About the Authors xiv Expert Consultants xvi Preface xxi
SECTION 1 THE NATURE OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT 1
CHAPTER 1
Introduction 2
1 Caring for Children 4 Improving the Lives of Children 4
CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Gustavo Medrano, Clinical Psychologist 5 Resilience, Social Policy, and Children’s Development 6
CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Gender, Families, and Children’s Development 7
2 Developmental Processes, Periods, and Issues 10
Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes 10 Periods of Development 11 Cohort Effects 12 Issues in Development 13
3 The Science of Child Development 15 The Importance of Research 15 Theories of Child Development 16
CARING CONNECTIONS Strategies for Parenting, Educating, and Interacting with Children Based on Erikson’s Theory 18 Research Methods for Collecting Data 25 Research Designs 28
CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH Where is Child Development Research Published? 32 Challenges in Child Development Research 33
CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Pam Reid, Educational and Developmental Psychologist 34
Reach Your Learning Goals 36
APPENDIX Careers in Child Development 39
SECTION 2 BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES, PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT, AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT 42
MedicalRF.com/Getty Images
CHAPTER 2 Biological Beginnings 43
1 The Evolutionary Perspective 45 Natural Selection and Adaptive Behavior 45 Evolutionary Psychology 45
2 Genetic Foundations of Development 48 The Collaborative Gene 48 Genes and Chromosomes 50 Genetic Principles 51
Chromosomal and Gene-Linked Abnormalities 52
CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Holly Ishmael, Genetic Counselor 55
3 Reproductive Challenges and Choices 56 Prenatal Diagnostic Tests 56 Infertility and Reproductive Technology 57
CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH Do Children Conceived Through in Vitro Fertilization Show Significantly Different Developmental Outcomes in Childhood and Adolescence? 58
CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY The Increased Diversity of Adopted Children and Adoptive Parents 59 Adoption 59
CARING CONNECTIONS Parenting Adopted Children 60
Ariel Skelley/Blend Images LLC
4 Heredity and Environment Interaction: Nature and Nurture 61
Behavior Genetics 61
Heredity-Environment Correlations 62
Shared and Nonshared Environmental Experiences 63
The Epigenetic View and Gene × Environment (G × E) Interaction 64
Conclusions About Heredity-Environment Interaction 65
Reach Your Learning Goals 66
CHAPTER 3
Prenatal Development and Birth
68
1 Prenatal Development 70
The Course of Prenatal Development 70 Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development 74
Prenatal Care 80
Normal Prenatal Development 81
2 Birth 82
The Birth Process 82
CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Linda Pugh, Perinatal Nurse 84
CARING CONNECTIONS From Waterbirth to Music Therapy 85
Assessing the Newborn 86
Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants 87
CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY CrossCultural Variations in the Incidence and Causes of Low Birth Weight 88
CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH How Does Massage Therapy Affect the Mood and Behavior of Babies? 89
3 The Postpartum Period 90
Physical Adjustments 91
Emotional and Psychological Adjustments 91
CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Diane Sanford, Clinical Psychologist and Postpartum Expert 92 Bonding 93
Reach Your Learning Goals 94
CHAPTER 4
Physical Development and Health
96
1 Body Growth and Change 98
Patterns of Growth 98 Infancy and Childhood 99 Adolescence 100
2 The Brain 104
The Neuroconstructivist View 104
Brain Physiology 104
Infancy 106
Childhood 109
Adolescence 110
3 Sleep 111
Infancy 111
Childhood 113
Adolescence 114
4 Health 115
Illness and Injuries Among Children 116
Nutrition and Eating Behavior 118
CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY The Stories of Latonya and Ramona: Breast and Bottle Feeding in Africa 121
CARING CONNECTIONS Improving the Nutrition of Infants and Young Children Living in Low-Income Families 122
CONNECTING WITH CAREERS T. Berry Brazelton, Pediatrician 123
CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Faize Mustafa-Infante, Pediatrician 125 Exercise 125
CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH Are Preschool Children Getting Enough Physical Activity? 126
Reach Your Learning Goals 128
CHAPTER 5
Motor, Sensory, and Perceptual Development 131
1 Motor Development 133 The Dynamic Systems View 133 Reflexes 134
Gross Motor Skills 135
CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Cultural Variations in Guiding Infants’ Motor Development 139
CARING CONNECTIONS Parents, Coaches, and Children’s Sports 140 Fine Motor Skills 141
2 Sensory and Perceptual Development 143 What are Sensation and Perception? 143 The Ecological View 143
CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH How Can We Study Newborns’ Perception? 144
Visual Perception 146
Other Senses 149
Intermodal Perception 151
Nature, Nurture, and Perceptual Development 152
3 Perceptual-Motor Coupling 154
Reach Your Learning Goals 155
SECTION 3 COGNITION AND LANGUAGE 157
CHAPTER 6
Cognitive Developmental Approaches 158
1 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 160 Processes of Development 160 Sensorimotor Stage 161
CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH How Do Researchers Determine Infants’ Understanding of Object Permanence and Causality? 165
Piaget and Education 173 Evaluating Piaget’s Theory 174
3 Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development 176 The Zone of Proximal Development 176 Scaffolding 176
CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Guided Participation and Cultural Contexts 177 Language and Thought 177 Teaching Strategies 178
CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Donene Polson, Elementary School Teacher 179 Evaluating Vygotsky’s Theory 179
CARING CONNECTIONS Tools of the Mind 180
Reach Your Learning Goals 182
CHAPTER 7
Information Processing 184
1 The Information-Processing Approach 186 The Information-Processing Approach to Development 186 Cognitive Resources: Capacity and Speed of Processing Information 186 Mechanisms of Change 187 Comparisons with Piaget’s Theory 188
2 Attention 189 What is Attention? 189 Infancy 190 Childhood 191 Adolescence 193
3 Memory 194 What is Memory? 194 Infancy 196
CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Culture and Children’s Memory 197
Childhood 198
Adolescence 201
4 Thinking 202 What is Thinking? 202 Infancy 202
Childhood 203
CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Helen Hadani, Developmental Psychologist, Toy Designer, and Research Practitioner 206 Adolescence 208
CARING CONNECTIONS Helping Children Learn Strategies 209
5 Metacognition 212 What is Metacognition? 212
The Child’s Theory of Mind 212
CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH How Does Theory of Mind Differ in Children with Autism? 214
Metacognition in Childhood 215 Metacognition in Adolescence 215
Reach Your Learning Goals 217
CHAPTER 8 Intelligence 220
1 The Concept of Intelligence 222 What is Intelligence? 222 Intelligence Tests 222 Theories of Multiple Intelligences 224 The Neuroscience of Intelligence 227 The Influence of Heredity and Environment 228
CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH The Abecedarian Project 230 Group Comparisons 230
CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Why Is It So Hard to Create Culture-Fair Tests? 231
2 The Development of Intelligence 232 Tests of Infant Intelligence 232
CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Toosje Thyssen Van Beveren, Infant Assessment Specialist 233
Stability and Change in Intelligence Through Adolescence 234
3 The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity 234
Intellectual Disability 235 Giftedness 235
CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Sterling Jones, Supervisor of Gifted and Talented Education 237
What Is Identity? 318 Erikson’s View 319 Developmental Changes 319 Social Contexts 322
CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Armando Ronquillo, High School Counselor 325
CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY The Contexts of Ethnic Identity Development 325
Reach Your Learning Goals 326
Ariel Skelley/Blend Images/Getty Images
CHAPTER 12 Gender 328
1 What Is Gender? 330
2 Influences on Gender Development 331
Biological Influences 331
Social Influences 332
CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH
How Do Young Children Use Gender Schemas to Make Judgments About Occupations? 336
Cognitive Influences 336
3 Gender Stereotypes, Similarities, and Differences 337
Gender Stereotyping 337
Gender Similarities and Differences 338
CARING CONNECTIONS Guiding Children’s Gender Development 343
4 Gender-Role Classification 344 What Is Gender-Role Classification? 344
Gender Identity in Childhood and Adolescence 344
Gender-Role Transcendence 345
Gender in Context 345
CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Gender Roles Across Cultures 346
Reach Your Learning Goals 347
CHAPTER 13
Moral Development 349
1 Domains of Moral Development 351 What Is Moral Development? 351
Moral Thought 352
CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Moral Reasoning in the United States and India 357
Moral Behavior 358
Moral Feeling 359
Moral Personality 360
Social-Cognitive Domain Theory 361
2 Contexts of Moral Development 362
Parenting 363
CARING CONNECTIONS Parenting Recommendations for Raising a Moral Child 364
Schools 364
3 Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior 367
Prosocial Behavior 368 Antisocial Behavior 369
CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Rodney Hammond, Health Psychologist 372
CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH Can Intervention in Childhood Reduce Delinquency in Adolescence? 373
4 Religious and Spiritual Development 374
Childhood 374
Adolescence 375
Reach Your Learning Goals 376
SECTION 5 SOCIAL CONTEXTS OF DEVELOPMENT 379
CHAPTER 14 Families 380
1 Family Processes 382
Interactions in the Family System 382
Cognition and Emotion in Family Processes 383
Multiple Developmental Trajectories 384
Domain-Specific Socialization 384
Sociocultural and Historical Changes 385
2 Parenting 386
Parental Roles and the Timing of Parenthood 387
Adapting Parenting to Developmental Changes in Children 387
Parents as Managers of Children’s Lives 389
CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Janis Keyser, Parent Educator 390 Parenting Styles and Discipline 391
CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH
Do Marital Conflict and Individual Hostility Predict the Use of Physical Punishment in Parenting? 394
CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Darla Botkin, Marriage and Family Therapist 395 Parent-Adolescent Relationships 397
Intergenerational Relationships 399
3 Siblings 400
Sibling Relationships 400
Birth Order 402
4 The Changing Family in a Changing Social World 403
Working Parents 403
Children in Divorced Families 404
Stepfamilies 406
CARING CONNECTIONS Communicating with Children About Divorce 407
Gay and Lesbian Parents 408
Cultural, Ethnic, and Socioeconomic Variations in Families 409
CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Acculturation and Ethnic Minority Parenting 411
Reach Your Learning Goals 412
CHAPTER 15 Peers 415
1 Peer Relations 417
Exploring Peer Relations 417
The Developmental Course of Peer Relations in Childhood 418
CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY CrossCultural Comparisons of Peer Relations 419
The Distinct but Coordinated Worlds of ParentChild and Peer Relations 420
Social Cognition and Emotion 420 Peer Statuses 422
Bullying 423
CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH
What Are the Perspective Taking and Moral Motivation of Bullies, Bully-Victims, Victims, and Prosocial Children? 425
2 Play 426
Play’s Functions 426
Types of Play 427 Trends in Play 429
3 Friendship 430 Friendship’s Functions 430 Similarity and Intimacy 431
CARING CONNECTIONS Making Friends 431
Gender and Friendship 432 Mixed-Age Friendships 433 Other-Sex Friendships 433
4 Peer Relations in Adolescence 434
Peer Pressure and Conformity 434
Cliques and Crowds 434
Romantic Relationships 435
Reach Your Learning Goals 438
CHAPTER 16
Schools and Achievement 441
1 Exploring Children’s Schooling 443
Contemporary Approaches to Student Learning and Assessment 443
Early Childhood Education 445
CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Yolanda Garcia, Director of Children’s Services/ Head Start 448
Elementary School 449
Educating Adolescents 449
CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY Early Childhood Education in Japan and Developing Countries 450
CARING CONNECTIONS “I Have a Dream” 453
Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity 454
CONNECTING WITH CAREERS James Comer, Child Psychiatrist 456
2 Children with Disabilities 457
The Scope of Disabilities 457
Educational Issues 460
3 Achievement 462
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation 462
Cognitive Processes 463
Ethnicity and Culture 468
CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH
What Are Some Factors that Influence Children’s Math Achievement in Different Countries? 469
Reach Your Learning Goals 470
CHAPTER 17
Culture and Diversity 473
1 Culture and Children’s Development 475
The Relevance of Culture to the Study of Children 475
Cross-Cultural Comparisons 475
2 Socioeconomic Status and Poverty 478
What Is Socioeconomic Status? 478
Socioeconomic Variations in Families, Neighborhoods, and Schools 478
Poverty 479
CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH
What Risks Are Experienced by Children Living in Poverty? 481
CARING CONNECTIONS The Quantum Opportunities Program 482
3 Ethnicity 483
Immigration 483
CONNECTING WITH CAREERS Carola Suárez-Orozco, Immigration Studies Researcher and Professor 485
Ethnicity and Socioeconomic Status 485
Differences and Diversity 486
Prejudice and Discrimination 487
CONNECTING WITH DIVERSITY The United States and Canada: Nations with Many Cultures 488
4 Technology 489
Media Use and Screen Time 489
Television and Electronic Media 490
Digital Devices and the Internet 492
Reach Your Learning Goals 494
Glossary G1
References R1
Name Index NI1
Subject Index SI1
® McGraw-Hill Education
Psychology APA Documentation Style Guide
about the authors
John W. Santrock
John Santrock received his Ph.D. from the University of Minnesota in 1973. He taught at the University of Charleston and the University of Georgia before joining the program in Psychology in the School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences at the University of Texas at Dallas, where he currently teaches a number of undergraduate courses and has received the University’s Effective Teaching Award.
Courtesy
Kain Gentsch,
John has been a member of the editorial boards of Child Development and Developmental Psychology. His research on father custody is widely cited and used in expert witness testimony to promote flexibility and alternative considerations in custody disputes. He also has conducted research on children’s self-control. John has authored these exceptional McGraw-Hill texts: Psychology (7th edition), Children (14th edition), Adolescence (17th edition), Life-Span Development (17th edition), A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development (10th edition), and Educational Psychology (6th edition).
For many years, John was involved in tennis as a player, teaching professional, and a coach of professional tennis players. As an undergraduate, he was a member of the University of Miami (FL) tennis team that still holds the record for most consecutive wins (137) in any NCAA Division I sport. John has been married for four decades to his wife, Mary Jo, who created and directed the first middle school program for children with learning disabilities and behavioral disorders in the Clarke County Schools in Athens, Georgia, when she was a professor at the University of Georgia. More recently, Mary Jo has worked as a Realtor. He has two daughters—Tracy and Jennifer—both of whom are Realtors after long careers in technology marketing and medical sales, respectively. In 2016, Jennifer became only the fifth female to have been inducted into the SMU Sports Hall of Fame. He has one granddaughter, Jordan, age 25, who completed her master’s degree from the Cox School of Business at SMU and currently works for Ernst & Young, and two grandsons— the Belluci brothers: Alex, age 14, and Luke, age 13. In the last decade, John also has spent time painting expressionist art.
John Santrock (back row middle) with recipients of the Santrock Travel Scholarship Award in developmental psychology. Created by Dr. Santrock, this annual award provides undergraduate students with the opportunity to attend a professional meeting. A number of the students shown here attended the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development.
of Joanna
Ph.D.
Kirby Deater-Deckard
Kirby Deater-Deckard is a Professor in the Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, where he serves as graduate program leader in developmental science, and neuroscience and behavior. He also is a Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science and director of the Healthy Development Initiative in Springfield, Massachusetts. He earned his Ph.D. in Developmental Psychology from the University of Virginia in 1994. Dr. Deater-Deckard has authored more than 200 publications that focus on the biological and environmental influences in the development of individual differences in social-emotional and cognitive outcomes in childhood and adolescence. The emphasis of his recent work is on parenting and inter-generational transmission of self-regulation (e.g., executive function, emotion regulation) that uses behavioral, cognitive neuroscience, and genetic research methods. He is principal or co-investigator on several longitudinal studies funded by the National Institutes of Health and the US-Israel Binational Science Foundation. Dr. Deater-Deckard serves as a consulting investigator on several longitudinal research project teams around the globe and is a scientific review panelist for the Institute of Education Sciences (US Department of Education). He is co-editor of the book series, Frontiers in Developmental Science (Taylor & Francis), and serves on editorial boards for journals in developmental and family sciences. Dr. Deater-Deckard’s wife, Keirsten, is a community volunteer, and they have two daughters, Anna, age 22, and Elly, age 15.
Jennifer E. Lansford
Jennifer E. Lansford is a Research Professor at the Sanford School of Public Policy and Faculty Fellow of the Center for Child and Family Policy at Duke University. She earned her Ph.D. in Developmental Psychology from the University of Michigan in 2000. Dr. Lansford has authored more than 200 publications that focus on the development of aggression and other behavior problems during childhood and adolescence, with particular attention to how parent, peer, and cultural factors contribute to or protect against these problems. Dr. Lansford leads the Parenting Across Cultures Project, a longitudinal study of mothers, fathers, and children from nine countries (China, Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, Philippines, Sweden, Thailand, and the United States). In addition, Dr. Lansford has consulted for UNICEF on the evaluation of parenting programs in several low- and middle-income countries and on the development of a set of international standards for parenting programs. She serves in editorial roles on several academic journals and has served in a number of national and international leadership roles, including chairing the U.S. National Institutes of Health Psychosocial Development, Risk and Prevention Study Section; chairing the U.S. National Committee for Psychological Science of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; chairing the Society for Research in Child Development International Affairs Committee; and serving on the Secretariat of the International Consortium for Developmental Science Societies. Dr. Lansford’s husband, Chris, is a surgeon who specializes in head and neck cancer. They have two children: Katherine, age 16, and Nick, age 13.
Courtesy of Michael McDermott
Courtesy of Erika Hanzely-Layko
expert consultants
Child development has become an enormous, complex field, and no single author, or even several authors, can possibly keep up with all of the rapidly changing content in the many different areas of child development. To solve this problem, the authors have sought the input of leading experts about content in a number of areas of child development. The experts provided detailed evaluations and recommendations in their area(s) of expertise. The following individuals are among those who served as expert consultants for one or more of the previous editions of this text:
Celia Brownell
Steven Ceci
Dante Cicchetti
Cynthia Garcia Coll
W. Andrew Collins
John Colombo
Tiffany Field
Mary Gauvain
Hill Goldsmith
Joan Grusec
Daniel Hart
Susan Harter
Nancy Hazen
Diane Hughes
Scott Johnson
Rachel Keen
Claire Kopp
Deanna Kuhn
Jeffrey Lachman
Debbie Laible
Michael Lamb
Michael Lewis
Catherine McBride
David Moore
Herb Pick
Carolyn Saarni
Dale Schunk
Robert Siegler
Janet Spence
Robert J. Sternberg
Ross Thompson
Lawrence Walker
Following are the biographies of the expert consultants for the fifteenth edition of this text, who (like the expert consultants for the previous editions) literally represent a Who’s Who in the field of child development.
John Colombo
John Colombo is a leading expert on cognitive development during infancy and early childhood. He obtained his Ph.D. in Psychology at the State University of New York at Buffalo, and held faculty positions at Canisius College, Niagara University, and Youngstown State University before moving to the University of Kansas in the early 1980s. He is currently a Professor of Psychology and Director of the Schiefelbusch Institute for Life Span Studies at the University of Kansas. His research interests focus on the developmental cognitive neuroscience of attention and learning, with a special focus on early individual differences in these areas and how they relate to the typical and atypical development of cognitive and intellectual functioning. Dr. Colombo is the author/editor of six books, more than 115 peerreviewed articles, and over 20 book chapters. He has also served on numerous editorial boards for journals in developmental psychology, including two terms as an associate editor for Child Development, and editor of the journal Infancy.
Rina Eiden
Rina D. Eiden is a leading expert on the development of children of substance-using parents. She obtained her Ph.D. from the University of Maryland and is currently Senior Research Scientist in the Department of Psychology, University at Buffalo, State University of New York. Her studies, many of which follow cohorts of children across multiple years, seek to understand the developmental mechanisms, such as infant-parent attachment, selfregulation, and individual differences in children’s autonomic and stress reactivity, which explain the association between parental risk factors and children’s developmental outcomes. Her work also examines the
developmental processes in children that promote resilience in the face of risk; implications of these issues for early intervention or prevention programs for at-risk children; and preventive interventions with substance-using parents. She has been an Associate Editor of Psychology of Addictive Behaviors and on the editorial boards of several major developmental and addiction journals. She is a Division 50 Fellow of the American Psychological Association. Dr. Eiden’s work has been published in leading research journals such as Child Development , Developmental Psychology, Developmental Psychobiology, Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, Nicotine and Tobacco Research, and Neurotoxicology and Teratology
James Graham James A. Graham is a leading expert on the community aspects of ethnicity, culture, and development. He obtained his undergraduate degree from Miami University and received masters and doctoral degrees in developmental psychology from the University of Memphis. Dr. Graham’s current position is Professor of Psychology, The College of New Jersey (TCNJ). His research addresses the social-cognitive aspects of relationships between group and dyadic levels across developmental periods in community-based settings. Three interdependent dimensions of his research program examine (1) populations that are typically understudied, conceptually limited, and methodologically constrained; (2) development of empathy and prosocial behavior with peer groups and friends; and (3) developmental science in the context of community-engaged research partnerships. Currently, he is Coordinator of the Developmental Specialization in Psychology at TCNJ. For a decade, Dr. Graham taught graduate courses in psychology and education in Johannesburg, South Africa, through TCNJ’s
Courtesy of John Colombo
Courtesy of Rina Eiden
Photo courtesy of Lauren H. Adams
Graduate Summer Global Program. He is the co-author of The African American Child: Development and Challenges (2nd ed.) and Children of Incarcerated Parents: Theoretical, Developmental, and Clinical Issues. Dr. Graham has presented his work at a variety of international and national conferences and has published articles in a wide range of journals, including Social Development , Child Study Journal , Behavior Modification , Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development , and American Journal of Evaluation .
Michael Lewis
Michael Lewis is widely recognized as one of the world’s leading experts on children’s socioemotional development. He currently is University Distinguished Professor of Pediatrics and Psychiatry, and Director of the Institute for the Study of Child Development, at Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School. Dr. Lewis also is Professor of Psychology, Education, Biomedical Engineering, and Social Work at Rutgers University, and serves on the Executive Committee of the Cognitive Science Center. He has written and edited more than 35 books including Social Cognition and the Acquisition of Self (1979), Children’s Emotions and Moods (1983), Handbook of Emotions (1993, 2000, 2008, 2016), which was awarded the 1995 Choice Magazine’s Outstanding Academic Book Award, Shame, The Exposed Self (1992), and Altering Fate: Why The Past Does Not Predict The Future (1997), which was a finalist for the 1998 Eleanor Maccoby Book Award. Dr. Lewis also edited The Cambridge Handbook of Environment in Human Development (2012), Gender Differences in Prenatal Substance Exposure (2012), and the third edition of the Handbook of Developmental Psychopathology (2014). His most recent book, The Rise of Consciousness and the Development of Emotional Life (Guilford Press, 2014), won the William James Book Award from the American Psychological Association. In addition, Dr. Lewis has had more than 350 articles and chapters published in professional journals and scholarly texts. Among his honors, Dr. Lewis is a Fellow of the New York Academy of Sciences, American Psychological Association, and the American Association of the Advancement of Science, as well as the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. Dr. Lewis received the 2009 Urie Bronfenbrenner Award for Lifetime Contribution to Developmental Psychology in the Service of Science and Society from the American Psychological Association, as well as the 2012 Hedi Levenback Pioneer Award from The New York Zero-to-Three Network.
The Society for Research in Child Development awarded him the 2013 Distinguished Scientific Contributions to Child Development award, in recognition of Professor Lewis’s lifetime contribution to the scientific body of knowledge and understanding of children’s development. In 2018, the International Congress of Infant Studies (ICIS) awarded Dr. Lewis an inaugural Distinguished Contribution Award.
Virginia Marchman Virginia Marchman is a leading expert on children’s language development. She currently is a Research Associate at the Stanford University Language Learning Laboratory. Dr. Marchman obtained her Ph.D. at the University of California—Berkeley. Her main research areas are language development, language disorders, and early childhood development. Dr. Marchman’s specific interests focus on individual differences in typically-developing and latetalking children, as well as lexical and grammatical development in monolingual and bilingual learners. Her studies have incorporated a variety of experimental methods as well as computational approaches and naturalistic observation. Dr. Marchman has worked extensively with the MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories (CDI), developing the CDI Scoring program and serving on the MacArthurBates CDI Advisory Board. She has been a consulting editor for Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, and Child Development. Dr. Marchman’s most recent work involves the development of real-time spoken language understanding using the “looking-while-listening” task in typically-developing and at-risk children. Current studies explore links between children’s language processing skill, early learning environments, and individual differences in monolingual and bilingual English-Spanish learners from diverse backgrounds.
Karl Rosengren Karl S. Rosengren is an expert on children’s cognitive and motor development. He obtained his Ph.D. from the Institute of Child Development at the University of Minnesota. He is currently a professor in the Brain and Cognitive Sciences Department and the Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology at the University of Rochester, having previously been a professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, the University of Michigan, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and Northwestern University. In the area of cognitive development, his research focuses on how children learn about events in the world and how they separate fantasy from reality. His most recent work in this area has focused on children’s understanding of death and how parents in the United States and Mexico socialize children with respect to death. In the area of motor development, his research has focused on the development of balance and gait, as well as the development of children’s drawing. Dr. Rosengren is a Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science. He has edited two books and is a co-author of a research methods textbook. Dr. Rosengren has published over 100 research articles and his work has been published in leading research journals, such as Child Development, Psychological Science, and Science.
Courtesy of Stacey Napoli
Courtesy of Craig T. Salling
Courtesy of Karl Rosengren
Connecting Research and Results
Child Development connects current research and real-world applications. Through an integrated, personalized digital learning program, students gain the insight they need to study smarter and improve performance.
McGraw-Hill Education’s Connect is a digital assignment and assessment platform that strengthens the link between faculty, students, and course work, helping everyone accomplish more in less time. Connect for Child Development includes assignable and assessable videos, quizzes, exercises, and interactivities, all associated with learning objectives. Interactive assignments and videos allow students to experience and apply their understanding of psychology to the world with fun and stimulating activities.
Real People, Real World, Real Life
At the higher end of Bloom’s taxonomy (analyze, evaluate, create), the McGraw-Hill Education Milestones video series is an observational tool that allows students to experience life as it unfolds, from infancy to emerging adulthood. This ground-breaking, longitudinal video series tracks the development of real children as they progress through the early stages of physical, social, and emotional development in their first few weeks, months, and years of life. Assignable and assessable within Connect for Child Development, Milestones also includes interviews with adolescents and adults to reflect development throughout the entire life span.
Apply Concepts and Theory in an Experiential Learning Environment
An engaging and innovative learning game, Quest: Journey through Childhood provides students with opportunities to apply content from their human development curriculum to real-life scenarios. Students play unique characters who range in age and make decisions that apply key concepts and theories for each age as they negotiate events in an array of authentic environments. Additionally, as students analyze real-world behaviors and contexts, they are exposed to different cultures and intersecting biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes. Each quest has layered replayability, allowing students to make new choices each time they play--or offering different students in the same class different experiences. Fresh possibilities and outcomes shine light on the complexity of and variations in real human development. This new experiential learning game includes follow-up questions, assignable in Connect and auto-graded, to reach a higher level of critical thinking.
Inform and Engage on Psychological Concepts
At the lower end of Bloom’s taxonomy, students are introduced to Concept Clips—the dynamic, colorful graphics and stimulating animations that break down some of psychology’s most difficult concepts in a step-bystep manner, engaging students and aiding in retention. They are assignable and assessable in Connect or can be used as a jumping-off point in class. Accompanied by audio narration, Concept Clips cover topics such as object permanence and conservation, as well as theories and theorists like Bandura’s social cognitive theory, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, Buss’s evolutionary theory, and Kuhl’s language development theory.
Prepare Students for Higher-Level Thinking
Also at the higher end of Bloom’s taxonomy, Power of Process for Psychology helps students improve critical thinking skills and allows instructors to assess these skills efficiently and effectively in an online environment. Available through Connect, pre-loaded journal articles are available for instructors to assign. Using a scaffolded framework such as understanding, synthesizing, and analyzing, Power of Process moves students toward higher-level thinking and analysis.
Powerful Reporting
Whether a class is face-to-face, hybrid, or entirely online, Connect for Child Development provides tools and analytics to reduce the amount of time instructors need to administer their courses. Easy-to-use course management tools allow instructors to spend less time administering and more time teaching, while easy-to-use reporting features allow students to monitor their progress and optimize their study time.
• Connect Insight is a one-of-a-kind visual analytics dashboard—available for both instructors and students—that provides at-a-glance information regarding student performance.
• The At-Risk Student Report provides instructors with one-click access to a dashboard that identifies students who are at risk of dropping out of the course due to low engagement levels.
• The Category Analysis Report details student performance relative to specific learning objectives and goals, including APA outcomes and levels of Bloom’s taxonomy.
Better Data, Smarter Revision, Improved Results
McGraw-Hill Education’s SmartBook helps students distinguish the concepts they know from the concepts they don’t, while pinpointing the concepts they are about to forget. SmartBook’s real-time reports help both students and instructors identify the concepts that require more attention, making study sessions and class time more efficient.
SmartBook is optimized for mobile and tablet use and is accessible for students with disabilities. Content-wise, measurable and observable learning objectives help improve student outcomes. SmartBook personalizes learning to individual student needs, continually adapting to pinpoint knowledge gaps and focus learning on topics that need the most attention. Study time is more productive and, as a result, students are better prepared for class and coursework. For instructors, SmartBook tracks student progress and provides insights that can help guide teaching strategies.
Online Instructor Resources
The resources listed here accompany Child Development, Fifteenth Edition. Please contact your McGraw-Hill representative for details concerning the availability of these and other valuable materials that can help you design and enhance your course.
Instructor’s Manual Broken down by chapter, this resource provides chapter outlines, suggested lecture topics, classroom activities and demonstrations, suggested student research projects, essay questions, and critical thinking questions.
Test Bank and Computerized Test Bank This comprehensive Test Bank includes more than 1,500 multiple-choice and approximately 75 essay questions. Organized by chapter, the questions are designed to test factual, applied, and conceptual understanding.
Test Builder New to this edition and available within Connect, Test Builder is a cloudbased tool that enables instructors to format tests that can be printed or administered within a Learning Management System. Test Builder offers a modern, streamlined interface for easy content configuration that matches course needs, without requiring a download.
Test Builder enables instructors to:
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preface
Making Connections . . . From the Classroom to Child Development to You
The material in Child Development has been shaped by thousands of students taking countless undergraduate developmental courses across four decades. These students have consistently said that when instructors highlight the connections among the different aspects of children’s development, they can more readily understand the concepts, theories, and research presented in the course. As a result, Child Development has focused on providing a systematic, integrative approach that helps students make these connections in their learning and practice. This new edition continues that philosophy with the addition of Dr. Kirby DeaterDeckard of the University of Massachusetts Amherst and Dr. Jennifer Lansford of Duke University to the author team, who are recognized as leading researchers and educators in the field and have served as Expert Consultants for many editions of this successful Life-Span franchise. This combined experience has influenced the main goals for the text, as follows:
1. Connecting with today’s students Helping students learn about child development more effectively
2. Connecting research to what we know about children’s development Providing students with the best and most recent theory and research in the world today about each of the periods of child development
3. Connecting topical and developmental processes Guiding students in making developmental connections across different points in child development
4. Connecting development to real life Helping students understand ways to apply content about child development to the real world and improve people’s lives, and to motivate students to think deeply about their own personal journey through life and better understand who they were, are, and will be
Connecting with Today’s Students
preview
Development courses are challenging because of the amount of material often covered. To help today’s students focus on the key ideas, the Learning Goals system in Child Development provides extensive learning connections throughout the chapters. The learning system connects the chapter-opening outline, learning goals for the chapter, mini-chapter maps that open each main section of the chapter, Review, Connect, and Reflect at the end of each main section, and the chapter summary at the end of each chapter.
For many years, emotion was neglected in the study of children’s development. Today, emotion is increasingly important in conceptualizations of development. Even infants show different emotional styles, display varying temperaments, and begin to form emotional bonds with their caregivers. In this chapter, we will study the roles of temperament and attachment in development. But first we will examine emotion itself, exploring the functions of emotions in children’s lives and the development of emotion from infancy through middle and late childhood.
The learning system keeps the key ideas in front of the student from the beginning to the end of the chapter. The main headings of each chapter correspond to the learning goals, which are presented in the chapter-opening spread. Mini-chapter maps that link up with the learning goals are presented at the beginning of each major section in the chapter.
Exploring Emotion
What Are Emotions?
LG1 Discuss basic aspects of emotion.
A Functionalist View of Emotions
Imagine your life without emotion. Emotion is the color and music of life, as well as the tie that binds people together. How do psychologists define and classify emotions, and why are they important to development?
Emotional Competence
Then, at the end of each main section of a chapter, the learning goal is repeated in Review, Connect, and Reflect, which prompts students to review the key topics in the section, connect these topics to existing knowledge, and relate what they learned to their own personal journey through life. Reach Your Learning Goals, at the end of the chapter,
WHAT ARE EMOTIONS?
For our purposes, we will define emotion as feeling, or affect, that occurs when people are in a state or an interaction that is important to them, especially one that influences their well-being. In many instances emotions involve people’s communication with the world. Although emotion consists of more than communication, in infancy the communication aspect is at the forefront of emotion (Walle & others, 2017).
Psychologists classify the broad range of emotions in many ways, but almost all classifications designate an emotion as either positive or negative (Christenfeld & Mandler, 2013; Izard, 2009). Positive emotions include enthusiasm, joy, and love. Negative emotions include anxiety, anger, guilt, and sadness. Emotions are influenced by biological foundations and experience (Hanford & others, 2018). In evolutionary theory, evolution endowed human beings with a biological foundation for emotion. The biological foundation of emotion involves the development of the nervous system. Emotions are linked with early-developing regions of the human nervous
Blossoms are scattered by the wind And the wind cares nothing, but The blossoms of the heart, No wind can touch.
—Youshida kEnko Buddhist monk, 14th century
guides students through the bulleted chapter review, connecting with the chapter outline/ learning goals at the beginning of the chapter and the Review, Connect, and Reflect material at the end of each major section.
reach your learning goals
Emotional Development
• Emotion is feeling, or affect, that occurs when people are engaged in interactions that are important to them, especially those that influence their well-being. Emotions can be classified as positive or negative. Psychologists stress that emotions, especially facial expressions of emotions, have a biological foundation. Facial expressions of emotion are similar across cultures, but display rules are not culturally universal. Biological evolution endowed humans to be emotional, but culture and relationships with others provide diversity in emotional experiences.
• The functionalist view of emotion emphasizes the importance of contexts and relationships in emotion. For example, when parents induce a positive mood in their child, the child is more likely to follow the parents’ directions. In this view, goals are involved in emotions in a variety of ways, and the goal’s specific nature can affect the individual’s experience of a given emotion.
• Becoming emotionally competent involves developing a number of skills such as being aware of one’s emotional states, discerning others’ emotions, adaptively coping with negative emotions, and understanding the role of emotions in relationships.
Connecting Research to What We Know About Children’s Development
• Infants display a number of emotions early in their development, although researchers debate the onset and sequence of these emotions. Lewis distinguishes between primary emotions and self-conscious emotions. Primary emotions include joy, anger, and fear, while self-conscious emotions include pride, shame, and guilt. Crying is the most important mechanism newborns have for communicating with their world. Babies have at least three types of cries—basic, anger, and pain cries. Social smiling in response to a caregiver’s voice occurs as early as 4 to 6 weeks of age. Two fears that infants develop are stranger anxiety and separation from a caregiver (which is reflected in separation protest). Controversy swirls about whether babies should be soothed when they cry, although increasingly experts recommend immediately responding in a caring way during the first year. Infants gradually develop an ability to inhibit the duration and intensity of their emotional reactions.
It is critical to include the most up-to-date research available. As with previous editions, we continue to look closely at specific areas of research, involve experts in related fields, and update research throughout. Connecting Through Research describes a study or program to illustrate how research in child development is conducted and how it influences
connecting through research
How Does Theory of Mind Differ in Children with Autism?
• Advances in young children’s emotions involve expressing emotions, understanding emotions, and regulating emotions. Young children’s range of emotions expands during early childhood as they increasingly experience self-conscious emotions such as pride, shame, and guilt. Between 2 and 4 years old, children use an increasing number of terms to describe emotion and learn more about the causes and consequences of feelings. At 4 to 5 years of age, children show an increased ability to reflect on emotions and understand that a single event can elicit different emotions in different people. They also show a growing awareness of the need to manage emotions to meet social standards. Emotion-coaching parents have children who engage in more effective self-regulation of their emotions than do the children of emotiondismissing parents. Young children in a secure attachment relationship with their mother are more willing to engage in conversation about difficult emotional circumstances. Emotion regulation plays an important role in successful peer relationships.
Approximately 1 in 59 children is estimated to have some sort of autism spectrum disorder (National Autism Association, 2019). Autism can usually be diagnosed by the age of 3 years, and sometimes earlier. Children with autism show a number of behaviors different from typically developing children their age, including deficits in social interaction and communication as well as repetitive behaviors or interests. They often show indifference toward others, in many instances preferring to be alone and showing more interest in objects than people. It now is accepted that autism is linked to genetic and brain abnormalities (Tremblay & Jiang, 2019). Children and adults with autism have difficulty in social interactions. These deficits are generally greater than deficits in children the same mental age with intellectual disability (Greenberg & others, 2018). Researchers have found that children with autism have difficulty in developing a theory of mind, especially in understanding others’ beliefs and emotions (Fletcher-Watson & Happé, 2019). Although children with autism tend to do poorly when reasoning on false-belief tasks, they can perform much better on reasoning tasks requiring an understanding of physical causality. Individuals with autism might have difficulty in understanding others’ beliefs and emotions not solely because of theory of mind deficits but also due to other aspects of cognition such as problems in focusing attention, eye gaze, face recognition, memory, language impairment, or some general intellectual impairment (Boucher, 2017).
• In middle and late childhood, children show a growing awareness of the need to control and manage emotions to meet social standards. Also in this age period, they show increased emo tional understanding, markedly improve their ability to suppress or conceal negative emotions, use self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings, have an increased tendency to take into fuller account the events that lead to emotional reactions, and develop a capacity for genuine empathy.
A young boy with autism. What are some characteristics of children who are autistic? What are some deficits in their theory of mind?
In relation to theory of mind, however, it is important to consider the effects of individual variations in the abilities of children with autism. Children with autism are not a homogeneous group, and some have less severe social and communication problems than others. Thus, it is not surprising that children who have less severe forms of autism do better than those who have more severe forms of the disorder on some theory of mind tasks (Jones & others, 2018). A further important consideration in
thinking about autism and theory of mind is that children with autism might have difficulty in understanding others’ beliefs and emotions not solely due to theory of mind deficits but to other aspects of cognition such as problems in focusing attention or some general intellectual impairment. For instance, weaknesses in executive function may be related to the problems experienced by those with autism in performing theory of mind tasks. Other theories have pointed out that typically developing individuals process information by extracting the big picture, whereas those with autism process information in a very detailed, almost obsessive way. It may be that in autism, a number of different but related deficits lead to social cognitive deficits (Moseley & Pulvermueller, 2018; Rajendran & Mitchell, 2007).
told the child he believed the drawing was a rabbit (see Figure 15). Before the age of 7, children said that there was one right answer, and it was not okay for both puppets to have different opinions.
While most research on children’s theory of mind focuses on children around or before their preschool years, at 7 years of age and beyond there are important developments in the ability to understand the beliefs and thoughts of others. Although understanding that people may have different interpretations is important, it is also necessary to recognize that some interpretations and beliefs may still be evaluated on the basis of the merits of arguments and evidence (Osterhaus, Koerber, & Sodian, 2017). In late childhood and early adolescence, children can understand that people can have mixed and ambivalent feelings and that people’s thoughts, feelings, and decisions can be consistent or inconsistent in different situations (Lagattuta, Elrod, & Kramer, 2016).
Robin Nelson/PhotoEdit
our understanding of the discipline. Topics range from “Do Children Conceived Through In Vitro Fertilization Show Significantly Different Outcomes in Childhood and Adolescence?” to “How Can We Study Newborns’ Perception?” to “What Are the Perspective Taking and Moral Motivation of Bullies, Bully-Victims, Victims, and Prosocial Children?”.
The tradition of obtaining detailed, extensive input from leading experts in different areas of child development also continues in this edition. Biographies and photographs of the leading experts in the field of child development appear on pages xvi–xvii. Finally, the research discussions have been updated in every period and topic in order to keep Child Development as current as possible. To that end, there are more than 1,300 citations from 2017, 2018, and 2019 in this new edition.
Connecting Topical and Developmental Processes
Too often we forget or fail to notice the many connections from one point in child development to another. Thus, several features have been designed to help students connect topics across the processes and periods of child development:
1. Developmental Connections, which appears multiple times in the margins of each chapter, points students to where the topic is discussed in a previous, current, or subsequent chapter. This feature highlights links across development and connections among biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes. The key developmental processes are typically discussed in isolation from each other, and so students often fail to see their connections. Included in Developmental Connections is a brief description of the backward or forward connection.
2. A Connect question appears in self-reviews Review, Connect, and Reflect at the end of each main section in a chapter so students can practice making connections among topics.
Connecting Development to Real Life
In addition to helping students make research and developmental connections, Child Development shows the important connections among the concepts discussed and the real world. Real-life connections are explicitly made in the chapter-opening vignette, in Caring Connections, Connecting with Diversity, and Connecting with Careers.
Each chapter begins with a story designed to increase students’ interest and motivation to read the chapter. Caring Connections provides applied information about parenting, education, or health and well-being in relation to topics ranging from “From Waterbirth to Music Therapy” to “Parents, Coaches, and Children’s Sports” to “Guiding Children’s Creativity.”
Review Connect Reflect
LG1 Discuss developmental changes in the body.
• What are cephalocaudal proximodistal
• How do height infancy and childhood?
• What changes
Connect
• Describe the nurture on the hormones and
The Brain LG2 Describe how the brain changes.
The Neuroconstructivist View
developmental connection
Nature and Nurture
In the epigenetic view, development is an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and the environment. Connect to “Biological Beginnings.”
FIGURE 5
THE HUMAN BRAIN’S HEMISPHERES. The two halves (hemispheres) of the human brain are clearly seen in this photograph.
IgorZD/Shutterstock
neuroconstructivist view Theory of brain development emphasizing the following points: (a) biological processes and environmental conditions influence the brain’s development, (b) the brain has plasticity and is context dependent, and (c) the development of the brain and the child’s cognitive development are closely linked.
Brain Physiology
In every physical Structures of the of hormones, and We have described section, we initially function of the through adolescence.
THE NEUROCONSTRUCTIVIST
Until recently, develop. Not long “wired” and that rationally unfolded your heredity dealt to be wrong. Instead, (Diamond, 2013; In the increasingly for example) and ence the brain’s (c) development These factors constrain 2013). The neuroconstructivist tions between same way the
BRAIN PHYSIOLOGY
The brain includes are neurons, the
Structure and hemispheres (see
104 CHAPTER 4 Physical Development and Health
san45918_ch04_096-130.indd 104
caring connections
Parenting Recommendations for Raising a Moral Child
A comprehensive and influential review of the research (Eisenberg & Valiente, 2002, p. 134) concluded that, in general, children who behave morally tend to have parents who:
• “are warm and supportive rather than punitive;
• use inductive discipline;
• provide opportunities for the children to learn about others’ perspectives and feelings;
• involve children in family decision making and in the process of thinking about moral decisions;
• model moral behaviors and thinking themselves, and provide opportunities for their children to do so;
• provide information about what behaviors are expected and why; and
• foster an internal rather than an external sense of morality.”
Parents who show this configuration of behaviors likely foster concern and caring about others in their children, and create a positive parent-child relationship. In addition, parenting recommendations based on Ross Thompson’s (2014) analysis of parent-child relations suggest that children’s conscience and moral development benefits when there are mutual parent-child obligations involving warmth and responsibility, and when
One of the strategies above suggests modeling moral behaviors and thinking. According to the research cited in the Moral Exemplars section of this chapter, which two traits were common to moral exemplars?
of adolescents (Patrick & Gibbs, 2012). In this study, adolescents considered parental induction and expression of disappointed expectations as more appropriate than power assertion and love withdrawal and responded with more positive emotion, as well as guilt, to parental induction than to the other parenting techniques. Further, parental induction was linked to a higher moral identity among the youth. Nevertheless, if parents are using induction of guilt regularly or in an extreme way, it can be counterproductive for promoting moral development and behavior among children and adolescents (Rote & Smetana, 2017).
Child Development puts a strong emphasis on diversity. For a number of editions, this text has benefited from the involvement of one or more leading experts on diversity to ensure that it provides students with current, accurate, sensitive information related to diversity in children’s development.
Although diversity is discussed throughout this edition, the chapter “Culture and Diversity” includes extensive material on the subject with substantial research updates Further, a feature called Connecting with Diversity appears throughout the text, focusing on a diversity topic related to the material at that point in the chapter. Topics range from “The Increased Diversity of Adopted Children and Adoptive Parents” to “Cultural Variations in Guiding Infants’ Motor Development” to “The Contexts of Ethnic Identity Development.”
Proactive Strategies An important parenting strategy is to proactively avert potential misbehavior by children before it takes place (Chang & others, 2015; Wainryb & Recchia, 2017). With younger children, being proactive means using diversion, such as distracting their attention or engaging them in alternative activities. With older children, being proactive may involve talking with them about values that the parents deem important, prior to a misbehavior taking place. Transmitting these values can help older children and adolescents to resist the temptations that inevitably emerge in contexts such as peer relations and the media that can be outside the scope of direct parental monitoring. To read further about strategies parents can adopt to promote their children’s moral development, see Caring Connections.
SCHOOLS
connecting with diversity
No matter how parents treat their children at home, they may feel that they have little control over a great deal of their children’s moral education. This is because children and adolescents spend extensive time away from their parents at school, and the time spent
Culture and Children’s Memory
364 CHAPTER 13 Moral Development
A culture sensitizes its members to certain objects, events, and strategies, which in turn can influence the nature of memory (Bauer & Fivush, 2013; Wagoner, 2017). In schema theory, a child’s background, which is encoded in schemas, is revealed in the way the child reconstructs a story. This effect of cultural background on memory is called the culturalspecificity hypothesis. It states that cultural experiences determine what is relevant in a person’s life and thus what the person is likely to remember. For example, imagine a child living on a remote island in the Pacific Ocean whose parents make their livelihood by fishing. The child’s memory about how weather conditions affect fishing is likely to be highly developed. By contrast, a Pacific Islander child might struggle to encode and recall the details of a job involving work on large farms, or cutting lumber on forested mountains.
Cultures may vary in the strategies that children use to remember information, and these cultural variations are due in part to schooling (Packer & Cole, 2016). Children who have experienced schooling are more likely to cluster items together in broader categories, which helps them to remember the items. Schooling also provides children with specialized information-processing tasks, such as committing large amounts of information to memory in a short time frame and using logical reasoning, that may generate specialized strategies. However, there is no evidence that schooling increases memory capacity per se; rather, it influences the strategies for remembering (Packer & Cole, 2016).
Students in class at a school in Mali, Africa. How might their schooling influence their memory?
Scripts are schemas for an event. In one older but illustrative study, adolescents in the United States and Mexico remembered according to script-based knowledge (Harris, Schoen, & Hensley, 1992). In line with common practices in their respective cultures, adolescents in the United States remembered information about a dating script better when no chaperone was present on a date, whereas adolescents in Mexico remembered the information better when a chaperone was present.
American children, especially American girls, describe autobiographical narratives that are longer, more detailed, more specific, and more ‘personal’ (both in terms of mention of self, and mention of internal states), than
narratives by children from China and Korea. The pattern is consistent with expectations derived from the finding that in their conversations about past events, American mothers and their children are more elaborative and more focused on autonomous themes . and that Korean mothers and their children have less frequent and less detailed conversations about the past. . . (Bauer, 2006, p. 411)
Family narratives and stories pass down memories from one generation to the next, and these family memories may be particularly salient in cultures in which individuals are highly “interdependent” with each other (Reese & others, 2017).
How might guided participation, which is used in many different cultures, support the influence of culture on memory?
through 1½ to 2 years of age (Rovee-Collier & Barr, 2010). However, the infants in RoveeCollier’s experiments are displaying only implicit memory (Jabès & Nelson, 2015; Mandler, 2012). Implicit memory refers to memory without conscious recollection—for example, procedural long-term memories of routine activities that are performed automatically after being practiced and repeated, such as riding a bicycle. In contrast, explicit memory refers to the conscious memory of facts and experiences.
Pascal Deloche/Corbis Documentary/Getty Images
connecting with careers
Helen Hadani, Developmental Psychologist, Toy Designer, and Research Practitioner
Helen Hadani obtained a Ph.D. from Stanford University in developmental psychology, but she now spends her days talking with computer engineers, designing “smart” toys for children, and connecting these technologies to children’s learning at the Center for Childhood Creativity in California. Smart toys are designed to improve children’s problem-solving and symbolic thinking skills.
When she was a graduate student, Hadani worked part-time for Hasbro toys, testing its children’s software on preschoolers. Her first job after graduate school was with Zowie Entertainment, which was subsequently bought by LEGO. According to Hadani, “Even in a toy’s most primitive stage of development, . . . you see children’s creativity in responding to challenges, their satisfaction when a problem is solved or simply their delight when they are having fun” (Schlegel, 2000, p. 50). In addition to conducting experiments and focus groups at different stages of a toy’s development, she also assesses the age appropriateness of learning materials.
For more information about what researchers do, see the Careers in Child Development appendix.
Thus, although there are important similarities between children and scientists, in their basic curiosity and in the kinds of questions they ask, there are also important differences in the degree to which they can separate theory from evidence and in their ability to design conclusive experiments (Lehrer & Schauble, 2015).
Connecting with Careers profiles careers ranging from genetic counselor to toy designer to supervisor of gifted and talented education, all of which require knowledge of child development. The careers highlighted extend from the Careers Appendix, which provides a comprehensive overview of careers to show students where knowledge of child development could lead them.
Too often, the skills scientists use, such as careful observation, graphing, self-regulatory thinking, and knowing when and how to apply one’s knowledge to solve problems, are not routinely taught in schools (Zembal-Saul, McNeill, & Hershberger, 2013). Children hold many concepts that are incompatible with science and reality. Good teachers perceive and understand a child’s underlying scientific concepts, then use the concepts as a scaffold for learning. Effective science teaching helps children distinguish between fruitful errors and misconceptions, and detect plainly wrong ideas that need to be replaced with more accurate conceptions (Harlen & Qualter, 2018). It is important for teachers to initially scaffold students’ science learning, extensively monitor their progress, and ensure that they are learning science content because these practices are most essential to scientific reasoning and critical thinking (Novak & Treagust, 2018). Thus, in pursuing science investigations, students need to learn inquiry skills and science content simultaneously (Lehrer & Schauble, 2015).
Finally, part of applying knowledge of child development to the real world is understanding its impact on oneself. Students should be motivated to think deeply about their own journey through life. Reflect: Your Own Personal Journey of Life prompts in the endof-section review ask students to reflect on some aspect of the discussion in the section they have just read and connect it to their own life. For example, related to a discussion of the early-later experience issue in development, students are asked,
Solving Problems Children face many problems, both in school and out of school. Problem solving involves finding an appropriate way to attain a goal. Let’s examine two ways children solve problems—by applying rules and by using analogies—and then consider some ways to help children learn effective strategies for solving problems.
Can you identify an early experience that you believe contributed in important ways to your development?
Using Rules to Solve Problems As noted earlier, during early childhood the relatively stimulus-driven toddler is transformed into a child capable of flexible, goaldirected problem solving. One element in this change is children’s developing ability to form representations of reality.
206 CHAPTER 7 Information Processing
Can you identify a recent or current (later) experience that you think had (is having) a strong influence on your development?
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Helen Hadani, a developmental psychologist, with some of the toys she designed for her work on teaching foreign languages to children. Courtesy of Helen Hadani
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darkness, which will probably cause them to neglect so great salvation for the sake of the love and the praise of the world and the traditions of men.
O my friends—my brethren and sisters, and especially the younger class of our community! I beseech you in the fear and love of God and entreat you in view of eternal glory and exaltation in this kingdom, to deny yourselves all the corrupt and abominable practices and desires of the world and the flesh, and seek to be pure and virtuous in all your ways and thoughts, and not only so, but make no matrimonial connections or engagements till you have asked counsel of the Spirit of God in humble prayer before Him; till you know and understand the principles of eternal life and union sufficiently to act wisely and prudently, and in that way that will eventually secure yourself and companion and your children in the great family circle of the celestial organization.
I would now say to parents that their own salvation, as well as that of their children, depends to a certain extent on the bringing up of their children, and educating them in the truth, that their traditions and early impressions may be correct. No parent who continues to neglect this after they themselves have come to the knowledge of the truth, can be saved in the celestial kingdom. I would earnestly recommend that all sectarian books, tracts, pictures, paintings, etc., which are not according to the truth, be removed from the family circle of the Saints, and that their children be not suffered to read them, at least till the truth has taken hold of their minds sufficiently that they may be able to contrast the one with the other; and to perceive the difference. Sectarian sermons and their manner of worship and their Sunday schools, are also a great damage to children, being well calculated to rivet upon their young and tender minds the most vague, mysterious and erroneous notions and principles which may prevent their ever being open to the conviction of the truth. And even if they should embrace the truth afterwards, and they find their perceptive faculties so blunted and beclouded by early impressions and traditions, that it will continue to retard their progress in the comprehension of the truth, insomuch that many of its plainest and simplest principles will either remain entirely unperceived by them or else be seen through a glass darkly, as it were, and thus lose much of their force and beauty. * * *
In regard to matrimony, I suppose some will tell me that in the resurrection they neither marry nor are given in marriage. That is true, for the best of all reasons—because they do it here; and thus bind on earth that which shall be bound in heaven, and that too by God's own authority; and this being the world of preparation and that the world of enjoyment. Therefore there is no need of doing it in that world. Those who do not understand and attend to the ordinances and authority of God in this world, neither by themselves nor by proxy, are not counted worthy to enjoy the celestial glory in the world to come; therefore, they must remain as they are, and never enjoy that sweet union and exaltation which is prepared for the Saints of the Most High. Thus are all judged according to the deeds done in the body; and that which they sow they shall also reap. If they choose in this world to follow the wicked lusts and pleasures of the moment by unlawful connections; or if they choose to be united after the manner of this world by being joined with a companion who is not worthy of an eternal covenant and of the "seal of the living God," why then, the consequence is, that they enjoy the things of this world and the pleasures and passions thereof; but death closes the scene and eternity finds them poor wanderers and outcasts from the commonwealth of the celestial family and strangers to the covenant of promise. Their former covenants come to an end with their life, and in that world they can neither marry nor be given in marriage; consequently they must remain unassociated in family capacity, and, therefore, have no kingdom over which to reign, nor any possible means of increasing their own glory. There will be weeping, wailing and gnashing of teeth indeed; for who can endure eternal disappointment? Who can endure to be forever banished and separated from father, mother, wife, children, and every kindred affection, and from every family tie? For none of our relationships will be recognized by the authorities in this world, unless secured to us here in an everlasting covenant which cannot be broken, and sealed by the constituted authorities of the living God. Well did the Lord promise by the mouth of the Prophet Malachi that He would send Elijah the Prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord; and that he should turn, seal, or bind the hearts of the fathers to the children and the hearts of the children to the fathers, lest the whole earth should be smitten with a curse. And if you will receive it, Elijah the prophet has been sent in these last days to man on the earth, and has conferred the keys of the sealing power that others might go forth in His Spirit, power and Priesthood, and
seal both on earth and in heaven. But they have done unto some of them whatever they listed, and even so many others perhaps suffer under their cruel hand. But the keys are on the earth and shall not be taken from it till the sealing is accomplished. Therefore, O ye Saints of the Most High! build the Temple and sanctuary of our God, and gather together thereunto. For there, saith the Lord, will I reveal unto you the fullness of mine ordinances pertaining to the Holy Priesthood and preparation, by which the living and the dead may be redeemed and associated in the exalted principles of eternal life and joy. Amen.
SALVATION FOR THE LIVING AND THE DEAD.
Liberality of the "Mormon" Faith. A Discourse by Charles W. Penrose. Delivered in the Tabernacle, Salt Lake City, Sunday Afternoon, August 19, 1900.
Reported by Arthur Winter.
I am thankful for the opportunity of meeting with the Latter-day Saints in this Tabernacle, and I trust that our assembling together will not be in vain, but be profitable to all of us. I have been called upon to address the congregation. I desire to do so under the influence of that Spirit which guides into all truth, and which makes plain the things of God to the minds of men. I trust that this Spirit will not only rest upon me, to enlighten my mind and to give me words which will be of benefit to those who hear, but that it may also rest upon the congregation, that we may be able to see "eye to eye."
Characteristics of True Religion.
One mark of true religion is a regard for the welfare of other people. True religion does not make people selfish. It creates in their hearts a feeling of chanty and a desire to bless; not to injure in any way, not to wish the downfall or hurt of a fellow creature, but rather to desire his uplifting, and benefit, and comfort, and joy. Our Heavenly Father created the earth upon which we live for the comfort and happiness of His creatures. The plan of salvation, which was prepared before the foundations of the world, was designed for the improvement, the benefit and the ultimate salvation of all His sons and daughters. When we have a desire in our hearts to bless and benefit mankind, we have the right side. When we feel a spirit of revenge, of retaliation, and a desire to do harm, that is not of God, but is from beneath. Our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, we are told, "came into the
world, not to condemn the world, but that the world through Him might be saved." That was the purpose of the coming of our Savior Jesus Christ in the flesh, and of the atonement that He wrought out for mankind by His death on the cross. The spirit of Christ is the spirit of salvation, the spirit of blessing, the spirit to do good, to improve the condition of the human race, and to prepare us all for the presence of our Eternal Father and to enjoy the glory of His kingdom.
Universal Salvation.
One of the great differences between the faith of the Latter-day Saints and that of most of the denominations called "Christian" is that the Latter-day Saints teach that salvation is for all people, of all ages, of all races, of all colors, who can be saved. The doctrine that the Lord has revealed through His servant the Prophet Joseph Smith is that salvation is to come unto all, and that none will be lost who can possibly be redeemed; that the plan of salvation is as broad as the fall of man. Our first parents broke a divine law, and through their disobedience death came into the world. As by disobedience of one man sin, and death as the wages of sin, came into the world, so by the atonement and obedience of one, life and salvation will ultimately come to all the family of Adam. "As in Adam all die, so in Christ shall all be made alive." This doctrine was enunciated by the Apostle Paul in his epistle to the Corinthians. The full meaning of that is not explained in the old scriptures, neither is it understood generally in the Christian world, but it was revealed in great plainness to the Prophet Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon. I will not read to you the vision which was given to them, explaining this doctrine of salvation, but will perhaps read a few verses of it, so that the full extent of the plan of salvation may be comprehended to some little degree by the congregation.
Let me say, first, that the book from which I am about to read contains some of the revelations of God to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in this age of the world, and we regard these as Scripture. We believe in the Bible. We believe that "holy men of old wrote and spoke as they were moved upon by the Holy Ghost." We also believe that the same Spirit in this age of the world will make plain the things of God exactly in the same way as they were revealed in former times. In other words, we believe that the
Spirit is the same in all ages, and that God and Christ are "the same yesterday, today and forever." If God could reveal His word through Prophets in ancient times, certainly He can reveal His word, through Prophets in modern times. If not, why not? What reason is there that God should not make manifest His truth in the nineteenth century as well as in the first century, or in times before the beginning of the Christian era? Has the Eternal Father ceased to have power to make Himself manifest? Has He bound Himself with an oath and promise that He would not speak again, after He revealed Himself through the Prophets and Apostles in the first age of the Christian era and before that time? If so, where is His word and promise recorded? I know of nothing of the kind in the book that is supposed to contain the Holy Scriptures. The Bible contains some few things revealed by the Lord through His servants in former days, and by reading it carefully I find that it contains an abundance of promises that in the last times, in the times of "the restitution of all things spoken of by the holy Prophets since the world began," in the "dispensation of the fullness of times" in which God is to gather together in one all things that are in Christ, there is to be more light, more revelation, more manifestation of the power of God, greater miracles and greater outpouring of the Spirit and the knowledge of God, until the time shall come when a man shall not have to say to his neighbor, "Know ye the Lord, for all shall know Him, from the least unto the greatest," and "the knowledge of God shall cover the earth as the waters cover the great deep;" so the prophets of old predicted. This being so there is nothing unscriptural or unreasonable in the idea that God should reveal His word in this age of the world as He revealed it in former times, and as it was customary with Him when He had any special work to perform among the children of men, or any special truth to reveal, to raise up a prophet or prophets through whom His word was communicated, that in the last days He should act in the same way, seeing that He is an unchangeable Being.
We testify that in the nineteenth century our Heavenly Father has been pleased to open the heavens once more, and to send His Son Jesus Christ, our Redeemer, with a message of life and light, similar to that which He proclaimed when He tabernacled in mortality. We testify that angels have come down from the courts of glory, bringing light and truth for the
enlightenment and salvation of all the human family, and a message to be carried to "every nation, kindred, tongue and people."
We recognize the fact that throughout Christendom there are various religious societies, composed in the main of good people, and having among them very talented men, some of whom minister in the name of the Lord without authority, while others explain the Gospel according to their understanding of it—which is very limited; and that there are people of all sects and denominations who desire to serve the Lord and walk in His ways, but who cling to the notions and ideas which have been handed down to them by tradition. We do not wish to interfere with any of them in their religious rights and privileges. We recognize the right of every man to worship God according to the dictates of his own conscience, and think that people ought not to be molested in that worship, and that they should be perfectly free to carry out their religious convictions, so long as they do not infringe upon the rights and liberties of others. That is the line we draw, and when men step beyond that, then the secular law ought to step in and protect people in the exercise of their rights, and from the designs and wicked acts of those who seek to infringe upon them.
But One God and One Faith.
But while we recognize this, we do not lose sight of this one great fact, which all people should consider; that as there is but one God for us to worship, there can be but one true religion. A variety of Gods might introduce a variety of creeds; but "there is one God even the Father, of whom are all things, and one Lord Jesus Christ, by whom are all things." Therefore, the religion of God and Christ must be one. Truth is not divided against itself. Truth and error will clash, but truth and truth will always harmonize. Anything that God reveals must be true, for He is truth; and everything that comes by the way of Jesus Christ, His beloved Son, must be true, for He is the way, the truth and the life. No error will be introduced into the world under the direction of the Father, or of the Son. And the Holy Ghost is "the Spirit of truth." It guides into all truth. It takes of the things of the Father and of the Son and reveals them unto men. It will not substantiate or reveal any error; but it will manifest truth and make it plain. Therefore, all that is error in the world, whether it be among Christians or pagans, is
not of God, and is not recognized of Him. It will not lead to God; it will not benefit mankind; but it will do injury. It is the truth that exalts, that ennobles, and that will save mankind. Falsehood and error will not. Anything that is contrary to truth cannot be of God, but may be of that Evil One, who was "a liar from the beginning."
Sincerity Not Conclusive Evidence of Truth.
That there is an abundance of error in the "Christian" world as well as some truth, must be patent to everybody who has investigated the conditions of mankind in the present day, because these multifarious sects and denominations are discordant. They do not unite—except on special occasions when they meet together to denounce the "Mormons"; they can unite on that question sometimes. The spirit of division, strife and contention exists among people called Christians as well as among people called Pagans. That fact alone makes it evident that there is a great deal of error existing in what is called Christendom. That is because these various systems which have been established are the inventions of men. They may have been good men who started these different sects—I will not judge that matter; that is with the Eternal Judge—but these sects were the offspring of men. These men may have read the Scriptures, and have entertained certain ideas founded upon their reading; and they may have established these different systems in accordance with their sincere ideas of what was right. But sincerity of itself is not a conclusive evidence of truth. The heathen is just as sincere in his idol worship as the "Christian" is in his various modes of bowing down to Deity; and certainly the Latter-day Saints have manifested their sincerity before the whole world as well as before the heavens. The Elders of this Church who go out into the world to proclaim the Gospel as they understand it, manifest their sincerity. Yet our "Christian" friends will not recognize them as Christians, nor believe that they are right. They go out without purse or scrip, without fee or reward. They are not paid for their work. They make sacrifice of home and its comforts, and leave their loved ones behind, and go to face a frowning world, to meet persecution and obloquy, and sometimes imprisonment, stripes and death. What for? To proclaim that which they know in their hearts is true. They are sincere enough, but that does not prove that they are right. Our "Christian" friends will acknowledge that. On the other hand, the
sincerity that may be exhibited in the various "Christian" sects by the people who compose the members, and by the preachers who teach them, is not of itself an evidence that they are right or that they have the truth. But the fact that they are divided and conflicting is proof enough that there is a great deal of error among them.
Now, that which comes from God is truth. If Jesus Christ has a church on the earth under His direction and inspiration, containing men whom He has appointed, who hold His authority, who are sent by His word, and who have the divine authority to administer in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, that church will have the truth. It will not have error intermingled with it, because it will be directed by Christ, being His Church. Men may build up a church and call it the Church of Christ, but that does not make it so; it is the church of the men who organized it. If John Wesley—a good man, as I believe with all my heart, a mighty man, who did a great and good work in the earth—organized a religious society and called it the Church of Christ, that does not make it so, and it is nothing more than the church of John Wesley. If other good men assemble together and agree on points of doctrine and organize a religious society that society is theirs. It is not God's unless He ordered it, revealed it, and accepted it.
Oneness of the Church of Christ.
I think that these simple ideas will be received by this congregation and by any reasonable person. If Jesus Christ had a church on the earth in the first century, it was the Church that He established. There is evidence that He did establish a church. By reading the New Testament it is plain that He organized it Himself; therefore it was His Church. He placed in it apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors and teachers, (so we read in the epistle to the Ephesians, 4th chapter,) "for the perfecting of the Saints, for the work of the ministry, for the edifying of the body of Christ; till we all come in the unity of the faith, and of the knowledge of the Son of God." These men were sent out to preach the Gospel without purse or scrip. They were commanded to "go into all the world and preach the Gospel to every creature." And the principles which they taught were the principles of Jesus Christ. The plan of salvation that they introduced was divine. It was not their own. When Paul preached to the Gentiles and Peter preached to the Jews, they preached the
same Gospel, the same doctrine, by the same Spirit. The people who received their word and repented of their sins, believing in the Lord Jesus Christ, were all baptized by one spirit into one body. There was but one body, no matter how many members there were in it; there was but one church, no matter how many branches there might be to it. The Church was one, the Gospel was one, the God they worshipped was one, the Savior was one. There was "one Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all;" and the path that they walked in was the one way marked out by the Lord Jesus Christ, who said, "Wide is the gate and broad is the way, that leadeth to destruction, and many there be which go in thereat; because straight is the gate, and narrow is the way, which leadeth unto life, and few there be that find it."
These men whom the Lord placed in His Church had the word of the Lord. God revealed Himself unto them. Jesus Christ manifested Himself unto them. This is one of the characteristics of the Church. It was in communication with its Divine Author. The spirit that came down from heaven was in these men; not only in them, but in the body of the Church. The whole body was quickened by it, led by it, and inspired by it. Therefore the truth was in the Church. But there came a great change after the Apostles were slain. Darkness came in like a flood and overspread the earth, as the prophet of old foresaw when he said that "darkness would cover the earth and gross darkness the people." Because of that darkness which has overspread the earth has come the condition that exists in the Christian world today.
True Gospel Again Revealed From Heaven.
Now, in this age of the world, I repeat, our Heavenly Father has been pleased to reveal Himself again. Hear it! oh, ye people! As sure as the sun shines in the heavens, as sure as we are in this Tabernacle this afternoon, the Mighty God, even the Lord, hath spoken, and is "calling the earth from the rising of the sun to the going down thereof." His word to all people is that the Gospel in its purity has been restored; His Church has been set up again on the earth, under His personal direction; Apostles, Prophets, Evangelists, Pastors and Teachers once more are endowed with the Spirit that comes from on high, and all people who receive their testimony and are obedient
to the Gospel are baptized by one spirit into one body, whether they be Jew or Gentile, bond or free, and they are all made to partake of one Spirit. This Gospel and the proclamation thereof is to all the world, to every creature. This is the commandment of God to His servants in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. And all people will hear the sound thereof, no matter how much it may be opposed. The Elders of this Church, going out as the servants of God did of old, are endowed with the same authority, the same power, and the same right to administer in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. And the word of Christ is to them as it was to the early Apostles: "He that receiveth you receiveth me, and he that receiveth me receiveth Him that sent me. And he that rejecteth you rejecteth Him that sent me." The word of the Lord to all people everywhere is to turn from their wickedness, from their corruptions, from their false creeds, from their bowing down to anything that is not God, from the notions and ideas of men that have been preached in the world for the doctrines of Christ, and come unto God their Eternal Father in humility, in contrition, repenting of their sins, confessing them, and forsaking them.
Gospel Will Be Preached To Every Soul.
This is a corrupt age. The world is full of evil. That perhaps may be considered an extravagant term, for there is without doubt a great deal of good in the world as well as evil; but I mean to say that evil abounds everywhere. Take your "Christian" cities—those that have the most churches and chapels dedicated to "Christian" service—and sin, corruption, vice, and evils that are unmentionable, abound in them. The word of God to all people is to repent, and turn from iniquity, and come unto the Lord, that they may be saved. This Gospel will be preached to every nation, tongue and people. The barriers that are now in the way of the progress of the servants of God will be broken down. War, plague, pestilence, famine, earthquake, the devouring fire, the cyclone and the whirlwind will be agencies in the hands of an offended Deity to open up the way for the spread of the Gospel of Jesus Christ. Nations that today sit in darkness will hear it, and the "Christian" nations will hear it; for the word of the Lord is to the priest as well as to the people, to the king as well as to the peasant, to those in high places as well as to those who grovel in filth and dirt on the earth or beneath its surface. To all people everywhere this Gospel is to go.
Those nations where it is now impossible to proclaim the Gospel freely will be so overturned in the providences of our Father in this fast age, that all nations will be opened and the Elders of this Church will carry the message to the uttermost parts of the earth.
Now in regard to people who will not receive the Gospel when it is presented to them. When they reject it, they reject the Lord. But are they to be everlastingly lost and destroyed? If so, only a few people among the great family of the Eternal Father would obtain the blessings of salvation. What I will read to you from this book relates to the final condition of the human race. As I said, I will not attempt to read the whole of it; it would take too long. I will read only a few verses. But I recommend all people to read it fully. I consider it the most glorious manifestation of light and truth concerning the future of mankind that has ever been put in print. There is nothing in the Bible equal to this manifestation from God, of His plans and purposes regarding His children who dwell on the earth. The first part of this revelation contains the statement that Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon, being in the Spirit on the 16th day of February, 1832, were surrounded by His power and light, and they beheld the Father seated upon His throne, and Jesus Christ, His Son, at His right hand, and the angels that surround the throne and worship before their face. The Lord manifested in this vision the conditions of the human family in the world to come, who will be partakers of the various degrees of glory—the celestial glory, the terrestrial glory, and the telestial glory. The part I wish to read is this:
"And this is the Gospel, the glad tidings which the voice out of the heavens bore record unto us:
"That He came into the world, even Jesus, to be crucified for the world, and to bear the sins of the world, and to sanctify the world, and to cleanse it from all unrighteousness;
"That through Him all might be saved whom the Father had put into His power and made by Him,
"Who glorifies the Father, and saves all the works of His hands, except those sons of perdition, who deny the Son after the Father has revealed Him;
"Wherefore He saves all except them: they shall go away into everlasting punishment, which is endless punishment, which is eternal punishment, to reign with the devil and his angels in eternity, where their worm dieth not, and the fire is not quenched, which is their torment.
"And the end thereof, neither the place thereof, nor their torment, no man knows." (Doctrine and Covenants, section 76, vs. 40-45.)
But Few Will Be Lost.
My friends, the great truth is declared in this revelation that Jesus Christ will ultimately save ALL mankind, except a few who are called the sons of perdition, "who deny the Son after the Father has revealed Him." This is a very different idea of the plan of salvation to that which is entertained by most if not all our "Christian" friends, who say that we are very illiberal. They have an idea that the Latter-day Saints are very exclusive and illiberal in their religion. I wish to say here that there is no creed in Christendom which is so liberal as that which is believed in by the Latter-day Saints. We do not hold that all who differ with us in regard to the principles of salvation will be irretrievably lost. We do not consign our "Christian" friends, as they do us, to an everlasting hell, to frizzle and fry in brimstone and fire while eternity comes and goes; not at all. We do not believe that our Eternal Father will condemn any person who acts according to his sincere belief and who endeavors, as far as he can, to understand and practice what is true. The understanding and the practice of truth is that which exalts; and the time will come—according to our faith—when everybody who dwells on the earth, and those who have dwelt here and have gone away, will hear the sound of this one Gospel; for, as I said, there can be but one Gospel, one way of salvation, and all those who do not get into that one way are in the broad way.
There are millions and millions of heathens who never heard the name of Jesus Christ. What is to become of them all? There are millions of Jews who reject Jesus Christ as the Savior of the world. Are they all to be lost eternally? They will be, according to the doctrines of some of our very liberal "Christian" friends. According to their doctrines, no one will be
saved who does not believe in Jesus Christ. And they have warrant for that in the Scripture; for "there is none other name given under heaven whereby men can be saved, than the name of Christ Jesus." That being true, all who do not hear the name of Jesus Christ and believe in Him will be condemned. If, therefore, only while men dwell in the flesh they may hear the name of Christ and have the privilege of obeying His Gospel, then the vast majority of the human race, the sons and daughters of the Eternal God, will be doomed to everlasting punishment, according to the modern creeds. But according to what the Lord has shown to this Church by revelation, this Gospel will be preached to every creature. If people do not hear it while they dwell in the flesh, they will hear it after they leave the body. That is contrary to the doctrine of modern Christendom, I am aware. It comes right in contact with one of the tenets of faith of all "Christian" sects. They do not believe in the doctrine of preaching to men after they are dead. They do not believe that there is salvation for mankind after they leave this body. To use expressions common with them, "As the tree falls, so it lies;" "as death meets us, so judgment finds us;" "There's no repentance in the grave, or pardon offered to the dead." That is modern "Christianity."
Salvation For the Dead.
But that is not the Christianity of Christ. I would direct the attention of my friends to the book of the Prophet Isaiah. I will not take time to turn to it this afternoon. Read the 61st chapter, 1st verse, and you will find there this prophecy concerning the coming of the Redeemer: (See also 42nd chapter, 7th verse.)
"The Spirit of the Lord God is upon me; because the Lord hath anointed me to preach good tidings unto the meek; he hath sent me to bind up the broken-hearted, to proclaim liberty to the captives, and the opening of the prison to them that are bound; to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord."
Jesus Christ accepted that as a prediction concerning Himself, as you will read in the Gospel according to St. Luke, (iv, 18) by getting up in the synagogue on the Sabbath day and reading that Scripture to the Jews, testifying that it referred to Himself. Jesus, while He dwelt in the flesh,
preached good tidings to the meek. He healed the sick; He comforted those that mourned; He bound up the brokenhearted. But how about proclaiming liberty to the captives, and the opening of the prison to them that were bound? The Apostle Paul says that when Jesus was raised up on high "He led captivity captive, and gave gifts unto men." How did He lead captivity captive? Why, Peter explained it, but the eyes of the "Christian" world have been closed to it for hundreds of years. In the 3rd chapter of the 1st Epistle of Peter, 18-20 vs., we read:
"For Christ also hath once suffered for sins, the just for the unjust, that He might bring us to God, being put to death in the flesh, but quickened by the Spirit: by which also he went."
Now, mark it. He was put to death in the flesh; He was quickened by the Spirit; and He went—where? Our "Christian" friends say He went up to heaven. That is a mistake, because Jesus after His resurrection, when He appeared to Mary in the garden, said, "Touch me not; for I am not yet ascended to my Father." (John xx, 17.) Where did He go, Peter? Let us hear what he says:
"By which also He went and preached unto the spirits in prison."
Yes; Isaiah said He should "preach deliverance to the captives, and the opening of the prison to them that were bound." He went and preached unto the spirits in prison. Who were they, Peter? He tells us:
"Which sometime were disobedient, when once the longsuffering of God waited in the days of Noah, while the ark was a preparing."
Now, if we will take that just as it stands, and leave out the interpretations given by uninspired men and the nonsense preachers weave around it to mystify, we can understand it right enough. Jesus Christ was put to death in the flesh; He was quickened by the Spirit; His body lay in the sepulchre, while He went and preached to the spirits in prison, who had been there since the days of the flood. What did He preach to them? We can find that out by reading the sixth verse of the next chapter of this epistle:
"For, for this cause was the Gospel preached also to them that are dead, that they might be judged according to men in the flesh, but live according to God in the spirit."
Here is an account of what was preached to them and the object of the preaching. He preached the Gospel to them, the same Gospel that He preached in the flesh. He preached it to them that they might be judged as men in the flesh are, because they had the same Gospel preached to them. They could not be judged like men in the flesh unless they had the same Gospel preached to them as men in the flesh had. The heathen who never heard the Gospel cannot be judged like those who have heard it; but if they hear it in the spirit, then they can be judged in the same way as other men are judged in the flesh; and they may live according to God in the spirit, because they can repent and receive that Gospel.
This is clear and plain to those who desire to understand it. But when men do not want the truth; when men live by publishing falsehoods; when men preach for hire and divine for money, and their craft is in danger, they do not want to see it, nor do they want their congregations to perceive it. We can thus understand what I read to you just now from this modern revelation. Jesus Christ died for the sins of the world, and He will eventually save all, except a few who are called the sons of perdition, who deny the Son after the Father has revealed him, who sin against the Holy Ghost, and against light and truth, and who are irredeemable. But all things that can be saved will be; for our God is a great economist. Everything in His universe is put to a good use, and nothing is lost. Not a particle of matter is annihilated. You may burn a substance and destroy its present form, but the particles thereof remain, the original elements abide; they are indestructible, and God has a use for them somewhere in His universe. Our Heavenly Father will save everything that can be saved, and He will put it somewhere where it can be of use. All His sons and daughters, at some time or other in the eternity to come, will hear the Gospel, and will bow the knee; for as we are told in the New Testament, "As I live, saith the Lord, every knee shall bow to Me, and every tongue shall confess to God." And also: "Every tongue shall confess that Jesus Christ is Lord to the glory of God the Father." (Philip, ii: 2.) And then when they do bow the knee and receive Christ as their Redeemer, He will redeem and save them; He will
take them out of the prison house, and He will lead captivity captive, again and again, until every son and daughter of Adam's race who can be saved will be brought out of hell and death, darkness and despair, suffering and punishment, and placed somewhere where they can enjoy existence and glorify their God and be of benefit to one another.
That is the Gospel of Jesus Christ as revealed to the Latter-day Saints. That is the Gospel in which we delight. Salvation! Oh, the joyful sound! We do not wish to condemn; we do not wish to injure; we do not wish to curse; we do not wish to revile our enemies. We are glad in the thought that even those who revile us, and persecute us, and say all manner of evil against us falsely for Christ's sake, will some day or other understand the truth as it is; and we hope, as instruments in the hands of God, that we will peradventure be chosen to help them out of darkness, out of despair and punishment, when they have paid their dues, because the authority that God has revealed continues and abides. It seals on earth and it is sealed in heaven. It does not depart with the body. The men whom God has called in this generation to labor for His cause, when they die and lay their bodies down, like their Great Master will go into the spirit world where there are myriads of people who need enlightenment—"Christians," pagans, heathens, all races, all tribes, all tongues. The work of the servants of God is to them in the spirit as well as to men in the flesh. They are to preach the Gospel to every creature, and the sound thereof will go to the uttermost bounds of the spiritual world as well as to the natural world; and every immortal spirit, son or daughter of the great Eternal Father, will have an opportunity to bow the knee and accept the truth.
Different Degrees of Glory.
But they will not all be saved in the same degree of glory. That would be unjust. God is just as well as merciful. His mercy balances with His justice, and His justice with His mercy. One will not rob the other. There are eternal principles from which even He cannot swerve and still be God. God must govern Himself by the eternal principles of right. This He teaches to His children, and so far as we conform to that, so far will be our power, our glory, our joy and our exaltation in worlds to come. The Gospel is preached to men and women in the flesh; and if they repent, and are baptized in the
