Consumer behavior buying having and being 12th edition solomon solutions manual 1

Consumer Behavior, 12e (Solomon)

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Chapter 4: LEARNING AND MEMORY

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

When students finish this chapter, they should understandwhy:

1. It is important to understand how consumers learn about products andservices.

2. Conditioning results inlearning.

3. Learned associations with brands generalize to other products

4. There is a difference between classical and instrumental conditioning, and bothprocesses help consumers learn about products.

5. We learn about products by observing others’ behavior.

6. Our brains process information about brands to retain them inmemory.

7. The other products we associate with an individual product influence how we will remember it.

8. Products help us to retrieve memories from ourpast.

9. Marketers measure our memories about products andads.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

It is important to understand how consumers learn about products and services. Learning is a change in behavior that experience causes. Learning can occur through simple associations between a stimulus and a response or via a complex series of cognitiveactivities.

Conditioning results in learning.

Behavioral learning theories assume that learning occurs because of responses to external events. Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that naturally elicits a response (an unconditioned stimulus) is paired with another stimulus that does not initially elicit this response. Over time,the second stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) elicits the response even in the absence of thefirst.

Learned associations with brands generalize to other products. This response can also extend to other, similar stimuli in a process we call stimulus generalization. This process is the basis for such marketing strategies as licensing and family branding, where a consumer’s positive associations with a product transfer to othercontexts.

There is a difference between classical and instrumental conditioning, and both processes help consumers learn about products.

Operant, or instrumental, conditioning occurs as the person learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and avoid those that result in negative outcomes. Whereasclassical conditioning involves the pairing of two stimuli, instrumental learning occurs when reinforcement occurs following a response to a stimulus. Reinforcement is positive if areward

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-1

follows a response. It is negative if the person avoids a negative outcome by not performing a response. Punishment occurs when an unpleasant event follows a response. Extinction of the behavior will occur if reinforcement no longeroccurs.

We learn by observing others’ behavior. Cognitive learning occurs as the result of mental processes. For example, observationallearning occurs when the consumer performs a behavior because of seeing someone else performing it and being rewarded for it.

Our brains process information about brands to retain them in memory. Memory is the storage of learned information. The way we encode information when we perceive it determines how we will store it in memory. The memory systems we call sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory each play a role in retaining andprocessing information from the outside world.

The other products we associate with an individual product influence how we will remember it. We do not store information in isolation; we incorporate it into knowledge structure where our brains associate it with other related data. The location of product information in associative networks, and the level of abstraction at which it is coded, help to determine when and how we will activate this information later. Some factors that influence the likelihood of retrieval include the level of familiarity with an item, its salience (or prominence) in memory, and whether the information was presented in pictorial or writtenform.

Products help us to retrieve memories from our past. Products also play a role as memory markers. Consumers use them to retrieve memories about past experiences (autobiographical memories). We often value them because they are able to do this. This function also encourages the use of nostalgia in marketingstrategies.

Marketers measure our memories about products and ads. We can use either recognition or recall techniques to measure memory for product information. Consumers are more likely to recognize an advertisement if it is presented to them than they are to recall one without being given any cues. However, neither recognition nor recallautomatically or reliably translates into product preferences orpurchases.

CHAPTER OUTLINE

I. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that is caused by experience. A consumer can learn from direct experience or vicariously by observing events thataffect others.

A. We can learn without even trying just observing brand names on shelves. This casual, unintentional acquisition of knowledge is called incidentallearning.

Discussion Opportunity Present the class with illustrations of learning vicariously and incidental learning in a consumer context. In reference to each of your illustrations, ask students what strategies marketers have used or might use to foster such learning.

B. Theories of learning include those that focus on simple stimulus response connections (behavioral theories) to those that regard consumers as complex-problem solverswho learn abstract rules and concepts when they observe what others say and do (cognitive theories)

II. Behavioral learning theories assume that learning takes place as the result of responses to external events. Two major approaches to learning represent this view: classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning.

A. Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own. Over time, this second stimulus causes a similar response because it is associated with the firststimulus.

1. This phenomenon was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov’s “dog experiments”when doing research on digestion in animals.

a. Pavlov induced classical conditioning learning by pairing a neutral stimulus (a bell) with a stimulus known to cause a salivation response in dogs (hesquirted dried meat powder into their mouths).

b. The powder was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because it was naturally capable of causing the response.

c. Over time, the bell became a conditioned stimulus (CS); it did not initiallycause salivation, but the dogs learned to associate the bell with the meat powder and began to salivate at the sound of the bellonly.

d. The drooling of these canine consumers over a sound, now linked to feedingtime, was a conditioned response (CR).

e. This basic form of classical conditioning demonstrated by Pavlovprimarily applies to responses controlled by the autonomic and nervoussystems.

2. Classical conditioning can have similar effects for more complex reactions (such asin automatically using a credit card forpurchases).

3. Conditioning effects are more likely to occur after the conditioned stimuli (CS) and unconditioned stimuli (UCS) have been paired a number of times (repetition).

***** Use End of Chapter Review #4-1 Here *****

4. Repetition increases the strength of stimulus-response associations and prevents their decay.

5. Conditioning will not occur or will take longer if the CS is only occasionallypaired with the UCS, which results in extinction (when the effects of conditioning diminish/disappear)

6. Stimulus generalization refers to the tendency of stimuli similar to a CS toevoke similar, conditioned responses.

a. Pavlov’s dogs might respond to sounds similar to a bell (such as keysjangling).

b. People also react to other, similar stimuli in much the same way they respondedto the original stimulus, a generalization known as the halo effect (e.g. private label brands).

Discussion Opportunity Ask students to think of some examples where a private label brand “piggy-backed” on a national manufacturer’s brand. How did they try to make the product appear similar so the associations with the national brand would transfer to the “me-too” brand? Ask the students whether they feel this is ethical and to support their opinions.

7. Stimulus discrimination occurs when a stimulus similar to a CS is not followed by an UCS. When this stimulus happen, reactions are weakened and disappear. Manufacturers of well-established brands urge consumers not to buy “cheap imitations.”

Discussion Opportunity Ask students the following: Can you think of some products that have similar packaging? Similar shapes? Similar names? To what extent do these examples represent stimulus generalization? In each case, which brand is the primary brand and which brand is the “me too” brand? Assuming the strategy was intentional, did it work? How can a marketer achieve stimulus discrimination?

8. Marketing Applications of Behavioral LearningPrinciples

a. Many marketing strategies focus on the establishment of associationsbetween stimuli and responses. Examples include distinctive brand image, and linkage between a product and an underlyingneed.

b. Brand equity is a brand that has a strong positive association in aconsumer’s memory and commands a lot of loyalty as aresult.

c. Repetition can be valuable (product associations can become extinct if not reinforced). Too much repetition, however, results in advertising wear-out (when consumers become so used to hearing or seeing a marketing stimulusthat they no longer pay attention to it).

d. Advertisements often pair a product with a positive stimulus to create adesirable association. The order in which the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented can affect the likelihood that learning will occur: presenting unconditioned stimulus before the conditioned stimulus (backward conditioning) is not effective.

e. The process of stimulus generalization is often central to branding andpackaging decisions that attempt to capitalize on consumers’ positive associations with an existing brand or company name. Strategiesinclude:

i. Family branding (using a company name/positive corporate image tosell product lines like Campbell’s, Heinz, GE)

ii. Product line extensions (adding related products to an established brandlike Dole, Mr. Clean, Tide)

iii. Licensing (renting a well-known brand to a company that makes adifferent type of products like Jamba Juice,Zippo)

iv. Look-alike packaging (when a generic/private-label brand usespackaging that is similar to the national manufacturer’s brand). The Lanham Act protects against consumer confusion (protecting consumers from logos, product designs or packages that are so similar a typical shopper might mistake one for another).

***** Use Consumer Behavior Challenge #20 Here *****

Discussion Opportunity Ask students to give examples of brands that they perceive have equity over other brands. As with equity of other assets (such as real estate), can an exact monetary value be placed on brand equity?

Discussion Opportunity Have students apply the concept of stimulus generalization to real examples of family branding or product line extensions. Have them come up with examples where the stimulus was successfully generalized and examples where it was not.

B. Instrumental conditioning (or operant conditioning) occurs as the individual learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yieldnegative outcomes. This approach is closely associated with B.F.Skinner.

1. Although responses in classical conditioning are involuntary and simple, those in instrumental conditioning are made deliberately to obtain a goal and may bemore complex.

2. Desired behavior is learned in a process called shaping, which rewards our intermediate actions.

3. Instrumental learning occurs because of a reward received following thedesired behavior.

Discussion Opportunity Have students brainstorm a list of examples of instrumental conditioning in marketing. Ask: Which do you think has more application to marketing classical or instrumental conditioning?

Discussion Opportunity Relate the concept of instrumental conditioning to the Internet and eCommerce through a specific example. Have students point out why they think this example is an application of instrumental conditioning.

4. Instrumental learning occurs in one of threeways:

a. Positive reinforcement a reward results in a response and appropriate behavioris learned (a woman wearing perfume and receiving acompliment).

b. Negative reinforcement the absence of a reward results in a response and appropriate behavior is learned (a woman sitting at home alone because she isnot wearing a certain perfume).

c. Punishment occurs when an unpleasant response follows a behavior. We learn the hard way not to repeat these behaviors (a woman being ridiculed for wearing the wrong perfume).

5. When a positive outcome is no longer received, extinction is likely to occur andthe learned stimulus-response connection will not bemaintained.

*****Use End of Chapter Review #4-5 Here *****

Discussion Opportunity What are some products that promise “good things will happen” if you buy their products? Can you think of products that tell you that you will be “punished” if you do not buy them? Can you think of products where you are told that you will be “punished” if you do buy them or use them? How would this be possible?

6. An important factor in instrumental conditioning is the set of rules by which appropriate reinforcements are given for a behavior. Several reinforcementschedules are possible:

a. Fixed-interval reinforcement (a reward is issued in response to a behaviorafter a specified period of time, e.g. seasonalsales)

b. Variable-interval reinforcement (when the reward is issued in response to a behavior is varied, e.g. secretshoppers)

c. Fixed-ratio reinforcement (the reinforcement occurs after a fixed numberof responses, e.g. grocery store reward when you collect 50 registerreceipts)

d. Variable-ratio reinforcement (the reinforcement occurs after a varied numberof responses, e.g. slot machines)

Discussion Opportunity Provide an example of each of the previously mentioned reinforcement schedules. Ask students: Which of these examples do you think is the most effective andwhy? Under what conditions can each of these reinforcement schedules be effectively applied?

7. Marketing Applications of Instrumental ConditioningPrinciples

a. Principles of instrumental conditioning are at work when a consumer isrewarded or punished for a purchase decision. Most companies reinforceconsumption.

b. A popular technique called frequency marketing reinforces regular purchases by giving them prizes with values that increase along with the amount purchased (e.g. frequent flyer miles).

c. A fast growing strategy is called gamification, which turns routine actions into experience as it adds gaming elements to tasks that might otherwise be boring.

III. Gamification turns routine actions into experiences that closely resemble online video environments.

A. Endowed progress effect indicated that consumers strive to achieve goals and are more

motivated when they keep working toward a goal.

1.Foursquare supports increasing store and brand loyalty by electing app users as “mayor” of a location.

2.Social marketing is a concept that includes awarding “badges” when users complete a goal.

3.3. Technology allows for the tracking of performance including on the job and can be used to rate and compare employee performance.

IV. Cognitive learning theory approaches stress the importance of internal mentalprocesses. This perspective views people as problem solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master theirenvironment.

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-7

Discussion Opportunity Provide an example of cognitive learning theory. How does this theory apply to learning on the Internet? Learning about a new brand extension? Learning how to use a newly purchased complex product?

A. Is Learning Conscious or Not?

1. Proponents of cognitive learning argue that behavioral learning effects are afunction of mental activity that suggests a response will follow astimulus.

2. There is also evidence for the existence of non-conscious procedural knowledge we move toward familiar patterns (automaticresponses).

3. We have a tendency to respond to the stimulus in terms of existing categorieswe have learned, often cued by a trigger feature (a stimulus that cues us toward a particular pattern) that activates areaction.

B. Observational learning occurs when people watch the actions of others and note the reinforcements they receive for their behaviors learning occurs because of vicarious learning rather than direct experience. Memories are stored for lateruse.

1. Imitating the behavior of others is called modeling.

2. Four conditions must be met for modeling to occur (see Figure6.2):

1. The consumer’s attention must be directed to a model that is desirable toemulate for reasons of attractiveness, competence, status, orsimilarity.

2. The consumer must remember what is said or done by themodel.

3. The consumer must convert this information intoactions.

4. The consumer must be motivated to perform theseactions.

*****Use Figure 4.2 Here *****

Discussion Opportunity How have marketers applied the concept of observational learning to facilitate consumer learning on the Internet? To facilitate consumer learning of software programs through animated tutorials?

C. Marketing Applications of Cognitive Learning Principles

1.Consumers’ ability to learn vicariously has helpedmarketers.

2. Consumers seem to enjoy using “models” as role models and for guidancein purchasing.

3. The degree to which a person emulates someone else depends on the model’s social attractiveness (based on physical appearance, expertise, similarity toevaluator).

Discussion Opportunity Ask students to come up with examples of celebrity endorsers. Then, have them analyze each endorser according to the principle of observational learning. Have them think of some “models” that companies probably will not hire again. Why is it, in some cases, that a company can use a somewhat negative model (like basketball player Allen Iverson) and still have success?

V. We learn to be consumers through consumer socialization, the process where we acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes relevant to our relationship with the marketplace.

A. Parents instill their own values about consumption in their children and attempt to control the contact children have with information sources such as television and the internet.

B. About 90 percent of children under the age of 5 in the United States use the Internet at least once a week. This allows marketers to push products at children at a very young age.

C. Marketers segment children based on stages of cognitive development, their ability to learn concepts of increasing complexity.

1. Children under the age of 6 are said to have limited storage-and retrieval skills.

2. Children between the ages of 6 and 12 use storage-and-retrieval skills primarily when cued to do so by others.

3. Children 12 years of age and older regularly use strategic employ storage-andretrieval processes.

D. Children differ in the message comprehension skills, resulting in regulation by the Federal Trade Commission that helps protect children from marketplace influences.

VI. Memory is a process of acquiring information and storing it over time so that it willbe available when needed.

A. The contemporary, information-processing approach to memory assumes the mind islike a computer – data is input, processed, and output for later use in revisedform.

1. In the encoding stage, information is entered in a way the system willrecognize.

2. In the storage stage, this knowledge is integrated with what is already in memoryand “warehoused” until needed.

3. During retrieval, the person accesses the desiredinformation.

4. During the consumer decision-making process, we combine internal memory (what we retrieve) with external memory (e.g. product details onpackages).

B. The way we encode (mentally program) information helps to determine how wewill represent it in memory.

1. Types of Meaning

a. A consumer may process a stimulus simply in terms of its sensory meaning(such as its color or shape).

b. Semantic meaning refers to symbolic associations, such as the idea thatrich people drink champagne or that fashionable men wearearrings.

2. Episodic memories are events that are personallyrelevant.

a. Flashbulb memories are those that are especially vivid (such as memoriesof where you were when you heard Osama bin Laden had beenkilled).

b. One method of conveying product information is through a narrative or story. Much of what an individual acquires about social information is received through the narrative or story; therefore, it is a useful marketing technique fortransmitting information.

Discussion Opportunity Can you give an illustration of each of the forms of meaning or memory just discussed (sensory meaning, semantic meaning, episodic memory, and flashbulb memories)? How could these forms of memory be used to motivate purchases?

C. Memory Systems: There are three distinct memory systems: sensory memory, shortterm memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Figure 6.5 summarizes the interrelationships among these memorysystems.

*****Use Figure 4.5 Here *****

1. Sensory memory stores information we receive from our senses. This storageis temporary (it only lasts a couple ofseconds).

2. If information is retained for further processing, it passes through an attentionalgate and transfers to short-term memory (STM).

3. STM (working memory) also stores information for a limited period, and itscapacity is limited as it only holds information we are currentlyprocessing.

a. The information can be stored either acoustically (in terms of how itsounds).

b. The information can be stored semantically (in terms of what itmeans).

c. Memory generally stores information by combining small pieces in aprocess known as chunking

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1. A chunk is a configuration that is familiar to the person and canbe manipulated as a unit.

2. An example would be a brand name, which summarizes a great deal of detailed information.

4. Long-term memory is the system that allows us to retain information for along period.

a. A cognitive process called elaborative rehearsal allows information tomove from short-term memory to long-termmemory.

b. Marketers may help the elaborative rehearsal process when they devisecatchy slogans or jingles that consumer repeat on theirown.

***** Use Consumer Behavior Challenge #23 Here *****

Discussion Opportunity Consider the following ways to demonstrate the memory functions to the students: 1) Point out a noise that might be audible from outside the classroom (e.g., lawnmower, cars, construction) after it happens. Ask how many remember hearing it. Those that do not remember hearing it never made the jump from sensory memory to short- or long-term memory; 2) Use a phrase very clearly and audibly at the beginning of the class. Then, once you get to this point in the lecture, ask each student to write out the phrase. Because you stated it clearly, the phrase almost certainly made it into the short-term memory. The degree of correctness of each student’s statement, however, will show the difference between short-term and long-term memory. Ask students how these forms of memory (sensory, short-term, and longterm) should be taken into consideration by marketers.

D. How Our Memories Store Information

1. The traditional view (multiple-store) is that the short-term memory and long-term memory are separate systems.

2. Recent work says they may be interdependent (activation models of memory) so it takes more effort (deep processing) for information will probably be placed in longterm memory.

3. Activation models propose that an incoming piece of information is stored in an associative network that contains many bits of related information organized according to some set of relationships that is shaped by our own uniqueexperiences.

***** Use Individual Project Idea #6 Here *****

4. These storage units are known as knowledge structures (think of them as spiderwebs full of pieces of data).

a. This information is placed into nodes that are connected by associativelinks within thesestructures.

b. Pieces of information that are seen as similar in some way are groupedtogether under a category.

c. Preference categories are known as evoked sets. The task of the marketer is to position itself as a category member and to provide cues that facilitate its placement in the propercategory.

Discussion Opportunity Briefly work with students to construct an example of an associative network for a product or brand of their choosing. Illustrate the network for the class to see as it is being constructed. Refer back to this network as you teach the following concepts of spreading activation and schemas.

5. Consumers go through a process of spreading activation as they shift back andforth between levels of meaning. Memory traces are sent out and linked to related nodes. They could be:

a. Brand-specific (memory stored in terms of brandclaims)

b. Ad-specific (memory stored in terms of medium or content ofad)

c. Brand identification (memory stored in terms of brandname)

d. Product category (memory stored in terms of how the product works/whereit should be used)

e. Evaluative reactions (memory stored as positive or negativeemotions)

E. Knowledge is coded at different levels of abstraction andcomplexity.

1. Meaning concepts get stored as individual nodes.

2. A proposition (or belief) links two nodes together to form a more complexmeaning, which can serve as a single chunk ofinformation.

3. Propositions are integrated into a schema (a cognitive framework that is developed through experience). We encode information more readily that is consistent with an existing schema.

4. One type of schema is a script (a sequence of events an individual expects). For example, service scripts guide our behavior in commercial settings (e.g.dentist).

Discussion Opportunity Have students give examples of scripts that they typically go through when purchasing a routine product. Why would a marketer want or not want consumers to develop such scripts?

F. How we retrieve memories when we decide what tobuy

1. Retrieval is the process whereby information is accessed from long-termmemory.

2. Differences in retrieval abilityamong people can be attributed to individual cognitive, physiological, and situationalfactors.

3. Recall is enhanced when we pay more attention to the message in the first place, which may give an advantage to a pioneering brand (the first brand to enter a market) relative to a follower brand because we are more likely to rememberthe pioneering brand’s information.

4. The spacing effect describes the tendency for us to recall printed materialmore effectively when the advertiser repeats the target item periodically rather than presenting it repeatedly in a short timeperiod.

5. A viewing environment with continuous activity and spectacular ad formats increase recall.

G. What Makes Us Forget?

1. In a process of decay, where memories fade with the passage of time, thestructural changes in the brain produced by learning simply goaway.

2. Forgetting also occurs due to interference; as additional information is learned,it displaces the earlier information.

a. Consumers may forget stimulus-response associations if they learn newresponses to the same or similar stimuli (retroactive interference)

b. Prior learning can interfere with new learning through a process knownas proactive interference

Discussion Opportunity Illustrate the forgetting concepts decay and interference. Have students identify types of information that a marketer might want to have consumers forget through both decay and interference. Have them do the same with information that marketers would not want consumers to forget. How can marketers combat the forgetting process?

3. The process of state-dependent retrieval explains that we are better able toaccess information if our internal state (e.g. mood, arousal level) is the same at the time of recall as when we learned theinformation.

4. As a rule, when we are already familiar with something, we are more likely to recall messages about it. However, when consumers are highly familiar with a brand or advertisement, automaticity may result in inferior learning/recall (the consumer does not pay attention to the message because they do not believe the additional effortwill increase their knowledge).

5. We also observe a highlighting effect, where the order in which consumers learn about brands determines the strength of association between these brands and their attributes (e.g. strong associations of common attributes with early learned brandsand unique attributes with late-learned brands).

6. The salience of a brand refers to its prominence or level of activation inmemory.

a. Almost any technique that increases the novelty of a stimulus also improvesrecall (the result is the von Restorff Effect).

b. Mystery ads (where the ad does not identify the brand until the end) are more effective if we want to build associations between the product category andthe brand (like relatively unknownbrands).

c. The intensity and type of emotions experienced at the time also affect the waywe recall later.

1. We recall mixed emotions (those with positive and negative components) differently than unipolar emotions (emotions that are either whollypositive or whollynegative).

2. Unipolar emotions become more polarized over time (good things arerecalled as even better; bad things as evenworse).

7. The viewing context also affectsrecall.

a. It helps when the marketing message is consistent with the theme or events inthe program.

b. Hybrid ads include a program tie-in to improverecall.

H. Visual memory tends to be stronger than verbal memory. Although pictorial adsmay enhance recall, they do not necessarily improvecomprehension.

I. Products as MemoryMarkers.

1. The pictures we take of ourselves using products and services can serve as powerful retrieval cues.

2. Our cherished possessions (especially furniture, visual art, photos) and foods can jog memories about sensory experiences, friends and loved ones, and breaking awayfrom parents/partners.

3. Cherished possessions are said to have mnemonic qualities when they serve as a form of external memory that prompt us to retrieve episodicmemories.

4. A stimulus may evoke a weakened response even years after we first perceived it. This is called spontaneous recovery.

Discussion Opportunity Ask students to identify what types of things are nostalgic to them. How could an advertiser appeal to this side of them and other college-age individuals? Identify recent nostalgia campaigns and present them as illustrations.

J. Measuring Memory: Recognition VersusRecall

1. Two basic measures of impact are recognition andrecall.

2. In a typical recognition test, researchers show ads to subjects one at a time and askif they have seen them before.

3. Free recall tests ask consumers to independently think of what they have seen without being prompted for this information first.

4. Recognition scores are usually better than recall scores because recognition isa simpler process and the consumer has more retrieval cuesavailable.

5. Recall tends to be more important in situations where consumers do not have product data at their disposals and need to rely on memory to generate the information, whereas recognition is important in a shopping context where consumers areexposed to lots of stimuli and need to recognize apackage.

6. Analysts have questioned whether existing measures accurately assess these dimensions, in part because the results from the measuring instrument may not be what we intended to measure or subjects may give the answer they believe the experimenter wants to hear (response bias).

7. People are prone to forgetting information or retaining inaccuratememories.

a. Omitting means leaving facts out.

b. Averaging means the tendency to normalize memories by not reportingextreme cases.

c. Telescoping refers to an inaccurate recall oftime.

d. The illusion of truth effect refers to telling people that a consumer claim isfalse, which can make them to misremember it as true because repetition of the claim increases familiarity but respondents do not remember the context where the claim is debunked.

8. Recall and recognition measures may not accurately capture the impact of feeling ads, which arouse emotions to develop brands over time vs. conveying concrete product benefits.

9. Recall does not translate into preference for theproduct.

Discussion Opportunity As an illustration between recognition and recall, conduct this exercise to show students that they can recognize information without really recalling specifics. Show examples of various corporate symbols (brand symbols or celebrity endorsers) that students might recognize. Ask them which brands are represented by each (recognition). Then, ask them to give specific slogans, information, or other specifics related to each (recall).

Discussion Opportunity What is something hard for you to remember (in a personal sense and in a consumer behavior or product sense)? Why do you think this happens? What do you think would be a good strategy to attempt to overcome this problem?

K. Bittersweet Memories: The Marketing Power ofNostalgia

1. Marketers may resurrect popular characters and stories from days gone by with the hope that the consumers’ fond memories will motivate them to revisit the past.

2. Nostalgia describes a bittersweet emotion where we view the past with both sadness and longing.

3. A retro brand is an updated version of a brand from a historicalperiod.

4. A nostalgia index measures the critical ages during which our preferences are likely to form and endure over time.

*****Use Consumer Behavior Challenge #24 Here *****

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-15

End-of-Chapter Support Material

SUMMARY OF SPECIAL FEATURE BOXES

1. Marketing Opportunity

Best Buy recognized that Chinese shoppers were unlikely to choose basic appliances in the same way as in the United States so it built a special store called Five Star Brand. The employees at as “solutions experts” to help shoppers and provide services like hotbeverages.

2. The Tangled Web People get attached to favorite logos and social media provides a way for consumers to give feedback. Gap found this out when it changed its logo in 2010. Fans took to social media to criticize the new logo. Before long, Gap announced on its Facebook page that the old logo would return.

3. Marketing Opportunity

Bob Marley’s name and image is applied to many types of products. Porsche Design added its name to luggage, bikes, desk pieces, and couture clothing, all with the goal of extending the Porsche driving experience.

4. Marketing Opportunity Media helps socialize children in to gender roles and sexual identity for consumer behavior.

5. CB As I See It: Paul Connell, Stony Brook University

Children learn many of the skills needed to be consumers as they age. . When children are exposed to ads before they have learned the purpose of advertising, childhood have effects that are long lasting. There are stronger emotional connections to elements featured in the advertising, such as brand characters, resulting in less critical evaluation of products.

6. Marketing Opportunity

Marketers try to give brands vivid names that conjure up an image or story. This can influence consumer evaluations of the brand.

7. CB As I See It: John Lynch, University of Colorado-Boulder

Consumers respond to resource scarcity by retrieving from memory alternative ways to spend a resource, evaluating opportunity costs. When consumers perceive little constraints, neither efficiency nor priority plans are considered. When there is moderate constraint, both plans are considered. When consumers have significant constraint, priority plans are generated faster and more frequently.

8. The Tangled Web Sites such as Facebook are a great way to store memories, but there is little control over who can access those memories. Newer technologies are allowing memories to be shared, then removed from the site.

9. Marketing Opportunity

As people age, their memory retrieval ability becomes inferior. Online games such as Sudoku and Brain Box helps to keep memory retrieval systems sharp.

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 4-17

REVIEW QUESTIONS

4-1. What is the difference between an unconditioned stimulus and a conditionedstimulus?

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist doing research on digestion in animals, first demonstrated this phenomenon in dogs. Pavlov induced classically conditioned learning by pairing a neutral stimulus (a bell) with a stimulus known to cause a salivation response in dogs (he squirted dried meat powder into their mouths). The powder was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because it was naturally capable of causing the response. Over time, the bell became a conditioned stimulus (CS); it did not initially cause salivation, but the dogs learned to associate the bell with the meat powder and began to salivate at the sound of the bell only.

(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Application of Knowledge)

4-2 Give an example of a halo effect inmarketing.

People react to other, similar stimuli in much the same way they responded to the original stimulus; this generalization is called a halo effect. A drugstore’s bottle of private brand mouthwash deliberately packaged to resemble Listerine mouthwash may evoke a similar response among consumers, who assume that this “me-too” product shares other characteristics of the original.

(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

4-3. How can marketers use repetition to increase the likelihood that consumerswill learn about their brand?

Many classic advertising campaigns consist of product slogans that have been repeated so many times that they are etched in consumers’ minds. Conditioning will not occur or will take longer if the CS is only occasionally paired with the UCS. One result of thislack of association may be extinction that occurs when effects of prior conditioning reduce and finally disappear. This can occur, for example, when a product is overexposed in the marketplace so that its original allure is lost.

(5 minutes, Chapter Objectives 2, 3 and 9, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

4-4. Why is it not necessarily a good idea to advertise a product in a commercialwhere a popular song is playing in thebackground?

A popular song might also be heard in many situations in which the product is not present. When the unconditioned stimulus appears in the absence of the conditioned stimulus, it can lead to extinction of the effect of conditioning.

(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

4-5. What is the difference between classical conditioning andinstrumental conditioning? Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own. Over time, this second stimulus causes a similar response because it is associated with the first stimulus.

Instrumental conditioning, also known as operant conditioning, occurs as the individual learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes.

(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

4-6. What is the major difference between behavioral and cognitive theories of learning?

In contrast to behavioral theories of learning, cognitive learning theory approaches stress the importance of internal mental processes. This perspective views peopleas problem solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master their environment. Supporters of this view also stress the role of creativity and insight during the learning process.

(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

4-7. Name the three stages of informationprocessing as we commit information about products to memory.

Encoding, storage, and retrieval.

(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 6,AACSB: Reflective Thinking -)

4-8 What is external memory and why is it important tomarketers?

During the consumer decision-making process, this internal memory is combined with external memory that includes all of the product details on packages and other marketing stimuli that permit brand alternatives to be identified and evaluated.

(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Reflective Thinking

4-9 Give an example of an episodicmemory. Episodic memories relate to events that are personally relevant. As a result, aperson’s motivation to retain these memories will likely be strong. Couples often have “their song” that reminds them of their first date or wedding or some remember the first time they went on a date or what happened at their high school prom.

(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

4-10. Why do U.S. phone numbers have sevendigits?

Initially, researchers believed that STM was capable of processing between five and nine chunks of information at a time, and for this reason they designed phone numbers to have seven digits.

(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 6, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

4-11. List the three types of memory, and explain how they worktogether. Sensory memory permits storage of the information we receive from our senses. This storage is temporary; it lasts a couple of seconds at most. Short-term memory (STM)also stores information for a limited period, and it has limited capacity. Similar to a computer, this system can be regarded as working memory; it holds the information we are currently processing. Long-term memory (LTM) is the system that allows us to retain information for a long period. Elaborative rehearsal is required in order for information to enter into long-term memory from short-term memory. This process involves thinking about the meaning of a stimulus and relating it to other information already in memory.

(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 6, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

4-12. How is associative memory like a spiderweb?

Knowledge structures can be thought of as complex spider webs filled with pieces of data. This information is placed into nodes connected by associative links within these structures. Pieces of information that are seen as similar in some way are chunked together under some more abstract category. New, incoming information is interpreted to be consistent with the structure already in place.

(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

4-13. How does the likelihood that a person wants to use an ATM machine relateto a schema?

The desire to follow a script or schema helps to explain why such service innovations as automatic bank machines, self-service gas stations, or “scan-your-own” grocery checkouts have met with resistance by some consumers, who have trouble adapting to a new sequence of events.

(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

4-14 Why does a pioneering brand have a memory advantage over followerbrands?

Some evidence indicates that information about a pioneering brand (the first brand to enter a market) is more easily retrieved from memory than follower brands because the first product’s introduction is likely to be distinctive and, for the time being, no competitors divert the consumer’s attention.

(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Analytic Skills)

4-15 If a consumer is familiar with a product, advertising for it can work both waysby either enhancing or diminishing recall. Why?

As a rule, prior familiarity with an item enhances its recall. This is one of the basic goals of marketers who are trying to create and maintain awareness of their products. The more experience a consumer has with a product, the better use he or she is able to make of product information. However, there is a possible fly in the ointment: As noted earlier in the chapter, some evidence indicates that extreme familiarity can result in inferior learning and recall. When consumers are highly familiar with a brand or an advertisement, they may attend to fewer attributes because they do not believe that any additional effort will yield a gain in knowledge.

(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

4-16. Define nostalgia, and tell why it is such a widely used advertisingstrategy. We can describe nostalgia as a bittersweet emotion; the past is viewed with both sadness and longing. References to “the good old days” are increasingly common, as advertisers call up memories of youth and hope these feelings will translate to what they are selling today.

(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 9, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

4-17 Name the two basic measures of memory and describe how they differ fromone another. Two basic measures of impact are recognition and recall. In the typical recognition test, subjects are shown ads one at a time and asked if they have seen them before. In contrast, free recall tests ask consumers to independently think of what they have seen without

being prompted for this information first obviously this task requires greater effort on the part of respondents.

(15 minutes, Chapter Objective 9, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

4-18. List three problems with measures of memory foradvertising. Response biases, memory lapses, and memory for facts versus feelings.

(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 9, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

4-19. How do different types of reinforcement enhance learning? How does the strategy of frequency marketing relate to conditioning?

Businesses can shape behavior when they gradually reinforce actions with rewards. Instrumental conditioning occurs when behavior produce positive outcome and we learn to avoid those behaviors that do not produce desired outcomes. Shaping is a reinforcement tool that rewards intermediate actions. Positive reinforcement strengthens the response and we learn appropriate behavior. Negative reinforcement also strengthens the response as we learn to avoid a certain behavior. Punishment is an unpleasant event that follows an action. When a person no longer receives a desired outcome for an action, they will eventually quit performing the action. Frequency marketing rewards regular purchasers with prizes as they spend more. This positive reinforcement encourages consumers to spend more, and increase reward levels.

(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

4-20. How does learning new information make it more likely that we’ll forget things we’ve already learned?

Decay causes a structural change in how we learn and remember. Forgetting also occurs because of interference. When we learn new information, it displaces previous information. Because we store information in memory as nodes that link to one another, we are more likely to retrieve a meaning concept that is connected by a larger number of links. As we learn new information, a stimulus loses its effectiveness in retrieving old responses.

(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE

DISCUSS

4-21. To hasten kids’ introduction to social media, a team of Finnish designers invented a blocksorting toy that also works like Twitter. It allows preverbal kids to grab colorful blocks with icons for sleeping, eating, or brushing their teeth; the kids then fit them into slots to indicate what they’re up to. The device then transmits the “status update” to light up the corresponding block-shape on the same toy in another household. Should very young children be introduced to social media this way?

Answers will vary, some students will think social media is good for young children, while others will think it is bad for young children’s educational growth.

4-22. In his book Blink: The Power of Thinking without Thinking, authorMalcolm Gladwell argues that hallowed marketing research techniques like focus groups aren’t effective because we usually react to products quickly and without much conscious thought soit’s better just to solicit consumers’ first impressions rather than getting them to think at length about why they buy. What is your position on thisissue? There are various concepts that students may apply to support both sides of this argument. Both classical conditioning and behavioral instrumental conditioning would support the idea that we make consumer decisions quickly and without much thought. However, cognitive learning theory approaches stress the importance of internal mental processes. This perspective views people as problem solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master their environment.

(10 minutes, Chapter Objectives 2, 4 and 9, AACSB: Analytic Skills)

4-23. Even food can facilitate recall: One study looked at how favorite recipes stimulate memories of the past. When the researchers asked informants to list three of their favorite recipes and to talk about these choices, they found that people tended to link them with memories of past events, such as childhood memories, family holidays, milestone events (such as dishes they only make on special holidays, liked corned beef and cabbage of St. Patrick’s Day), heirlooms (recipes handed down across generations), and the passing of time (e.g., only eating blueberry cobbler in the summer). Indeed, one of the most famous literary references is from the classic (3,000 page!) novel Remembrance of Things Past by Marcel Proust. The narrator dips a pastry (a “madeleine”) into his tea, and this action unleashes a flood of memories that drive the rest of the book. How might marketers try to tie these powerful food-related memories to branding strategies? Students will think of their own memories and how senses can impact their own memories.

(10 minutes, Chapter Objectives 2, 4 and 9, AACSB: Analytic Skills)

4-24. Some die-hard fans were not pleased when the Rolling Stones sold the tune“Start Me Up” for about $4 million to Microsoft that wanted the classic song to promote its Windows 95 launch. The Beach Boys sold “Good Vibrations” to Cadbury Schweppesfor its Sunkist soft drink, Steppenwolf offered its “Born to be Wild” to plug the Mercury Cougar, and even Bob Dylan sold “The Times They Are A-Changin’” to Coopers & Lybrand (now called PriceWaterhouseCoopers). Other rock legends have refused to play the commercial game, including Bruce Springsteen, the Grateful Dead, Led Zeppelin, Fleetwood Mac, R.E.M., and U2. According to U2’s manager, “Rock ‘n’ roll is the last vestige of independence. It is undignified to put that creative effort and hard work to the disposal of a soft drink or beer or car.” Singer Neil Young is especially adamant about not selling out; in his song “This Note’s For You,” he croons, “Ain’t singing for Pepsi, ain’t singing for Coke, I don’t sing for nobody, makes me look like a joke.” What is your take on this issue? How do you react when one of your favorite songs turns up in a commercial? Is this use of nostalgia an effective way to market a product? Why or why not?

Student responses on this issue will range from support to opposition of artists selling songs for commercial application. Their reasons for either will also vary. Some will like hearing familiar songs in commercial jingles because it grabs their attention, ismore relevant to them, or prompts them to recall fond memories. Some will express support simply because it is the artists’ prerogative to sell what is theirs. Others will oppose this

practice for reasons similar to those expressed by the artists mentioned. It is likely that among business and marketing students, however, most will find nothing wrong with the commercial application of popular songs. Responses should reflect the concept that nostalgia in marketing can be effective because it can prompt positive emotions in consumers.

(15 minutes, Chapter Objectives 2 and 9, AACSB: Analytic Skills)

APPLY

4-25. Devise a “product jingle memory test.” Compile a list of brands that are orhave been associated with memorable jingles, such as Chiquita Banana, Alka-Seltzer, McDonald’s or even webuyanycar.com. Read this list to friends, and see how many jingles are remembered. You may be surprised at the level of recall. Students should be able to generate a large number of product jingles for this “memory test.” Most of these will be highly advertised products that students have been exposed to recently. It might be surprising to note that many of the advertised products are not targeted at the student/consumer, and yet they will have high levels of recall for the jingles. As the instructor, you may want to develop your own list of older jingles (many of which the students will not remember) that students will find interesting, such as those based on older, popular songs (i.e., “I’d like to buy the world a Coke”). (75 minutes, Chapter Objective 1, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

4-26. A physician borrowed a page from product marketers when she asked their adviceto help persuade people in the developing world to wash their hands habitually withsoap. Diseases and disorders caused by dirty hands like diarrhea kill a child somewhere in the world about every 15 seconds, and about half those deaths could be prevented with the regular use of soap. The project adapted techniques that major marketers use to encourage habitual product usage of items such as skin moisturizers, disinfecting wipes, air fresheners, water purifiers, toothpaste, and vitamins. For example, beer commercials often depict a group of guys together, because research shows that being with a group of friends tends to trigger habitual drinking! The researchers found that when people in Ghana experienced a feeling of disgust, this was a cue to wash their hands. However, as in many developing countries, toilets are actually a symbol of cleanliness because they have replaced pit latrines. So, an advertising campaign included messages that reminded people of the germs they could still pick up even in modern bathrooms mothers and children walked out of restrooms with a glowing purple pigment on their hands that contaminated everything they touched. These images in turn triggered the habit of hand washing and the project resulted in a significant increase in the number of consumers who washed their hands with soap. How can other organizations that work to improve public health, the environment, or other social issues harness our knowledge about consumer learning and habitual behavior to create or reenergize positivehabits?

This would make an excellent take-home assignment with discussion following during a later class. Consider assigning specific organizations or public health initiatives to students to contemplate how to apply marketing persuasion principles. Students should recognize the application of instrumental conditioning. Focus student work on schemas and priming. These are likely areas that will apply to public initiatives.

(45 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

4-27. Identify some important characteristics for a product with a well-known brandname. Based on these attributes, generate a list of possible brand extension or licensing opportunities, as well as some others that consumers would not be likely to accept.

Of course, the list of characteristics will depend on the product chosen. Generally, it will include distinctive aspects of products. For example, BIC has successfully extended the brand many times over in different product categories. In addition, the existing brand name benefited from the characteristics consumers associate with the name BIC namely cheap, plastic, and disposable. Their attempts in the perfume and panty hose categories, however, were disasters. Because brand extension is based on the transfer of some positive product characteristics (either physical or emotional) to the new product, the list students generate should lend itself to identification of that “something” that would enable an extension to be successful.

(45 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

4-28. Collect some pictures of “classic” products that have high nostalgia value.Show these pictures to others and allow them to free associate. Analyze the types of memories that are evoked, and think about how a marketer might employ these associations in a product’s promotional strategy.

Consumers’ responses to “classic” product pictures should prove interesting to students. They should be encouraged to evaluate the types of meaning associated with products and asked to determine the relative effectiveness of various messages for different target consumer groups. The real emphasis, however, should be placed on students’ recommendations for translating the special meaning of these products for consumers into effective promotional messages.

(15 minutes, Chapter Objective 9, AACSB: Analytic Skills)

CASE STUDY TEACHING NOTES

Chapter 4 Case Study: Do Avatars Dream About Virtual Sheep?

Summary of Case

In the years since virtual worlds came into being, marketers have been working to understand how the time people spend in virtual worlds influences the way they learn about brands and whether it impacts their relationship with the brand in the real world.

Suggestions for Presentation

Organizations and educators are continuing to explore the impact of avatars and virtual worlds. You may wish to ask the class what virtual worlds they use and why.

Suggested Answers for DiscussionQuestions

CS 4-1. How might classical conditioning operate for a consumer who visits a new tutoring Web site and is greeted by the Web site’s avatar who resembles Albert Einstein? Einstein is associated with intelligence, so a consumer will feel that the website will make them smarter.

(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Application of Knowledge)

CS 4-2. How might instrumental conditioning influence a consumer who purchases a new outfit for his avatar in a virtual world? The new outfit will make them feel better about themselves.

(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

CS 4-3. Do consumers build associative networks from their avatar’s experience? If so, the associations from their avatar experience by any different from other shopping experiences? How would these networks impact the consumer’s ability to organize and retrieve information that they have learned?

Avatar’s will create different shopping experiences and the consumer will be able to retrieve information easier based on the association with the avatar.

(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

Additional Support Material

STUDENT PROJECTS

Individual Projects

1. Ask students to visit a grocery store or a similar retail setting and discretely observe the behavior of individual shoppers and groups of shoppers for an extended period. Have them record any behaviors that they witness that could be examples of the following concepts: vicarious learning, incidental learning, classical conditioning, and instrumental conditioning. Have students present their findings to the class or discuss them in groups. Some of these learning examples may be challenging to observe directly. Students may need to draw on their own exposure to marketing communications and make inferences about why consumers are behaving as they are. Vicarious learning examples should reference the idea that the consumer learned by watching someone else’s behavior and whether s/he received positive or negative reinforcement for that behavior. Incidental learning examples should reference the idea that the consumer learned about the product without necessarily having an interest in the product or product category. Classical conditioning examples will probably be the easiest to observe because the applications of stimulus generalization and the repetition of likeable spokes-characters or endorsers as cues are likely to be present. Instrumental conditioning examples may include frequency rewards or gifts with purchase.

(45 minutes, Chapter Objectives 1 2, 4 and 5, AACSB: Application of Knowledge

2. Have students recall their first act of “green” consumption. Ask them to list the product involved and the sequence of actions they took. Ask them why they remembered it and how significant that was to their subsequentbehaviors. This individual project can be modified to reflect a number of consumption acts. If you choose to use green consumption, it provides an opportunity to tie the exercise to the concept of green marketing (chapter 1) and perceptions (chapter 2). To relate the project to the current chapter, help students identify how the consumption event is associated with other nodes in their minds and ask them to reflect specifically on how repetition or rehearsal may have strengthened the associations to help them recall the specific event.

(45 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

3. Ask students to narrate the sequence of events that led to their first access and registration at a social networking site (www.facebook.com, www.myspace.com, www.orkut.com or others). Have them list some of the positive and negative reinforcements they have encountered at the site since theyjoined. The exercise reinforces applications of instrumental conditioning of the consumer decision-making process, which will be explored in greater depth later in the text. It is important to note whether students distinguish between positive reinforcement (the presence of a reward in exchange for their behavior) and negative reinforcement

(avoiding a negative outcome or the absence of a reward). In the context of Facebook, students may feel rewarded when someone likes their status. Students may also join or participate to avoid feeling left out or lonely because they do not see updates fromothers.

(25 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

4. Have students devise their own classical conditioning experiments involving a“green” product such as organic milk or similar products. Let them utilize UCS, CS, and CR. Look for students to identify the part of their experiment that is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), which generates the desired response on its own; the conditioned stimulus (CS), which generates the response because of its association with the unconditioned stimulus; and the (desired) conditioned response (CR) that should ultimately be associated with the conditioned stimulus.

(30 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

5. Many brands attempt to capitalize on positive associations that consumers have for competing brands by copying certain characteristics. Have students identify anexample of this and relate it to the haloeffect. Students are likely to bring examples of private label or generic brands that try to leverage similar packaging to capitalize on consumers’ positive associations with national brands.

(15 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

6. Ask students to write their favorite brand name. They should then draw an associative network around the brand that includes three attributes/features, three benefits, three competitors, attributes, and benefits for the competing brands, etc. They can be allowed to add personal opinions and feelings about the brand to thenetwork. The exercise should help students visualize the web of connections between nodes that characterize the associative network theory of memory. You can tie the exercise to further exploration of the concept of the evoked set (since they identify competitors). Since they start with brand identification, ask them to identify when the related nodesare brand-specific (claims), ad specific, product category specific, or related to evaluative reactions (positive or negative emotions).

(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

7. Have students create their schema for “made in the U.S.,” “made in Japan,” and “madein Germany” cars. What features and attributes would they include in each of the schemas? Student associations with each schema will vary. Look for students to recognize that a schema is a cognitive framework that is developed through experience. Remind students that it is easier for consumers to encode information that is consistent with an existing schema than it is to encode information that is incongruent with our expectations based on experiences.

(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

8. Assign students to locate a print advertisement that is a clear example of a marketer employing the concepts of stimulus generalization or stimulus discrimination.Have students present the ads to theclass.

For stimulus generalization, students may select private label/generic brands that are packaged to look like the national counterpart, examples of companies that use family branding, product line extensions, or brands that license a brand name. For stimulus discrimination, students are likely to find examples where a national brand clarifies what distinguishes its brand from private label/generic competitors, and/or urges consumers not to settle for cheap imitations.

(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking and Communication Abilities)

9. Have students identify an example of both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement in a marketing context. As students present their findings in class, havethe class discuss how effective each example is at establishing the desired or intended behavior.

Examples will vary. In addition to looking for students to differentiate between positive and negative reinforcement, also look for evidence that they understand the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment.

(30 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking and CommunicationAbilities)

10. Ask students to observe their friends, roommates, and co-workers for an extended period to identify an incidence of modeling as it relates to a celebrity. Have them note how the four conditions of modeling are met. Is the celebrity a brand endorser? How might their behavior be positive/negative for the marketers of the brands(s) that the celebrity endorses?

The four conditions the student should include in his/her response include:

 The consumer’s attention must be directed to a model that is desirable to emulate for reasons of attractiveness, competence, status, or similarity.

 The consumer must remember what is said or done by the model.

 The consumer must convert this information into actions.

 The consumer must be motivated to perform these actions. When celebrities are paid endorsers of a product, students may respond differently than if the celebrity appears to wear or use a product without being compensated. However, many students recognize that celebrities are given products in the hopes they will use them and influence others to use them. When you speak about negative effects of celebrity behaviors, students may think of Tiger Woods. You may also bring up the publicity stunt from Abercrombie & Fitch where they announced they would pay cast members of MTV’s show Jersey Shore not to wear their apparel because they did not want to be associated with the cast members’ images (Summer 2011).

(90 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Reflective Thinking and CommunicationAbilities)

11. Have students think of specific examples where their sensory, short-term, and long-term memory have been activated by marketinginformation.

Sensory memory is activated when consumers are exposed to marketing stimuli. If the information passes through an attentional gate, it can be stored acoustically or semantically for a short period in short-term memory. To make it to long-term memory,

students should recognize marketing efforts to increase the likelihood of rehearsal (e.g. repetitions, catchy slogans/jingles).

(15 minutes, Chapter Objective 6, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

12. Ask each student to complete the following assignment based on a popular national brand: Collect as many pieces of promotional material (ads, direct mail, etc.) aspossible for the brand. Based on this promotional evidence, identify any bits of information that marketers intend to be associated with the brand. Create an associative network for the brand, integrating the documented nodes of information with othernodes. This project gives students the opportunity to create a model from marketing stimuli instead of their memories, which may give them a different perspective on what the brand marketers are trying to communicate. It may provide an interesting discussion to compare what the student recalled on his/her own about the brand to what the marketing materials are trying to communicate, and why there are differences. Students will need time (1-2 weeks) to collect the marketing materials for the brand. Students will most likely identify nodes associated with brand claims, the ads, and the product category.

(75 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

13. Assign each student to ask three friends to list as many brands as they can remember for a product class of their choosing. Have them ask each friend questions about each brand on the list to get a better idea of why each might have been recalled. Then, have them identify whether familiarity, salience, or other factors influencing recall were present. Were there differences between the first brands recalled and theothers?

In general, familiarity with a brand, the salience/importance of the brand, and the novelty associated with the presentation of the brand are likely to enhance its recall. The exercise provides students with an opportunity to analyze the role of each factor for their friends, which should help reinforce how these factors affect recall.

(45 minutes, Chapter Objective 9, AACSB: Analytic Skills)

14. Have students identify what they think are strategic efforts by marketers to cause the consumer to forget about competitor information by interfering with new informationof their own.

Marketers may use similar ad backgrounds and/or claims to try to shift associations from a competitive brand to their brand. High levels of repetition may be used to increase the likelihood that a new association is formed that replaces the existing association. Marketers may also provide information about different brand claims with the idea that remembering the new information may displace the original information about the competitive brand claims.

(25 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

Group Projects

1. Create a long list of brand slogans from the past 10 or more years e.g., Ford, where quality is job one; I want my MTV; Always Coca-Cola; Pizza-pizza (Little Caesar’s); BMW: the ultimate driving machine. Divide the class into teams or simply in half. Read the brand slogans one at a time, omitting the brand name. Award points to the first team to correctly identify the brand associated with each slogan. Afterward, point out how memory was strong, even for older slogans (some may be able to identify slogans from when they were very young children). Discuss why this is the case according to the principles of memory in the chapter.

Students should recognize that they are retrieving brand information from long-term memory. They may note differences are cognitive, physiological and situational factors that helped them retrieve (or caused them to forget) the slogans. Depending on the brands selected, they also may recognize stronger memories for pioneering brands and the effects of the brand spacing out repeated messages.

(20-30 minutes, Chapter Objectives 7 and 9, AACSB: Reflective Thinking

2. Match the brand name to the slogan in class. Provide a list of 10 or 20 brand names along with as many slogans and have groups match them. As a homework assignment, they can then be asked to assume the role of an advertising agency and try to develop better (or humorous) slogans for these products. These can be presented in class and students can vote on the best slogans that weredeveloped. This is a fun exercise, and can help reinforce the idea that salience and novelty contribute to recall. The homework assignment is an opportunity for students to flex their creative muscles and the competitive aspect may be enjoyable for the students.

(20-30 minutes, Chapter Objectives 7 and 9, AACSB: Reflective Thinking

3. Have student groups design an experiment that would demonstrate the occurrenceof either classical conditioning or instrumental conditioning. Have them conduct their experiment on members of theclass.

Individual project idea #4 asks an individual student to design an experiment to demonstrate the occurrence of classical conditioning. If students select classical conditioning, ask them to identify the part of their experiment that is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), which generates the desired response on its own; the conditioned stimulus (CS), which generates the response because of its association with the unconditioned stimulus; and the (desired) conditioned response (CR) that should ultimately be associated with the conditioned stimulus. For instrumental conditioning, ask them to identify the behavior, the reward, and the desired consumer response.

(45 minutes, Chapter Objectives 2 and 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

4. Have student groups visit a grocery store. How are marketers taking advantage of consumer ability to “chunk” information through strategies used onpackaging?

Brand names (which represent a chunk of information about the brand), images and product descriptors on labels (e.g. natural, which represents a chunk of associations with the word) are likely to show up in student responses.

(30 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Reflective Thinking,)

5. Ask groups of students to design an experiment to test the process of state-dependent retrieval. Have them conduct the experiment on ten individuals, five in a mood-congruent condition and five in a mood-incongruent condition. Have the groups present their experiments and findings to theclass.

Students may use films or candy to alter moods, and should maintain a common recall task across the two groups so the mood congruency is the only manipulated variable.

(90 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Analytic Skills and CommunicationAbilities)

6. Have student groups create a list of things that make them nostalgic. Then, during a period of a few days, have each of them identify ways that marketers of productstargeted toward them have focused on any of these elements of nostalgia. Can they identify any nostalgia brands that are focused at their feelings of nostalgia? Have them share their findings with group members.

Student responses should reflect their understanding that nostalgia describes a bittersweet emotion where we view the past with both sadness and longing. Student examples are likely to include music, food and beverages, which are often salient to students. Nostalgia brands may include retro brands (e.g. the Snoopy Sno Cone Machine that was recently reintroduced by Sababa Toys).

(20-30 minutes, Chapter Objective 9, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

eLAB

Individual Assignments

1. Go to www.BEaREP.com. Tens of thousands of new products are introduced every year. Due to various barriers to entry, the vast majority of new products fail. One company has an approach that will help new products gain exposure. What is the approach taken by BEaREP.com? Which learning theory in this chapter can be directly applied to this approach? Considering this learning theory, how might the BEaREP.com approach work or not work?

BEaREP.com utilizes a network of consumers who communicate with retailers on behalf of manufacturers. Consumers are rewarded by the company (Wizard Industries/Sample Rewards) when the retailer orders the product from the manufacturer. The idea that consumers are rewarded in response to an action is consistent with instrumental conditioning, which is one of the behavioral learning theories discussed in the chapter. For the approach to work, the reward must be attainable and meaningful (have value) to consumers.

(15 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

2. Go to www.levis.com Levis Strauss is a brand that is 150 years old. However, the long dominant player in the jeans and apparel industry has struggled in recent years toregain market share that it has lost to brands that are more youthful. Visit their website and discuss what strategies the company appears to be using to attract Generation Y (30 million plus individuals born between 1986 and 2002). What forms of learning is the company attempting to use to reacquire a youthful audience? Be specific in your description and provide illustrations of your ideas from the website to support chapter concepts. Levis.com promotes its products with appeals to individualism, innovation/progress, achievement and social activism. They use social media (blogs, Facebook, twitter, and mobile updates) to communicate with and connect to their target audience. They may use rewards to motivate some behaviors (e.g. free shipping for a purchase > $100; sign up for email and we’ll give you a code for free shipping) and they use attractive models to display their apparel. Students may categorize the use of attractive model as an effort to encourage observational learning or they may categorize it as an application of classical conditioning, since the marketer may anticipate positive feelings toward the model will transfer to the apparel s/he is wearing. Students may also identify a second application of classical conditioning: the efforts toward social activism may generate goodwill that transfers to Levis.

(25 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking,)

3. Go to www.gogorillamedia.com Become familiar with the advertising productofferings from this company. What previously useless space is this company turning into valuable advertising space? What advertisers might be most interested in the various types of ad space options? How would each affect learning and memory? What memory processes would be most critical to the success of the different adoptions?

The URL directs students to a blog for an agency that specializes in non-traditional media, including guerrilla marketing. Different ad space options may help firms break through advertising clutter, which will increase the likelihood of exposure. Exposure is a key to familiarity. Novel stimuli are also more likely to be recalled. This includes novel presentations of messages, like those offered by non-traditional media. Students can reference Figure 6.3, which summarizes the memory process.

(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)

Group Assignments

1. Go to www.mitchellandness.com. Many companies have incorporated anelement of nostalgia into their strategies to help boost sales. However, this company’s product line relies entirely on nostalgia. Mitchell and Ness has achieved substantial success with aline of throwback sports apparel. As a group, create a profile for the market(s) you think this company is targeting. Explain how nostalgia is the cornerstone of this company’s success and how this principle works by applying learning and memory processes. Based on your analysis, design a print ad that emphasizes the “nostalgia” theme for this company’s products.

The profile will likely include demographic (gender, income, age) and psychographic (sports fans) variables. Look for students to relate the needs of this target audience to the concept of nostalgia – looking back with sadness and longing on the “good old days”. These marketers are trying to associate a product with fond memories, which is an application of classical conditioning. The resulting creative should consider the target audience and may attempt to activate associations with the good old days.

(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 9, AACSB: Analytic Skills)

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