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Dictionary of Daily Life in Biblical and Post-Biblical Antiquity —Barbers & Beards (eBook edition) © 2014 by Hendrickson Publishers Marketing, LLC P. O. Box 3473 Peabody, Massachusetts 01961-3473 eBook ISBN 978-1-61970-389-6 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Unless otherwise marked, Scripture references are taken from the Holy Bible, New International Version®, NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc.™ Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved worldwide. www.zondervan.com The “NIV” and “New International Version” are trademarks registered in the United States Patent and Trademark Office by Biblica, Inc.™ Due to technical issues, this eBook may not contain all of the images or diagrams in the original print edition of the work. In addition, adapting the print edition to the eBook format may require some other layout and feature changes to be made.

First eBook edition — October 2014

CONTENTS COPYRIGHT DEDICATION INTRODUCTION BARBERS & BEARDS ABBREVIATIONS PERIODS, AGES, AND DATES SELECT GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY ADDITIONAL EBOOKS FROM DDL

Dedicated to our esteemed colleague, the eminent Old Testament scholar Roland K. Harrison

1920–1993

INTRODUCTION The Dictionary of Daily Life in Biblical and Post-Biblical Antiquity (DDL), to be issued in three volumes, was a project begun 30 years ago with the collaboration of the distinguished Old Testament scholar Roland K. Harrison (1920–1993), to whom Marvin Wilson and I dedicate this reference work. In the original conception of the project, Harrison, Wilson, and I were to write all the articles for a work entitled Dictionary of Bible Manners and Customs. It subsequently became expedient to engage the research and writing skills of other select scholars of the ancient world.

While there are many excellent Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias, and popular books on biblical backgrounds available, I had noticed a serious deficiency. I noted that while every one of these had an entry on “Abomination,” none (with the exception of the six-volume Anchor Bible Dictionary) had an entry on “Abortion.”

Why was this the case? It was because these references were keyed to the words which occurred in the Bible.

From my 40 years of teaching the history of ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, early Judaism, and early Christianity, I was well aware of the widespread practice of abortion, contraception, and infanticide in these societies and epochs. I therefore proposed a new framework for the DDL, one based on the Human Relations Area Files, an anthropological grid of human society, which would systematically and comparatively survey different aspects of culture, whether they were highlighted in the Bible or not.

The biblical texts were not intended to give us a complete representation of their worlds. In fact, they take for granted what was well known to both the writers and readers, but of which we are not aware. It is as though we hear the vocalization of an operatic libretto, but do not see the scenery and the costumes of the singers.

Thanks, however, to extra-biblical texts and archaeology, we are able to recreate much of the background for the Bible.

For example, what did ancient people eat and drink? In the essay on FOOD PRODUCTION, one will learn that before the introduction

of rotary mills, housewives had to labor on hands and knees about four hours a day to grind wheat and barley for their daily bread.

Most of the bread in the ancient world was flat (unleavened) bread, because the predominant emmer wheat and the barley in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece did not have the gluten necessary to cause bread to rise.

From the articles on CLOTHING, DYES, LAUNDRY, and TEXTILES, one would learn that white linen was the preferred textile in Egypt, and was worn by Israelite priests and New Testament angels. How was Jesus dressed? Jesus’ sole garments, except for his burial shroud, were woolen. As wool was not easily laundered, his clothes would have been dirty except for the moment of his transfiguration.

How did Jesus appear? From the article on BARBERS & BEARDS, we can conclude with near certainty that Jesus had a beard. Why? Men in antiquity could not shave themselves. They had to resort either to slaves or to barbers for a shave. Moreover, beards were a symbol of masculinity and seniority. The Old Testament word for “elders” is literally “bearded ones.”

Where did people live? This would have varied from place to place and from one time period to another. From the article on DWELLINGS, one would learn that in the Old Testament era in Palestine most would have lived in houses with flat roofs and courtyards full of animals. In Rome, 95% of the people would have lived in insulae, crowded tenements without kitchens or bathrooms.

What about the relations between men and women? From the ar­‐ ticles on EDUCATION and MARRIAGE, one would learn a striking fact, which is missing from both the Old and the New Testaments— the average age of spouses. We learn from our extra-biblical evidence that the bride would have certainly been a young teenager, and the groom several years her senior. The early marriage of girls, to preserve their purity, meant that they had only at best a primary education, with the exception of those from wealthy Roman families, which could afford private tutors for their daughters.

The DDL is also quite unique in attempting to trace the developments of the features of the biblical world along what the French historians of the Annales School have called the longue

durée, that is, over the centuries after the New Testament era. It is instructive to understand how the Jewish rabbis, in following the traditions of the Pharisees, debated over the application of biblical laws in changing circumstances, and how the Church Fathers also responded to these same developments.

Rather than attempting to cover all possible topics, we have chosen to concentrate on 120 subjects, not because of their prominence in the biblical text but because of their significant roles in the ancient world. For example, ASTROLOGY, DREAMS, MAGIC, and DIVINATION & SORTITION (i.e., the casting of lots) are mentioned sparingly in the biblical texts themselves but they were dominant facets of life in antiquity.

The outline each contributor has followed is to briefly summarize references to his or her subject in: (1) the Old Testament and (2) the New Testament; followed by (3) the Near Eastern world, primarily Mesopotamia and Egypt, with some references to Anatolia and Persia; (4) the Greco-Roman world, from the Minoans and Mycenaeans, Homer, through the Hellenistic era, the Roman Republic, and the Roman Empire; (5) the Jewish world, including the Old Testament Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha, Philo, Josephus, the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Mishnah, and the Talmuds (Babylonian and Jerusalem); and (6) the Christian world, including the church fathers up to Chrysostom and Augustine, as well as the early Byzantine empire to Justinian. Each article closes with a bibliography providing both source material for the article and material for further study.

Further, the articles are carefully cross-referenced with other articles in print or planned.

The citations from the Old Testament and the New Testament, unless otherwise marked, are from the New International Version.

Citations from the Septuagint (LXX) are taken from A. Pietersma and B. G. Wright, trans., A New English Translation of the Septuagint (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007). Citations from the Tosefta are taken from J. Neusner, The Tosefta (2 vols.; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2013 repr.). Citations from the Midrashim are from the Soncino Midrash Rabba for Macintosh (Copyright Institute for Computers in Jewish Life and Davka Corporation, 2008). Citations

from the Old Testament Apocrypha are from the Revised Standard Version; those from the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha are from James H. Charlesworth, ed., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (2 vols.; Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983, 1985). The classical citations (including Philo and Josephus) are from the Loeb Classical Library. References to the Dead Sea Scrolls are from The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation by Michael Wise, Martin Abegg Jr., and Edward Cook (rev. ed.; New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 2005).

Citations from the Mishnah are from Herbert Danby, trans., The Mishnah (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933). Citations from the Babylonian Talmud are from The Soncino Talmud (Institute for Computers in Jewish Life and Davka Corporation, 2007); those from the Jerusalem Talmud are from The Jerusalem Talmud, A Translation and Commentary, ed. Jacob Neusner (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009). With the exception of citations from Michael W. Holmes, The Apostolic Fathers: Greek Texts and English Translations (3rd. ed.; Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), patristic references are from the New Advent, Fathers of the Church (www.

NewAdvent.org; 2007; © Kevin Knight). Citations from the Nag Hammadi texts are cited from Marvin Meyer, ed., The Nag Hammadi Scriptures (New York: HarperOne, 2007).

My deepest gratitude is first of all to Marvin R. Wilson, and to his former student, Andrew Pottorf, who have carefully examined all the essays and provided innumerable edits and corrections. I thank Graham Harrison for allowing us to update and expand his late father’s excellent entries. I wish to express my appreciation to all of the contributors, many of whom were my history PhD students at Miami University. My thanks go also to my wife Kimi, who spent countless hours photocopying pages from books and journals. I am grateful also to Sue Cameron, who has checked the biblical and apocryphal references for me.

My profound thanks go to Allan Emery, senior editor at Hendrickson, for spending much of the final two years before his retirement overseeing this project, and also to Hannah Brown and Carl Nellis. Our appreciation also goes to John F. Kutsko, who assisted with some of the research in the earliest stages of

dictionary project. Finally, special thanks to Foy D. Scalf, Chief Archivist of the Oriental Institute, for supplying me with the sources of many Near Eastern quotations.

Edwin M. Yamauchi April 2014

BARBERS & BEARDS The main task of a barber (a word derived from Lat. barba, “beard”) was to shave or trim the beard, or to cut or shave men’s hair. Shaving was a common custom in the biblical world whether for reasons of personal appearance, or religious significance. Customs varied widely from culture to culture and across time. Specific instructions on cutting hair ranged from some traditions and groups requiring the complete removal of body hair, as in the case of Egyptian priests, to other religions that prohibited any shaving at all.

Ancient literature, art, and archaeology shed particular light on those who professionally plied the trade of barbering. In addition, there is evidence that personal barbering was also practiced. Those who served as their own barbers often did so either because professional barbers were not always available or because they were unable to pay the fees barbers charged.

A. THE OLD TESTAMENT The Hebrews normally had full rounded beards (cf. Lev 19:27).

The Heb. term for “beard” (zaqan) is a cognate of the word “elder” or “old man” (Heb. zaqen). The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III (ca. 850 BC) depicts both king Jehu of Israel and thirteen Israelite porters with beards. The Lachish reliefs (ca. 700 BC) portray bearded Hebrew citizens of the city as they knelt before Sennacherib. On cylinder seals, on ivory plaques from Samaria, Hazor, and Beth-zur, and on drawings on pottery vessels from Ein Gedi, Ramat Rahel, and Kuntillet Ajrud Israelite men are also shown with long hair tied in the back with linen bands and with full beards.

During the Neo-Assyrian Empire some Israelites adopted the Assyrian practice of arranging the beard in curls. From a variety of sites in Syro-Palestine bronze razors for trimming the hair and beard, and curlers have been found.

The beard was a mark of vitality and manhood and treated with utmost care and respect (2 Sam 19:24; Ps 133:2). David presented

himself as mentally deranged by letting saliva run down onto his beard (1 Sam 21:13, 14). To take hold of the beard of another in one’s right hand to embrace him was a sign of friendship (2 Sam 20:9). But to cut off a man’s beard was a grievous insult and token of public shame (2 Sam 10:4; Isa 50:6). The Lord thus planned to humiliate completely his wayward people, Judah, by using Assyria as a razor to shave the beard, head, and pubic hair (Isa 7:20).

Absalom, David’s rebellious son, had exceptionally long and heavy hair, which he would cut from time to time and weigh (2 Sam 14:26). The word “barber” (Heb. gallab, a loanword from Akk. gallabu) occurs only once in the OT (Ezek 5:1). Ezekiel as an object lesson was commanded by the Lord to cut his hair and beard, weigh the hair, and divide it into three parts, burning one third, striking one third with a blade, and winnowing a third. The rarity of terms related to professional barbers does not necessarily imply that they were not active within the community. The various contexts where the word “razor” (Heb. ta‘ar or morah) is used and the numerous references to shaving (either the hair of the head or beard) point to the likelihood that the trade of barbering was rather widely practiced.

The Hebrew verb galakh (“to shave”) is often used in reference to the one to be shaven and not the individual who shaves.

To shave the head and beard was a sign of mourning (Job 1:20; Isa 15:2; Jer 41:5; 47:5; Ezek 7:18; Mic 1:16). Likewise, to pull hair from the head and beard was an expression of anguish or distress (Ezra 9:3). Mosaic legislation forbad shaving the forehead, a probable reaction against Canaanite mourning rituals (Deut 14:1).

As a purification rite, a “leper” was required to shave off all his hair, an act which called public attention to this offensive disease (Lev 14:8, 9). The Levites had to “shave their whole bodies” as part of the ceremony of cleansing in preparation for their work at the tabernacle (Num 8:7). Priests, however, were forbidden to “shave their heads or shave off the edges of their beards” (Lev 21:5; cf.

Ezek 44:20). Furthermore, all Hebrews—probably in reaction to a pagan custom—were prohibited from rounding off the hair on the temples or clipping off the edges of their beards (Lev 19:27).

A Nazirite (nazir) was one who freely decided to forego certain things for a stated limited period, and at the end of that time shaved off his nezer (“forelock”) and sacrificed it to God (Num 6:18–19), and then started growing it again. Samson was designated to be a Nazirite for life even before he was born (Judg 13:7); therefore no razor was to be used on his head (Judg 13:5). Samson lost all his strength when his treacherous Philistine wife Delilah had his “seven braids of hair” shaven off (Judg 16:19).

B. THE NEW TESTAMENT Paul’s comment, “Does not the very nature of things teach you that if a man has long hair, it is a disgrace to him” (1 Cor 11:14), indicates that wearing one’s hair short was the common custom of his day. He may have been aware that male prostitutes in the GrecoRoman world wore their hair long. Paul himself later allowed his hair to grow to fulfill a temporary Nazirite vow as indicated by the references to shaving his head (Acts 18:18; 21:24).

C. THE NEAR EASTERN WORLD Sumerians after the middle of the third millennium BC were generally clean-shaven with their heads also often shaved. This practice continued with the exception of the kings in the NeoSumerian and Old Babylonian periods. Thereafter both high officials and commoners normally had beards. Mesopotamian rulers are often portrayed with long, square-cut beards, and many of these beards are plaited or elaborately curled (ANEP, fig. 436–438). Assyrian reliefs sometimes depict young men beardless in order to distinguish them from older men. Occasionally eunuchs were depicted as older beardless men.

Though the wearing of beards was the normal style in Mesopotamian society, exceptions existed for which barbers were in constant demand. The Warka (Uruk) vase shows naked, cleanshaven men bearing offerings. The baru-priest, a divination specialist within ancient Mesopotamian religion, was shaved bald or perhaps

tonsured in accord with prescribed ritual. His consecration ceremony was marked by the formula, “the barber hath done his handiwork upon him.” Archaeological findings depict a number of scenes with nude and shaven priests and a number of other scenes where religious functionaries or worshipers were clean-shaven.

In addition, slaves had an official shaving or were subject to tonsure, a procedure known in Akkadian as gallabatu. Shaving not only marked the individual as a slave (cf. CH 226, 227) but it also may have served to ready the skin for branding. The manumission of slaves was known as “clearing the forehead,” an act performed by official barbers attached to palaces, temples, and law courts.

At Mari, the barber (Akk. gallabu) was part of a guild. The barbers of Mari are described as those who take their positions next to the other craftsmen, depositing their razors in front of Ishtar. In texts discovered at Nuzi, the term gallabu is found in a list of various professions. In addition, the expressions “the king’s barber” and “overseer of the barbers” are attested at Nuzi. Elsewhere, in Akk. gallabu occasionally serves as a title of the gods, e.g., “Engana (a minor deity), the barber of Shamash.” Ninkarnunna, an attendant of the god Ninurta, was the patron god of barbers in Mesopotamia.

Various texts from ancient Mesopotamia refer to the barber’s tools and equipment. Included are the comb, bottle, box, leather tool bag, stool, and razor. At Tepe Gawra, near Nineveh, from around 3000 BC, there was found a limestone handle with a slit on the lower edge into which a flint razor blade was set and held in place by bitumen.

Hittite kings, priests, and soldiers are depicted as beardless. The majority (44 out of 60) of male gods depicted in the outdoor shrine of Yazilikaya are also depicted as beardless. On the other hand, the weather gods, the moon-god, and the vegetation-god Kumarbi (originally Hurrian) are depicted as bearded, reflecting Mesopotamian influence.

The Phoenicians as represented in the later Punic culture at Carthage had “sacred barbers” who performed shaving as a religious rite. Numerous copper razors have been found in Punic tombs at Carthage, in Sardinia, and at Ibiza. These were often elaborately engraved with figures of Punic or Egyptian deities.

The Egyptians were usually clean-shaven. Not only was the hair on the head and the beard shaved, but bodily hairs from the armpits, chest, and pubic regions were also shaved. Joseph shaved before he entered the presence of the pharaoh, an accommodation to Egyptian culture (Gen 41:14). Sinuhe, who had lived as a fugitive among the Semites, was welcomed to the royal court, and declared, “Years were made to pass away from my body. I was plucked, and my hair was combed” (Story of Sinuhe lines 291–2; ANET, 22). Children’s heads were also shaved, but the “sidelock of youth” was worn until the age of puberty.

Egyptian priests shaved their whole body every other day for fear of harboring vermin while in the service of the gods (Her. Hist.

2:37). Slaves brought to Egypt from other countries also had their beards and heads shaved, according to Herodotus (Hist. 2:36; 3:12).

Noble men and women as a rule had their natural hair closecropped, but wore wigs on public occasions. Sometimes Egyptians wore artificial beards. These were tied to the chin for religious ceremonies and other special occasions. The length and shape of these beards varied according to the rank of the person. A private individual had a small beard; a king wore a long beard, squared-off at the end; the figure of a deity was distinguished by a beard curled up at the end. The dead were also equipped with wigs or toupees.

Metal razors were already in use in the Pre-Dynastic period in Egypt. Egyptian barbers were equipped with razors, combs, tweezers, and knives or shears which were carried about in a small open-mouthed pouch. From 1550–1090 BC several Egyptian copper and bronze razors have been recovered. These are in the form of a trapezium attached to a handle (ANEP, fig. 81–83).

Barbers called chaku (literally “shavers”) were attached to the staffs of royal and noble households, of temples, and also of the army. From the tomb of Userhet at Sheikh Abd el-Qurna we have a wall painting of army recruits awaiting their turn with the barber.

Paintings at Beni-Hasan depict barbers at work shaving the heads of men kneeling. Sometimes, however, clients sat on low stools.

The Satire on Trades described the profession as follows: “The barber is (still) shaving at the end of dusk. When he gives himself up

to chins, he puts himself upon his (own) shoulder. He gives himself from street to street, to seek out those whom he may shave. Thus if he is valiant his arms will fill his belly, like a bee eating for its work” (ANET, 433).

The Ebers Papyrus contains many magical formulae dealing with hair, for example spell #459 “to render the hair black again.” Spell #465 “to make the hair of a bald person again” stipulated getting fat from a lion, a hippopotamus, a crocodile, etc., mixing these, and smearing the mixture over the bald head.

D. THE GRECO-ROMAN WORLD In ancient Greece, the barber (Gk. koureus from the verb keiro “to cut short”) was a central figure within the community. The barbershop (koureion) was far more than a site for business; it was a place of constant chatter where men heard the latest news, rambled about trivial matters, and often gave or received unsolicited advice. Indeed, in the Greek world the barbershop was synonymous with a place where scandal was picked up. Accordingly, the cognate Greek adjective koureakos means “gossiping.”

Upon attaining the age of 16 an Athenian boy was introduced to his phratry (a social division of his Greek tribe) on the day of koureotis, the ceremonial cutting of his hair. Herodotus (Hist. 4.34) reports that youths at Delos used to cut and sacrifice their hair to Apollo on their coming of age. Boys commonly wore long hair.

In the Archaic Era (7th–6th c. BC) men wore their hair long, held in place with a headband (mitra). Short hair became more common among citizens in the 6th c. BC, especially among younger men, though older men wore long hair well into the 5th c. BC. The athletes of Athens usually kept their hair close-cropped as was the custom of most slaves.

Spartan boys had their hair cut on a regular basis, but Spartan men wore their hair long. Before the battle of Thermopylae (480 BC), Persian scouts were amazed to see the Spartan warriors combing their long hair in preparation for battle.

Short hair remained the fashion among most Greeks until Alexander the Great wore his hair a little longer, which set a trend.

He also introduced a headband tied at the back with the loose ends left hanging. Until the fifth century BC, it was usual for men to wear a beard (pogon). A moustache was at times worn with a beard, but never without a beard.

After Alexander, the free-born men kept the face closely shaved, which required frequent visits to the barbershop. Few people shaved at home, as razors were rough and difficult to manage. Literary texts generally refer to razors only as used by women. It was a mark of barbarian women that they did not shave their legs.

Barbers often performed additional services such as trimming nails, cutting corns, removing warts, withdrawing accumulations of wax from the ears, eliminating superfluous hair from the nose and ears and correcting various bodily ailments by minor surgical procedures.

In their early history the Romans wore beards and had long hair.

According to Pliny, shaving was introduced to Rome in 300 BC when Publius Titinius Mena brought barbers there from Sicily (Nat. 59).

Pliny also states that Scipio Africanus Minor (185–129 BC) was the first to shave on a daily basis. By the end of the second century BC, the daily shave had become increasingly popular, Philosophers wore long untrimmed beards. Jokes were made about Epicureans whose beards dripped with wine. Others who wore beards were peasants, barbarians, and those in mourning.

The Stoic philosopher Musonius Rufus (ca. AD 30–100) maintained: “The beard should not be shaved, since it is a protection provided to us by nature. Furthermore, the beard is an emblem of manhood—the human equivalent of the cock’s crest and the lion’s mane” (Lec. 21; King, 81).

The evidence from coins, statues, busts, and ancient writers reveals that the Roman emperors from the time of Augustus (27 BC– AD 14) to the time of Trajan (AD 98–117) and many other notable figures during this period must have been shaved on a daily basis.

However, after the reign of Hadrian (AD 117–138), a ruler who let

his beard grow supposedly to cover up an ugly scar, the full beard once again became popular.

People of influence and wealth had their hair cut and beard shaved at home, usually by private slaves, or by barbers (tonsores). The middle class visited one of the many public barbershops scattered throughout the walkways and streets of the city. These Roman barbershops (tonstrina) served as centers of information and gossip for both customers and the many idlers who dropped by. Unable to afford the services of a barber, most of the poor carried on their lives with beard unshaven and hair untrimmed.

While his client sat on a stool, the barber used iron scissors to cut hair and an iron razor for shaving the beard. The style of hair was frequently established by the ruling class. In preparation for shaving, the beard was usually softened just by hot water. Razors were often rusty and required considerable dexterity when applied to a customer’s face. Martial warns his readers to avoid a clumsy barber named Antiochus by calling attention to the numerous scars on his chin, which, the poet says, looks like “some time-worn boxer’s face” due to the accursed razor of this barber (Martial, Ep. 11.84).

Barbers took considerable time to perform their services. Augustus used to unroll a manuscript and engage in either reading or writing while the barbers attended him (Suet. Aug. 79). On the leisureliness of Roman barbers, Martial quipped, “while Eutrapelus the barber goes round Lupercus’s face, and trims his cheeks, a second beard grows” (Ep. 7.83).

The first time a Roman youth shaved was a religious rite of passage, marking manhood and the initial wearing of the manly toga. The family made special note of the date the beard was shaved. A sort of “first fruits” ritual followed in which the hairs of the beard were “deposited” in a special vessel and dedicated as an offering to one of the Roman gods. Family and friends then gathered for a period of celebration and feasting.

Romans generally wore their hair cropped short. Young slaves kept their hair long, thereby earning the description “long-haired children.” But most male slaves would have their scalps shaved, and would be easily recognized if they ran away. Romans poked fun at

bald men since baldness was associated with lechery. Julius Caesar combed his hair forward to disguise his baldness and was happy to wear the triumphator’s crown.

Some Roman men had the hair plucked from their underarms. Men of questionable character depilated their arms and legs as well (Martial Ep. 2.62). Any man with long hair would be suspected of engaging in prostitution. Both the Stoic Musonius Rufus and PseudoPhocylides in the first century AD commented that for a man to wear long, carefully arranged hair was an effeminate practice, which led to immorality.

E. THE JEWISH WORLD The Arch of Titus shows that the Jews wore their hair somewhat longer than the Romans and favored beards. As the rabbis considered the beard the symbol of manhood—“The glory of a face is its beard,” declared the Talmud (b. Shabb. 152a)—they generally prohibited close shaving with a straight edge. But by the first century AD the rabbis permitted Jews who had frequent contact with the Romans to clip their beards; some Jewish men appear to have adopted the Roman custom and shaved off their beards.

The Mishnah contains several references to barbers; “A man should not sit down before the barber near to the time of the afternoon Tefillah (i.e., prayer) unless he has already prayed” (m.

Shabb. 1.2), probably because he might have to wait too long. The Mishnah (m. Pesah. 4.6) includes the barbers with tailors and washermen as those who may work until mid-day on the eve of Passover. The Mishnah calls the occupation of a barber “the craft of robbers” (m. Qidd. 4:14). The Talmud refers frequently to barbers, who also gave manicures and pedicures, and performed some medical services.

The rabbis prohibited any shaving during the periods of mourning after the death of a close relative, between Passover and Shebuot, or during the three weeks preceding the Ninth of Ab. They also proscribed the cutting of any body hair during the 30-day mourning period (Semahot 7.11; 9:11).

F. THE CHRISTIAN WORLD Clement of Alexandria commented as follows on beards and men’s hair: “But for one who is a man to comb himself and shave himself with a razor, for the sake of fine effect, to arrange his hair at the looking-glass, to shave his cheeks, pluck hairs out of them, and smooth them, how womanly!” He added: “For God wished women to be smooth, and rejoice in their locks alone growing spontaneously, as a horse in his mane; but has adorned man, like the lions, with a beard, and endowed him, as an attribute of manhood, with shaggy breasts, a sign this of strength and rule” (Paed. 3.3). Tertullian also asked, “Will He be pleased with him who applies the razor to himself, and completely changes his features . . . ?” (Spec. 23).

Constantine reversed the fashion set by Hadrian and once again Roman gentlemen went daily to the barbershop. When the emperor Julian (AD 361–364) arrived in Constantinople, he summoned the palace barber for a hair-cut. When the man appeared in gorgeous garb, Julian quipped, “I sent for a barber, not the Chancellor of the Exchequer!” Julian wore “a bristly beard trimmed to a point.” His last work, entitled the Misopogon (The Beard Hater), was a satirical response to criticisms circulated by the people of Antioch. They had depicted him as a monkey wearing a goatee beard.

In the early church at Dura-Europos (ca. AD 230–250), Christ is depicted as beardless with short hair. In early Christian art (3rd–4th c. AD) found in the catacombs Christ is usually depicted beardless as in scenes of his baptism by John the Baptist, as the Good Shepherd, in the raising of Lazarus (Via Latina), the multiplication of Loaves (Peter Marcellinus), and with the woman of Samaria (Via Latina).

The earliest depiction of Christ on the Cross (Santa Sabina, AD 432) depicts him as beardless. Among the earliest bearded figures of Christ in Rome are the Catacomb of Commodilla (mid 4th c. AD) and the apse of Santa Pudentia (late 4th c. AD). Later depictions of Christ as a philosopher show him as a bearded man. All Byzantine art depicted a bearded Christ.

The tonsure or shaving of the head became a custom in 4th c. monasticism, and was then adopted by the clergy. One of the key

issues addressed by the Council of Whitby in AD 664 was the differences in the tonsures of Celtic and Catholic monks. The Celtic practice was a frontal tonsure ab aure usque ad aurem (“from ear to ear”), whereas the Catholics wore a shaven circle on the crown of the head, with the hair fringe symbolizing Christ’s crown of thorns, a practice going back to the fifth century. Eastern clerics continue to wear beards, but from the fifth century Western clerics became clean shaven.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Bienkowski, “Hair Dressing,” DANE, 137; G. J. Botterweck, “Gillach, to shave,” TDOT, III.5–20; J. Carcopino, Daily Life in Ancient Rome (1971), 157–69; S. G. Cole, “The Social Function of Rituals of Maturation: The Koureion and the Arkteia,” ZPE 55 (1984), 233–44; W. V. Davies, “Razors,” in Egypt’s Golden Age: The Art of Living in the New Kingdom 1558–1085 B.C. (1982), 189–93; F. C. Fensham, “The Shaving of Samson: A Note on Judges 16:19,” EvQ 31 (1959), 97–98; “Gallabu, Barber,” CAD, V.14–17; T. H. Gaster, Myth, Legend, and Custom in the Old Testament (1969), 590–602; L. Ginzberg, “Beard,” JE II.611–15; D. Harden, The Phoenicians (1963), 204–6; H. Haroutunian, “Bearded or Beardless? Some Speculations on the Function of the Beard among the Hittites,” in Recent Developments in Hittite Archaeology and History, ed. K. A. Yener and H. A. Hoffner, Jr. (2002), 43–52; B. Lincoln, “Treatment of Hair and Fingernails among the IndoEuropeans,” HR 16 (1977), 351–62; S. E. Loewenstamm, “Did the Goddess Anath Wear a Beard and Side-Whiskers?” IOS 4 (1974), 1– 3; I. Luke, “Concerning the Tradition of Long Hair and Beards,” Orthodox Life 45 (Sept.–Oct., 1995), 41–43; O. Margalith, “Samson’s Riddle and Samson’s Magic Locks,” VT 36 (1986), 225–34; P. Montet, Everyday Life in Egypt in the Days of Ramesses the Great (1958), 69–71; J. Murphy-O’Connor, “Sex and Logic in 1 Corinthians 11:2– 16,” CBQ 42 (1980), 482–500; S.-A. Naguib, “Hair in Ancient Egypt,” AcOr 51 (1990), 7–26; S. Niditch, “Samson as Culture Hero, Trickster, and Bandit,” CBQ 52 (1990), 608–24; S. M. Olyan, “What Do Shaving Rites Accomplish and What Do They Signal in Biblical Ritual Contexts?” JBL 117 (1998), 611–22; R. Reynolds, Beards:

Their Social Standing, Religious Involvements . . . (1976); J. E. Strouhal, Life of the Ancient Egyptians (1992), 83–84; C. L. Thompson, “Hairstyles, Head-coverings, and St. Paul: Portraits from Roman Corinth,” BA 51 (1988), 99–115; R. Tomes, “Why Did Paul Get His Hair Cut? (Acts 18:18; 21:23–24),” in Luke’s Literary Achievement, ed. C. M. Tuckett (1995), 188–97.

CONTRIBUTOR: Marvin R. Wilson, PhD (Harold J. Ockenga Professor of Biblical and Theological Studies, Gordon College).

See also the following article(s) in the Dictionary of Daily Life in Biblical and Post-Biblical Antiquity: AGE & THE AGED, COSMETICS, and HAIR.

ABBREVIATIONS GENERAL #(#) || AD Akk. Arab.

Aram.

AV b. b.

BC c.

C ca.

CE cf. ch(s).

CH cm. col(s). d.

Dyn. EA ed. e.g.

Egy. Ep. esp. et al.

Eth. F fl.

number(s) parallel to anno domini, in the year of the Lord Akkadian Arabic Aramaic Authorized Version (i.e., KJV = King James Version) ben, Hebrew “son”; born Babylonian Talmud before Christ century centigrade circa, about Codex Eshnunna confer, compare chapter(s) Code of Hammurabi centimeter column(s) died Dynasty El Amarna (designation of texts from) editor(s), edition exempli gratia, for example Egyptian epistle, letter especially et alia, and others Ethiopic Fahrenheit floruit, flourished

ft. gal.

Gk. ha.

Heb. i.e. ibid. in.

JB KJV km.

Lat. lb(s).

LCL lit.

LXX m. m.

MAL mi.

MK Mt. MT NAB NASB NEB NEV NHC NIV NJPS NK NRSV n.s.

NT OB

foot, feet gallon(s) Greek hectare (about 2.5 acres) Hebrew id est, that is ibidem, in the same place inch(es) Jerusalem Bible King James Version kilometer Latin pound(s) Loeb Classical Library literally Septuagint meter(s) Mishnah Middle Assyrian Law Code mile(s) Middle Kingdom (of Egypt) mount, mountain Masoretic Text New American Bible New American Standard Bible New English Bible New English Version Nag Hammadi codices New International Version Tanakh: The Holy Scriptures: The New JPS Translation according to the Traditional Hebrew Text New Kingdom (of Egypt) New Revised Standard Version new series (of journals) New Testament Old Babylonian

OK Old Pers.

OT Oxy. Pap. Phoen.

R. REB repr. rev.

RSV sing. sq.

St. Sum. t. trans.

Ugar. vol(s). vs(s).

Vulg y.

Old Kingdom (Egypt) Old Persian Old Testament Oxyrhynchus Papyrus Phoenician rabbi Revised English Bible reprint(ed) revised Revised Standard Version singular square saint Sumerian Tosefta translator(s) Ugaritic volume(s) verse(s) Vulgate Jerusalem (Yerushalmi) Talmud ANCIENT SOURCES

Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Gen Genesis Exod Exodus Lev Leviticus Num Numbers Deut Deuteronomy Josh Joshua Judg Judges Ruth Ruth 1–2 Sam1–2 Samuel

1–2 Kgs 1–2 Kings 1–2 Chr 1–2 Chronicles Ezra Ezra Neh Nehemiah Esth Esther Job Job Ps(s) Psalm(s) Prov Proverbs Eccl Ecclesiastes Song Song of Songs Isa Isaiah Jer Jeremiah Lam Lamentations Ezek Ezekiel Dan Daniel Hos Hosea Joel Joel Amos Amos Obad Obadiah Jonah Jonah Mic Micah Nah Nahum Hab Habakkuk Zeph Zephaniah Hag Haggai Zech Zechariah Mal Malachi New Testament Matt Mark Luke John Acts Rom

Matthew Mark Luke John Acts Romans

1–2 Cor 1–2 Corinthians Gal Galatians Eph Ephesians Phil Philippians Col Colossians 1–2 Thess1–2 Thessalonians 1–2 Tim 1–Timothy Titus Titus Phlm Philemon Heb Hebrews Jas James 1–2 Pet 1–2 Peter 1–3 John 1–3 John Jude Jude Rev Revelation Apocrypha and Septuagint 1–2 Esd 1–2 Esdras 1–4 Macc1–4 Maccabees Add Esth Addition to Esther Bar Baruch Bel Bel and the Dragon Ep Jer Epistle of Jeremiah Jdt Judith Pr Azar Prayer of Azariah Pr Man Prayer of Manasseh Sg Three Song of the Three Young Men Sir Sirach/Ecclesiasticus Sus Susanna Tob Tobias Wis Wisdom of Solomon Old Testament Pseudepigrapha

2 Bar. 1 En.

2 Baruch 1 Enoch

4 Ezra 4 Ezra Jos. Asen.Joseph and Aseneth Jub. Jubilees Lad. Jac. Ladder of Jacob Pss. Sol. Psalms of Solomon Sib. Or. Sibylline Oracles T. Isaac Testament of Isaac T. Naph. Testament of Naphtali Vis. Ezra Vision of Ezra New Testament Pseudepigrapha

Acts JohnActs of John Dead Sea Scrolls and Cairo Geneza

CD Damascus Document Hodayot (Thanksgiving Hymns) 1QHa,b (=1Q35) 1QS Serek Hayahad (Rule of the Community) 1QSa 1Q28a (Rule of the Congregation) 4QMMT (Miqtsat Ma‘ase ha-Torah) (=4Q394– 399) 11QTemplea,b11Q19–20 (Temple Scroll) Judaica

‘Abod. Zar. ‘Abodah Zarah ’Abot ’Abot ‘Arak.

‘Arakin B. Bat. Baba Batra B. Mes. Baba Metzi’a B. Qam. Baba Qamma Bek. Bekorot Ber. Berakot Betzah Betzah (Yom Tob)

‘Ed. ‘Eduyyot ‘Erub.

‘Erubin Gitt Gittin Hag. Hagigah Hul. Hullin Kelim Kelim Ketub.

Ketubbot Kil. Kil’ayim Mak. Makkot Maksh.

Makshirin Meg. Megillah Menah.

Menahot Mid. Middot Miqw.

Miqwa’ot Mo‘ed Qat. Mo‘ed Qatan Naz. Nazir Ned. Nedarim Neg. Nega‘im Nez. Neziqin Nid. Niddah ’Ohol. ’Oholot Pe’ah Pe’ah Pesah.

Pesahim Qidd.

Qiddushin Qod. Qodashim Rosh Hash.Rosh Hashshanah Shabb.

Shabbat Sanh.

Sanhedrin Sheb.

Shebi‘it Sheqal.

Sheqalim Sifre Num Sifre (to Numbers) Sifre Deut Sifre (to Deuteronomy) Sotah Sotah Sukkah Sukkah T. Yom Tebul Yom Ta‘an.

Ta‘anit

Tamid Tehar.

Tem. Ter. Yad. Yebam.

Yoma

Tamid Teharot Temurah Terumot Yadayim Yebamot Yoma (=Kippurim)

Apostolic Fathers

1–2 Clem. 1–2 Clement Did. Didache Herm. Mand.Shepherd of Hermas, Mandate(s) Herm. Simil. Shepherd of Hermas, Similitude(s) Herm. Vis. Shepherd of Hermas, Vision(s) Ign. Eph. Ignatius, To the Ephesians Ign. Magn. Ignatius, To the Magnesians Ign. Phld. Ignatius, To the Philadelphians Ign. Pol. Ignatius, To Polycarp Mart. Pol. Martyrdom of Polycarp Pol. Phil.

Polycarp, To the Philippians Ancient Authors Aeschylus (ca. 525–455 BC) Suppl.

Supplices (Suppliant Women) Ambrose (AD 339–397) Hex. Hexaemeron libri sex (Six Days of Creation) Ammianus Marcellinus (ca. AD 330–395) Res G. Res Gestae (Roman History) Anonymous H.A. Historia Augusta Apuleius (active ca. AD 155) Metam.

Metamorphoses (The Golden Ass) Aristotle [Arist.] (384–322 BC) Ath. pol.

Athēnaiōn politeia (Constitution of Athens) Hist. an.

Historia animalium (History of Animals)

Part. an.

De partibus animalium (Parts of Animals) Pol. Politics Rhet.

Rhetorica (Rhetoric) Artemidorus Daldianus Onir.

Onirocritica Athanasius (ca. AD 295–373) Vit. Ant. Vita Antonii (Life of Antony) Athenaeus (fl. ca. AD 200) Deipn.

Deipnosophistae (The Learned Banqueters) Athenagoras (fl. ca. AD 180) Leg. Legatio pro Christianis (Embassy for the Christians) Augustine (AD 354–430) Bon. conj.

De bono conjugali (The Good of Marriage) Civ. De civitate Dei (The City of God) Conf.

Confessionum (Confessions) Cons.

De consensu evangelistarum (Harmony of the Gospels) Doctr. chr.

De doctrina christiana (Christian Instruction) Ennarat. Ps. Ennarationes in Psalmos (Expositions of the Psalms) Ep. Epistulae (Letters) Faust.

Contra Faustum Manichaeum (Against Faustus the Manichaean) Haer.

De haeresibus (Heresies) Incomp.

De incompetentibus nuptiis (Adulterous Marriages) nupt.

Man. De moribus Manichaeorum (On the Morals of the Manichaeans) Nupt.

De nuptiis et concupiscentia ad Valerium comitem (Marriage and Concupiscence) Tract. Ev. In Evangelium Johannis tractatus (Tractates on the Jo. Gospel of John) Basil (AD 330–379) Ep. Epistulae Hex. Hexaemeron Caesar, Julius (100–44 BC) Bell. gall.

Bellum gallicum (Gallic War)

Cassius Dio (ca. AD 160–after 229) Hist. Rom. Historia romana Cato (234–149 BC) Agr. De agricultura (Agriculture) Celsus (fl. ca. AD 180) Med. De medicina Cicero [Cic.] (106–43 BC) Att. Epistulae ad Atticum Div. De divinatione Dom. De domo suo Flac.

Pro Flacco Leg. De Legibus Mur. Pro Murena Parad.

Paradoxa Stoicorum Clement of Alexandria [Clem.] (d. ca. AD 214) Paed.

Paedagogus (Christ the Educator) Protr.

Protrepticus (Exhortation to the Greeks) Strom.

Stromateis (Miscellanies) Clement of Rome (fl. ca. 96) (see 1–2 Clement) Columella (active AD 60–65) Rust.

De re rustica (On Farming) Cyprian (ca. AD 200–258) Unit. eccl.

De catholicae ecclesiae unitate (The Unity of the Catholic Church) Demosthenes (384–322 BC) 1–3 Olynth. Olynthiaca i–iii (1–3 Olynthiac) Dio Cocceianus [Chrysostom] (ca. AD 40–after 110) Rhod.

Rhodiaca (To the People of Rhodes) Diodorus Siculus [Diod. Sic.] (active ca. 60–39 BC) Bib. hist.

Bibliotheca historica (Library of History) Epiphanius (ca. AD 315–403) Pan. Panarion (Adversus haereses) (Refutation of All Heresies) Euripides (ca. 485–406 BC) Med. Medea Eusebius of Caesarea [Eus.] (AD ca. 260–ca. 339)

Hist. eccl.

Historia ecclesiastica (Ecclesiastical History) Vit. Const. Vita Constantini (Life of Constantine) Herodotus [Her.] (ca. 484–ca. 425 BC) Hist.

Historiae Hesiod [Hes.] (ca. 700 BC) Op. Opera et dies (Works and Days) Theog.

Theogonia (Theogony) Hippocrates (ca. 460–ca. 370 BC) Aph. Aphorismata (Aphorisms) Artic.

De articulis reponendis (Joints) Carn.

De carne (Fleshes) Epid.

Epidemiae (Epidemics) Morb.

De morbis (Diseases) Nat. hom.

De natura hominis (Nature of Man) Hippolytus (ca. AD 160–235) Haer.

Refutatio omnium haeresium (Refutation of All Heresies) Trad. ap.

Traditio apostolica (The Apostolic Tradition) Homer [Hom.] (8th c. BC) Il. Ilias (Iliad) Od. Odyssea (Odyssey) Ignatius of Antioch (d. ca. AD 115) (see under Apostolic Fathers) Irenaeus (AD ca. 130–ca. 200) Epid.

Epideixis tou apostolikou kērygmatos (Demonstration of Apostolic Preaching) Haer.

Adversus haereses (Against Heresies) Jerome (AD ca. 347–ca. 420) Comm.

Commentariorum in Ezechielem Ezech.

Epist.

Epistulae Jov. Adversus Jovinianum Qu. hebr.

Liber Quaestionum hebraicarum in Genesim Gen. Vit. Malch. Vita Malchi monachi (“The Life of Malchus the Monk”) John Chrysostom (AD 347–407) Hom. Col. Homiliae in epistulam ad Colossenses

Hom. 1 Cor. Homiliae in epistulam i ad Corinthios Hom. Eph. Homiliae in epistulam ad Ephesios Hom. Matt. Homiliae in Mattaeum Laz. De Lazaro Josephus [Jos.] (AD 37–after 93) Ag. Ap. Against Apion Ant. Jewish Antiquities J.W. Jewish War Life Life Justin Martyr (d. AD 165) 1 Apol.

Apologia 1 (First Apology) 2 Apol.

Apologia 2 (Second Apology) Dial.

Dialoges cum Tryphone (Dialogue with Trypho) Justinian (AD ca. 463–565) Corp.

Corpus Iuris (Codex of Justinian) Juvenal [Juv.] (active 2nd c. AD) Sat. Satirae (Satires) Lactantius [Lac.] (AD ca. 240–ca. 320) Inst.

Divinarum Institutionum Libri VII (The Divine Institutes) Mort.

De morte persecutorum (The Death of the Persecutors) Livy (59 BC–AD 17) Rom. Hist. Ab urbe condita libri (Books from the Foundation of the City) Lucian of Samosata (ca. AD 120–180) Nav. Navigium (The Ship or The Wishes) Nigr.

Nigrinus Peregr.

De morte Peregrini (The Passing of Peregrinus) Philops.

Philopseudes (The Lover of Lies) Salt.

De saltatione (The Dance) Macrobius (fl. early 5th c. AD) Sat. Saturnalia Martial (ca. AD 40–103) Ep. Epigrammaton Minucius Felix (fl. ca. AD 200)

Oct. Octavius Musonius Rufus (ca. AD 30–100) Lec. Lectures Origen [Orig.] (ca. AD 185–254) Cels.

Contra Celsum (Against Celsus) Comm.

Commentarium in evangelium Matthaei Matt.

Prin.

De principiis (First Principles) Ovid [Ov.] (43 BC–AD 14) Ars Ars amatoria (The Art of Love) Med. Medicamina faciei femineae (Drugs for the Female Face, i.e., Cosmetics) Rem. am.

Remedia amoris (Remedies of Love) Palladius (active 4th c. AD) Rust.

De re rustica (On Farming) Pausanias (fl. ca. AD 160) Descr.

Graeciae descriptio (Description of Greece) Petronius (d. AD 66) Sat. Satyricon Philo (ca. 20 BC–ca. AD 50) Agr. De agricultura (On Agriculture) Cher.

De cherubim (On the Cherubim) Contempl.

De vita contemplativa (On the Contemplative Life) Decal.

De decalogo (On the Decalogue) Ebr. De ebrietate (On Drunkenness) Flacc.

In Flaccum (Against Flaccus) Gig. De gigantibus (On Giants) Hypoth.

Hypothetica (Apology for the Jews) Ios. De Iosepho (On the Life of Joseph) Leg. 1–3 Legum allegoriae 1–3 (Allegorical Interpretation 1–3) Legat.

Legatio ad Gaium (On the Embassy to Gaius) Migr.

De migratione Abrahami (On the Migration of Abraham) Mos. 1, 2 De vita Mosis I, II (On the Life of Moses 1, 2) Mut. De mutatione nominum (On the Change of Names) Opif.

De opificio mundi (On the Creation of the World)

Post.

QG

De posteritate Caini (On the Posterity of Cain) Quaestiones et solutiones in Genesim (Questions and Answers on Genesis) Somn.

De somniis (On Dreams 1–2) Spec.

De specialibus legibus (On the Special Laws) Virt.

De virtutibus (On the Virtues) Philostratus (fl. 3rd c. AD) Vit. Apoll.

Vita Apollonii (The Life of Apollonius [of Tyana]) Plato (ca. 429–347 BC) Apol.

Apologia (Apology of Socrates) Leg. Leges (Laws) Phaed.

Phaedo Phaedr.

Phaedrus Resp.

Respublica (Republic) Symp.

Symposium Theaet.

Theaetetus Tim. Timaeus Plautus (ca. 250–184 BC) Trin.

Trinimmus (Three-Dollar Day) Pliny the Elder [Pliny] (AD 23–79) Nat. Naturalis historia (Natural History) Pliny the Younger (AD 61–113) Ep. Epistulae Ep. Tra. Epistulae ad Trajanum Plutarch [Plu.] (ca. AD 50–129) Aem. Aemilius Paulus Alc. Alcibiades Caes.

Caesar Lyc. Lycurgus Lys. Lysander Mor. Moralia Pomp.

Pompeius Quaest.

Quaestiones convivialum (Table Talk) conv.

Quaest.

Quaestiones romanae et graecae (Roman and Greek rom.

Questions)

Sull.

Sulla Tim. Timoleon Polybius [Polyb.] (ca. 200–118 BC) Hist.

Historiae (Histories) Polycarp (ca. AD 69–155) (see under Apostolic Fathers) Seneca (ca. 4 BC–AD 65) Ben. De beneficiis (Benefits) Ep. Epistulae morales (Moral Essays) Helv.

Consolationem ad Helviam Matrem (Consolation to His Mother Helvia) Sophocles (ca. 496–406 BC) Aj. Ajax Soranus (fl. 2nd c. AD) Gyn. Gynaecology Strabo [Str.] (64–after 24 BC) Geogr.

Geographica (Geography) Suetonius [Suet.] (AD ca. 75–ca. 140) Aug. Divus Augustus Cal. Gaius Caligula Claud.

Claudius Dom. Domitianus Gramm.

De grammaticis Jul. Divus Julius Nero Nero Tib. Tiberius Vesp.

Vespasian Tacitus [Tac.] (AD 56–ca. 117) Ann. Annales Germ.

Germania Hist.

Historiae Tertullian (ca. AD 160–200) An. De anima (The Soul) Apol.

Apologeticus (Apology) Bapt.

De baptismo (On Baptism) Carn.

De carne Christi (The Flesh of Christ) Cor. De corona militis (The Crown)