regulatory bodies are also beginning to issue rules governing certification, infrastructure and flight path.

HIGH ALTITUDE DELIVERY SYSTEM

Currently, drones require a large landing area of 2-3 feet, or manual retrieval. This often requires descending from flight height to ground level, increasing travel distance and risk of encountering obstacles. A mid air delivery system to high rise commercial and residential buildings can greatly improve drone efficiency.

Pneumatic tubes located on higher floors open in response to approaching zones. The parcel is received through the tube which directly connects to the building’s mail room.

NO DRONE ZONES

Most of New York City is a recreational no-drone-zone, with strict rules for flying. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey have been developing policies and regulations around commercial drone use. Their successful girl scout cookie delivery experiment across the hudson river proved that policy changes may be underway.

end.

locker

HOW TO USE

Package lockers are self-service devices that can hold multiple packages. Customers are alerted to a successful locker delivery digitally. Personal identification or single-use verification codes are required to retrieve the packages from the locker.

ACCESSIBILITY

Lockers may be located at Collection Points, which may be frequented public spaces such as grocery stores and transit stations, or within private apartment buildings. They are rarely used for single family or small residential buildings due to their larger capacity. The ones meant for public are sometimes tucked away in mail rooms. This means that certain locker locations may not be accessible at all times or to all customers nearby.

EASE OF USE

As lockers are usually self serviced, many customers found technical difficulties especially frustrating. Unresponsive software and jammed lockers doors delayed retrieval of time sensitive packages. Hence, the tradeoff for fast, secure delivery is the reliability of locker technology.

MODULAR DESIGN

Lockers are supplied to apartment buildings and community centers by third party manufacturers. They are rarely built into the space due to their technological specification and recent popularity.

Most lockers on the market are composed of vertical columns with compartments of varying dimensions. Larger compartments are placed higher up to avoid accidentally trapping children or small animals. Smaller compartments , which are more commonly used, are placed around eye level.

PEAK SURGE

Despite attempts at modularity, lockers are poor at handling spontaneous or seasonal surges. During the holiday months, amount of packages received at a given address can triple. A lack of post-installation survey and research in this area limits the actions that can be taken to accommodate overflow, leaving problem solving to building managers or postal workers.

DEFINITION

A collection point is a designated location where customers can pick up their package. It may be serviced, such as in a Buy-Online-Pickup-In-Store (BOPIS) retail method, Drive-Thru, or self-service, such as pickup lockers in a shared space.

LOCATION

Since collection points provide a single location for parcels meant to be delivered within a georgraphical area, it cuts down the distance travelled during a last mile delivery. Parcels can be marked as “delivered” earlier, with a greater success rate. The responsibility of covering the last mile is then passed on to the user.

Survey respondants have indicated that the key reason to visit a specific collection point instead of opting for home delivery is the distance from home or frequented places.

Collection points should be no more than 600m from the residential home or place of work, else its use rate drops significantly. Locations near major transit stops were also frequented.

ADDITIONAL CRITERIA

Many customers cited accessibility, ease of use and waiting time as top factors that influence their decision to utilize a collection point. The ideal collection point is open 24/7, easily accessible, has clear signage, no waiting times and prompt customer support in case of technical issues.

WHO GOES THE EXTRA MILE

If customers travel the last mile via personal vehicles, then the carbon emissions reduction becomes negligible. However, if the collection point is located sufficiently close to a frequented location, then more customers are likely to access the location by foot or public transit.