The hills of rome caroline vout

The Hills of Rome Caroline Vout

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TheHillsofRome

Romeis‘thecityofsevenhills’.Thisbookexaminestheneedforthe ‘sevenhills’clich ´ e,itsorigins,development,impactandborrowing. Itexploreshowtheclich ´ erelatestoRome’srealterrainandhowit isfundamentaltothewayinwhichwedefinethis.Itschronological remitiscapacious:Varro,VirgilandClaudianatoneend,andon, throughtheworkofRenaissanceantiquarians,toembracefrescoesand nineteenth-centuryengravings.Theseartistsandauthorscelebrated thehills,andtheviewsfromthesehills,inanattempttocaptureRome holistically.Bystudyingtheirefforts,thisbookconfrontstheproblems ofencapsulatingRomeand‘citiness’morebroadlyandindeedthe artificialityofanyrepresentation,whetherapainting,poemormap. Inthissense,itisnotahistoryofthecityatanyonemomentintime, butahistoryofhowthecityhasbeen,andhastobe,perceived.

carolinevout isSeniorLecturerinClassicsattheUniversityof Cambridge,andFellowofChrist’sCollegeandtheSocietyofAntiquaries.Sheisahistorianandarthistorianwhopublishesonawide rangeoftopicsrelatedtoGreekandRomanartanditsreception,Latin LiteratureandRomanhistory,andistheauthorof PowerandEroticism inImperialRome (Cambridge,2007).In2008shewasawardedaPhilip LeverhulmePrizeforherworkonArtHistory,andin2010wasthe HughLastFellowattheBritishSchoolatRome.

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PrintedintheUnitedKingdomattheUniversityPress,Cambridge

AcataloguerecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary

LibraryofCongressCataloguinginPublicationdata Vout,Caroline.

ThehillsofRome:signatureofaneternalcity/CarolineVout. pages.cm.

Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.

ISBN978-1-107-02597-4(hardback)

1.Rome(Italy)–Descriptionandtravel.2.Rome–History.I.Title. DG63.V682012

937 .63–dc232012012765

ISBN978-1-107-02597-4Hardback

CambridgeUniversityPresshasnoresponsibilityforthepersistenceor accuracyofURLsforexternalorthird-partyinternetwebsitesreferredto inthispublication,anddoesnotguaranteethatanycontentonsuch websitesis,orwillremain,accurateorappropriate.

Itwas surnamed Septicollisfromitssevenhills.

Hazlitt1851(1995:296)

Contents

Listoffigures [page ix]

Acknowledgements [xvi]

1Introduction:thejourneytoRome [1]

Themap [1]

Theitinerary [11]

Thedestination [15]

2Thelieoftheland [18]

ThesevenhillsofRome,RepublicandEmpire [21]

AfterthehighRomanfashion [25]

TheRenaissanceofthesevenhills [31]

Nineteenth-andtwentieth-centuryencounters [47]

3Sevenisthemagicnumber [57]

Aninventionoftradition [59]

Thepotencyandpossibilityofthenumberseven [61]

Varro’scontributiontothestory [67]

Beforethemountainsweresettled [75]

4Rome, lacitt ` aeterna [81]

ThesevenhillsandtheambitionsofEmpire [83]

DizzyheightsundertheFlavians [95]

TheriseandfallofRomeinlateantiquity [103]

Postscript [117]

5Paintingbynumbers [121]

Thelimitsofrepresentation [121]

ThesevenhillsofRenaissanceartistsandpatrons [133]

Nineteenth-centurywaysofseeing [165]

6Ontopoftheworld [188]

Villasandgardens [191]

Inthethickofit [195]

GettingthemeasureofthewholeofRome [199]

FramingaviewfromtheCapitolineorPalatine [207]

Theimperialgaze [214]

Divineomniscience [220]

7Signingoff [227]

Thehistoryofanidea [227]

Geographyashistory [235]

References [240]

Indexofprincipalpassagesdiscussed [270]

Generalindex [274]

Thecolourplateswilllbefoundbetweenpages174and175

1.1 TheCathedral,DurhamCity.Photo,author[page 2]

1.2 TheColosseum,Rome.Photo,author[5]

1.3 Bird’s-eyeviewofancientRomebyPirroLigorio,asprintedin BraunandHogenberg1572–1617.Seealsocolourplatesection. Photo,author[7]

1.4 Thecanonicalsevenhillsinsidethe‘Servian’andAurelianic wall[9]

1.5 The‘tetrarchs’,StMark’sSquare,Venice.Photo,author[11]

2.1 TitlepageofJeremiahDonovan’s Rome,AncientandModern anditsEnvirons, 1842.ReproducedwithpermissionoftheBritish SchoolatRome[20]

2.2 CopyoftheCapitolineLupa.Photo,author[26]

2.3 PageofAndreaFulvio’s Antiquariaurbis, 1513.Reproducedwith permissionoftheBritishSchoolatRome[38]

2.4 FabioCalvo,‘RomaQuadrata’, AntiquaeurbisRomaecumregionibus simulachrum, 1527.ReproducedwithpermissionoftheUniversity Library,Cambridge[40]

2.5 FabioCalvo,‘RomeinthereignofServiusTullius’, Antiquaeurbis Romaecumregionibussimulachrum, 1527.Reproducedwith permissionoftheUniversityLibrary,Cambridge[41]

2.6 FabioCalvo,‘AugustanRome’, AntiquaeurbisRomaecumregionibus simulachrum, 1527.ReproducedwithpermissionoftheUniversity Library,Cambridge[42]

2.7 FabioCalvo,‘RomeatthetimeofPlinytheelder’, Antiquaeurbis Romaecumregionibussimulachrum, 1527.Reproducedwith permissionoftheUniversityLibrary,Cambridge[42]

2.8 RomeasdepictedinthecodexofSolinus’ Polyhistor inthe BibliotecaAmbrosiana,Milan,fourteenthcentury.Reproduced withpermissionoftheBibliotecaAmbrosiana[44]

2.9 MapofthecityofRomeundertheemperors,fromMarliani’s UrbisRomaetopographia, 1544.Reproducedwithpermission oftheBritishSchoolatRome[45]

2.10

2.11

2.12

JamesBarry, TheTarpeianRock,1769,TheFitzwilliamMuseum, Cambridge.ReproducedwithpermissionoftheSyndicsofthe FitzwilliamMuseum[50]

Piranesi’sengravingoftheCapitoline, Leantichit ` aromane, 1756. Photo,author[52]

SectionofAndreaMantegna’s MartyrdomofStSebastian,1480, Louvre,Paris.Seealsocolourplatesection.Photo, C RMN/Ren ´ eGabrielOj ´ eda[53]

2.13

2.14

3.1

4.1

4.2

FrescoofNeropersecutingtheChristians,SantoStefanoRotondo, Rome.Seealsocolourplatesection.Photo,author[54]

BartolomeodiGiovanni, RapeoftheSabines,1488,Galleria Colonna,Rome.Seealsocolourplatesection.Reproducedwiththe permissionofGalleriaColonna[54]

StefanoDup ´ erac, VedutadellesettechiesediRoma,1575,Istituto NazionaleperlaGrafica,Rome.CourtesyoftheMinisteroperiBeni elaAttivit ` aCulturali[63]

ThegoddessRomaasdepictedinthePalazzodeiCongressi,EUR, Rome.Seealsocolourplatesection.Photo,author[85]

FischervonErlach, EntwurffeinerhistorischenArchitectur, 1725 Photo,author[92]

4.3 Pierre-HenrideValenciennes,French,1750–1819, MountAthos CarvedasaMonumenttoAlexandertheGreat,1796,TheArt InstituteofChicago.Seealsocolourplatesection.Photography C TheArtInstituteofChicago[93]

5.1 RelieffromArchofSeptimiusSeverus,Rome,showingthesiegeof Ctesiphon.Photo,author[123]

5.2

5.3

5.4

Wallpaintingfromthe triclinium oftheHouseofM.Fabius Secundus,Pompeii,ArchaeologicalMuseum,Naples.Seealso colourplatesection.Reproducedwithpermissionofthe SoprintendenzaArcheologicadiNapoli[124]

CoinfromthereignofCommodusshowingMountArgaeus, RPC online,8627.ReproducedcourtesyofGorny&MoschGiessener Munzhandlung[126]

CoinfromthirdcenturyCEshowingMountTmolus,BMC94. ReproducedcourtesyofHeliosNumismatik[126]

5.5 ReliefpanelshowingCaelianJupiter,HerculesJulianusandthe GeniusCaelimontis,CapitolineMuseums,Rome.Reproduced withpermissionfromtheArchivioFotograficodeiMusei Capitolini[127]

5.6 ThebaseoftheColumnofAntoninusPius,161CE,Vatican Museums.Photocourtesyofarachne.uni-k ¨ oln.de (FA3815–01)[128]

5.7 CoinshowingRomaseatedonsevenhills,71CE.Photo, C Trustees oftheBritishMuseum[129]

5.8 CoinshowingaseatedHercules(?),42BCE.Photo, C Trusteesof theBritishMuseum[130]

5.9 Fragmentofthe‘RomaMonument’,CorinthwithCapitolinus Monsinscription.ReproducedwithpermissionofTheAmerican SchoolofClassicalStudiesatAthens,CorinthExcavations(BW 197307325)[131]

5.10 Fragmentofthe‘RomaMonument’withCollisViminalis inscription.ReproducedwithpermissionofTheAmerican SchoolofClassicalStudiesatAthens,CorinthExcavations (BW197403707)[132]

5.11 LateantiquestatuetteofRomafromthePanayiaDomus,Corinth. ReproducedwithpermissionofTheAmericanSchoolofClassical StudiesatAthens,CorinthExcavations[134]

5.12 NicolasPoussin,TheAventineasseenin Studiodipaesenella campagnaromana,GabinettoDisegnieStampe,Florence,inv. GDSU,cat.S,n.8101.PhotocourtesyoftheArchiviofotografico delGabinettofotografico(neg.no.560473)[135]

5.13 OfficiallogooftheSevenHillsofEdinburghRaceandChallenge. ReproducedwithpermissionfromAlanLawson[137]

5.14 Thesix-hilledcrestoftheChigifamily,PortadelPopolo,Rome. Photo,author[137]

5.15 PietrodaCortona, DeinocratesShowsAlexanderVIIMountAthos, printstudy,TheBritishMuseum.Photo, C TrusteesoftheBritish Museum[139]

5.16 ChateauGiullaume,afterCiroFerri, AllegoricalPortraitofAlexander VII,GabinettodelleStampe,ING,Rome.Reproducedwith permissionoftheInstitutoNazionaleperlaGrafica,Rome[140]

5.17 GiovanniBattistaNaldini(1537–91), VuedeRome,avecun personnageassisdessinant,Louvre,D.A.G.Photo, C RMN/Mich ` ele Bellot[141]

5.18 TheVillaGiulia,Rome.Photo,author[143]

5.19 SectionofthefriezeintheSaladeiSetteColli,VillaGiulia,Rome. Photo,author.ReproducedwithpermissionoftheSoprintendenza periBeniArcheologicidell’EtruriaMeridionale[145]

5.20

5.21

TheEsquilinepanel,theSaladeiSetteColli,VillaGiulia,Rome.See alsocolourplatesection.Photo,author.Reproducedwith permissionoftheSoprintendenzaperiBeniArcheologicidell’ EtruriaMeridionale[146]

TheVillaGiuliapanel,theSaladeiSetteColli,VillaGiulia,Rome. Seealsocolourplatesection.Photo,author.Reproducedwith permissionoftheSoprintendenzaperiBeniArcheologicidell’ EtruriaMeridionale[147]

5.22 TheVillaGiuliapanel,JuliusIII’sapartment,PalazzodelBelvedere (afterBiagetti, 1936)[147]

5.23 Close-upoftheEsquilinepanel,theSaladeiSetteColli,Villa Giulia,Rome.Seealsocolourplatesection.Photo,author. ReproducedwithpermissionoftheSoprintendenzaperiBeni Archeologicidell’EtruriaMeridionale[148]

5.24 JuliusIII’sheraldicdevice,theSaladeiSetteColli,VillaGiulia, Rome.Seealsocolourplatesection.Photo,author.Reproduced withpermissionoftheSoprintendenzaperiBeniArcheologicidell’ EtruriaMeridionale[148]

5.25

TheEsquilinepanel,JuliusIII’sapartment,PalazzodelBelvedere (afterBiagetti, 1936)[149]

5.26 TheLaocoongroup,fromMarliani’s UrbisRomaetopographia, 1544:89.Photo,author.ReproducedwithpermissionoftheBritish SchoolatRome[150]

5.27 TheQuirinalpanel,theSaladeiSetteColli,VillaGiulia,Rome.See alsocolourplatesection.Photo,author.Reproducedwith permissionoftheSoprintendenzaperiBeniArcheologicidell’ EtruriaMeridionale[152]

5.28 JupiterfromthefriezeintheSaladeiSetteColli,VillaGiulia,Rome. Photo,author.ReproducedwithpermissionoftheSoprintendenza periBeniArcheologicidell’EtruriaMeridionale[153]

5.29 TheCapitolinepanel,theSaladeiSetteColli,VillaGiulia,Rome. Seealsocolourplatesection.Photo,author.Reproducedwith permissionoftheSoprintendenzaperiBeniArcheologicidell’ EtruriaMeridionale[154]

5.30 Close-upoftheCapitolinepanel,theSaladeiSetteColli,Villa Giulia,Rome.Seealsocolourplatesection.Photo,author. ReproducedwithpermissionoftheSoprintendenzaperiBeni Archeologicidell’EtruriaMeridionale[154]

5.31 TheCapitolinepanel,JuliusIII’sapartment,PalazzodelBelvedere (afterBiagetti, 1936)[156]

5.32 HieronymusCock’sengravingoftheCampidoglio,showingthe PalazzoSenatorio,1562.Photo,author[156]

5.33 HeadofConstantine,CollectionoftheCapitolineMuseum,Rome. Photo,author[157]

5.34 TheViminalpanel,theSaladeiSetteColli,VillaGiulia,Rome.See alsocolourplatesection.Photo,author.Reproducedwith permissionoftheSoprintendenzaperiBeniArcheologicidell’ EtruriaMeridionale[158]

5.35 Close-upoftheViminalpanel,theSaladeiSetteColli,VillaGiulia, Rome.Seealsocolourplatesection.Photo,author.Reproduced withpermissionoftheSoprintendenzaperiBeniArcheologicidell’ EtruriaMeridionale[159]

5.36 Close-upoftheQuirinalpanel,theSaladeiSetteColli,VillaGiulia, Rome.Seealsocolourplatesection.Photo,author.Reproduced withpermissionoftheSoprintendenzaperiBeniArcheologicidell’ EtruriaMeridionale[160]

5.37 ThePalatinepanel,theSaladeiSetteColli,VillaGiulia,Rome.See alsocolourplatesection.Photo,author.Reproducedwith permissionoftheSoprintendenzaperiBeniArcheologicidell’ EtruriaMeridionale[160]

5.38 TheAventinepanel,theSaladeiSetteColli,VillaGiulia,Rome.See alsocolourplatesection.Photo,author.Reproducedwith permissionoftheSoprintendenzaperiBeniArcheologicidell’ EtruriaMeridionale[161]

5.39 Close-upoftheAventinepanel,theSaladeiSetteColli,VillaGiulia, Rome.Seealsocolourplatesection.Photo,author.Reproduced withpermissionoftheSoprintendenzaperiBeniArcheologicidell’ EtruriaMeridionale[161]

5.40 TheCaelianpanel,theSaladeiSetteColli,VillaGiulia,Rome.See alsocolourplatesection.Photo,author.Reproducedwith permissionoftheSoprintendenzaperiBeniArcheologicidell’ EtruriaMeridionale[163]

5.41 Close-upofVillaGiuliapanel,theSaladeiSetteColli,VillaGiulia, Rome.Seealsocolourplatesection.Photo,author.Reproduced withpermissionoftheSoprintendenzaperiBeniArcheologicidell’ EtruriaMeridionale[164]

5.42 BartolomeoPinelli,ViewoftheAventine.Photo,author[168]

5.43 Rossini’s PalatineandPartoftheRomanForum.Reproducedwith permissionoftheMasterandFellowsofTrinityCollege, Cambridge[169]

5.44

5.45

5.46

5.47

GiovanniBattistaNaldini(1537–91),previouslywronglyattributed toTitian, Vuedel’arcdeSeptimeS´ev`ere,Louvre,Paris,D.A.G.

Photo: C RMN/Mich ` eleBellot[170]

Piranesi’sviewoftheTempleofSaturn.Photo,author[171]

Piranesi’spanoramicviewoftheForum.Photo,author[171]

Rossini’s CapitolineHill.ReproducedwithpermissionoftheMaster andFellowsofTrinityCollege,Cambridge[172]

5.48 Rossini’s AventineHill.ReproducedwithpermissionoftheMaster andFellowsofTrinityCollege,Cambridge[173]

5.49

5.50

Rossini’s QuirinalHill.ReproducedwithpermissionoftheMaster andFellowsofTrinityCollege,Cambridge[174]

Rossini’s PanoramaofRome.Reproducedwithpermissionofthe MasterandFellowsofTrinityCollege,Cambridge[174]

5.51 FrontispiecetoRossini’s Isettecolli.Reproducedwithpermission oftheMasterandFellowsofTrinityCollege,Cambridge[175]

5.52

Oneoftheso-called‘TrophiesofMarius’onthebalustradeofthe Campidoglio.Photo,author[177]

5.53 Rossini’s GeneralPlanofAncientRomeanditsSevenHills ReproducedwithpermissionoftheMasterandFellowsofTrinity College,Cambridge[178]

5.54 Rossini’s FragmentsFoundonthePalatine.Reproducedwith permissionoftheMasterandFellowsofTrinityCollege, Cambridge[178]

5.55

5.56

5.57

ThehippodromeinConstantinopleasseeninOnofrioPanvinio’s Deludiscircensibus,1600.Photo,author[179]

SectionofRossini’s RestorationofthePalatine,ForumandViaSacra. ReproducedwithpermissionoftheMasterandFellowsofTrinity College,Cambridge[180]

Rossini’s ViewofthePalatinefromtheAventine.Reproducedwith permissionoftheMasterandFellowsofTrinityCollege, Cambridge[181]

5.58

5.59

5.60

Rossini’s Viminal.ReproducedwithpermissionoftheMasterand FellowsofTrinityCollege,Cambridge[182]

AnotherViewoftheCapitoline byRossini.Reproducedwith permissionoftheMasterandFellowsofTrinityCollege, Cambridge[183]

PartoftheRomanForumandtheCapitolineHillwiththeTempleof Jupiter byRossini.ReproducedwithpermissionoftheMasterand FellowsofTrinityCollege,Cambridge[184]

5.61 Rossini’s Pincio.ReproducedwithpermissionoftheMasterand FellowsofTrinityCollege,Cambridge[186]

6.1 Bird’s-EyeViewfromtheStaircaseandtheUpperPartofthePavilion intheColosseum,Regent’sPark,1829.Aquatintonpaper.London: GuildhallLibraryPrintRoom.Photo: C CityofLondon[189]

6.2 ViewfromthePinciotoday.Photo,author[192]

6.3 PlanoftheFarneseGardens(c.1670)fromFalda(1640–78), Li giardinidiRoma [194]

6.4 InscriptionontheloggiaoftheVillaLante,theJaniculum,Rome. Photo,author[200]

6.5 StatueofDianaofEphesusfromHadrian’svillaatTivoli,DAIR 7146[201]

6.6 JohnRobertCozens(1782–3) ViewoftheVillaLanteonthe Janiculum(Gianicolo),inRome,MetropolitanMuseumofArt,New York.Seealsocolourplatesection.RogersFund(1967)67.68. ReproducedwithpermissionoftheMetropolitanMuseumof Art[202]

6.7 GiuseppeVasi, Prospettodel’almacitt ` adiRomavistodelMonte Gianicolo,1765.Photo,author[204]

6.8 ViewfromtheJaniculumtoday.Photo,author[206]

6.9 SamuelPalmer,English1805–81, TheGoldenCity:Romefromthe Janiculum,1873watercolourandgouachewithtracesofpencil, blackchalkandgumArabic514.x710.cm,NationalGalleryof Victoria,Melbourne.Seealsocolourplatesection.Presentedby membersoftheVarleyfamily,1927.Reproducedwithpermissionof theNationalGalleryofVictoria[206]

6.10 ViewoftheForumfromtheCapitolinetoday.Photo,author[207]

6.11 SamuelPalmer, AViewofAncientRome.Seealsocolourplate section.Photo,BirminghamMuseumsandArtGallery[210]

6.12 SamuelPalmer, AViewofModernRome.Seealsocolourplate section.Photo,BirminghamMuseumsandArtGallery[210]

6.13 ReliefoftheapotheosisofTitusfromtheatticoftheArchofTitus. Photo,DAIR79.2393[225]

7.1 ViewofandfromthePiccoloAventinobyNicolasDidierBoguet, BSRfol.31.ReproducedwithpermissionfromtheBritishSchoolat Rome[232]

7.2 ThePalazzodegliUffici,EUR,Rome.Photo,author[233]

7.3 BanneradvertisingtheMontiregionofRomewithitsthreehills. Photo,author[236]

Acknowledgements

Thisbookwouldhavebeenslowertowrite,wereitnotforthegenerous supportofTheLeverhulmeTrustandtheBritishSchoolatRome.Thereceipt ofaPhilipLeverhulmePrizein2008enabledmetoenjoyasabbaticalfrom myteachingandtotakeuptheHughLastFellowshipattheBritishSchool in2010.Ithankbothinstitutions.Iwouldalsoliketothankeveryoneatthe School,especiallyitsDirector,ChristopherSmith,SueRussellandValerie Scottformakingitsuchaneasyandproductiveplacetowork.AndIthank mycolleaguesintheFacultyofClassicsandatChrist’sCollege,Cambridge fortheirgenerosity,friendshipandacademicengagement.DavidSedley deservesspecialmentionforsteppingintomyshoestobeDirectorof Studies.

Manypeoplehavehelpedinthewritingofthisbook.Iamparticularly indebtedtoDavidLarmourandDianaSpencer,whosetmeoffonthisjourneybyinvitingmetocontributetotheirco-editedvolume, TheSitesofRome: Time,Space,Memory (2007),andtoaudiencesintheClassicsDepartments ofEdinburghandStAndrew’saswellastheTriennialinCambridgeandthe BritishSchoolforgivingdirectiontomyinitialforays.MaryBeard,Jacopo Benci,EdBispham,NicholasChampkins,RobertCoates-Stephens,CatherineFletcher,EmilyGowers,PaulHoward,JohnPatterson,RichardPollard, DavidReynolds,CarolRichardson,ClareRowan,AmyRussell,Christopher Smith,MichaelSquireandAndrewWallace-Hadrillallcontributedmore thantheywillknow,eitherinadvice,criticaldiscussionorintheirreading ofdraftchapters,andTorstenKrude,Ann,ColinandSueVoutprovided supportthroughout.Yetagain,MichaelSharphasbeenasympatheticeditor.IthankhimandCambridgeUniversityPress’sanonymousreadersfor challengingme.

Thefinalstagesofanyprojectarealwaysharderthanoneexpects.But theprocesshasbeenmadeeasierbyKathrynStevens,whocheerilychecked allofmytranslationsfromtheLatinandGreek;FrancoBassoandLucia Prauscello,whodidthesamewiththeItalian;bymyheroiccopy-editor,Jan Chapman;bytheLibrariansintheFacultyofClassics,TrinityCollegeand theUniversityLibrary,Cambridge;andbyMariaPiaMalvezziandLucyna Prochnicka,whohelpedmeinacquiringthepicturepermissions.Iagain xvi

thanktheLeverhulmeTrust,whosegrantpaidforthesepermissionsand enabledmetopublishsomeoftheimagesincolour.

Icouldnotendtheseacknowledgementswithoutalsoexpressingmy gratitudetoFelixBudelmann,ViccyColtman,PhilipJones,HelenLovatt, HelenMorales,MaryamParisaei,SophieReadandElizabethSpeller.It wouldhavebeenamoredifficultjourneywithoutthem.AndIthankRobin Osborne.Itwouldbeaverydifferentbook,wereitnotforRobin,whoread allofit,morethanonce,andalwaysunderstoodwhereitwasgoing.

Introduction:thejourneytoRome

Thereisastrongandpleasantmemoryforhills.

KevinLynch(1961:173)

Themap

Iwasbornina‘cityofsevenhills’.Durhamisoneofthehilliestcitiesin thenorthofEngland.YetevennowIamunsurewhichofitscontoursadd uptoseven.Itishardtoimagineanyofthemcompetingwiththedramatic Cathedralpeninsula,whichgivesthecityitsname(Figure1.1).In995CE, whenthemonksofLindisfarneontheNorthumbriancoastwerelooking forapermanentrestingplaceforthebodyoftheirbishop,SaintCuthbert, heappearedtotheminavisiondirectingthemtowards‘Dunholm’or‘hill island’.Despitethevividnessofthisname(‘dun’means‘hill’,and‘holm’ means‘island’,inAnglo-Saxon),ittookamilkmaidandher‘duncow’to helpthemfindtheirdestination.

ArchaeologicalevidencepointstoahistoryofsettlementintheDurham arealongbeforethemonks’arrival.Butitisatthispointthatthesettlementbecomesacity.WhenDurhamacquireditssevenhillsisless clear.Yetknowingthattherearesevenis,inasense,sufficient–safe, solidandstrangelyfamiliar.TheconceptunderwritesDurham’surbancredentials,takingusbacktocitiesasoldasBabylonandJerusalem.Asold asRome.SmallwonderthatwhenwriterDBCPierrewasdescribingthe fadedgloriesofDurham’sMiners’Gala,thebest-knownandlargestmeetingoftheminingcommunityinEngland,hefounditanobviouswayof invokingtraditionandsummoningregionalpride.Itwas2004,adecade afterthelastcollieryintheDurhamcoalfieldhadclosed,yetcomfortis gainedfrom‘themen,womenandchildrenofthepitvillageslabouring upanddownanynumberofDurham’ssevenhillsundersizablesilver instruments’.1 Theirrouteisirrelevant;itisthegeneralterrainthatmakes

1 Pierre 2004.ThoughPierrewasbroughtupinMexicoCityandconsidershimselfMexican,his motherwasborninDurham,and,likeme,hewouldreturnthereforholidays.

theirmarchingmomentous.Sevenhillslend gravitas toPierre’saccount, turningstruggleintoanimageoftriumph.

Durhamisnottheonly‘cityofsevenhills’inBritain.Bath,Bristol, EdinburghandSheffieldallcelebrateasmuchintheirtouristinformationanduniversitywebsites,whileforTorquayontheSouthDevonshire coast,its‘famoussevenhillsprovidethebackdroptoawaterfrontscene thatmatchesanythingyou’llfindontheFrenchRiviera’.2 Theprecise

2

FortheactivemyththatisthesevenhillsofBath,see,forexample,the BathChronicle on 28August2008and TheIndependent (www.independent.co.uk/travel/uk/winter-walks-andrefreshing-rambles-1845579.html?action=Gallery&ino=2,lastaccessed13August2011).For Bristol,seethedescriptionin TheNationalGazetteerofGreatBritainandIreland (1868):‘The surfaceisveryirregular,sothatwithinthelimitsofthetown,thereare,asinancientRome, sevenhills’;www.bristolviews.co.uk/views-h.htm(lastaccessed13August2011):‘Aswithmany Englishtownsandcities,Bristolclaims,likeRomeofold,tobebuiltonsevenhills’;andthe recentcompositionbyJolyonLaycockentitled‘AmongSevenHills–SinfoniaConcertantefor PianoandOrchestra’,which,thoughaboutBath,premieredatColstonHall,Bristol.For Edinburgh,seeAnderson 1922:136:‘LikeancientRome,Edinburghisnowacityofsevenhills’, andthefoldedmapthatis Edinburgh:SevenHills (1998).AndforSheffield,theBBCwebsite, alsoaccessed13August,www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/classic/A659847:‘Anotherfeatureof Sheffieldisthehills.Sheffield,likeRome,isbuiltonsevenhills’and,lesspositively,George Orwell(diary,3March1936;OrwellandAngus 1968:91):‘Ihavenowtraversedalmostthe wholecity.Itseemstome,bydaylight,oneofthemostappallingplacesIhaveeverseen...I

Figure1.1 TheCathedral,DurhamCity.

stratigraphyoftheseplacesislessimportantthantheiraspirations.The factthatevenCambridge,oneoftheflattestofEngland’scities,hasbeen knowntomanipulateitsfenlandintoseven‘hills’highlightshowwidethe gapcanbebetweenimageandexperience.3 LeavetheBritishIslesbehind, andthelistbecomesformidable:notonlyBabylonandJerusalem,but Bergen,Brussels,Budapest,Istanbul,Lisbon,Moscow,Nijmegen,Nˆımes, Prague,Siena,Turku,Seattle,SomervilleinMassachusetts,RiodeJaneiro, KampalainUganda,AmmaninJordan,ThiruvananthapuraminIndia... 4

Thiscannotbeacoincidence.Avisittoanyofthemrevealsthattheir‘seven hills’areasales-pitchratherthanareality.Thecurrencyofthesevenhills goesbeyondwesternculturetoimplyauniversal,oratleasttransferable, ideaof‘citiness’.5

ThisbookisaboutRome’sroleinthiseconomy.Romeisthe‘cityof sevenhills’parexcellence.Whatarethenamesofthesehills?ThePalatine, Capitoline,Aventine–siteswhichareascentraltoRome’sidentityand foundationhistoryastheCathedralpeninsulaistoDurham.Afterthis, though,thelistishardertocompile.Evenspecialistsinclassicsfounder.The moderncitysprawlseithersideoftheRiverTiber,embracingtheOppian andCispianspursoftheEsquilinehill,theCaelian,Quirinal,Viminal,the PincianHillandMontiPariolitothenorth,MonteMarioandtheJaniculum tothewest,nottomentionMonteTestaccio,tothesouth,anartificialmound madefromthesherdsofdiscardedamphorae.Thisalreadygivesatotalof thirteen,withsuchnamesasMonteSavelloandMontecitorioaddingtothe confusion.Whichofthese‘hills’areincludedinthecanon?Whatcounts asa‘hill’inthefirstplace?Howandwhendid seven hillscometobe

doubtwhetherthereareanyarchitecturallydecentbuildingsinthetown.Thetownisveryhilly (saidtobebuiltonsevenhills,likeRome)andeverywherestreetsofmeanlittlehouses blackenedbysmokerunupatsharpangles,pavedwithcobbleswhicharepurposelyset unevenlytogivehorsesetcagrip.Atnightthehillinesscreatesfineeffectsbecauseyoulook acrossfromonehillsidetotheotherandseethelampstwinklinglikestars.’Thequotation aboutTorquayisrepeatedontensoftouristwebsites.

3 CastleHill,PoundHill,HoneyHill,MarketHill,PeasHill,StAndrew’sHillandSenateHouse Hill.Althoughrumourshavelongcirculatedabouttheexistenceofanearlymapofthecity whichcelebratesthiscanon,myclassicscolleague,JamesClackson(pers.comm.),assuresme thattheserumoursarefalse,andthatheisthelist’sinventor.Tocounterconstructionwith construction,seeImanWilkens(1991),whohassuggestedthatTroyisinCambridgeshire.

4 SomewebsitesnowextendtheseclaimstoAthens:seehttp://wikitravel.org/en/Athens(last accessed13August2011).OnthequestionofwhetherancientRomancitiesevermadethe claim,seeChapter 2

5 Thucydides(7.77.7),inasentimentwhichcanbetracedbacktotheGreeklyricpoetAlcaeus (fr.22),reckonedthat‘citizensmakeacity,notwallsnorshipsdevoidofmen’,butcitiesremain difficulttodefine.SeedeCerteau 1984,RodwinandHollister 1984,Middleton 1996,Freyand Zimmer 2001,AminandThrift 2002,Mayernik 2003 andReader 2004.Onthecityasaworkof art,seeCalvino 1972 andOlsen 1986,andonRomeitself,Rykwert 1976.

themagicnumber,andlessadescriptionofthescenerythananenviable concept?

ThesequestionsdemandthatwedigthroughthelayersofRome’sgeographicalandhistoricallandscape–backtoitsmythologicalfoundationby Romulus.Aswedig,somestratawilldetainuslongerthanothers:theradicalinterventionsmadetotheurbanenvironmentbyMussolini,Napoleon, SixtusV,Aurelian,Augustus;thewaysinwhichthisenvironmentwasrepresentedinnineteenth-centuryengravings,Renaissancemapsandpainting, lateantique,FlavianandAugustanpoetry,Republicanprosetexts...But, unlikemostbookswhichbringthisbreadthofmaterialtogether,thesubject ofthisoneisnotRomeanditsdevelopment,butthedevelopmentofanidea–Romeasacityofsevenhills–andhowthisideawashonedandsustained togivecoherencetoachaotic,growing,shiftingmetropolis.Firstcelebrated intheliteratureofthelateRepublic,butwitharesonancethathintsata pre-establishedheritage,6 ‘thesevenhills’havewithstoodmajorshiftsin Rome’stopography,andinrepresentationalstrategy,tobecomeoneofthe city’schiefcharacteristics,andonewhichothercommunitieshaveseenfit toappropriateforthemselves.Howdidthishappen?Thisbooktellsthe storyoftheirstatusandcelebrationovertime.UnlikeHeiken,Funiciello andDeRita’s TheSevenHillsofRome (2005)orongoingprojectstomap thevariousphasesoftheancientcity,itisnotaboutlandformation,but canonformation;aboutthewritten-nessofurbangeography.

The‘sevenhills’arenottheonlystandard-bearerofwhatRomeisand was.TheCapitolinehillandtheTempleofJupiterOptimusMaximusupon ithaveaspecialstandingasthe‘nucleusofRomanglory,thecentreofthe universe’.7 EveninantiquityLivycouldclaim,‘HereistheCapitol,where onceuponatime,uponthediscoveryofahumanhead[caput,fromwhich thehillissaidtotakeitsname],itwasforetoldthatinthatplacewouldbe theheadoftheworldandthepinnacleofpower.’8 Notallmembersofthe canonareequal.Asweshalldiscover,theirjostlingforsupremacyispartof whatkeepsthecanonaliveissue.Apartfromthehills–inthevalleybetween theCaelianandEsquiline–themightyColosseumviesforattentionasan iconofRome’sidentity(Figure1.2).In80CEalready,thepoetMartial celebrateditscompletionbyclaimingthatitsurpassed,orcouldstandfor, thesevenwondersoftheancientworld.9 ‘Herewherethevenerablemassof

6 ThisstatementiscomplicatedbytherelatedissueofRome’s‘Septimontium’towhichwewill returninChapter 3

7 LadyMorgan 1821:114.

8 Livy5.54.7:‘hicCapitoliumest,ubiquondamcapitehumanoinventoresponsumesteoloco caputrerumsummamqueimperiifore.’SeealsoLivy1.55.5–6.

9 Mart. Spect.1andthediscussionbyFitzgerald 2007:38.Forapossibleconnectionbetween Rome’ssevenhillsandthesevenwonders,seeChapter 3.

theamphitheatrerisesinfullview,wereNero’slakes...Romeisreturned toherself.’10 TheColosseumtoowasabletofunctionasametonym. Emphasisononehilloronebuildinginevitablyfragmentsthecity.Hence theimportanceoftheideaof‘thesevenhills’inlendingRomeintegrity.

Ittookuntilthe270sCEandtheemperorAurelianforthecapitaltobe

10 Mart. Spect.2.5–6and11:‘hicubiconspicuivenerabilisAmphitheatri | erigiturmoles,stagna Neroniserant...redditaRomasibiest...’

Figure1.2 TheColosseum,Rome.

fortifiedbyaheftybrickandconcreteboundary.Beforethis,Romewas effectivelywithoutdefences.Thebuilt-upareaofthecityhadlongspiltover theRepublicanwalls,outintosurroundingterritory:‘inotherdirections, it[Rome]hadbeensecuredbyloftywallsorprecipitousmountains,except thatthespreadofbuildingshasaddedmanycities’.11 Thecapitalwasin dangerofhavingmultiplepersonalities.SeveraldefinitionsofRomeasan administrativeentityappliedthatwerenotcontiguouswiththesewalls: thesacredboundaryor‘pomerium’,thecustomsboundary.12 Butinvisual terms,

Ifsomeone,bylookingatthesesuburbs,wishestoestimatethesizeofRome,he willnecessarilybemisledandhavenosecuresignbywhichtodiscernuptowhich point,asitstretchesforth,thecityisstillthecity,andfromwhichpointitstarts nottobethecityanylonger–tosuchanextentisthefabricofthecityinterwoven withthecountrysideandprovidesitsviewerswiththenotionofacitystretchingto infinity.13

TheAurelianicwallprovidesacommandingcircumferenceorframe forthefirsttimeforcenturies,andonewhichisroutinelyplottedonpostantiquerepresentationsofthecitysoastomarkitslimits.Renaissanceartist PirroLigorio’smapoftheancientcity,firstpublishedin1561,constitutes agoodexample(Figure1.3).14 AsHendrikDeyputsit:‘theAurelianwall cametodominatephysicalandmentallandscapesoftheEternalCitylike

11 Plin. HN 3.67:‘ceteromunitaeratpraecelsismurisautabruptismontibus,nisiquod exspatiantiatectamultasaddidereurbes’.

12 ExcellentontheproblemsofdefinitionisHaselberger 2007:19–22.Alsoimportantis Goodman 2007:7–38.Onthe‘pomerium’specifically,seealsoPatterson 2000.

13 Dion.Hal. Ant.Rom. 4.13.4:

, ’ , , ’ ,

.Alsoimportantherearethewaysinwhichjuristsdistinguishedbetween the‘urbs’(theServiancity)and‘Rome’:soP.AlfenusVarus,intheAugustanperiod,citedby second-centurylawyerUlpiusMarcellus(Dig.50.16.87):‘utAlfenusait,“urbs”est“Roma”, quaemurocingeretur,“Roma”estetiam,quacontinentiaaedificiaessent:namRomamnon murotenusexistimariexconsuetudinecotidianaposseintellegi,cumdiceremusRomamnos ire,etiamsiextraurbemhabitaremus’(‘AsAlfenussaid,“urbs”is“Roma”whichwas surroundedbyawall,but“Roma”alsoextendsasfarastherearecontinuousbuildings:forit canbeunderstoodfromdailyusethatRomeisnotconsideredtoextendonlyasfarasthewall, sincewesaythatwearegoingtoRome,evenifweliveoutsidetheurbs’).And,similarly,inthe thirdcentury,JuliusPaulus(Dig.50.16.2).

14 Thisversionwasmadein1570forBraunandHogenberg 1572–1617:49,itscaption,‘Urbis RomaeSituscumiisquaeadhucConspiciunturVeter.MonumetReliquiisPyrrhoLigorio Neap.Invent.RomaeM.D.LXX’.Braun’saccompanyingcommentarydrewattentiontothe city’sriver,itsgates,itssevenhillsandtheCampusMartius.

noothermanmadefeature,ever’.15 Buteventhiswallcanbebreached–andnotjustbymaraudinginvaders.16 IncontrasttoLigorio’simage,the FormaurbisRomae,orMarblePlan,amapdisplayedinthehall,or aula,of theTempleofPeacefromthestartofthethirdcenturyCE,marksneither geographicalnorpoliticalboundariesandincludesbuildings beyond what willbeembracedbyAurelian’sperimeter.17 Althoughinvaluableforanyone studyingurbantopography,theMarblePlanisnotamapaswewould understandit,butamonumentorexhibit,recentlydescribedas‘offeringa hyper-abundanceofcartographicinformationdesignedtooverwhelmthe viewer’.18 ItsRomeisitsbuildings,anditsbuildingsareachequerboard coveringahundredandfiftymarbleslabs.Inrecordingthegroundplansof

15 Dey 2011:279.Deyisnowthestandardworkonthewallanditsimpactonthecity. Particularlyrelevantherearepp.160–95.

16 Note,however,Dey 2011:135–7onthewall’sextraordinaryeffectiveness,atleastaccordingto theliterarysources.

17 Goodman 2007:33–4.

18 Trimble 2007:378inapiecewhichexaminestheplan’svisualfunctioninitsoriginalviewing contextinthetemple.AlsorelevanthereisFavro 2006:38:‘Thelargelyillegibleindividual componentsshownonthemapcollectivelyprojectedthescaleandgrandeurofthecity,but notitsspecificity.Aliveandalwaysgrowing,representingtimeandplace,Romewastoo complex,toograndforhumanobserverstograsp.TheaniconicimageoftheFormaUrbis

Figure1.3 Bird’s-eyeviewofancientRomebyPirroLigorio,asprintedinBraunand Hogenberg 1572–1617.Seealsocolourplatesection.

thesebuildings,thismonumentachievesincumulativesurfacedetailwhat Plinyachieveswiththeideaofelevation:‘ifsomeoneweretoaddtheheight ofthebuildings,hewouldcertainlycomeupwithaworthyestimateand wouldadmitthatthemagnitudeofnoothercityinthewholeworldcould becomparedtoit[i.e.toRome]’.19

ForPlinyandtheMarblePlan,thepowerofRomeliesinitscapacityto spreadonwardsandupwards,todominatethelandscape,theworldeven–imperialexpansionasexpansivenessandorder.Itisanimageofdominion whichisofapiecewithRomanexpertiseinroadbuildingandincontrollingwater(whetherinbringingfundamentalsuppliesalongaqueductsor exploitingitssoundandreflectionstoenlivenagrottoorvilla-garden). Anditisverymuchanimperialvision,whichcanpotentiallyaccommodate similar fora,amphitheatresandbathhousesspringingupthroughoutthe provinces.Thesestructuresareanobviouspartofwhatmadesettlements Roman.ButwhatofRome’snaturallandscape–therusticRomeofEvanderthatthesetechnologiesadapted;thegeologythatmadethispartofItaly perfectforacityinthefirstplace?Whatofthesevenhillsandthevalleys betweenthem?TheTiberistheonlynaturalfeaturetoberepresentedon theMarblePlan,andthis,agapornegativearealeftbythebuildings.

TheMarblePlan’sdecisionnottorepresentthehillsdoesnotmilitate againsttheirimportanceasanimageofRomeinantiquity.Asweshall discover,public,anditseemsprivate,artwasreticentaboutrepresenting precisegeographicalfeatures,20 preferringtopersonifyRomeanditselements,forexample,theTiberandtheCampusMartius(seeFigure5.6on p.128).21 Morethanthis,depictionsof conquered citieswereparticularly favoured.Noneofthisdetractsfromtheprolificpresenceofthesevenhills inLatinpoetry,orfromtheirprominenceinRome’sreceptionhistory.If anything,itbetterexplainstheirfunction–notasterritorybutasconcept, andonewhichexceededthecertaintiesoftheAugustanorFlavianlandscape,thephysicalappearanceofthecitysuchasonewouldplotbytracing itswallormeasuringitsbuildings.If‘thesevenhills’didreferencereal Romaewasanartefactofthecapital’spictorialinconceivability.’Formorecompendious coverage,seeRodr´ıguez-Almeida 1981 and,forabroadercontext, 2002,withthereviewby NajbjergandTrimble 2004,aswellastheStanfordDigital FormaUrbis Project (http://formaurbis.stanford.edu/),andthesurveyonthescholarshipbyNajbjergandTrimble 2005

19 Plin. HN 3.67:‘quodsiquisaltitudinemtectorumaddat,dignamprofectoaestimationem concipiatfateaturquenulliusurbismagnitudinemintotoorbepotuisseeicomparari’.

20 ForimagesofcitiesinRomanpainting,seePappalardoandCapuano 2006,andGoodman 2007:28–36.

21 LIMCs.v.‘CampusMartius’and‘Tiberis,Tiberinus’.

Martius

topography,itwasthatofthesixth-centuryBCEcity,containedwithinthe wallattributedtotheearlyking,ServiusTullius.Andweshallbepursuing thispossibilityinmoredetaillater.But,forallthatthecanonicalseven–the Aventine,Caelian,Capitoline,Esquiline,Palatine,QuirinalandViminal,as itturnsout–wereincludedinitscircumference,Serviusandhisurban reformsareaslegendaryasDurham’smilkmaid(Figure1.4).

Whenin7BCEthefirstemperor,Augustus,tookthesprawlingmetropolis bythescruffoftheneck,organizingitintofourteenregionswhichformally recognizedtheextra-muralsettlementaspartofRome,theServiancitywas officiallyengulfed.22 TheCampusMartius,thelow-lyingplaininthebendof theriverbeyondthewalls,waskeytothisdevelopment.GreekauthorStrabo, writingunderAugustus,observes:‘forthesizeoftheCampusMartiusis wondrous’.Suchistheintensityofthebuildingstherethat‘theyseemto

22 SeeSablayrolles 1981,Fr ´ ezouls 1987,Coarelli 1988,Favro 2005 andHaselberger 2007.

Figure1.4 Thecanonicalsevenhillsinsidethe‘Servian’andAurelianicwall.

rendertherestofthecityincidental’.23 Thefocusofurbanactivityhad shifted.Fromthismoment,ifnotbefore,Rome’sstatusasacityofseven hillswassymbolic.

Giventhissymbolism,whatreasonwasthereforRome’sreluctanceto personifyitshills–especiallywhentheCampusMartiuswasbodiedforth asastrongyoungmanandtheTiberdepictedasareclining,beardedmale? ThehillsofotherlocalitieswerepersonifiedinGreekliteraturefromthe fifthcenturyBCEandaresometimesseeninthevisualrecord.24 ForRome, though,itisthesenseof seven hillsthatiscrucial.Asisthecasewith eachoftheporphyry‘tetrarchs’thatnowgracethesea-facingcornerof thesouthfac¸adeoftheBasilicaofSanMarcoinVenice(Figure1.5),to givethehillsindividualized,charismaticbodieswouldhavebeentoarm themwithsufficientmighttocompetewithoneanotherforsupremacy.25 Jostlingforpositionintheliteraryrecordisonething–itreinforcesthe canonbymakingcohesionandmembershipsomethingworthcontesting. Butvisually,thiscompetitionrisksfracturingthecanon’sunity:itgiveseach memberattributeswhichrefertospecificdivinities,landmarks,legendary rivalries.EvenafterRome’searlyhilltopsettlementshadcometogether asonecommunity,hillshadtheirownidentities,withtheAventine,for example,associatedinthefifthcenturyBCEwiththe plebs,orpoorest inhabitants,intheirconflictwiththepatricians.26 Personificationwould givethesehillscharactertraits,theirownrelationshiptotheriverandplace inhistory.Collectively,theycouldbemoreamorphous,a-temporal,before timeeven.TheycouldbringtheRomeofAugustusandheirsintodialogue withtheRomesofServiusTulliusandofmythicalfounder,Romulus.

Thechaptersthatfollowtraceexactlyhowthisdialoguedevelops.Under Augustusalready,theideaofthesevenhillsenabledthecitytoenjoyan establishedidentity,aspacetooccupywhichtranscendedthechangesthat werehappeningontheground.Inevitably,ongoingurbandevelopment, includingtheremovaloflargemoundsofearthtomakewayforbuildings, andraisedgroundlevelselsewhereinRomeledtofurtherchangesinthe physicalfabric,whichmadetherelationshipof‘thesevenhills’totheland morepressing.Itishardlysurprisingthatbylateantiquity,withOldSaint Peter’srivallingtheCapitolineasRome’snucleus,thehillstothewestof theriveroftenappearinthecanon:forexample,theappendicestothe lateantiqueregionarycatalogues,the Curiosum and Notitia,substitutethe

VaticanandJaniculumhillsfortheQuirinalandViminal.27 Eventhen,the celebrationofthesevenhillsinliteratureaffirmsthecurrencyoftheconcept.

Theitinerary

Romeisitssevenhillsinwaysinwhichitisnotitswall,theColosseumor Capitol.Chapter 2 illustrateswhythisisso,givingussomethingofasurvey ofitssevenhillsasanideaandunpackingtheextenttowhichthisideadoes

Figure1.5 The‘tetrarchs’,StMark’sSquare,Venice.

anddoesnotfitthecity’schanginglandscape.Exposingthisdivergence provesausefulstartingpoint.Today,tobea‘cityofsevenhills’isaclich ´ eas applicabletoDurhamandKampalaastoRome.Butwhatisattherootofthis borrowing?IarguethatthoughJerusalemandBabylonarealsoancientcities renownedfortheirsevensummits,Romeistheoriginalofthisstereotype. WhatpriorassumptionsaboutRomedothesevenhillscarrywiththemand wheredothesecomefrom?Theanswerstothesequestionsrevealthatbeing acityofsevenhillswasaclich ´ einantiquityalready,andthatauthorsthen werealmostasunsureofprecisemembershipaswearetoday.Notthatthis makesthesevenhillsmeaningless.Rather,theirimportliesintheircapacity togivecontourstothepalimpsestthatisRome,definingtheterritoryof thecitywhileatthesametimeturningthiscityintoanabstractideawhich risesaboveitslinkstotheland.Foreachnewpoliticianorpoetwantingto maketheirmarkthere,andforthosewholiveoutsideit,‘thesevenhills’ gaveasenseofcontinuitytowhatitwastheywereexperiencing.Thesehills createdatemplateforcomparingRome,past,presentandfuture,andfor committingthisplacetopaper.Inthisway,theglorythatwastheancient cityismadeforeverreproducible.

IfChapter 2 presentstheendpointoroveruseof‘thesevenhills’concept, Chapters 3 and 4 setoutinsearchofitsoriginsandoriginaleffectiveness.I amnotthefirsttodothis.Backinthe1970sRemoGelsominocutaswathe throughaseriesofargumentsandcounter-argumentsabouttheminutiaeof membership,whenheclaimedthatlateRepublicanauthorMarcusTerentius Varro(116–27BCE),whoseobsessionwiththenumbersevenisattested throughouthisoeuvre,inventedthecanon.Uptothatpoint,accordingto Gelsomino,therewasnocanon,onlycommunities,whichscholarshave mistakenlyassociatedwithseven‘hills’.This‘error’andcorrectionofthis ‘error’hingeson‘Septimontium’,thenameofafestivalinwhichthese communitieshadlongtakenpart.28 Morerecently,archaeologistAndrea Carandinihasre-establishedthelinkbetween‘Septimontium’andtheland, tyingtheword,andVarro’setymologyofit,backtoRome’srealpeaksand troughsandtoearlierphasesofthecity’sdevelopment.29

Theclaimsonbothsidesareascomplexastheyarebold.Attractive asGelsomino’sideais,myconcerninChapter 3 islesstocreditVarro, oranyoneelse,with‘aninventionoftradition’30 thantounderstandwhy

28 Gelsomino 1975, 1976aand 1976b.

29 Carandini 1997:269:‘L’insediamentodelSeptimontiumprendenomedall’insiemedeimonti chelocompongono...Imontinoneranoinfattisospesiinaria...’(‘Thesettlementofthe Septimontiumtakesitsnamefromallofthe montes ofwhichitconsists...the montes werenot infactsuspendedinair...’).

30 SeminalhereisHobsbawmandRanger 1983.

sevenandwhythen,whentheRepublicwasonitslastlegsandautocracy waslooming.VarroandhisfriendCiceropresageaninvestmentinRomeas acityofsevenhillsbyAugustanpoetsHorace,Ovid,Propertius,Tibullus andVirgil,whichrequiresustothinkhardabouthowtheideafitswith theurbanreformsofthePrinceps.WhetherornotServianandpre-Servian Romehadsevenhills,whydidthatnumbersoundsosweetnow?Whatdoes popularityofthesevenhillsrevealabouthowtheRomansregardedAugustus and,morebroadly,conceptualizedthecurrentcityanditsrelationshipto previousincarnations?AllRomesarerelative.Varrohimselfrecognizesthis: hisistheearliestextantworktolinktheconceptofthesevenhillswiththe ancientfestivalofthe‘Septimontium’,withRome’srealterrain.Ratherthan inventing theconcept,itseemsthatVarrotooisattemptingtounderstand howtheRomansgotthere.

VarroandtheAugustanpoetssettheballrolling.DomenicoPalombi hasrecentlysummarizedtheevidenceforthepartthat‘thesevenhills’and theTiberplayedintheupdatingoftheurbanimaginationengenderedby Augustus’adornmentofthecity.31 Chapter 4 buildsonhissurvey,reading thispoetrycloselysoastoexplicateexactlywhatitdoestothelandscape, bringingthecityoffourteenregionsintoalignmentwiththeServiancity ofsevenhillstorewriteinnovationasre-foundation.Asweread,webegin tounpicktheprocessbywhichtheServiancitybecomesthe‘citysethigh onsevenhillswhichpresidesoverthewholeworld’,32 acitywhichremains distinctfromthesatellitecitiesofitsEmpire,yetacitywhichspeaksnot onlyofitselfbutofurbanaspirationseverywhere.Whilescholarssuch asPaulZanker,DianeFavroandLotharHaselbergerhavedonemuchto understandtheimpactofAugustanreformsonthecityandontheway thatitsinhabitantsexperiencedthecity,33 theabstractioninnateinthehills’ clich ´ emakesiteasierforustolookforwardsaswellasback,puttingpressure ontheextenttowhichthisexperience,alongwiththedescriptionitelicited, waspeculiarlyAugustan.IntheDomitianicperiodandinthefourthand fifthcenturies,poetscelebratedRome’ssevenhillswithrenewedvigour. BythetimewhentheChristianpoetPaulinusofPellawaswriting,the Aurelianicwallswerecomplete.Butheenvisagesthesewalls‘ontheworld’s heights(culminibus)’,‘culmina’beingusedofthesevenhillsbytheFlavian poetStatius.34

31 Palombi 2006.

32 Prop.3.11.57:‘septemurbsaltaiugis,totoquaepraesidetorbi’.

33 P.Zanker 1987,Favro 1996 andHaselberger 2007

34 PaulinusofPella, Eucharisticos 36–7:‘visurusetorbis | inclitaculminibuspraeclaraemoenia Romae’andStat. Silv.1.5.23.

Paulinus’RomeisadifferentworldfromthatofVirgil;andnotjustin termsofitsphysicalappearance,butintermsofitscentrality,domination andinfluence.ConstantinetheGreat’sdecisiontofoundanewcity,Constantinople,a‘secondRome’,onthesiteofByzantiumin324CE,pushedthe centreofpowereastwards.35 TheemperorswerenolongerbasedinRome. Thosewhodidvisitweretourists.SuchdistanceandthedemiseinRome’s fortunesintensifiedthesenseinwhich‘theeternalcity’wasanimaginary city,onewhoseauthoritylaynotinwhatitwasbutinwhatitstoodfor.The conceptof‘thesevenhills’enabledpoetstoputtheserareimperialvisits, andtheRomethattheycameintocontactwith,onequal,oratleastcomparable,footingwiththeRomeoftheFlavians,Julio-Claudians,andearly kingsofthemythologicalpast.ThefigureofRoma,personified,isimagined asoldandgrey,butshestillhasthehillstosupporther.36 Thefinalthirdof Chapter 4 examineswhatkindofcontinuumthisis.Alltoooftenmodern scholarshipreducestherelationshipbetweenlateantiquepanegyricand earlierpoetrytoliteraryallusion.Thehillsfleshoutthisrelationshipby highlightingwhatClaudianandhiscontemporariesdo–nottoVirgilor Statius,buttoRomeasacity,andmodelforothercities.Intheirhands,it isnotjustRome’sstatusasacityofsevenhillsthatissymbolic,butRome itself,asitssupremacyshiftsfromrealtonotional.

TheRenaissancecodifiedRome’sculturalcapital.Thesixteenthcentury wasthefirsttime,asfaraswecantell,thatanyonewascomfortablein makingthecanonmorethanapoeticconceitor,differentagain,alistof names,andinrepresentingeachandeverymembervisually.Uptothis point,visualizationofthesevenhillsandoftheRome(s)theypiecetogether hadbeeninthehandsofthereader.Nowimaginationwasconfronted withconcreteimageswhichintrudeduponthisspace,as–followingin Varro’sfootsteps–artistsandantiquariansattemptedtounderstandhowthe conceptmappedontotherealterrain.Itnolongermatteredifthecitywere atomizedintheprocess:ancientRomewasaforeigncountrytobemined forvaluablefragments.Chapter 5 concentratesmostofitsattentionontwo suchvisualdepictions–thefirstofthemasetofsixteenth-centuryfrescoes, andthesecondaseriesofengravingsmadeinthenineteenthcenturyas antiquarianismcededtoarchaeologyandgrandteleologicalnarratives–to examinethedifferentwaysinwhichtheirartistspayhomagetotheseven hills,andwhattheseartisticchoicesrevealabouttherelationshipofthe ancientandmoderncity.Neitheroftheseendeavourswasaboutrefining

36