Assembling Differences, Achieving Scales, James Sheng, AA MArch H&U Thesis

assembling differences achieving scales Some preliminar y thoughts on a procurement model for mass housing deliver y in China

Jing ch ao Sheng

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Architecture, Housing & Urbanism in the Architectural Association School of Architecture, January 2020

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Abstr act

Pressed by rapid urbanization, housing in China has long been delivered in large vacant land at a spectacular speed. Such quantitative ambition often results in closed superblocks of extreme dimensions and repetitive housing units. By utilizing prefabrication and information technology, and by turning the challenge of scales and multitude into advantage, this design-led research proposes a repeatable procurement model for such vacant land or already developed areas, which is open-ended and userdriven across scales, enabling the housing framework to support a rich civic life and to assemble various customized units.

The proposed model of a superblock project consists of 4 progressive scales: the urban district, the superblock, the cluster, and the floor plate.

3 sets of overarching principles are implemented to co-ordinate the partto-whole relationships across the scales: grid of universal adaptability, framework of open-support, and rules of spatial aggregate. They together enable construction and negotiation to take place at the same time, which therefore allows the design outcome to be changed responsively along the process. In doing so, each scale is reconfigured into various programs, ownerships, and spaces.

Furthermore, through a specific complex solution, this thesis projectively envisions the synergy between technology, institutional framework and architecture, as well as raises debates upon the role of the architect among others in the delivery of housing and the formation of urban areas.

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prologue There is a myriad of challenges in the delivery of mass housing in China. As an over-ambitious utopianist who seeks intellectual comprehensiveness, I've taken into consideration as many challenges as I consider fundamental, and tried to compose a self-consistent solution that could bring together different aspects: governing framework, AI and prefab technology, multi-actor engagement, domestic arrangement, and shared urban space.

Fortunately, the answer, though complicated, carries an elegantly coherent logic of "open-ended process" across scales, and the challenge of multiscalarity actually becomes the key to the solution.

Therefore, the single complex proposal is rather a "Trojan Horse", in that it is not only anticipating prospective interactions among those aspects, but also putting forward a series of values, provocations, and arguments, which includes are beyond the solution to the superblock, the role of architect in governing differences, and the possibility of mutual benefits by applying new technology into the process.

In order to articulate through such multiscalarity, the booklet is organized according to clear progressive scales, but they constantly refer to each other. Simply speaking, it is the 600m module of prefabricated component (floorplate scale) that justifies the initial layout of cores in a 43.2m grid without specifying the architectural design (superblock scale), and it is such postponing of design that makes time for the ongoing customization of units (floorplate scale) and the design of morphology and of shared spaces (cluster scale).

The diagrammatic process, paralleled with the drawing list on page 27, would navigate you through those interwoven layers. The coloring language of drawings is coherent throughout the booklet: Red lines stand for grids and collective spaces, purple for the engagement of actors, blue for spatial guidelines or rules, and black for structure as well as the scenarios for the assembled outcome.

Hope you enjoy it as much a I do.

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Contents Chapter 1 - Introduction and research

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1.1 Challenges of rapid urbanization 3 1.2 Site and context 7 1.3 Legacy of discourse - between stantardizatio and differentiation

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1.4 New opportunities: Information technology and prefabrication

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1.5 Conclusion 18 Chapter 2 - the Proposed process

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2.0.1 Outline of framework 21 List of key dr awings

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2.0.2 Multiscalarity is key to the sollution 29 2.0.3 Redefining the roles 31 Chapter 2.1 - The urban area

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2.1.1 Beyond the land use plan 39 2.1.2 Responsive and profound governance 41 Chapter 2.2 - the Superblock

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2.2.1 Cores on grid 51 2.2.2 Composing the overall space 55 2.2.3 Gathering the actors 57 2.2.4 Open-ended outcome 61 2.2.5 Scenario - Differentiated overall scheme 63 Chapter 2.3 - the cluster

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2.3.1 Assemblage into complex Clusters 69 2.3.2 Coordinating ground 77 2.3.3 Simulation and feedback 79 2.3.4 Scenario - complex typology 81 Chapter 2.4 - the floorplate

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2.4.1 Five structure prototypes 89 2.4.2 Customization of unit 93 2.4.3 Complex floorplates 97 2.4.4 Scenarios - Domestic plans and grouping of units

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Chapter 3 - conclusion

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3.1 The ideals 105 3.2 Obstacles and challenges 106 3.3 Envisioning the future 107 Bibliogr aphy, List of dr awings, and list of figures

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Chapter 1 - Introduction and research

In general, this design looks into sites in fast-growing metropolises such as Shanghai, where widespread superblocks of 5-20 hectares are faced with little existing context but big pressure of speed and numbers.

While the ambition of assembling differences while achieving scale has intrigued planners and architects for a long time, new information and prefabrication technology, along with the unique conditions in China, is heralding revolutionary and innovative solutions.

Thus, this chapter firstly analyzes the challenges and obstacles in contemporary China, including widespread conditions and practices. It then goes through the legacy of discourse, and ends with how modern opportunities might bring new solutions.

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[1] Sijing Town, Songjiang District, Shanghai

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1.1 Challenges of r apid urbanization

Rapid and widespread urbanization has been taking place in Chhinese cities, which exerts great pressure in the design, construction, and governance of housing.

Since the economic revolution in 1978, the urbanization rate in China has grown from 18% to 60% by the end of 2018. Take Shanghai as an example, its population has grown from 11 million in 1978 to 14 million in 1990 (when housing entered the private market), then to around 24 million in the year 2018. Estimation of the population in 2035 ranges from 25 million to 30 million.

Meanwhile, another wave of urbanization is starting to take place in secondary and tertiary cities, which are planned to group into metropolitan areas. Take Hefei, the capital of Anhui Province, for example, its population has grown from 4.4 million in 2000 to 8.0 million in 2018. By 2030, formal housing is expected to hold 10 million people. Similar is the condition of 19 secondary cities, not including even smaller cities and towns.

Other rapidly developing countries around the globe, especially in south and southeast Asia, might also have a considerable amount of needs for formal housing with certain quality and variety.

contempor ary and prospective conditions 3 main prospective conditions are considered in this research: lack of design and governing expertise, a diverse urban population, a strong manufacturing industry, and a lack of culture of autonomy.

Firstly, compared to the developed world, there wouldn't be enough expertise and personnel in China for fine and meticulous design and governance.

In a survey upon "People Per Architect" in the Venice Biennale, China ranked the most as 40,000 people share an architect, while only 1800 people share an architect in the UK, and the statistics of Germany, Belgium, and the USA range from 1000 to 1500.

On the other hand, the headcount in civil service in China is much less as well. The official headcount in the executive government was 7.17 million in 2017 (excluding health, education, police, and military), accounting for 0.52% of the entire population, while the number in the UK is 8%, the USA 7%.

Considering the massive population in China as well as its intention to keep a large portion of basic industries, these conditions, though will certainly improve, are not likely to dramatically change in the next few decades. As a result, governance and design could not be carried to such an extent as in Tubingen or Mehr Als Wohnen.

Therefore, the challenge lies in how to inspire and regulate spontaneous variety within every single big-scale development by minimum efforts of design and governance.

[2] Survey, "People Per Architect"

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Secondly, accompanying urbanization, there is a dynamic shift in social structure, resulting in diverse requirements of housing and other uses, which the current housing provisions couldn't meet.

Typical examples of mismatched housing requirements include, but are not limited to, the following: Rented flats for bachelors: There are quite a lot of single educated people or migrant workers in their 20s and 30s. Currently, the majority are renting shared flats that are designed for nuclear families. In recent years, cases like Mofang Apartments ("refurbish for rent") which are tailored to their needs have shown great success, but they couldn't reach a larger scale because of slow capital recovery.

Employee residences: Labour intense Industries in rural areas such as Foxconn have been providing apartments for employees. Those residences are either built directly by the employer, or by directly contracted developers, who wouldn't care about civic services or integration with surroundings.

Groups of families, or extended families: Extended families still exist in China, such as several siblings in their 40s or 50s with a pair of old parents, and each one of them has their own nuclear families. There are also closes friends of couples or families. In the current market, it's difficult for these existing social groups to live next to each other or share certain exclusive spaces or facilities.

Small businesses: The current location of many small businesses, such as internet companies or repairing workshops, is not ideal. Because of closed superblocks, they have to either rent a shopfront directly on the street, which is unnecessarily expensive, or rent a room in a hardly accessible tower.

The manufacturing and construction industry is strong enough to deliver housing in speed, numbers, and the majority of the cost is not construction but land price.

A usual development in China would be as large as 5-10 hectares in one phase: pouring more than a dozen concrete structures at the same time, while big developers like Vake can simultaneously built more than a hundred of projects all around the country. Normally, construction and furnishing would cost only 7000rmb/m2 in shanghai, which accounts for around 10% of the purchase price.

The potential market for prefab manufacturing is high, and big developers like Vanke are now testing prefabricated technologies in big developments. Nevertheless, obstacles remain. Construction in steel is about 20% more expensive than concrete, and there haven't been mature regulations and policies concerning prefab structures. As a result, pioneer projects haven't been implemented in larger scales.

There is not a strong culture of autonomy or democracy.

[3] Extended family [4] Migrant worker [5] Mofang Apartments [6] Typical construction site

Conventionally, Chinese subjects would trust and obey the decision of the government.

Meanwhile, planning decisions are mostly made by the city, but not the local authority, to coordinate interests and resources on a larger scale.

Fortunately, certain deficiencies in such a way of governance have been realized, yet obstacles are encountered in the progress. For example, Proprietor Committees are being built in most housing estates in Shanghai, and residents are more actively engaged in the renovation in old Hutongs in Beijing. However, even in such a small scale, many residents are not willing to take responsibility, power is abused, and complex ownership patterns are posing difficulties in reaching a compromise.

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widespread pr actices The widespread practice under previous conditions is based on a linear process of "prescriptively plan - limited design - repetitively build - sell", which lasts no more than 3 years.

The "Regulatory Plan" precribes function and plots. Combined with a lack of existing context, it would often lead to the fragmentation of plots and speculative homogeneity of building types.

Usually, the land-use masterplan of a new development area is authorized by the city municipality. The local district government is responsible for only execution, and what they do is usually ensure nothing goes wrong according to the plan.

In the sample "Regulatory Plan" of the site, red stands for commercial and office, yellow for residential, light orange for public schools, and pink for government and cultural institutions. In this way, it is assuming a synergy that is based upon a certain presumptuous composition of programs and spaces. In this way, the urban framework and architectural structure could fail to accommodate dynamic uses. For example, the residential developers would often build the compulsory commercial space as long linear two-story linear podiums along the road, in which restaurants, startups, workshops, civil services, and fruit markets chaotically mix.

The strict but one-sided regulations on housing, as well as limited time, would often lead to a hasty design.

Compulsory regulations on housing mainly concern sunlight, fire safety, and numbers.

In simple terms, each residential unit must have at least 1-hour full window sunshine between 9:00 and 16:00 on the day of winter solstice, which results in the proliferation of linear blocks. Numbers of emergency staircases and lifts are regulated simply according to height, which leads to the proliferation of 6-floor, 11-floor, 18- floor, and 27-floor buildings. Besides, certain quantum of affordable units are compulsory. Aside from these rules, the government would seldom intervene with the design of housing typologies and the public realm.

To make it worse, the development pressure and the need to recover the investment would often lead to a very restricted duration to design, often around 3 months, which is not enough for architects to investigate the needs or design variations.

Standardization and repitition are widely practiced.

Besides the reasons mentioned above, repetition also helps with reducing the construction cost (though only accounts for 10% of total price). Almost all newly built housing in china are single family dwelling, with 1-2 beadrooms, only varying in size and price. In an average housing estate (Jiangnanxingcheng, figure 8-9), which is located 15km from Shanghai city center, only 2 types of housing are repeated by approximately 1596 times. Whatsmore, many smaller developers would copy the design from others, often making minor adjustments which makes the flats even worse.

Such housing in big cities are always sold out in major cities, thus most developers are not thinking about the actual needs of the people.

The developer would often start to seel the housing in the middle of construction to recover the investment. And since the housing in big cities are still in shortage, there is little public awareness in the deficiency of the housing market. Potential buyers care mostly about price, location and flat orientation (Chinese are obssessed with facing the South). Seldom have us experienced complex typologies which offer shared areas, differentiated environments, and integration with urban areas.

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[7] Masterplan of the north part of the site [8] Jiangnanxingcheng Estate, masterplan [9] Jiangnanxingcheng Estate, photo [10] Jiangnanxingcheng Estate, only housing types

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Area: 7.8Ha Target plot ratio: 2.5

[11] Site, Huarun Sheshan Jiuli Estate

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1.2 Site and context

The chosen site, my home, illustrates the challenge: a random yet typical contextless superblock in the suburbs of Shanghai, which covers an area of 7.8 hectares.

The block is located in Sijing Town, Songjiang District. It is 1.8 kilometers from the nearest metro station, which is one more hour to the city center.

This district (page 4) covers about 200 hectares, and mainly consists of residences, with an estimated population density of 20,000 people/km2. The block just South to the station consists of supermarkets, restaurants, convenience stores and other frequent uses for daily commute, as well as rented flats and small offices. The majority of others are closed residential superblocks with little commercial space in the perimeter, which supports limited street life. Planned civic services, such as community hospitals, kindergartens, and primary schools are distinctively different in the urban fabric.

The size of the block is 7.8 Hectares (page 8) and is entirely fenced without uses other than residential. There is a busy road to the north, with a bus stop to the northwest of the block. The continuous podium on the opposite side of the road includes limited restaurants, breakfasts, convenience stores, and metal workshops. A river runs to its west, which is now inaccessible to the public. A planned community hospital to its southeast is under construction, with a planned library, school and community center in further southeast.

The entire block is the phase-2 development of a luxury housing estate, with an estimated plot ratio of 1.3. The majority is 4-storey "urban villas" (figure 16), with two 240-m2 single-floor 3-bedroom flats around each staircase. The rest is 18-story slabs for affordable housing (figure 17), sharing the same landscape.

This design-led research assumes that the entire superblock were still vacant, and tried to develop it again. The plot ratio is targeted at 2.5, which is the estimated average of surrounding neighborhoods.

Built from contextlessness Similar developments usually start on large vacant land, often with little context other than minimal planned elements.

The urban master plan on the residential neighborhood was made in 2010 (figure 13), drawing roads, open landscape and civic services (purple and pink) within a clear boundary for development. This area was still agriculture land with self-built houses in 2011 (figure 14). Roads were built in early 2012, immediately followed by the construction of the housing, which is finished no later than April 2016 (figure 15).

The plan was executed precisely, transforming a large piece of agriculture land into inhabited neighborhoods.

[12] Site, situated in Shanghai [13] Site and surrounding areas, Land-use masterplan in 2011 [14] Site and surrounding areas, Sattelite view in April 2012 [15] Site and surrounding areas, Sattelite view in April 2016

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superblock Superblock, such as the site, is often used in master planning to facilitate extensive and rapid development. Their dimensions create unique challenges and opportunities.

The site is dimensioned by approximately 260m*310m, quite average in size of its surroundings. It has a 35m-wide road to its North with services and public transport, a 15m road to its east, and a 20m road to its south.

Superblocks built in the early 2000s nearer to the city center were even larger, up to 500m*500m. Having realized their disadvantages, the government has reduced the size of later ones. Usually, one superblock is divided into no more than 2 plots. In this way, fewer actors would be directly engaged, keeping the development simple and fast.

The major characteristic of the superblock is its extreme dimensions, which creates a gradient of conditions within itself. The middle could easily perform as a quiet and private residential landscape.

The accessible edge, closer to roads and streets, might be better for commercial space, collective use, or workspace, but closing the entire superblock with fences is shutting down these opportunities.

Pervasive conditions Similar conditions of vacant land or built environment are ubiquitous in China. This design intends to propose an altertive procurement model for such conditions.

Figures 16 and 17 show typical examples of such development in its early progress. The first one is located in Hongqiao town, Shanghai, 3 km from Hongqiao Airport and Railway station, and 16km from the city center. The second one is in Hefei (mentioned in page 6), 5 km from the city center. Roads are being constructed, construction has not yet started, but would probably complete in the next 6-10 years.

On one hand, this design-led research tries to propose an alternative delivery model for large pieces of land with little built context, where dozens of superblocks are planned to initiate at the same time. On the other hand, this proposed framework could fit with any urban development of a large scale, which could benefit from an open-ended process.

[16] Site, luxury housing [17] Site, affordable housing [18] Development on vacant land, Hoingqiao district, Shanghai [19] Development on vacant land, Luyang district, Hefei

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1.3 Legacy of discourse - between stantardization and differentiation

There is a long legacy of theoretical explorations and technical solutions on how to accommodate variation within standardized grids in different scales.

Housing by people, housing as a process It has long been argued that housing should be a process that is driven by the people - from the units to the shared spaces and facilities. It is critical to adapt the ethos in China, but it would face realistic challenges.

In the book "Housing by people - Towards Autonomy in Building Environment", John Turner Argued that housing should not be seen as only the final product, but also as instruments of accessibility, affordability, resourcefulness, and belongingness. These aspects could only be achieved by engaging the potential users in the process, allowing them to make own decisions of design and management.

Although his examples are limited to informality, developing countries have been carrying this idea in the formal economy, as can be seen in the following cases. Therefore, due to the lack of variety and user engagement in the widespread practices in China, it is even more critical to adapt the theories and practices into its particular context.

In 1961, John Habraken argued that the "Supports are part of the public domain and are permanent, while the infill belongs to the individual and is changeable. Public participation and freedom of choice of the user is the key objective."

He defined 3 separate yet coordinated levels of decision making: tissue, level, and support, and in each scale, there is respectively an ultimate customer who defines the "value": the municipality, the developer, and the dweller. He then argued that the subdivision of the housing process needs to reflect the scales of decision making and the definition of responsibilities between the parties, and that design skills are critical in bridging the gap between variation of space and standardization of production. In order to combine the framework of decision making and modularized construction, rules are made on dimensions, positions, and interfaces.

Nevertheless, the social and technological conditions in contemporary China poses new challenges. On one hand, building 2 or 3 story individual houses is different from a residential block of up to 30 floors, which requires another resolution for construction and decision making.

On the other hand, modern technology might greatly help with the engagement of nested actors and the customization of individuals.

[20] Housing by People, book coverage, by John Turner [21] Different levels of support, by John Habraken

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In R50, Berlin, a group of architect families comes together and designed a 6-floor open plan residence, with shared facilities on the ground and different layout on each floor. However, this process is not repeatable in larger scales.

In Berlin, 2 architect families started with assembling potential residents: artists, journalists, including themselves, who have quite specific needs for the dwelling units.

It was decided in the design and negotiation process that the structure would be flexible and unfinished. It turned out to consists of a long rectangular service core and an exterior skeleton structure with a surrounding continuous balcony, which supports different divisions and layout on every floor to suit the individual needs. It has a double-height common room on the ground with laundry and a shared kitchen on the rooftop. It took approximately 2 years to finish this project with a moderate cost.

The baugruppen concept in Tubingen has been a forerunner that is now deployed across Europe. However, it requires a long period and a strong culture of autonomy.

Starting in 1991, a masterplan was made to transform a former barracks area into a residential neighborhood. In the masterplan, morphologies were designed as perimeter blocks, plot sizes are flexible, while courtyards and ground floor are to be governed by the community for collective uses. In 1996, 3 experimental plots were given to Baugruppen groups - building partnerships of 5-30 households - which would commission the design and construction of their own future homes. Afterward, more groups of close friends, families, institutions, workshops, or small developers are engaged. The entire process lasted until 2011. The collective decision progress of individual "building partnerships" has led to diversity in building form and content, created a wide range of types in response to individual needs, workspace and amenities.

The municipality played an important role, in that it gave priority to these small Baugruppens over commercial developers, provides legal and financial support, and bringing in banks and mortgages. Besides, 4-5 government employees need to be on the site full time. Price was kept 10-15% below the market because the potential users could contribute their own efforts and decide where to spend the budget.

However, due to the pressure of quantum and time, as well as a lack of expertise and autonomy, these cases could not be directly copied in China. Therefore, this study tries to devise a comprehensive solution that addresses the unique challenges.

Most importantly, there are too many variations in these successful cases to be industrially produced. Structural components and furnishing elements must be reduced to a limited amount, but still able to compose a certain extent of variety.

Secondly, we have been used to the "top-down" governance, which has successfully facilitated the quantitative development in the past few decades. Yet, even if we would want to, there is not enough personnel and expertise to afford such a supportive process like Tubingen.

Whatsmore, there is little public awareness of how architecture could support diverse ways of life. The proposed framework intends to introduce various domestic and shared environments in simulated environments before actual construction, which could hopefully accelerate the evolution of the housing market.

[22] R50, 6 plans overlayed together, Berlin, 2013 [23] Tubingen, subdivisions and various buildings [24] Tubingen, timeline

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Grid as an urban regulatory tool If we accept superblocks of limited dimensions and single ownership as an effective instrument to accelerate development, then we should explore how profound governance ensures the aggregate of superblocks could support rich civic life.

In 1930s, Group OSA explored the potential of the 3*3 grid to accomodate diversity in different scales.

However, they did not consider actual inhabited space, standardized construction, or a multiscalar decision making process.

In a competition for mass produced housing for a suburban town Magnitogorsk, Group OSA proposed such a multi-scalar grid for the New Soviet society. A neutralized urban grid is superimposed upon a hilly topography, making every plot equally accessible to everyone. He intends to accomodate a range of public uses within the urban pattern, as well as individuality within the floorplan. Each adult has his/her own room (bottom), which is equally accessed to the central common kitchen & bathroom, while children are raised in communal areas. The boundless geometry is intended to mechanically multiply endelessly, without engaging architects.

The reasoning of different scales are quite coherent in the way the part-to-whole relationship is addressed. However, despite his political intentions, Leonidov's explorations are quite theoretical. The grid is treated more as a geometric pattern, but not as regulatory framework or functional landscape in defined space. Neither are actual inhabited space or standardized construction considered in the floorplans.

On the other hand, the Manhattan grid strictly regulates the use of land while allowing complete freedom and diversity inside each grid.

Compared with negotiative planning in the UK or the extremely prescriptive planning Germany, planning in the US only designates landuse, so that maximum freedom is allowed in each plot.

Nevertheless, the dimension and subdivision of the manhattan plots are critical. The blocks are only 80 meters wide and are divided into two rolls of much smaller plots on both sides. Therefore, each actor has no choice but to face the street, which in turn creates a myriad of uses and interfaces. However, there are not enough smaller investors in the periphery of Chinese cities, and the superblocks need to be more carefully divided to gain diversity while retaining the accessibility of the middle.

[26] Plan of Manitorgorsk, Team OSA, urban scale [27] Plan of Manitorgorsk, Team OSA, block scale [28] Drawing from "Delirious New York"

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In the 1960s, Constantinos Doxidas addressed Housing as infrastructure, which should have the capacity to integrate various practices and networks in all scales.

When he working on large urban extensions in the global south in the 1960s, he addressed housing as infrastructure: "building blocks of new environments should have the capacity to integrate various practices and networks", and he argued that "planners and architects should be initiators of the development and steward of the process", "in which various other urban stakeholders plays a prime role."

His design of housing infrastructure was diversified in its variety of typologies and diversifiable in its intrinsic capacity to respond to growth and change. He viewed the aggregate of housing into larger entities as rational, as elementary forms of housing with straight walls and right angles could compose in-between spaces of rudimentary nature but able to accommodate collective practices (figure 29).

Constantinos Dixidas illustrates the importance of multiscalar reasoning, especially in that the form of housing matters in the composition of shared civic spaces. However, the density is quite low, and it requires planners and developers to make the right decisions from the outset, not only on land use but also morphology.

Our design workshop in AA in Ebbsfleet (figure 30) intends to capture a dynamic value set by interweaving different lines for the negotiation between various actors, spaces and programs.

In designing an alternative procurement method in a large vacant land in Ebbsfleet, London, we overlapped different layers of lines. It is expected to be developed gradually, with constant negotiation and adjustments. Depending on the stage of development and the distance to the civic "anchors", the blocks range from 3-8 hectares. Different types of voids ensure open spaces and productive landscapes. Plots are deliberately divided not according to roads or voids, (for example, roads and void might be in the middle of a plot) so that each actor has the responsibility to manage its own share of street life and landscape. Different land ownership patterns, such as purchase and sale, purchase for rent, or rented land, are encouraged, so as to drive different tenancy and typologies. All land is further divided into subplots, each one is assigned a viability value that ensures contribution to the wider area. Actors are compulsory to negotiate and agree upon the design, construct, and management of certain zones.

This framework is expected to ensure a wide range of actors and types by superimposing different urban elements. Nevertheless, it requires much more effort in planning, a long period of time, and a strong culture of autonomy.

[29] Plan of a typical community in Islamabad, Constantinos Doxidas [30] Overlayed regulation lines and the outcome, Dynamic Value Matrix

While superblocks of few ownerships are effective in initiating fast development, these examples might provide theoretical and practical tools in which the superblocks could be governed. If the single investor could take the responsibility of gathering actors, the superblock could potentially accomodate a gradient of uses by its depth.

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Grid for construction and flexibility In order to better accommodate further variety, as well as to mass produce by standardization, an initial architectural grid is often designed, so that fixed elements are limited to a structural minimum.

Starting from the Dom-Ino Structure by Corbusier, architects have long been looking for a standardized grid to accommodate variations.

Particularly in housing, pipelines need to be embedded to support wet areas. Lake Shore Drive (figure 36) is a perfect example of such a homogeneous open structure with free divisions.

On the other hand, in Diagoon Housing designed by Herman Herzberger (figure 34), he tried to keep the concept of the open structure while designing with architectural quality. Around 2 wet cores in the corner, 4 L-shaped floor plates stagger on top of each other by half-story height, which leave a sun-lit atrium in the middle. The quality inherent in the space was greatly enhanced, while the overall flexibility is compromised to some extent - but it doesn't matter since only 2 houses have been adjusted since its initial completion.

[31] Abalos & Herreros’ Housing & City, Barcelona, 1988 [32] Next 21, Osaka, Japan, 1994

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[33] Dom-Ino house, Le Corbusier, 1914 [34] Diagoon House, Delft, Herman Hertzberger, 1971 [35] Duinker van der torre, Amsterdam, 1989 [36] Lake Shore Drive, Mies Van de Rohe, 1909

Other types of structure on the previous page also demonstrate inherent characteristics within the open structure. Plan of Housing & City by Inaki Abalos (figure 31) is a cross-ventilated linear block with potential corridors on both sides. Next 21 in Japan (figure 32) is a U-shaped block with shifting intervals between columns to accommodate shared areas.

Duinker van der torre (figure 35) in Amsterdam is a long rectangular block with circulating free spaces around 3 concentrated wet areas.

Metabolism architecture emphasis the change over time, but Nakagin capsule tower have seldom been changed afterwards.

Both Archigram and Metabolism architecture take the idea of "fixed infrastructure and flexible" to the extreme, imagining the city to be constantly updating and changing. In Nakagin capsule tower, pipelines and joints are embedded in the cores, while wires and furniture is exbedded in the modules. In such a way, the modules can be desposible. Nevertheless, even its conditions is deterioration, nakagin capsule tower has seldom been plugged in and out as expected.

However, it directly lead to the modular construction technique.

Therefore, in this proposal, it is argued that the potential of such an architectural grid lies in the open endedness of the process.

As Diagoon Housing and Nakagin Capsule Tower have seldom been changed after its initial completion, simply building open structure in semi-peripheral conditions and anticipating future changes might not be enough.

Nevertheless, if the process is designed to be open to various actors and supports, then these structures could have the potential of assembling differences in its "first shot". Therefore, this design-led research tries to design the modular architectural grid in relation to the process, with embedded spatial characteristics and regulations.

[37] Plug-in CIty, 1964 [38] Metabolism architecture drawing [39] Nakagin Capsule Tower, 1972, Module

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In 1971, a group deviced PSSHAK (primary support structures and housing assembly kits), which allows the customization of units, but neither the reasoning nor the quantum of this project reached larger scales.

By PSSHAK, potential residents could customize the dimension of rooms according to certain rules and patterns (for example, certain sets of room dimensions must be aligned together). A set of exemplary layouts is made to give the potential resident advice. Afterward, panels would be industrially produced and assembled on Adelaide Road, Camden, London.

Nevertheless, the customization is limited to the private realm (though no information concerning the actual unit types could be found), and there are no shared facilities.

Morphologies turned out to be the same (different from expectations in figure 43), the environment is nice yet homogeneous. The scale of development is also limited (approximately 0.5 hectares and 45 dwellings), which might lead to difficulties in assembling different lifestyles.

Realistic limitations might have compromised its ambition. The potential residents probably had to customize the plan by hand drawing without any visualization or artificial intelligence (figure 41). Construction and manufacturing technology also might have restricted the use of more dynamic variations.

[40] PSSHAK, model as built, London, 1971 [41] PSSHAK, drawing, customizing unit plan [42] PSSHAK, drawing, configuration for choice [43] PSSHAK, drawing, patterns of assemblage

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1.4 New opportunities: Information technology and prefabrication

Modern technological advancements might significantly help with overcoming the difficulties that hindered previous endeavors, while challenging the traditional role of architects.

Information technology Internet, Interactive user interface, artificial intelligence and data management could greatly help with the design and governance of a smart process.

In 2019, GSD student Stanislas Chaillou devised ArchiGAN, a Generative Adversarial Neural Networks to design residential floor plans.

By deep learning from a database of images in the GPU, this artificial intelligence is trained to perform 3 tasks: footprint massing, program repartition, and furniture layout. By inputting the profile of plan, windows, and entrances, it could partition the space into a living, bedroom, closet, kitchen, bathroom, and circulation, and then lay out the furniture accordingly. Currently, its abilities to coordinate across floors and to output vectors are limited.

This could greatly help the normal household with customization of the individual unit, deal with different constraints, and tackle space planning at larger scales. It also could potentially free the architect from designing infinite variations of unit plans.

[44] ArchiGan, Generation stack in three models, 2019 [45] ArchiGan, Results of model II: program, 2019

AA DRL group Oikos is exploring an algorithm and interface that could configure shared spaces according to individual preferences.

By exploring through gaming and simulations, they aimed a framing a system that allows the rich exchange of relations between individuals to have a direct impact on the overall spatial configuration of their communities.

Each unit and player is given a set of properties, such as surrounding units, willingness to share, light and view, etc. By inputting multiple agents (potential residents with different preferences) into an algorithm, it could configure the final architectural outcome: assigning units for various dwellers, spaces for shared facilities, terraces, or service cores.

However, despite a fancy and costly form, it imagines the system to be completely automatic, without identifying where and when should there be control and decision making.

Other websites or apps are also helping people group together to shared flats, negotiate and make decisions. Meanwhile, the government and big companies in China are also working together to provide "data service as infrastructure".

[46] Oikos 2.0, Optimized output from multi-agents, 2019 [47] Oikos 2.0, 3D aggregation, 2019

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Prefabrication One of the biggest advantages of prefabrication is quick in-situ construction. This could potentially save more time for design and customization.

Compared to traditional methods, modern prefabrication has many advantages: better quality with a similar cost, less urban pollution, less requirement for on-site expertise, less use of concrete, etc. Most importantly, it takes much less time to assemble the parts on site.

It only took 19 days on-site to build the skyscraper J57 in China (figure 48). The structure is composed of core, skeleton-facade and thickened floorplates (about 6m*12m*200mm). The interior furnishing is being made during the structural assemblage.

A different technique is used in the mix-use development of Quayside, Toronto (figure 49). The structure is completed first, kitchen and bathroom modules are inserted afterward, followed by assembling panels for other rooms.

This technique requires detailed design of components at an early age, and further changes are limited. However, if the structural components could adapt into various morphologies, it could save time for earlier architectural design before the assemblage.

Manufactures are more willing to work with developers to provide more customized homes In a publishment "Factory-made housing - A solution for London?", it is pointed out that with better prefab techniques, the developer is willing to work closely with the manufacturer, which could reduce risk and cut the cost by a more steady supply.

Moreover, as RIBA DFMA (design-for-manufacture) strategy outlines, the scale at which manufactured elements are to be employed should be decided early in the process, which ‘will include a consideration of components manufactured offsite, to determine which will add value without constraining creativity’. In this way, benefits of standardization are retained, while architects could still design with context and character. In the ‘House’ development by Urban Splash in Manchester (figure 50), the developer gave consumers different options through selected combinations, with a focus on how space would support the way of life.

[48] J57, modular construction in China, 2015 [49] Quayside, Canada, 2019 [50] Modular construction, in FMH publication [51] Scheme for "Urban Splash" development, Manchester

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1.5 Conclusion

This chapter started with the unique challenges of China: speed, numbers, and lack of expertise and autonomy. These aspects are great obstacles in achieving diverse housing types and building urban areas that could support a rich civic life.

Although cases like Tubingen have successfully carried the ethos of "housing by people" in a formalized context, it needs to be adapted to overcome these critical challenges in China.

Therefore, a procurement model needs to be designed, which requires much less time and effort than in developed countries, but could achieve much more than contemporary widespread practices.

On one hand, we could look at urban regulatory tools that could better regulate the superblocks, so that it becomes a tool of fast development while still able to accommodate a variety of forms and contents by its depth. Data technology might greatly help with managing the anticipated diversity.

On the other hand, if designed carefully, prefabricated components might greatly help with reducing construction time and composing different morphologies. If combined with a modularized open structure, it could offer a range of choices.

Ideally, if we could combine the rules of divisions and governance with the modular grid of construction, and apply it to multiple scales, we could start to imagine how it could establish a dynamic and open-ended process.

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Chapter 2 - the Proposed process

This design-led research proposes a repeatable procurement model that is open-ended and user-driven across scales.

The first part of this chapter explains the general reasoning and principles in the procurement model: Hypothetically, how does it coordinate different scales, how could it be open-ended, how is it feasible in time and cost, and how are the roles of actors redefined.

The second part goes through each progressive scales: the urban district, the superblock, the cluster, and the floorplate. They illustrate principles and processes in each step, designs conceptual construction methods, and demonstrates how this process is unique through exemplary scenarios.

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1. The city authority would set a loose framework on planned infrastructure, civic facilities, open spaces, as well as quantitative parameters.

6. Potential dwellers would decide on the shared spaces and facilities.

7. Inidividual spaces are guaranteed and finalized in the structure.

8. Finally, modules are quickly assembled on site.

2. The developer would design the grid and components, consult architects for general spatial rules, and start to gather big actors and individual preferences.

3. Cores are constructed on a grid, structural components are prefabricated, and major secondary actors are engaged.

5. Complex floorplans are designed by architects after enough data output. Basic structures are quickly assembled on site. Rules of facade and ground are refined.

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4. Indicative forms are created, and an online community is built.

Discussions and mutual feedback would influence the design.

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2.0.1 Outline of fr amework

The objective This research intends to propose a responsive and open-ended housing procurement model. On one hand, it aims to engage end-users and actors in earlier stages, which would reconfigure each progressive scale from bottom-up. On the other hand, it tries to set up a structure to anticipate and support various uses, and design rules to regulate and intervene for the collective goods. Therefore, this thesis focuses on illustrating overarching principles to coordinate the part-to-whole relationships in multiple scales.

The complex solution The proposed process consists of 4 progressive scales:

The urban district,

The superblock,

The cluster,

The floor plate.

3 major tools are implemented throughout these scales:

Framework of open-support,

Grid of universal adaptability,

Rules of spatial aggregate.

A technical and regulatory grid is applied across multiple scales, which allows the simultaneous taking place of prefabrication, user engagements, and making design decisions. This in turn postpones the structural assemblage of each progressive step, which would be open to adjustments along the way.

The phases of the process cut across scales, in that it allows construction and negotiation to take place at the same time. In doing so, the result of a quick in-situ construction would happen at a later stage when a thorough engagement of actors and design decisions has taken place.

In each progressive scale, a set of nested actors would be engaged according to a prefixed grid framework of a higher level. Deriving from data management and individual preferences, actors would be grouped.

A set of limits would be created on how the parts could be assembled, which would coordinate the actors in this scale and the overall coherence in the higher level. It could then be translated into the prefixed grid in the next scale. Simultaneously, large numbers of components would be prefabricated, which could be adapted into different morphologies and building parts. In later stages when the design is settled, those components will be quickly assembled.

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[2.0.2] The wide spread linear process (top)

Floorplate

Cluster

SUperblock

Urban district Stage 1

Stage 3 Stage 2

Stage 4

[2.0.3] Proposed process in matrix (right)

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Multiple scales The urban district The urban district is the scale in which dozens of superblock-project would often initiate at the same time.

Based on the proposed alternative delivery model for each project, this design-led research tries to find new ways of governance that could ensure a variety of programs and rich civic life.

The superblock The superblock, usually 5-10 hectares, is regarded as the typical scale of a single development, to which the proposed procurement model would be applied.

Through this open-ended process, it should be able to accommodate a gradient of programs, environments and housing types by its depth.

The cluster The cluster is the scale where people could directly feel the “genius loci�, usually a place surrounded by several immediate buildings.

In this scale, form, facade, dimensions and landscape, and interfaces on the ground should together compose a coherent architectural experience, and programs shall closely interact.

The floorplate The floorplate often consists of one type of coherent structure, yet should incorporate various units that share the same way of life.

While freedom is allowed in individual units, the relationship between the domestic spaces and the shared environment should be carefully designed.

[2.0.4] Four scales

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Over arching rules Fr amework of open suppport The framework of open-support (purple) is the rules of divisions and negotiation in every stage.

[2.2.2] Superblock: Zoning, ground, and subplots, P46

Superblock and floorplates are initially differentiated, and potential ownership divisions are drawn according to the structural grid so that actors can engage and divide at any stage.

Grid of universal adaptibility The grid of universal adaptability (red) is a set of modular lines and components.

Structural and furnishing components and made in a 600mm module, which aggregate into the grid of larger scales (30-60m). It allows the prefabrication of components along the user-engagement and design process.

[2.4.1] Floorplate: Rules and divisions embedded in structure, P84

Rules of spatial aggregate Rules of spatial aggregate (blue) is a set of fixes and flexes to uphold spatial value for the collective goods.

Architects would design the guidelines, which typically include: hierarchy and clustering, openings on the ground, facade limits, and the design of the circulatory environment.

Exemplary scenarios A set of exemplary scenarios demonstrates how the process is different, and how it could deliver thedesired content and quality.

[2.2.11] Composing space: hierarchy, facade, and permeable ground, P56

These drawings are often overlayed by the previous lines and explained by text describing a particular process.

[2.3.2] Cluster: Ground floor plan, P68

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fr amework of open-support

Grid of universal adabtability

Rules of spatial aggregate

Exemplary outcome

[2.0.3.L] Proposed process in matrix

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The urban district

The superblock

The cluster

The Floorplate

P40: Synergy around civic facilities

P57: Gathering the actors

P79: Simulation and feedback

P93: Customization of unit

P39: Infrastructural network

P51: Cores on grid

P77: Coordinating ground

P89: Five structure prototypes

P40: Regulating the public domain

P55: Composing the space

P69: Assemblage into complex cluster

P97: Complex floorplates

P40: Responsive and profound governance

P63: Scenario - Differentiated overall scheme

P81: Scenario - complex typologies

P100: Scenarios - Domestic plans and grouping of units

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List of key dr awings

Outline of process P20: [2.0.1] The overall process in multiple scales

Loose and profound governance P34: [2.1.1] Urban district: Regulatory lines and nested actors P36: [2.1.2] Urban district: A radical drawing of cores on different grids

Gathering actors and initial data

P94: [2.4.5] Unit: Customization

P89: [2.4.4] Five structure prototypes

P70: [2.3.3] Choices of morphological environment

P46: [2.2.2] Superblock: Zoning, ground, and subplots

Simulation and feedback SHARED KITCHEN

MIGRANT WORKER ACOOMODATION COUPLE

STUDENT HOUSING COMPANY CO-WORK GYM BACHELOR COLLEGE STUDENT BACHELOR YOUNG COUPLE

S P A C E CANTEEN P80: [2.3.13] Adjusting customization 27

P84: [2.4.1] Rules and divisions P86: [2.4.2] Floorplate: Nested embedded in structure actors

P66: [2.3.1] Cluster: Fixes and Flexes on groundfloor plan

Grid and component

P44: [2.2.1] Superblock: Grid, cores and development platforms

P54: [2.2.9] 3 types of cores P54: [2.2.10] Beams & columns

P76: [2.3.8] Facade components

P95: [2.4.8] Tertiary structure, panels, and slates

Coordinating the spatial aggregate

P48: [2.2.3] Superblock: Hierarchy, facade, and permeable ground

P72: [2.3.5] Facade: Four variant elements

P75: [2.3.7] Floorplan of the handsketch

P98: [2.4.10] Example of complex floorplate

Scenarios and outcomes - larger scales

P50, 64: [2.2.4] Superblock: Outcome of form, structure, and mixed uses on ground

P38, 42: [2.1.4] Urban district: Variety of morphologies and integrated public spaces

P59: [2.2.13] Superblock: handsketch

Scenarios and outcomes - smaller scales

P68, 82: [2.3.2] Cluster: Ground floor plan

P73: [2.3.6] Cluster: Handsketch

P88, 102: [2.4.3] Floorplate: a P96: [2.4.6] Unit: Space and variety of units material

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2.0.2 Multiscalarity is key to the sollution

Multitude makes possible The quantum of such development makes it economically and structurally feasible to assemble variety.

First of all, the larger the numbers, the less the cost. In factory-made housing, a considerable amount of money would be spent on setting up the production line: machines, programming, and models. Therefore, the larger the development, the less each component would cost. Fortunately, China is probably the only country with both huge housing needs and a strong manufacturing industry.

Meanwhile, only a larger site could accommodate a wider range of individual preferences. In a single building like R50, the structure is always consistent in each floor, which is limited in accommodating a wider range of unit types. Nevertheless, a superblock might incorporate various living environments by different clusters (pavilions, courtyards, and linear slabs). Moreover, each cluster could include different types of structures (double-loaded corridor, maisonette, or open office space).

In this sense, only by investigating into multiple scales comprehensively, can the development might not be able to assemble the expected differences by complex architectural types.

Uniting the part-to-whole relationships

A Single building cannot accomodate variety, while a superblock can.

[2.0.5] Multitude makes possible

There is a part-to-whole relationship in and between every scale, across which this design-led research establishes a coherent reasoning.

Each different scale has its nature: the design of units should be driven by users to meet diversified needs, while the assemblage of a big urban district should be able to integrate different programs and accommodate changes. Nevertheless, this thesis argues that they could be reasoned with a coherent logic: Each scale requires a certain extent of variety and spontaneity, as well as regulations for the greater goods. For example, certain circulatory environment and shared spaces should be collective designed when units aggregate into a floorplate; Facade, orientation, and ground floor openings should be regulated when composing a cluster by several buildings; Spatial hierarchy should be considered in relation to development platforms and phasing when the superblock is divided into clusters.

The previous tools are therefore designed in order to coordinate variety in each partto-whole relationship. They together draw the limits for actors of different stage, ensure the role of architects in designing spatial quality, and enable the assemblage of components in every scale.

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Coherent tools and reasoning across scales [2.0.3.b] Proposed process in matrix

multiple simultaneous processes This proposal allows the simultaneous taking place of prefabrication and user-engagement, which makes time for data-processing and making design decisions.

This research designs a construction component toolkit of 600mm module. With a limited set of beams, cores might join together to evolve into different morphologies. Components in the unit might also be used in different ways.

Thus, the manufacturer could start the production line for prefabrication in the first place. At the same time, they could engage secondary actors, gather individual preferences, and design spatial guidelines. In this way, the duration of design decisions might be extended to up to 2 years, instead of 3 months.

responsive and open-ended framework In this way, the in-situ assemblage is postponed to a later stage, and the architectural outcome would be determined by ongoing coordination and design.

[2.0.6] The linear process in comparison to the proposed process.

Specifically speaking, it is the 600m module of adaptable components that enables the developer to layout cores in a 50.4m grid without finalizing the morphological design, as well as to prefab the basic building structure without detailed unit plans.

In this way, morphology would be determined only in a later stage when enough information has been gathered so that architects could decide upon the complex structural types. Similarly, The actual section and floorplate would only be assembled at last when commercial and workspace have fully engaged and residents have grouped together and decided on the shared spaces. And it is the postponing of design that makes time for the ongoing customization and negotiation.

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2.0.3 Redefining the roles

Within the proposed framework, the ideal roles of different actors are redefined.

The authority The authority should be responsible for loose but profound governance.

In the widespread practice, the city authority makes a prescriptive plan in the first place, and afterward, the local authority ensures the execution of the plan.

The German planning system is strictly prescriptive (figure 52), even regulating the morphology. In contrast, planning in the US draws a clear boundary of minimum requirements, so that maximum individual freedom is allowed. However, although authorities in China have more power to intervene within the plots, they don't have enough expertise.

Instead, this proposal enables the governance to be carried more profoundly without the necessity to set up a rigorous masterplan from the outset (see page 40-44). The central government would need to set up new legal and financial to facilitate more nested ownership patterns.

Due to the size of the superblock, less negotiation is required between actors, but professional expertise would be necessary to supervise the process.

The developer This proposal requires the developer to engage the actors and to closely collaborate with manufacture and data management.

In the traditional procedure, the developer often commissions a single architect to design the housing, and sells them without changing the scheme. In successful cases in developed countries like Accordia, the developer could engage several architects to design a much wider range of variety, but there is a shortage of expertise and time in China.

With social and economic advancement, certain developers will be willing to provide housing with better quality. Nevertheless, this model challenges the him in that he is responsible for building up a support framework (websites, software, construction methods, land divisions, etc.) and bringing together a range of actors (residents, commercial, offices, managing companies, etc.) from the outset when the plot is still vacant land.

The developer would need to closely work with the prefab company, or own a manufacturing sector by itself. Data management also poses great challenges, although recent advancements are very promising in providing new controversial solutions for extracting individual preferences, grouping of units, and configuring conceptual space.

[52] Masterplan of the north part of the site [53] Bebauungsplan, Germany [54] Accordia, design of 3 architects, 2011

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The nested actors A range of nested actors, from managing companies to end-users, would contribute their customized design. In return, the developer build their ideal space.

Typical secondary actors are those who would take much more than a unit: companies that provide serviced living (hotel, student dorms or home for elderly), employers providing dwelling for employees, serviced and shared workspaces, commercial management, and medium companies. Smaller actors include single unit residents, group of families, shopfronts and small workshops. By coming together in one development, the residences could more easily share an integrated neighborhood and coherent environment.

In the proposed scheme, the potential occupier does not need to have a large amount of expertise. With help from architects and AI, they would contribute their customized design of flats (page 96), preferences of environments (page 70), and structural types (page 90), as well as be regarded as specific market needs and voluntary designers. In return, the developer would build what they want, and would only charge fees in the later stage when he can guarantee the sales.

The architect

[55] Isolated workers accomodation in the periphery of Shanghai

These seperated residences for workers would be much better if in an integrated neighborhood in proximity to the factory.

In this case, the role of the architect into parts: consulting for customization, upholding collective spatial values, and designing the assemblage.

In the widespread practice in China, the architect would mainly "design" the repeated housing in a short period. In successful cases in Europe, Architects are responsible for designing every variation.

In contrast, this proposal frees the architect from composing endless variations and drawing different construction details.

Instead, the architect would play a prime role in using simple components to design complex spaces, as well as assembling the spatial parts into the whole. He would set up an initial scheme for spatial hierarchy within the superblock (page 55), design rules for the facade (page 73), assemble prototypical structures into complex typologies (page 97), and compose forms and shared spaces in the cluster (page 73). He needs to play an active part in upholding spatial values for collective goods.

[2.4.5.a], P94

Moreover, the urban planner might consult architects to design coherent open spaces on a larger scale, and end-users might consult architects for their individual customization.

[2.3.2.a], P94

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Chapter 2.1 - The urban area

In a typical urban district that this design-led research intends to investigate, dozens of superblock-projects would often initiate at the same time.

The very nature of this open-ended process in each block enables an alternative way of loose and profound governance, which could ensure a variety of functions and rich civic life. This chapter briefly describes the development process and governing principles.

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S ij in g M e tr

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Areas of anticipated synergy around planned civic facilities

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Open ground with public uses Darker: Open landscape Mixed use Buildings Residential buildings Darker: taller buildings 1:5000 In A3

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2.1.1 Beyond the land use plan

If we see the district as the aggregate of the "new" open-ended and responsive superblocks, then it could potentially perform and be developed differently under loose and profound governance.

Infr astructur al network Similar to the traditional process, the authority would be responsible for infrastructural networks and setting basic parameters.

As usual, roads will be drawn on the greenfield land, water and electricity would be supplied, and plots will be divided. River networks will be cleansed and dredged.

Considering the great pressure of urbanization we are faced with, this design-led research does not intend to argue with controversial practices of occupying agriculture land and forbidding informality.

The municipality would set an anticipated carrying capacity, as well as a vocation for larger districts, but these parameters should only act as guidelines, and will be contested by local authority and actors during the responsive process.

Regulating the public domain The authority would initially set up loose regulatory lines to ensure coherent public domains, as well as anticipate a gradient of nonresidential use around the edge of superblocks.

In the normal practice, open plazas and parks are precisely planned, and then built and managed by the government. They account for around 10% of the total land. The residential developers do not have the responsibility of providing and maintaining public open spaces, and nor the responsibility to relate to them. In Dynamic Value Matrix (figure 56, and refer to page 12), we tried to ensure that the developers would take responsibility by interweaving the "Void" with the plot divisions.

In this proposal, similarly, open spaces penetrate large superblocks, for which its single developer is responsible (drawing 2.1.1). These areas are indicative in form, but the developer is compulsory (blue areas with strips) to build and maintain it without fences. Meanwhile, policies shall be established to support certain small businesses and other nonresidential uses, and the authority should make sure that they have been taken into consideration in each development (see page 77, Coordinating ground) so that they take full advantage of the edge and create different ground environments (drawing 2.1.3).

[2.1.1.a], P34; [2.1.3.a], P38

[56] Interwoven lines, Dynamic Value Matrix

Thick red solid lines stands for ownership divisions, yellow for Void. These lines established a framework of responsibility and negotiation.

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Synergy around civic facilities Instead of prescribing plots and uses, the authority would draw the zones for potential civic facilities, which would provide an evolving context on vacant land.

In the normal practice, public institutions would be the "primary actor" who directly build on prescribed plots in the land-use masterplan, such as schools, hospitals, libraries, etc (figure 7 & 13).

This procurement model provides an alternative. For example, the local authority might instead identify a zone where there would certainly be a middle school without defining the plot (red zone in drawing 2.1.2.a), while the developer would start building cores. Simultaneously, the public educational institution and other potential actors might come together and establish a virtual context on such vacant land.

Progressively, we could start to imagine that the middle school might form partnerships with a community library, technical schools, sports facilities or private educational institutions. These "secondary actors" would design their own architecture (drawing 2.1.3) and buy the cores as subplots (purple lines in drawing 2.1.2). Afterward, the developer would simply provide the construction service with the same set of components. Other potential partnerships might include hospitals & cared living, technical schools & workshops, etc.

In this way, by zoning but not prescribing the civic facilities, the masterplan would generate an evolving virtual context on large vacant land. Thus, during the open-ended process, secondary actors could achieve better synergies of function, form, and open spaces.

[2.1.2.a], P36; [2.1.3.b], P38

A scenario of possible partnerships around a highschool, refer to text for more description

breaking down the super block By previous means, conditions are established that it would be better for the superblocks to subdivide and respond to urban elements.

Two of the reasons for the superblock being closed are prescriptive planning and speculativeness. On one hand, the masterplan would only designate little commercial space in the residential neighborhood, which always turns out to be podiums along the road. On the other hand, most developers are not willing to take the risk to build non-residential floorplates, which would take much longer to find tenants and recover the cost.

[57] The design of an open high school with multiple partnerships embedded in its form, by Un Teng Sou, 2020

This procurement model address these issues. The masterplan does not prescribe plot or quantum. Instead, it uses planned elements as potential context to establish different conditions in the superblocks, where potential actors would have their various preferences of space and location. In this way, the developer would not build speculatively.

For example, on the north side of the bus stop next to the site (drawing 2.1.3.c), the cores are laid out in an orthodox way. If there are quite a lot of small workshops and offices that are interested, the developer could even build a secondary road and deepen the second row of blocks to accommodate logistics and non-residential uses.

[2.1.3.c], P38

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2.1.2 Responsive and profound governance

Because the outcome can always be adjusted along the way, supervision and intervention could be carried throughout the process.

During the process, actors could be engaged in any stage, and if the local authority is updated, he could make policies accordingly.

In this proposal, actors could commission an entire cluster, buy single cores, rent a part of a building, or customize units. Hopefully, developers and the local authority could share the same database of the potential urban ecology: composition of residents, local businesses, land prices, etc.

Therefore, policies could be made macroscopically during the process. For example, the need for housing might be lower than expected in certain areas, while the central government advises encouraging manufacturing industries. In this case, minor subsidies could be provided for developers to build some of the cores into mix-use factories (see the blocks in the southwest corner).

Meanwhile, during the open-ended process, the authority could intervene with the design of architecture.

Because of the open endedness of the process, the authority could always advise the design of form and open spaces before the structure is assembled. It could attract certain businesses and encourage certain types of dwellings before the modules are finally assembled. Meanwhile, the local authority could also engage in a "superblock in progress" as a secondary actor, and provide social housing or other public services.

Ideally, such profound and precise intervention could be carried out if the authority is armed with professional expertise.

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Chapter 2.2 - the Superblock

The superblock, usually 5-10 hectares, is regarded as the typical scale of a single development. By utilizing the difference of the edge and the middle of the superblock, this process could lead to a gradient of uses on the ground and differentiated residential environments.

This chapter starts with illustrating the initiating steps of such a development: prefabricating components, subdividing the block to engage actors, and designing spatial guidelines. Afterward, it illustrates how this proposal would lead to better outcomes in the later stage by several exemplary scenarios.

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Grid for cores Development platforms ( / unconstructed) Cores ( / unconstructed) Salable subplots Build limits for subplots Indicated volumns Hydrology network

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Facade of strict control Facade of continuous control Transparent ground Landscape in cluster Central green space Permeable ground 1:1350 In A3

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2.2.1 Cores on grid The developer would start with elements that could be fixed: excavating the development platform, constructing the cores according to a grid, and prefabricating beams and columns.

The development flatforms determine the location of soft landscape and potential clustering. Depending on regulations from the authority, cores would be placed on the grid, which leaves openings, as well as suggests orientation and quantum distribution.

Carefully designed dimensions between cores allow them to be potentially connected by a limited set of beams and columns. In the sample site, the target plot ratio is 2.5, and the development is divided into 2 phases.

Development platforms The concrete basement could be viewed as development platforms, which relate to phasing, clustering, garage, and distribution of soft landscape.

In contemporary practices, it is required to provide 0.8 car park for every 100m2 GFA (average standard), which is usually built as an underground garage to not compromise the quality of the environment. These spaces also serve as compulsory protection from airstrikes. In a plot with a FAR (Floor to Area Ratio) of 2.5, this basement would occupy 80% of the entire land.

[2.2.5] Diagram of development platforms, clusters, and landscape

These development platforms are the hard base on which future structure could be easily built, while the non-built areas are often covered by a thin layer of landscape (pavement, grass, bushes or small trees). Thus, the design of development platforms directly relates to future clustering and landscape, and it should be regulated by the authority to ensure better conditions for hydrology and vegetation.

In the sample site (drawing 2.2.1), a large piece of soft landscape is kept in the middle of the block for big trees and hydrology, and the development platforms are designed to overlap with the intended cluster (diagram 2.2.5 top). The site in the north shows an alternative (diagram 2.2.5 bottom, drawing 2.2.5.a), which allows dense vegetation within a cluster, but limits the potential of future morphologies.

[2.2.1.a], P44

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dimension and orientation of the grid The developer decides the dimensions and orientation of the grid which is indicative of use, relationship to surroundings, and potential clustering.

The dimension of the grid is designed so that however the cores are placed, they can always be joined together by the given set of primary beams and columns (for example, 37.2m, 43.2m, 50.4m). The grid would also determine the density.

The orientation also needs to be decided in the first place. For example, the sample site applies a 45-degree tilt, which is better for solar orientation, but it could not respond to the street. In contrast, in the site across the road, an orthodox grid might better relate to the street, while a secondary street could further facilitate logistics.

Other variations could also lead to different suggestive spatial characteristics (drawing 2.1.2, 2.1.3).

[58] Barbican masterplan, London, 1982

[2.2.6] Redesigning barbican with the same cores

[2.2.3.a], P50

[2.1.1.b], P34; [2.1.2.b], P36; [2.1.3.c], P38

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3 types of cores 3 types of cores are placed on the gird with care, suggesting internal layout, volume, height, function, and potential grouping.

There are 3 types of cores. The small core could support 4000m2, typically a 5-floor pavilion, or a point block around 10 floors. The medium one could support 8000m2, typically 8-floor mix-use pavilion with considerable depth, or up to 27-floor tower with 3-4 households on each floor. The large core could support 12000m2, such as a highrise residence, or complex typologies that could better fit more urban conditions.

They could also join together to form a big shed or a courtyard (see page 98 for complex floorplates).

In this case, there are 20 small cores, 13 medium cores, and 1 big core, adding up to 19,600 m2, which matches plot ratio 2.5. The bigger cores are placed in the periphery of the block to not cast shadows on the spaces in-between, and to better accommodate potential non-residential uses near the bus stop.

Circulation could expand into several directions, which creates varying conditions on different sides of the core. Pipelines and joints are embedded within the structure.

Cores are placed on the grid not in the middle, but corner to corner in different orientations, and the circulation is designed to be able to expand in several directions (Diagram 2.2.7), which could potentially become corridors, atriums, or shared spaces.

On the 2 sides with initial circulation, it's more suitable for smaller flats (image 2). In this way, by designing the cores, different initial conditions are created for potential morphologies and floorplan layout.

Pipelines and structural joints are embedded within, (refer to page 84 for more details).

Beams and columns The manufacturing sector would start to prefabricate beams and columns in the first place, which could be adapted in different ways.

[2.2.7] Diagram for cores

There are 2 types of beams: One is 600mm*1200mm in dimension, with embedded pipelines, which could enable minor adjustments in plan and could be connected with beams in multiple positions. The other is 600mm wide and 60mm thick, so that room modules could be inserted, which would be embedded with reinforcement structure.

There are primary beams of 6 different lengths, ranging from 6000mm to 9000mm.

They are "+" shaped in section and "L" shaped in plan, 400mm in width, 150mm in height above the horizontal plate (which is the thickness of floor structure and furnishing), and 450mm in height below the horizontal floorplate to bear tension. In this way, the beams would form a rigid joint on one side and a hinge joint on the other, while enabling the future room modules to be inserted in from 3 directions.

These modules could be assembled into various structural typologies (Drawing 2.2.4 and page 98).

[2.2.8] Diagram for beams and columns [2.2.9] 3 types of cores, dimensions, joints, and carrying capacity [2.2.10] Components: Beams and columns

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2.2.2 Composing the over all space Based on a set of suggestive volumes, the architect would design a set of spatial guidelines that would articulate the relationship of the block with its surroundings, as well as the hierarchy within the superblock.

clustering and hiearchy The initial design of development platforms and positioning of cores should suggest a clear aesthetic and functional spatial hierarchy, which is then reinforced by the guidelines.

In the sample site, there is a piece of big open landscape in the middle, waterfront on the west, and a few plazas next to the road. 5 development platforms, indicating 5 clusters, surround the central greenery. Atriums and entrances are oriented towards the enclosure, and cores in each cluster are positioned so that they could easily join.

Within each cluster, each enclosure would be suggestively composed of an intimate ground interface, a continuous cornice height, and a strictly controlled facade for visual focus. There are also 2 free-standing buildings in the middle and several separate buildings on the edge.

These loose guidelines would compose a clear but not definitive spatial hierarchy for future morphological variations, [2.2.3.a], P48

Facade control Prominent facades would be identified and strictly controlled, where elements and dimensions are limited (see page 73).

Since the layout of cores already suggests height and volumes, prominent facades can be identified and controlled. In the sample site, they would mainly include highrise facades that face the bus stop, at the end of vistas, and those facades which stand out and overlook the central landscape. There are also control for continuity and loose control. Please refer to page 73 for more details.

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permeable ground Interfaces on the ground floor would be designed in order to ensure accessibility on the edge and to integrate the clusters with surroundings.

For example, in the sample site, the authority would demand certain accessible areas (page 48) around the bus stop in the northwest and the hospital in the southwest in order to support non-residential uses and everyday urban life. Thus, anticipated permeable interfaces are designated, which suggest extrusions/retractions, materials, height, or functions. Collectively decided functions would be given the priority to pick spaces, for example, on the ground of the free-standing buildings which face the central landscape.

On the other hand, in each cluster, ground openings and collective uses would be designed in indicative locations, which would articulate the inward and outward spatial relationships of each cluster.

[2.2.5.a], P72

Please compare this drawing with drawing 2.2.3 on page 48.

[2.2.11] Composing space: hierarchy, facade, and permeable ground

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2.2.3 Gathering the actors This proposal enables the nested actors to be engaged in an early stage in various ways.

In a conventional landuse masterplan, the quantum of each type of use is specified.

The developer would only start to rent or sell the space after construction, leaving no flexibility.

This design-led research proposes to gather secondary actors and information in several ways before actual construction, which would change the design along the way. In this way, every function would optimize its location within the superblock, while the architects, with the help of data management, would be able to design the assemblage.

Anticipating the ground The ground 2 floors will be separately regulated. During the process, areas would be designated with priority for certain uses by its depth in the superblocks.

In order to ensure the superblocks would support rich civic life, the developer and local authority would anticipate and encourage certain uses on the ground.

For example, in the sample site, spaces on edge near the planned bus stop would allow commercial uses to occupy first, while offices would be given priority to spaces a bit deeper in the block, as well as to spaces on the higher floors but in proximity to the road (refer to page 40 for urban district, and page 77 for spatial division in the cluster). Along the process, the regulations might be adjusted according to new municipal policies, shift of trends, etc. Collective functions could always choose the ideal location.

sy,

[2.1.2.c], P34; [2.2.2], P46, [2.3.1], P66

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Salable sub-plots Certain cores could be sold as single sub-plots to a secondary actor.

In this way, this process would encourage different forms, programs and types.

Secondary actors could buy certain cores as subplots. Potential secondary actors might include companies, companies providing residences for employees, government providing affordable housing, serviced apartments, housing cooperatives, or schools and industries.

In this case, there will be limits in building volume (dotted purple lines in drawing 2.2.2) and quantum. The secondary actor would need to design with the given set of basic structural components and material pallette (seep page76). The ground floors would be governed by the collective, and the developer would need to negotiate with the secondary actors to ensure the integration of architecture into a coherent scheme.

[2.2.2.12] Diagram of salable subplots

dividing the superblock The entire superblock would be divided into different areas for residential preferences, each one with its own spatial characteristics and fluctuating price.

In this example, the upper floors would be divided into the following zones: 1.

Riverside: These residences enjoy a better view along the river (estimated +5% price).

2. Parkview: These residences enjoy a better view of the central open landscape (estimated +10% price). 3. Along road: These spaces would be cheaper because of a lack of view and traffic noise, yet they will be more accessible. (estimated -10% price) 4. Near bus stop: these spaces would be located within a 2-minute distance from the bus stop. (estimated +5% price) 5. Near hospital: These spaces would potentially serve residences with special needs (hotel, cared living, etc, estimated price +5%). 5. In Cluster: these flats would have no special characteristics.

[2.3.3.a], P70

Apart from the scale of the superblock, other preferences should be collected as well, including orientation, morphological environments (page 70); Height; Structural prototypes (page 90). The price for these conditions would fluctuate according to market.

In this way, differentiated conditions are created in the first place, and the collected data would be processed and thus guide design in the later stages.

[2.4.4.a], P89

Gathering data and information The developer would start to gather preferences in the early stage, which mainly concern: clusters&location within the superblock (this page), morphological environments (page 70), and prototypical structures (page 89). Users also could start to customize the units from the outset (page 94).

[2.4.5.b], P94

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[2.2.13] Superblock: handsketch

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2.2.4 Open-ended outcome During the process, local policies, secondary actors and data management would together drive the design decision. In a later stage, the structure will be quickly designed by architects and then assembled on site.

Grouping and assemblage Distribution of morphology and structural prototypes would be optimized with the aid of data management, while architects would design the overall assemblage.

The developer would start with gathering collective preferences on several key aspects: structural prototypes (page 90); morphological environments (page 70); and shared facilities. Those who prefer similar morphologies would be clustered together to share a consistent spatial quality, and within a cluster, each building would be composed of 1-2 prototypical structures. In this way, architects could design the assemblage of the superblock with differentiation and hierarchy.

[2.2.14] Diagram of data process ing

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[2.2.2.c], P46; [2.0.1.a], P22; [2.2.13.a], P60

Alternative outcomes Depending on the preferences and urban conditions, the same set of cores and parameters could potentially lead to various outcomes.

These examples show several extreme alternative possibilities. Nevertheless, because of the expected diversity, the anticipated actual outcome would be more complex.

It might turn out to be a typical campus environment similar to Mehr Als Wohnen (drawing2.2.15, figure 59). Due to the layout of cores, 4-6 story-high atrium buildings would be located in the middle, while higher ones with deeper floor plates are on the edge of the block. These free-standing pavilions facilitate a free flow on the ground, but are subtly positioned and oriented to form intimate clusters. The edge of the superblock is more permeable, while the overall accessibility and hard landscape would better support events, offices, workshops, and shared facilities.

Plot ratio: 1.3 Height: 4 or 18 floors Type of flats: no more than 4 Clustering: 0 Vegetation coverage: 60% Residential: 100% [11.a], P8

In contrast, the scheme on the bottom demonstrates a living environment more like "ville radieuse" (drawing 2.2.16). In order to leave more space on the ground, the cores are extended so that buildings would be thinner and taller. There will be more places for lawns and trees, around which enclosure could be carefully designed.

Nevertheless, the consulting architect for the developer would need to ensure certain spaces for collective uses, while the local authority would need to intervene for the integration of the superblock into the wider district.

Plot ratio: 2.5 Height: 5-11 floors Type of flats: more than 10 Vegetation coverage: 40% Residential: 70% [2.2.15] Alternative scenario for superblock: campus

Plot ratio: 2.5 Height: 8-27 floors Type of flats: more than 10 Vegetation coverage: 80% Residential: 90% [59] Plan of Mehr Als Wohnen, 2015

[2.2.16] Alternative scenario for superblock: Slab-towers

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2.2.5 Scenario - Differentiated over all scheme

An exemplary scenario shows how the early engagement of actors and users would lead to a better outcome. It starts with a housing cooperative subdividing 2 cores.

For example, in the first stage of development (the west part where the cores are laid out in drawing), quite a lot of requirements for non-residential uses shows interest in this area, such as small workshops, start-up companies, and retail spaces. Meanwhile, probably, as a result, the potential residents in the online community of the north-west cluster (Page61, drawings on the right) prefer not to live next to the road. Instead, they would love to enjoy a more intimate space.

As a result, the developer would be willing to sell the 2 cores in the north (top 2 cores in drawing 2.2.2.c) as subplots to secondary actors. With the aid of government and other institutions, a managing company could engage, who could build open spaces on the lower floors for mixuses and smaller flats on the top. In case there is a shortage of secondary actors or residents, public housing could also engage.

Meanwhile, a housing cooperative could be formed around the 2 cores in the south of this cluster, which could support around 12,000 square meters or 400 people.

With the aid of artificial intelligence and consulting architect, they would design the morphology. In this case, the quantum is distributed into a midrise perimeter block which forms an enclosure of beautiful dimensions, as well as a highrise tower that faces the open landscape in the center (page 60, drawing 2.2.13, and refer to page 81 for further details).

It would possibly evolve into a consistent overall scheme with distinctiveness in each differentiated part.

Similar processes might gradually take place in the entire superblock - larger groups of people are taking over entire cores and clusters (for example, a cared residence in the southeast next to the hospital). In this way, the entire superblock would be composed of independent blocks of different sizes: 4-core courtyard, 2-core courtyard, atrium building, or point blocks (drawing on the right).

During the process, the consulting architect of the developer would demand that certain parts of the ground need to be volumetrically open (though each cluster could be governed separately), so that the entire superblock will not be segregated into islands. As a result, each of these clusters will have its own identity in its form and materiality, as well as exclusive shared spaces, while most of the spaces in-between clusters could be open to all citizens.

Plot ratio: 2.5 Height: 6-18 floors Type of flats: more than 10 Vegetation coverage: 65% Residential: 80%

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Chapter 2.3 - the cluster

The cluster is the scale where we could feel the space between the immediate surroundings, usually several buildings. It is probably the most complex scale, where a myriad of values are at stake in the decision-making process.

This chapter starts with illustrating spatial considerations when architects would assemble simple structures into complex clusters: facade, material, and form, followed by the principles of regulating the ground. It then describes the formation of an online community and the importance of further feedback, which is supported by an exemplary scenario.

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2.3.1 Assemblage into complex Clusters With processed data, architects play a primary role in assembling the single buildings into clusters, while coordinating between the cluster and the entire block: designing the rules as well as the space.

This part of the thesis focuses on the main principles of the design and regulatory process.

concerned preferences Data and information on individual preferences would be processed and integrated into a quantitative outcome.

The preferences of the collective environment mainly concern clusters&location within the superblock (page 57), morphological environments (next page), and prototypical structures (page 89).

The data output would suggest the quantum composition of each type of cluster within the superblock, and of each prototypical structure within each cluster.

Afterward, with the consultation of architects, complex architectural types would be composed by prototypical structures, clusters by the complex types, and the superblock by clusters.

[2.1.2.d], P34; [2.4.4.b], P89

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[2.2.14.a] Diagram of data processing

Morphological environments 4 basic types of residential environments are offered for choice, which suggestively indicates morphology and space between buildings.

Starting from the outset, the developer would let the customers choose from 4 "simple" types of residential environments. These choices intend to capture the very intuitive likes on the spatial experience in-between buildings, as well as the relationship between the units and the immediate environments, which would guide the design of morphology and hierarchy. As will be demonstrated later, architects could easily combine different categories (for example, courtyards might consist of pavilions, instead of linear blocks) to mitigate disadvantages and homogeneity.

Towers

Towers: By cutting the size of floorplates and going taller, more space is left for landscape on the ground, and units on higher floors would enjoy a better view. Towers are also potentially the cheapest choices.

Nevertheless, cross ventilation in flats will be compromised, and space between buildings might be worse defined.

Slabs: Buildings are entended in a single direction to best capture sunlight and cross-ventilation for the units. Nevertheless, monotonous orientation and extreme length might risk blocking the free flow of space on the ground and losing individual identity. It is also probably the most expensive choice.

Pavilions: By enlarging the floorplates, the height of buildings might become lower, so that space between buildings will feel more intimate. There will also be a free flow on the ground. Nevertheless, enlarged floorplate would probably result in wore light and ventilation conditions.

Linear blocks

Courtyard: This type could best cultivate the sense of collective belongings. It creates dualistic conditions for the units: inward and outward. Dimensions should be limited for a better enclosure.

Nevertheless, it would risk compromising the coherence and integration of the entire superblock.

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Courtyards [2.3.3] Choices of morphological environment

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Prominent elevations in the entire superblock, as well the visual focus within each cluster would be strictly controlled (refer to page 48). Continuity is ensured in certain facade to better guide movement or form enclosures. All other facade would be loosely controlled.

Facade Facade is one of the most important elements of the shared residential environment. Rules are set to ensured an overall coherence while allowing individual variations.

The design of the facade might play an even more important role than the form in creating the "genius loci". Let alone aesthetic beauty, the developer would desire recognizability and coherence of the entire project, while the dwellers would need to feel a sense of identity and belongingness for each cluster and building, and even legibility of the unique household.

Therefore, while the content could be largely customized, the facade should be more carefully controlled for the greater goods.

There are 4 types of variant elements: extruded balconies, retracted balconies, cantilevered rooms, or bay windows. There are 3 types of facade control: strict, loose, and continuous.

These 4 variant elements would make the facade thicker than a simple finish line. Architects would draw the control line to regulate the depth of these elements.

Prominent elevations in the entire superblock, as well as the visual focus within each cluster, would be strictly controlled (refer to page 48). On a strictly controlled facade, depending on its orientation and surroundings, there could only be 1 element on each part of the elevation. The architect would select the element, and compose its distribution and dimensions (drawing 2.3.6).

On a loosely controlled facade, there could be bay windows plus 1 of the 3 three other variant elements, which could be negotiated by the community. Their depth is determined by the control line, while lengths could be customized.

[2.2.3.b], P48; [2.3.1.a], P66

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Continuity is ensured between certain facades to better guide the flow and form enclosures. Between continuous facades, height difference should be less than 1 floor, and either the palette or the selected variant element should be the same.

For example, the drawing on the right shows the southeast elevation of the top building in drawing 2.3.1.b.

Although this facade is facing the south, only retracted balconies are allowed because it is 15 meters from the opposite building (see the plan on page 68). Meanwhile, the architects might decide continuous wall and glazing for the ground 2 floors, which are mainly non-residential use: car entrance to the basement, collective kitchen, and offices. In the contrary, on other typical prominent facades facing south, an1800mm wide extruded balcony are compulsory for each household (Drawing 2.3.5-1), though length limited between 2.4m and 3.6m.

On page 73, the facade in the "unite" type is also strictly governed (the northwest building in the plan on page 75). Each household is compulsory to build a 6m-high window in its double-loaded space facing the enclosure.

In this way, the facade of the 6-story building will form a 1-2-1-2 vertical rhythm. The orientation of the units is shifted in the middle to better accommodate the collective uses on the ground and to create variant domestic conditions.

[2.3.4] Facade: Exemplary of a tower

This is only an indicative draft. If there were enough time, a more refined drawing with composition lines should have be drawn.

[2.3.5] Facade: Four variant elements as simple strict control

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[2.3.6] Cluster: Handsketch

Palette and materials There will be a limited palette for the entire superblock.

Consulted by the architect, each building could choose its own palette.

The entire palette would be limited to 7-8 materials to ensure coherence and to cut costs. The developer would decide to start with 1 or 2, and leave other decisions to be made collectively in the later stage.

Consulted by architects, the online community would decide a certain set of materials in each building, but they need to ensure certain coherence in each cluster. Policies could encourage certain types of materials, such as environment-friendly wood panels.

There will be up to 4 materials in each building: main component material, secondary material (the small panel below windows), vertical columns and horizontal beams.

[2.3.7] Floorplan of the handsketch

Form Architects would make comprehensive decisions on form, dimensions, and orientation.

As mentioned before, hopefully, the data managing sector would output a series of parameters: carrying capacity of each cluster, preferences for morphological environments (page 69), requirements for each prototypical structure in each cluster, and composition of uses and residents. Ideally, architects should be able to assemble the structure according to those parameters as well as aesthetic requirements.

[60] Coop Housing at River Spreefeld, Berlin, 2013

For example, all residents who would prefer the free-standing pavilions and towers would be put together, and architects would design the floorplate and form as drawing 2.3.6 and 2.3.7. Each of the 4 buildings slightly shifts to one side, and one is designed as an L-shape, so as to better define the in-between space, while 2 buildings (southeast and northwest) are higher than the others. The deeper structures are placed along the road in the east in order to accommodate potential mix-uses offices. The rectangular slab in the southwest has its external corridor on the north so that the main living room /master's bedroom could face the south.

Meanwhile, the spaces and uses on the ground are designed to form better hierarchy (see page 77).

[61] Plan of Mehr Als Wohnen, Zurich, 2015

Facade Components The following drawing shows the design of a basic set of facade components in several pallettes. They are 200mm thick to incorporate insulation, 2.7m tall to align with th height of the room module. There are 3 types of window dimensions, their heights being 2100mm, 1500mm and 600mm, and distance from the top of the window to the top of the module is always 300mm. The manufacturer could start with prefabricating structural and insulation of the facade modules.

[62] Patio Courtyard, Open Architects, 2014

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2.3.2 Coordinating ground The ground would be separately governed. In this way, it would better integrate the superblock as a whole while accommodating a wider range of uses.

In normal housing development, most volumes are merely the extrusion of the footprint. A linear podium is often built in the perimeter, which opens shopfronts that face outwards, while the entire neighborhood is closed.

In contrast, the masterplan in Tubingen stipulates that the ground floor should be non-residential uses, and that courtyard should be shared (page 10), which result in a mixture of uses and shared amenities. Although this proposal is not as negotiative and user-driven as Tubingen, it intends the idea of "collective governance on the ground" into the open-ended process.

Different subdivisions Depending on the context, the potential divisions on the ground for non-residential uses on 1-2 floors are different from typical floors.

Different from the typical floors where division lines could be customized in a 600mm module (page 84), the ground space in each interval could only be divided in half for non-residential uses. In this way, enough room is guaranteed for each occupier, usually 3.6 to 4.8 meter wide.

[2.3.9] Diagram of ground divisions

As illustrated in the diagram, there are 4 ways of dividing the space on the ground floor(s). In areas such as the inner parts of the block, only 1 floor would be separately governed (first diagram). On the edge where there are more potential needs for nonresidential uses, each actor could occupy a vertically divided double-loaded space, which could be suitable for small offices, restaurants (kitchen on the upper floor), art studios, etc. If there are enough people to supervise and govern the negotiation process, then space could be divided in a more flexible way (third diagram), which might better suit certain uses. The last diagram shows the potential division of the ground for residential units (more details see page 84).

[63] Zwicky Sud, ground (red) and typical floor(blue)

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Openings and landscape Volumes on ground and landscape will be designed by architects to integrate the entire superblock into a coherent environment.

Openings on the ground are designed in order to ensure the spatial hierarchy of the entire superblock (page 56).

The volumes of typical floors could be different from the ground, where retractions and extrusions are designed to facilitate movement and enclosure.

The landscape is designed to ensure the coherence and differentiation of the environment. In the sample drawing, hard landscape and straight geometry are applied to areas near the road, in order to support logistics large flow or plaza dance. The landscape gradually shifts into a soft meandering in the deeper parts of the superblock, with amenities in the meadows. Dense vegetation would surround ground floor gardens to provide privacy.

Governing the uses Regulation of program will be refined after the structure is assembled, where the community would have a large say.

While the form is designed mainly by architects, the funstions would be governed by the developer and community. Please compare the initial anticipation of uses on ground on page 46 and the refined regulatiosn on page 66. In Page 66, the hatch patterns show the prioritized uses in relation to structure: commercial activities near the edge and bus stop, workspaces on the other side of the buildings. The community/developer could manage the uses by a floating price gap between the uses.

Important spaces are left for collective functions (for example, the community canteen in the large podium connects the two sides, drawing 2.3.2). The potential community could also actively appeal to certain uses, for example, boardgames, hopopt, and bubble tea. Aside from voids and non-residential uses, the rest spaces on the ground will be 2-storey residences with gardens.

[2.0.1.b] Uses and regulations on ground

[2.3.11] Typical floor plan of one building in the cluster

Compare the structure in this drawing with page 82. Above the 6th floor, 3 thick columns of the tower are shifted into thin ones (compare image xx with xx), so that the room modules could be inserted from the south, resulting in better sunlight and more choices of facade treatment.

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2.3.3 Simulation and feedback

A simulation of the future community start to be made to let the potential users make adjustments, as well as to gain further marketing value.

In a normal process in China, the entired design is fixed and construction would be almost complete before actual inhabitants are engaged. On the other hand, in a user-driven process like "tubingen", the later the stage, the more costly it will beto adjust the design.

In the proposal, an online community could be set up in a suggestive form, which could show the provided services, landscape, prices, and available vacancies. After the structure is finalized, the units of those who are already engaged will be virtually built. In this way, all actors are inspired to make adjustments along the process.

Lower cost for changes

[2.3.12] Early sketch of the future community

This process makes it faster and cheaper to make changes along the way.

In Tubingen, the adjustment of design would cost a lot of time: the users would be compelled to negotiate, and technical details must be redrawn.

Moreover, as long as the construction started, it would be difficult to change the content.

In contrast, this framework would cost much less to alternate space and content during the process because of the adaptability of the modules.

Wherever the components are going to be fit, the assembling techniques are always the same. Therefore, until the last stage when the room modules are inserted, it is always possible to change the space and content. On the other hand, negotiation is limited to a smaller extent. In places where secondary actors are not engaged and the community is not interested, the developer would have the final say on the design and the rules.

3d interface and Real-time rendering Real time rendering could help the customers to better understand the space, so as to make adjustments and feedback.

As mentioned before, one of the obstacles of previous cases like Diagoon housing and PSSHAK is that there was no ideal tool for a normal household to customize: drawing plans on pens and papers posed great challenges.

However, with the help of computers, programming, VR or other technologies, new platforms could greatly help with visualizing and adjusting the design. People could directly feel the dimensions, atmosphere and materiality of the space, and test alternations with hardly any cost before making the decision.

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[64] Real-time rendering

An estimated development cost for these extra services (data managing+3D simulation) in the superblock of 7.8 hectares would be around 3%-5% of the entire sales price. Either a third party might provide these services, or the developer might do the work by himself.

If reapeated multiple times, the cost would be dramatically reduced.

Users could group into online communities according to their preferences, in order to share spaces and make collective decisions.

Please refer to page 81 and 100 for more scenarios.

Adjusting customization and further marketing The online community would perform as mutual feedback, where already engaged users could adjust their customized schemes, and potential occupiers could be better engaged.

MIGRANT WORKER ACOOMODATION COUPLE

SHARED KITCHEN

Grouping of units

STUDENT HOUSING COMPANY CO-WORK GYM BACHELOR COLLEGE STUDENT BACHELOR YOUNG COUPLE

S P A C E CANTEEN [2.3.13] Grouping of units: scenario of student housing

For example, a student housing company might be engaged as a secondary actor, but it does not want to build an entire cluster. Nevertheless, the company is willing to provide profitable services: gym, canteen, cafeteria, shared kitchen, or other amenities.

In this case, some of those who are already engaged might want to move their homes into that building to be close to those services. They might also want to reduce the size of their own kitchens to cut the cost.

On the other hand, knowing that there will be such a neighborhood, other similar residents and services might want to come together, such as young couples, middleaged bachelors, groups of college students, etc. Some of these residents might not have the money to initially purchase the house, but housing estate chains like "Lianjia" might provide build-to-rent services (they are already purchasing scattered properties to rent as serviced housing).

As a consequence, knowing the future residents, the student housing company might want to reconsider their management. The dormitories would be separately accessed, while the services might be expanded.

refining the rules Along the process, the developer and the local authority will be constantly adjusting regulations on space and program.

Unlike a normal process, as long as all the unit modules have not yet been inserted, intervention and "reappropriation" could still be implemented at a low cost.

For example, if the ongoing process shows a trend of over-gentrification, the authority might need to take measures to ensure social inclusiveness: limiting the size of single units or subsidizing for social housing. If higher authority needs to support certain industries, the local government could encourage the reappropriation of these cores into big sheds. Ideally, this would be possible if there is enough expertise.

[2.3.13] Grouping of units: scenario of student housing

[

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2.3.4 Scenario - complex typology

Continuing on page 63, the following part shows how stakes in different scales should be coordinated by the rules in the cluster.

Due to subdivisions and responsiveness, this process would encourage the design of complex architectural types.

As mentioned before, the 2 cores in the northwest would be sold to a secondary actor, in this case, a serviced apartment, while the 2 cores in the south-east are contracted by a housing cooperative. This drawing shows the ground floor of these two buildings in their surroundings.

The building in the northwest consists of a tower of 15-18 floors, a pavilion of 5-6 floors and a big podium (drawing 2.0.1.b on page 78). The thick podium turns out to be difficult to rent, thus the community might tackle it: turning the ground floor into a canteen with a passage, and the upper two floors into shared workspaces.

The members of the housing cooperative might want an intimate space. As a result, the carrying capacity of these 2 cores is distributed into a 6-floor perimeter block, which forms a beautiful enclosure, and a 20-floor tower in the north, which has a fantastic view. The typical floorplan of the perimeter block would support several slightly different types (page 78, drawing 2.3.11). In its southeast wing, the corridor is located in the north so that the flats would face the south. Its north-west wing would be maisonettes, so that each unit also has a south-facing room.

The outside facade and the tower facade will be regulated to coordinate with the entire superblock. However, the community could design the inward interface to be more playful (e.g. total red) to better create a sense of place (they would need to directly contract the manufacturer). This housing cooperative could also decide the ownership of its flats, either renting them for better management or selling them to recover the investment.

The ground floor would be designed and governed as a whole Governed by the community, the ground floor would welcome various trades. Areas near the road and bus stop will prioritize for commercial, and spaces a little bit inward for workspace. Despite normal uses like restaurants and convenience stores, the community might directly appeal to certain actors, such as a temporary on-site architect office, a breakfast stand, or a gym.

Although the volume of the housing cooperative forms an enclosure, the developer would demand several openings on the ground. Meanwhile, the common room would be placed in a good location with a sun-lit patio, and the rest of the ground space would be double-loaded flats with bushes surrounding their gardens.

Since such a myriad of uses has already engaged, in case the developer and the future occupants might still want a fence for safety reasons, the fence would be built so that the edge of the superblock is accessible to a depth. From there on, the landscape gradually changes into a free meandering in the middle of the superblock, where child's play, ponds, bigger trees, and other shared facilities would be located between the development platforms.

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Chapter 2.4 - the floorplate

The floorplate often consists of one type of coherent structure, yet should incorporate various units that share the same way of life.

This chapter firstly introduces the 5 structure prototypes for choice, each of them has inherent spatial characteristics. Afterward, it demonstrates how an individual unit would be customized and built. It then illustrates principles of assembling these prototypes into a complex floorplate, followed by exemplary scenarios of finished floorplates.

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600mm grid Division lines Circulatory environment Shared spaces (1 in 4) Potential wet areas Facade base finish line Facade strict control Facade loose control 1:150 In A3

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2.4.1 Five structure prototypes

5 prototypical structures are designed for initial choice, each of them has its inherent spatial characteristics. They compose the basic framework on which units are customized, and could be composed into complex floorplans.

Overarching principles of these floorplates include: embedded infrastructure, lines of division and rules for shared spaces and circulation.

Pipelines are embedded in the cores or big columns (page 54). Horizontal infrastructure might bo beneath the shared corridors to reach further.

A customer can subdivide a space according to any purple lines. In principle, they are aligned to the 600mm grid, and are at least 3 meters from the nearest beam to ensure another potential flat.

Spatial rules differ in each prototype, which guarantee the quality of the shared spaces and the interface between domestic spaces and circulatory environment.

Single loaded corridor with wet cores in the middle In this prototype, the kitchen and bathroom are usually placed in the central part of the flat, enabling potential glazing on both sides, as well as cross-ventilation.

Accordingly, the interface along the corridor is regulated: 25% of space should be retracted, and 40% should be glazing. The minimum domestic depth of this structure is 13.8m, but often a little bit more, making its cost quite moderate.

Therefore, it is suitable for those who are willing to share some of the domestic views: Neighbors who love to socialize, shared living with a big living-dining room, smalloffice-home-offices, or a pre-existing community. The ground floor of this structure could easily adapt to other uses.

Single loaded corridor with wet cores on one side In this structure, the kitchen and bathroom are likely to be placed along the corridor.

If this type of structure would form a linear block, a gap could be created between the corridor and the flat, enabling better sunlight and privacy. Due to structural limits, the depth of this slab would be no more than 13.8 meters, leading it to be quite expensive. Meanwhile, the shared environment should be more carefully designed so as not to be compromised.

Nevertheless, this structural fragment could also form an atrium building (drawing 2.3.7, page 75). In this case, the ventilation would be worse, but there will be a better shared environment, more flexibility, and higher spatial efficiency.

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[65] Genossenschaftshaus Stadterle, Basel, 2017 [66] Duinker van der torre, Amsterdam, 1989 [67] Mehr als Wohnen, Zurich, 2015

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Double loaded corridor, with upeer and lower floors This type directly derives from "Unite d'habitation", featuring double-loaded space and cross ventilation. Usually, it would be 16-18 meter deep, resulting in bigger carrying capacity and cheaper price. Big columns are deliberately not aligned so that room modules could be inserted from both sides.

Nevertheless, in order to ensure spatial quality, regulation of 25% transparency would be applied in the interface along the corridor (refer to shinonime), and there would be a limit of the length. Moreover, this type of structure could not accommodate smaller single flats (minimum around 60m2), and is difficult to adapt to other uses.

Small floorplate with short and direct entr ance to the core When the size and shape of the floorplate are limited, it could lead to different domestic environments. This structural prototype would provide less shared areas, but better views, ventilation, and privacy for the units, while also leaving more spaces on the ground.

Nevertheless, the flexibility of use and divisions will be limited, as well as its potential for composing complex typologies. The price would be also more expensive for less spatial efficiency.

A square floorplate with core in the middle As demonstrated on page 84, the seeming simple 3*3 floorplan is different from all others, in that it is a prototype but also a type in itself.

It offers good views and ventilation in the corners, but worse conditions in the middle of the edge. Flats could be smaller near the lifts due to circulation, thus rotating the entire building would lead to different solar orientations in relation to the size of flats and tenants. In order to ensure the quality of shared spaces, a light well could be implemented on each floor. The price would be moderate.

[68] Unite d'habitation, section [69] Shinonime Canal Court, Tokyo, 2004 [70] New futura, Singapore

This is also a very flexible structure, which could easily accommodate workspaces and other uses.

[2.4.1.a], P84

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2.4.2 Customization of unit

Since the start of the process, the potential user could customize his own unit. In this way, the housing types could meet diverse needs.

One would need to choose a preferred cluster and morphological environment, as well as a structural prototype. He could then customize the domestic layout by certain rules. 3D interface, artificial intelligence (page 16), and consulting architects would help with the process. They would be assembled on-site very quickly in the last stage. Price would be calculated along with the adjustments so that people know where they are exactly spending money on.

The floorplan on page 88 is dissected into parts here, which show how the customization of units could support a range of unique lifestyles. (see page 101 for more details)

Dimension of rooms In this framework, one can customize the dimension and distribution of rooms.

In a normal market, we can only choose from a range of products, but could not decide where we would want to spend the money. In R50, the users divided 6 floors in different ways, and this proposal intends to apply it to a mass-produced framework.

In this model, one could occupy any amount of space according to the division lines (page 89-92). Ideally, by inputting the number of rooms, AI would be able to configure an initial layout according to spatial rules (recent studies on AI, see page 16 ). Afterward, the customer could adjust each room by a 600mm module.

The drawing on the right demonstrates a possible interface, which shows how would adjusting the dimensions of the secondary bedroom would influence the adjacent spaces.

interface and facade Interfaces and facade are also open to choice.

There is a range of facade components, while the choices are restricted by certain rules (see page 71). This framework would also provide diverse interfaces to divide spaces: different types of glazing, folding panels, curtains, shelves, etc. The use of various interfaces between the domestic space and the corridors would be encouraged to improve the shared environment (page 97).

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Flat X

Bedroom 2

Total area

83.16 m2

Total area

11.52 m2

Land

44,000/m2

Tertiary Beam

8

Structure

6,430/m2

Tertiary column

4

Shared facility

840/m2

Flat Components

7,235/m2

Wooden floor

11.52 m2

Ceiling

11.52 m2

1 Living room

￥115,376

Wooden wall panels

11.7 m

1 Dining room

￥60,120

Doors

2

1 Master bedroom

￥110,560

Facade-Window

1

1 Small bedroom

￥73,335

2 Toilets

￥104,590

bed

1

2 Balconies

￥52,780

desk and chair

1

13.32m2 Passage

￥67,806

cabinet

1

Other Components

￥17,096 Total components

￥ 9,158.00

Services and extra Total

￥4,865,276

Average

￥58,505/m2

* Tax and services included in all prices, ￥10=£1, ￥7=$1.

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Structure The modules would be prefabricated and then quickly assembled on-site in the final stage.

The primary structure includes cores, primary beams, and columns, which are already built on site (see page 54 for components).

Each room module is consists of a framework structure of small beams and columns, wall panels, floors, and ceilings. The ridge of each room module is subtly offset inwards so as to fit with the thickness of thin columns and "+" shaped beams. Secondary beams (up to 9.6m) would reinforce the structure (page 94). Usually, each unit could be divided into 3 parts: wet rooms (kitchen and bathroom), domestic circulation, and big rooms, which would be inserted one after another.

Thin columns are 60mm thick, while wall panels are 70mm. Division walls between units are usually 200mm thick, being consist of 2 separate panels and a gap inbetween for thin columns. Domestic walls might be made of only 1 panel (70mm thick). Insulation or sound-proof could be embedded within. Thin columns would be reinforced by special facade panels after the modules are inserted (see plan on page 102).

[2.4.7] Diagram of inserting modules into the unit [2.4.8] Components: Tertiary structure, panels, and slates

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2.4.3 Complex floorplates

Helped by data-processing technique, architects would assemble a certain amount of structure prototypes into complex floorplates, which coordinate different units and compose into clusters.

The diagrams on the bottom right demonstrate that a complex floorplate is able to incorporate a range of units, as well as to define in-between spaces by its form.

Diagrams on the right, ranging from 1 core to 4 cores, as well as the masterplan of the superblock on page 50, show how the complex floorplate could be composed by simple prototypes and the same set of columns and beams, yet still able to achieve these spatial values.

[2.4.9] Diagram of Construction feasibility

Construction feasibility Simply speaking, columns would be positioned so that modules could be easily inserted (diagram 2.4.9). For example, in the example floorplan (image x), the columns do nor form a precise grid, but instead they are slightly shifted, and the circulatory parts (blue) will be built together with the columns and beams. In this way, not only the modules of the units can be easily inserted afterwards into the structure, the shared areas could be inserted as several modules after the negotiative decision making process.

Combing various structur al prototypes A complex floorplate could include several structural prototypes. Ideally, data would be processed to show the quantum of each prototype within a cluster. Afterward, architects should be able to combine them with minor changes.

For example, the 4 wings of the "+" shaped building (third one in the first line) are formed by 3 different structures. Meanwhile, the circulation is enlarged when different corridors converge to form a shared space, and gaps are left for better privacy and inserting modules. In the 2-core H-shaped building (third in the second line), 2 different structures are incorporated: the thinner one only for residential uses, while the thicker one with big columns in the middle could better accommodate collective spaces and non-residential uses on the ground.

Circulation and shared environment Circulatory environments should be carefully designed inrelation to shared areas and domestic spaces.

For example, drawing 2.4.10 shows an environment for shared living. Similar to the USD student house (figure 73), the collective spaces are subtly divided into 2 by the core, each one with a double-loaded space alternately. Nevertheless, the circulatory spaces are slightly shifted inwards, so that a protected entrance is formed for the flats near the lifts. Similar to Next 21, Japan figure 74), several diagrams on the right also show how circulatory environment is expanded in certain intervals to form little shared spaces, as well as to break corridors that would otherwise be too long.

The community on the floorplate would make decisions on the shared space: materials, dimensions, and facilities. It would also be inserted as room modules, and interfaces between the units and the common room are encouraged to be active, such as windows or shelves (drawing 2.4.10).

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[71] Wohnprojekt, Vienna, 2013 [72] The Yellow Building, London, 2008 [73] Student housing, University of Southern Denmark, 2015 [74] Next 21, Osake, 1993

[2.4.10] Example of complex floorplate [2.4.11] Various complex floorplates, with cores on a 43.2m grid

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Grouping of residents

rooftop garden

Similar households who are already engaged could be grouped together in the virtual community, which would influence the design of complex floorplan, as well as decide on their own shared spaces.

PLANT LOVERS NIGHT OWLS

Since the start of the process, potential users would be inputting their preferences of units, neighborhoods, and shared spaces. Those who are willing to could be grouped together. Other groups would include extended families, close elderly friends who would love to take care of each other, artist groups, etc.

GROUPED FRIENDS

Page 75 describes a scenario where an early introduced housing service might attract certain types of people to the entire building. These people, if grouped together, could potentially have a say on the design of complex floorplan, and occupy one entire floor or a part of the building. Similar to Musikerwohnhaus or R50, they could negotiate and design a living environment of consistent nature.

MUSI C I A NSARTISTS NIGHT OWLS

EXTENDEDEXTENDED FAMILY FAMILY PL A NT S H O P SLOVERS garden [2.4.12] Grouping of units

[77] Mehr als Wohnen, Zurich, 2015

[75] Musikerwohnhaus, plan, Basel, 2010 [76] Musikerwohnhaus, interior, Basel, 2010

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[78] R50, 6 plans overlayed together, Berlin, 2013 [79] R50, photo, Berlin, 2013

2.4.4 Scenarios - Domestic plans and grouping of units

coherent floorplan 2 scenarios on the right show how a coherent floorplan might be composed during the process.

The first scenario illustrates a high-collective way of life.

Given this framework of procurement, we could start to imagine certain people might form groups in the future decades: close of friends of middle-aged people who don't want to marry, couples who don't want children, or people with particular interests. What they have in common includes: a good budget, not at home at day, dislike to cook on one's own, a private space, and need for some socializing at home. Thus, in this deep floorplate, apart from individual en-suites, there are quite a few differentiated common rooms surrounding the spacious circulatory environment: a sports and amenity room, 2 dining rooms with shared kitchen, and a quiet study room for relaxing, working or meeting people.

In the second scenario, those who love plants and sunshine are grouped into a building with a long continuous balcony. A flat finish line would be stipulated to ensure the purity of the facade, as well as a 1.2m minimum width of the balcony. Compared to the previous scenario, the floorplate is much thinner to ensure the light conditions of the domestic space. There is also more diversity in the unit types. A 3.6m opening (middle in the left side) is maintained to ensure the quality of the circulatory environment.

Up to 26 people 712m 2 9 units, no shared living room in units 5 different shared living rooms [2.4.13] Scenario for floorplate: shared living

Similar groupings of units might also be formed in other basic structures.

up to 21p 605m 2 8 units, each with living area 1 shared livingroom Long balcony [2.4.14] Scenario for floorplate: continuous balcony

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Diverse domestic life This floorplan demonstrates various ownership patterns and different ways of domestic life.

Ideally, units would be grouped to form a coherent spatial quality in a floorplate. Regardlessly, this floorplan shows how the same set of modular structures could support nested ownership patterns and a spectrum of domestic layouts.

The bottom left is a 2-bedroom flat, whose 3-D version is illustrated on page 96. Although the entrance is in the corner, the washbasin next to the foyer is open to avoid a long narrow corridor. The flat in the middle of the bottom is a 2-bedroom maisonette, with a double-loaded living room. A 3-bedroom flat is located in the bottom right, which has enough space for unexpectable kids funs. These flats are simply bought and owned by 1 family.

The flat on the top right is shared by a young couple and a pair of their old parents. On certain occasions, the elderly in China would want to be looked after by their kids, and this framework enables such a way of life: The 2 homes have separate entrances with a door in-between, so that it's possible for them to not disturb each other. The dimensions in the home for the elderly couple are designed to accommodate the rotation of wheelchairs.

The rest part of the floorplate is a big housing cooperative, which includes 2 double-bed flats (including the one mentioned above),2 single -bed ensuites, and a flat of 3 compact bedrooms - each is indicating a way of life. There is a big shared dining room, kitchen, laundry, and study room. Government or other institutional support (like a build-torent agency) might be necessary so that it could be affordable for young people.

[2.4.2.a], P86 [2.4.3,L] Floorplate: a variety of units

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Chapter 3 - conclusion

In conclusion, this design-led research turns the challenge of quantum into an advantage, establishes a responsive and open-ended framework, and designs overarching principles that could coordinate the part-towhole relationships across scales. In this way, it could deliver housing that is driven by diverse needs and support dynamic civic life. Ideally, repeating the process in different sites would result in different outcomes.

Aside from providing a complex solution, it envisions a synergy between new technology, institutional framework, and design reasoning, and within such a new context, it tries to redefine the role of the architect in the delivery of housing and the formation of urban areas.

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3.1 The ideals

The proposal aims at several objectivess which could not be delivered by the current development framework: superblocks that could support rich civic life, various housing type to meet diverse needs, and an open-ended process. It ambitiously assumes that they could be achieved at the same time with an alternative procurement model.

Rich civic life Most current developments turn out to be closed superblock with little non-residential uses. In contrast, this proposal encourages a wide range of secondary actors to engage from the start, such as workspace companies, serviced apartments, retail, and shared amenities. They could subdivide spaces of different sizes (from several buildings to a shopfront), and design variety in space and content by and for themselves. Moreover, the ground floor will be governed collectively by the community, ensuring it serves the common goods.

Residences that meet diverse needs Due to the development pressure and lack of design expertise, current housing usually repeats only 3-4 units, one morphology and one type of shared environment, which mismatches the dynamic needs of the society. In this proposal, however, by managing preference data on morphological types and shared environments, potential users could group into several differentiated clusters. On the other hand, this proposal enables potential users to make decisions on the design of their own units. In this way, they would build authority, responsibility, and affection to their homes, while the outcome of housing would best suit their needs.

Open-ended process across scales Usually, the design is finalized before construction and sales. In contrast, this proposal allows the outcome to be constantly adjusted along with the progress, and set rules to coordinate the part-to-whole relationships across scales. In this way, variety could be inspired and integrated within this framework in a relatively short period of time, potential occupiers are allowed to optimize the outcome by giving feedback during the process.

Time, money and quantum Last but not the least, hypothetically, this scheme could address the challenge of delivering a large quantum of quality housing in a short time period and moderate cost. Sheer quantum of the population and the size of superblock would make it cheaper to prefabricate modularized components. AI-aided actors and end-users, rather than architects, would design the variety, which could make up for the lack of expertise. The fact that prefabrication, engaging actors and design are taking place simultaneously would significantly cut the length of the project.

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3.2 Obstacles and challenges

Although the goals are clear, it would require a set of innovative means to achieve them at the same time, which covers governance, technology, and design reasoning. In this sense, the proposal is self-consistent yet utopianistic: the theoretical framework turns the contemporary obstacles into advantage, yet its success depends on an entirely new set of challenges.

Construction and information technology On one hand, this proposal only outlines the design principles of the components and information management without rigorously proving the feasibility. However, with the rapid technological advancement, we could reasonably foresee that the technical issues would one day be resolved: compactness of joints, material strength, and production costs; and that it will only take few decades before better AI and data technology, though controversially, are widely used to support this procurement framework.

Investor - manufacturer - data processor This proposal greatly challenges the developer to facilitate close collaboration between investment, manufacture, user engagement, and data processing. Although trends in the UK show that manufacturers are willing to collaborate with developers, neither of them can now build and manage complex information. Ideally, developers and manufacturers would evolve, while IT companies will be more interested in building smart cities for the future.

Culture of autonomy Simply speaking, The Chinese are not used to taking responsibility in collective decisions. Fortunately, though with obstacles, the authority has been trying to build autonomy in communities. This delivery framework is actually putting people's direct benefit-quality of living-at critical stake, and hopefully, if it is implemented as a pilot project with municipal support, it would help to cultivate a sense of shared responsibility.

Possibility of assemblage After all, this proposal focuses on designing overarching principles, while only assuming the best when saying "assemble variety". With limited research time, it did not test the architectural feasibility with a set of actual data input. Therefore, more rigorous researches and simulations should be done to explore the limits of assembling the dynamic differences.

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3.3 Envisioning the future

Although this research indeed aims to address the reality in a radical yet specific framework, the comprehensive idea is also suggesting ways in which the discipline and practice could break boundaries and move forward.

Redefining the roles Since long has the role of the architect been in heated discussion, and this topic is even more critical in this new era. This research would agree on Constantinos in that architects should be the initiator and steward of the process where other actors play a prime role. Whatsmore, with the advancement of artificial intelligence, this thesis assumes that architects could partly be freed from drawing construction details and designing every variation. Instead, he/she would take up the new role of assembling the differences and upholding spatial values for the common goods.

In relation to the role of the architect, it tries to discuss the responsibility of the Chinese government in its special context. This research regards the collective benefits do not only lie in the strict execution of the masterplan, but also in smaller scales of architecture. Thus, the authority should more actively intervene with the governance of ground, the composition of flats and shared spaces.

Moreover, the thesis puts forward that the developer should be encouraged to take more social responsibility, and that pilot housing projects should be implemented to cultivate people's responsibility for autonomy.

Although the answer is not definite, the roles of the actors, especially the architect, should always be contested alongside the social, political, economic and technological progress.

Synergy between disciplines This research tries to speculate new synergies by bringing together the framework of governance, contemporary construction and information technology, and design reasoning. Instead of exploring what a single line of thought could achieve, it argues for "1+1>2": the combination could hypothetically give birth to an entirely new way of thinking the housing process: while components are being prefabricated, the designed outcome could constantly be changed along the way.

Although this proposal is specifically tailored for housing in larger numbers, this idea, only made possible by the combination of disciplines, might as well benefit other scenarios.

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Evolotionary process The current housing projects in China are mostly the instrument of achieving quantum. To make matters worse, the majority of people are not aware that domestic architecture should be designed to support a way of life.

This research regards the challenge as not only design itself, but as how the dynamic needs of the diverse population could be inspired. It agrees with the idea that the dwellers should play a more active role in the housing process, and thus establishes a framework in which "space" could be virtually experienced and contested before they are built. Ideally, people would be encouraged to think more carefully about their home, the outcome would reflect the dynamic needs, and thus the developer would better realize the potential of such a large market for quality housing.

In this way, it is also proposing a way to accelerate the evolution of housing architecture.

Hopefully, this design-led research would inspire new theoretical constructs and prospective practices on how architecture could bring revolutions to the complex reality.

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Bibliogr aphy

1. Chaillou, C. (2019). ArchiGAN: a Generative Stack for Apartment Building Design. NVIDIA Developer Blog. [online]. Available at: https://devblogs.nvidia.com/archigan-generative-stackapartment-building-design/ (Accessed: 12 Jan.2019) 2. Habraken, J. (1987). The Control of Complexity. Places, vol. 4, no.2, pp.3-15.

3. Habraken, J. (2002). The uses of level. Open House International, vol. 27, no.2.

4. RIBA. (2013). RIBA Plan of Work 2013-Designing for Manufacture and Assembly. [online].

Available at: http://www.offsiteschool.com/DfMA (Accessed: 22 Jan.2019) 5. Sidewalk Labs. (2019). Toronto Tomorrow-A new approach for inclusive growth. [online].

Available at: https://www.sidewalktoronto.ca/plans/quayside/ (Accessed: 22 Jan.2019) 6. Honda, A. (year unknown). A New Vision in Architecture: Ivan Leonidov’s Architectural Projects between 1927 and 1930. [online]. Available at: https://www.waseda.jp/inst/wias/ assets/uploads/2017/03/RB008-079-094.pdf (Accessed: 12 Jan.2019) 7. Theodosis, L. (2015). Victory over Chaos? Constantinos A. Doxiadis and Ekistics 1945-1975. [online]. Available at: https://upcommons.upc.edu/bitstream/handle/2117/96362/TLT1de1.pdf (Accessed: 22 Jan.2019) 8. Team Oikos. (2019). Oikos. [online]. Available at: https://issuu.com/c_tz/docs/oikos_final_ book (Accessed: 12 Jan.2019) 9. Sosks Studio. (2015). “The house sees itself reflected in the office”: Abalos & Herreros’ Housing & City, Barcelona (1988). [online]. Available at: http://socks-studio.com/2015/03/22/ the-house-sees-itself-reflected-in-the-office-abalos-herreros-housing-city-barcelona-1988/ (Accessed: 12 Jan.2019) 10. Kim, J. (year unknown). NEXT 21: A Prototype Multi-Family Housing Complex. [online].

Available at: http://www.umich.edu/~nppcpub/resources/compendia/ARCHpdfs/NEXT21.pdf (Accessed: 22 Jan.2019) 11. New London Architecure. (2019). FACTORY-MADE HOUSING – A SOLUTION FOR LONDON?. [online]. Available at: https://nla.london/insights/factory-made-housing-a-solutionfor-london (Accessed: 22 Jan.2019) 12. Turner, J. (1976). Housing by People. London: Marion Boyars Publishers.

13. Huajing, W. (2019). INTERFAMILY LIVING: Building A Community of Public Housing in China. [online]. Available at: https://issuu.com/projective/docs/huajing_wen_interfamily_ living_building_a_communit (Accessed: 22 Jan.2019) 14. Heinrich, G. (2016). IMunicipality-led development with extensive user participation The Tübingen development strategy of private building cooperatives. [online]. I'm terribliy sorry but I could find the source again (Accessed: 22 Jan.2019) 15. Tavolato, O. (year unknown). Computers, participation, and self help housing.

16. Hechman, O. (2017). Floorplan Manual Housing. [online]. https://issuu.com/birkhauser.ch/ docs/floor_plan_manual_housing_5th_editi (Accessed: 22 Jan.2019)

Bibliogr aphy, List of dr awings, and list of figures

109

List of dr awings

[2.0.1] The overall process in multiple scales [2.0.2] The wide spread linear process (top) [2.0.3] Proposed process in matrix (right) [2.0.4] Four scales [2.0.5] Multitude makes possible [2.0.6] The linear process in comparison to the proposed process.

20 21 22 23 29 30

[2.1.1] Urban district: Regulatory lines and nested actors [2.1.2] Urban district: A radical drawing of cores on different grids [2.1.4] Urban district: Variety of morphologies andintegrated public spaces [2.1.3.L] Urban district: Variety of morphologies andintegrated public spaces

34 36 38 41

[2.2.1] Superblock: Grid, cores and development platforms [2.2.2] Superblock: Zoning, ground, and subplots [2.2.3] Superblock: Hierarchy, facade, and permeable ground [2.2.4] Superblock: Outcome of form, structure, and mixed uses on ground [2.2.5] Diagram of development platforms, clusters, and landscape [2.2.6] Redesigning barbican with the same cores [2.2.7] Diagram for cores [2.2.8] Diagram for beams and columns [2.2.9] 3 types of cores, dimensions, joints, and carrying capacity [2.2.10] Components: Beams and columns [2.2.11] Composing space: hierarchy, facade, and permeable ground [2.2.2.12] Diagram of salable subplots [2.2.13] Superblock: handsketch [2.2.14] Diagram of data process ing [2.2.15] Alternative scenario for superblock: campus [2.2.16] Alternative scenario for superblock: Slab-towers [2.2.4.L] Superblock: Outcome of form, structure, and mixed uses on ground, P50

44 46 48 50 51 52 53 53 53 53 56 58 59 61 62 62 63

[2.3.1] Cluster: Fixes and Flexes on groundfloor plan [2.3.2] Cluster: Ground floor plan [2.3.3] Choices of morphological environment [2.3.4] Facade: Exemplary of a tower [2.3.5] Facade: Four variant elements as simple strict control [2.3.6] Cluster: Handsketch [2.3.7] Floorplan of the handsketch [2.3.8] Components: Facade [2.3.9] Diagram of ground divisions [2.3.11] Typical floor plan of one building in the cluster [2.3.12] Early sketch of the future community [2.3.13] Grouping of units: scenario of student housing [2.3.2.L] Cluster: Ground floor plan

66 68 70 72 72 73 75 76 77 78 79 80 81

[2.4.1] Floorplate: Rules and divisions embedded in structure [2.4.2] Floorplate: Nested actors [2.4.3] Floorplate: a variety of units [2.4.4] 4 structure prototypes [2.4.4] 4 structure prototypes [2.4.5] Unit: Customization [2.4.7] Diagram of inserting modules into the unit [2.4.8] Components: Tertiary structure, panels, and slates [2.4.6] Unit: Space, material, and technical details [2.4.9] Diagram of Construction feasibility [2.4.10] Example of complex floorplate [2.4.11] Various complex floorplates, with cores on a 43.2m grid [2.4.12] Grouping of units [2.4.13] Scenario for floorplate: shared living [2.4.14] Scenario for floorplate: continuous balcony [2.4.3,L] Floorplate: a variety of units

84 86 88 90 92 94 95 95 96 97 98 98 99 100 100 101

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List of figures

[1] Sijing Town, Songjiang District, Shanghai, P2 Google Earth [2] Survey, "People Per Architect", P3 https://www.archdaily.com/501477/does-italy-have-way-too-many-architects-the-ratio-of-architects-to-inhabitants-around-the-world [3] Extended family, P4 http://sd.sdnews.com.cn/2013/2014chunyun/quanjiafu/201312/t20131225_1471495.htm [4] Migrant worker, P4 https://www.jfdaily.com/news/detail?id=73758 [5] Mofang Apartments, P4 https://www.52mf.com.cn/ [6] Typical construction site, P4 https://new.qq.com/rain/a/20190531A0BKWE [7] Masterplan of the north part of the site, P5 https://zizaichengjd021.fang.com/bbs/1211045320~-1/432796258_432796258.htm [8] Jiangnanxingcheng Estate, masterplan, P5 https://image.baidu.com/search/detail?ct=503316480&z=2&ipn=d&word=%E4%B8%8A [9] Jiangnanxingcheng Estate, photo, P5 https://shanghai.anjuke.com/community/view/6405 [10] Jiangnanxingcheng Estate, only housing types, P5 https://sh.lianjia.com/ershoufang/107101275585.html [11] Site, Huarun Sheshan Jiuli Estate, P6 Google Earth [12] Site, situated in Shanghai, P7 Google Earth [13] Site and surrounding areas, Land-use masterplan in 2011, P7 http://tushuo.jk51.com/tushuo/6858242_p2.html [14] Site and surrounding areas, Sattelite view in April 2012, P7 Google Earth [15] Site and surrounding areas, Sattelite view in April 2016, P7 Google Earth [16] Site, photo of luxury housing, P8 https://www.shobserver.com/wx/detail.do?id=77190 [17] Site, photo of affordable housing, P8 https://sheshanjiulihr2.fang.com/dianping/1211280902_7798007_101849703/ [18] Development on vacant land, Hoingqiao district, Shanghai, P8 Google Earth [19] Development on vacant land, Luyang district, Hefei, P8 Google Earth [20] Housing by People, book coverage, by John Turner, P9 Turner, J. (1976). Housing by People. London: Marion Boyars Publishers.

[21] Different levels of support, by John Habraken, P9 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278849415_ModRule_A_User-Centric_Mass_Housing_Design_Platform/figures [22] R50, 6 plans overlayed together, Berlin, 2013, P10 https://www.archdaily.com/593154/r50-nil-cohousing-ifau-und-jesko-fezer-heide-and-von-beckerath [23] Tubingen, subdivisions and various buildings, P10 https://www.archdaily.com/593154/r50-nil-cohousing-ifau-und-jesko-fezer-heide-and-von-beckerath [24] Tubingen, timeline, P10 https://issuu.com/architecture00/docs/compendium_for_the_civic_economy_publ [26] Plan of Manitorgorsk, Team OSA, urban scale, P11 https://www.pinterest.com/pin/172192385722437382/?lp=true [27] Plan of Manitorgorsk, Team OSA, block scale, P11 https://www.pinterest.com/pin/172192385722437382/?lp=true [28] Drawing from "Delirious New York", P11 https://designito.net/2015/09/03/delirious-new-york-a-retroactive-manifesto-1978/ [29] Plan of a typical community in Islamabad, Constantinos Doxidas, P12 https://www.pinterest.com/pin/172192385722437382/?lp=true [30] Overlayed regulation lines and the outcome, Dynamic Value Matrix, P12 I am the author [31] Abalos & Herreros’ Housing & City, Barcelona, 1988, P13 http://socks-studio.com/2015/03/22/the-house-sees-itself-reflected-in-the-office-abalos-herreros-housing-city-barcelona-1988/ [32] Next 21, Osaka, Japan, 1994, P13 http://socks-studio.com/2015/03/22/the-house-sees-itself-reflected-in-the-office-abalos-herreros-housing-city-barcelona-1988/ [33] Dom-Ino house, Le Corbusier, 1914, P13 Hechman, O. (2017). Floorplan Manual Housing.

[34] Diagoon House, Delft, Herman Hertzberger, 1971, P13 https://mcchoilearns.wordpress.com/2015/10/21/p-2-3-1-typology-study-diagoon-house-herman-hertzberger/ [35] Duinker van der torre, Amsterdam, 1989, P13 https://mcchoilearns.wordpress.com/2015/10/21/p-2-3-1-typology-study-diagoon-house-herman-hertzberger/ [36] Lake Shore Drive, Mies Van de Rohe, 1909, P13 http://indayear3studio-1617s1.blogspot.com/2016/08/vacharas-exported-domesticity-study.html [37] Plug-in CIty, 1964, P14 https://www.pinterest.com/pin/339669996877042266/?lp=true [38] Metabolism architecture drawing, P14 https://www.archdaily.com/399329/ad-classics-the-plug-in-city-peter-cook-archigram [39] Nakagin Capsule Tower, 1972, Module, P14 https://www.panelsfurnitureasia.com/en/news-archive/architects-re-imagine-tokyo-s-skyline-with-wood/894

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[40] PSSHAK, model as built, London, 1971, P15 http://www.zn903.com/cecspoon/lwbt/Case_Studies/NakaginCapsule/nakagain.html [41] PSSHAK, drawing, customizing unit plan , P15 https://www.architecture.com/image-library/RIBApix/image-information/poster/ [42] PSSHAK, drawing, configuration for choice, P15 AA Archive [43] PSSHAK, drawing, patterns of assemblage, P15 AA Archive [44] ArchiGan, Generation stack in three models, 2019, P16 AA Archive [45] ArchiGan, Results of model II: program, 2019, P16 https://devblogs.nvidia.com/archigan-generative-stack-apartment-building-design/ [46] Oikos 2.0, Optimized output from multi-agents, 2019, P16 https://devblogs.nvidia.com/archigan-generative-stack-apartment-building-design/ [47] Oikos 2.0, 3D aggregation, 2019, P16 https://issuu.com/truman6/docs/term_2_booklet_4d209f1df879d2 [48] J57, modular construction in China, 2015, P17 https://issuu.com/truman6/docs/term_2_booklet_4d209f1df879d2 [49] Quayside, Canada, 2019, P17 https://skyrisecities.com/database/projects/j57 [50] Modular construction, in FMH publication, P17 https://www.sidewalktoronto.ca/plans/quayside/ [51] Scheme for "Urban Splash" development, Manchester, P17 New London Architecure. (2019). FACTORY-MADE HOUSING – A SOLUTION FOR LONDON?.

[52] Masterplan of the north part of the site, P31 http://tushuo.jk51.com/tushuo/6858242.html [53] Bebauungsplan, Germany, P31 https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bebauungsplan_(Deutschland) [54] Accordia, design of 3 architects, 2011, P31 https://www.google.com/search?q=einfacher+bebauungsplan&safe=strict&hl=zh_CN&sxsrf=ACYBGNRdaba5tfq4LrK44wF0A2fR6jIxrA:1579540208295&source [55] Isolated workers accomodation in the periphery of Shanghai, P32 Google Earth [56] Interwoven lines, Dynamic Value Matrix, P39 I am the author [57] The design of an open high school with multiple partnerships embedded in its form, by Un Teng Sou, 2020, P40 Un Teng Sou gave me this drawing directly [58] Barbican masterplan, London, 1982, P52 https://www.dezeen.com/2014/09/13/brutalist-buildings-barbican-estate-chamberlin-powell-bon/ [59] Plan of Mehr Als Wohnen, 2015, P62 https://dac.dk/en/knowledgebase/architecture/mehr-als-wohnen/ [60] Coop Housing at River Spreefeld, Berlin, 2013, P75 https://www.archdaily.com/587590/coop-housing-project-at-the-river-spreefeld-carpaneto-architekten-fatkoehl-architekten-bararchitekten [61] Plan of Mehr Als Wohnen, Zurich, 2015, P75 https://dac.dk/en/knowledgebase/architecture/mehr-als-wohnen/ [62] Patio Courtyard, Open Architects, 2014, P75 http://www.openarch.com/cn/task/134 [63] Zwicky Sud, ground (red) and typical floor(blue), P77 https://www.portuguese-architects.com/zh/schneider-studer-primas-zurich/project/zwicky-sud [64] Real-time rendering, P79 https://forums.sketchup.com/t/tutorial-model-in-sketchup-realtime-render-in-blender/84444 [65] Genossenschaftshaus Stadterle, Basel, 2017, P89 https://www.arc-award.ch/de/genossenschaftshaus-stadterle [66] Duinker van der torre, Amsterdam, 1989, P89 http://indayear3studio-1617s1.blogspot.com/2016/08/vacharas-exported-domesticity-study.html [67] Mehr als Wohnen, Zurich, 2015, P89 https://www.catalan-architects.com/zh/projects/view/mehr-als-wohnen [68] Unite d'habitation, section, P91 https://www.dezeen.com/2014/09/15/le-corbusier-unite-d-habitation-cite-radieuse-marseille-brutalist-architecture/ [69] Shinonime Canal Court, Tokyo, 2004, P91 http://architecturalmoleskine.blogspot.com/2011/10/toyo-ito-kengo-kuma-etc-shinonome-canal.html [70] New futura, Singapore, P91 https://newfutura.net/new-futura-condo-architect [71] Wohnprojekt, Vienna, 2013, P97 https://psh.urbamonde.org/#/en/community/284 [72] The Yellow Building, London, 2008, P97 https://www.ahmm.co.uk/projectDetails/8/The-Yellow-Building?image=2 [73] Student housing, University of Southern Denmark, 2015, P97 https://www.archdaily.com/785806/student-housing-cf-moller [74] Next 21, Osake, 1993, P97 http://www.umich.edu/~nppcpub/resources/compendia/ARCHpdfs/NEXT21.pdf [75] Musikerwohnhaus, plan, Basel, 2010, P99 https://architekturbasel.ch/musikerwohnhaus/ [76] Musikerwohnhaus, interior, Basel, 2010, P99 https://www.vitra.com/en-pl/magazine/details/better-together [77] Mehr als Wohnen, Zurich, 2015, P99 https://dac.dk/en/knowledgebase/architecture/mehr-als-wohnen/ [78] R50, 6 plans overlayed together, Berlin, 2013, P99 https://www.archdaily.com/593154/r50-nil-cohousing-ifau-und-jesko-fezer-heide-and-von-beckerath [79] R50, photo, Berlin, 2013, P99 https://www.archdaily.com/593154/r50-nil-cohousing-ifau-und-jesko-fezer-heide-and-von-beckerath

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acknowledgements

Thanks to Elena, Jorge, Larry, Anna, and all other tutors, I couldn't have accomplished such an amazing piece of work without your guidance.

Thanks to Carol, Lily, Humaira, Marcel, Manasa, Lei, Qizhen, Maxine, and all my friends for your accompany and discussions. Thanks to the Architectural Association, for providing an extraordinary platform for thoughts.

Thanks to Tsinghua University for its rigorous education. Thanks to my family for their love and support. Thanks to my own endeavors.

I sincerely wish that the progress in China and the world will prove that my hopes and visions are not too ambitious.

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盛景超 Jingchao Sheng Architectual Association, MArch, Housing & Urbnism Tsinghua University, School of Architecture 1154651003@qq.com +44 75539 58588 Instagram: james.sheng.562 Wechat: Sheng_JingChao