Necropolis, New York: Envisioning the Future of Hart Island

Necropolis, New York

Envisioning the Future of Hart Island

James Carroll Prof. Catherine Seavitt Nordenson Submitted in partial fulfillment of the degree Master of Landscape Architecture, City College of New York June, 2016

Abstract In 2015, a the Department of Corrections (DOC) was forced to allow visitors to a place that had been restricted to the public for over a century. The place is Hart Island, New York City’s potter’s field, established in 1869. It is the largest tax-funded cemetery and the only one in the world to use the Dickensian practice of using prison labor to bury the poor, homeless and unidentified. Before the 2015 class action lawsuit settlement, relatives of the dead were relegated to a small gazebo, out of sight of the graves and under the surveillance of corrections officers. The DOC now offers once-a-month ferry visits for blood relatives as well as the general public. However, many feel that the current arrangement is insufficient in respecting the sepulchral rights of individuals. Certain politicians and advocates are pushing for a bill in the City Council to transfer jurisdiction from the DOC to the Parks Department (DPR), who proponents believe would not only be better at managing public access, but also in terms of ecological management. However, this solution does not address the rights of the inmates which continued management by the DOC could address. The DOC has the opportunity to restore justice to those they have mistreated on both sides of the fence.

This project adresses the immediate concerns of respecting sepulchral rights while envisioning a future scenerio where the DOC continues mass burials. It also addresses long term concerns of sea level rise, wildlife habitat restoration, and reducing recidivism rates.

2

1. History

4

2. Burial

8

3. Ecological Management

14

4. Access

21

5. Mound

28

7. Marsh

39

Jacob Riis

HISTORY

“Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp!” cries she With silent lips. “Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, The wretched refuse of your teeming shore.

Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me, I lift my lamp beside the golden door!”

-From “The New Collosus” by Emma Lazarus

Potters Fields and the Islands of the Marginalized

Hart Island is the 9th iteration of a long history of potter’s fields dating back to the beginning of the city.

The marginalized have always been buried at the outskirts of the city, but in proximity to almshouses and other institutions for the marginalized. As population expanded, these cemeteries were pushed farther and farther away from the city center. Many of the landscapes that remained turned into public parks over time. Because of the city’s geography, many other small islands have housed institutions for criminals, the physically and mentally ill, immigrants or the homeless. Some of these exist today, as in the prison on Rikers Island and the psychiatric hospital on Randalls Island. Like a macabre inversion of Ellis Island or Liberty Island, Hart Island is the final resting place of the “huddled masses yearning to breathe free.”

Hunt, Melinda, and Joel Sternfeld. Hart Island. Zürich: Scalo, 1998.

5

33,131

6 French, Stanley.

96,000

123,000

4

18

Au

d

1797

1836

Waldorf Astoria

1823

Bryant Park

Union Sq

1794

Washington Sq Madison Sq

7

6

312,000

Rural Cemetery Movement

1840

Hunt, Melinda, and Joel Sternfeld. Hart Island. 1998.

The Civil War (1861-1865)

The Civil War (1861-1865) 1930

1982-1991: Hart Island used as Prison

2010

2000

1990

d

an

ed

d

rie

bu

m

or

tf

ec

oj

s

im

ct

vi

Pr

S

ID

A

sl

tI

ar

:H

11

20

6

:1

’s

80

h

rt

no

p

ee

in

so

rn

tip

y

e

ov

pr

ce

an

” 7,071,000

d

re

er

nt

es

ro

eg

N

si

e

th

di

of

ar

pe

ap

ar

e

nd

la

Is

d

an im er

to et

em

C

he

ut

s

s

ie

sl

ey

on

C

r“

fo

tI

ar

tip

er ill

H

es

at

m

in

ss

re

et

m

ce yp

C by

’d

14

de

si

to

e

H

h

ut

so

on

at

ls

d

an ria

sl bu

6,930,000

1980

on

ed

at

iv

ls

ia pr er

to sf

an

tr

s

al

es

cr

A

ur

B

4

5,620,000

19

ed

ct

re

le

ia

ns

ai

m

re

pe

ap

ar

s

4,766,000

or

em

M

n

ra

te

Ve

es

os

W

ic

tI em

ar id

ep

7,454,000 7,781,000

1970

ce

ea

ar

W

tM

er

ilt

bu

se

ha

rc

pu

n

io

at

st

er

7,891,000

1960

1950

:P

48

19

il

iv

il

y

ile

R

er

w

po

iv

:C

’s ob

:R :C

41

19

39

30

on

om

ol

:S

m

oo

1,515,000

R

of

n emby Net ials y A e c e t pl H e w ry et a t ed r e Yo e t I r rk s sl y C ta an r it b d e y li s us lo ed c he d fo a r y te el d lo w a fe t v H

m

en

co

3,437,000

1940

19

1920

o

k

ar

8

19

19

am

yn

942,000

22

19

1910 :D

515,000

12

813,000

1900

1,206,000

1890

e

et

1843 183: O:n Grery and bu rn 18 5 the e Pu Randalls Island bl 47 1 n C i L : a w c 1846 1 Rura: B ying oo Walk, eme 1850 8 l Cem an Ou d Step Wards Island 47 ete t, P Ce hen tery la D 18 ri o es 58 : N es of n ntin me unca 18 : Co Y Ameri Bu g andter n Walk tab y c lis er a, 6 n M , 1860 he 18 1: Hstruc Sta Walrterials anagBro d in o 18 63 ar tion te g k b l o 1869 68 : t Is be R e f C yn 18 : HaWo lan gins o ur low emete Hart Island 1870 86 ries, 18 6 rt I od d C n C al 9 s e th John 18 70 : la la iv ntr C 73 : S C nd w il W al e S Cl m P :C o bo n a ark e tr audiu en uth it 1880 r C u y te eet s Lou B tra e g l P rn C ht em ur do r

nt

ou

M em

C

:

al

38

18

ur

31

:R

35

202,000 18

1

1830

18

60,515

1820

2

City Hall

4

1810

3

1690-1794

5

1800

1790

New York City Population in Millions of People

Timeline

Just as the potter’s fields were being moved to newly purchased land away from the city center, developers were purchasing land to turn into

so-called rural cemeteries. As a solution to the overcrowded church graveyards in Manhattan, these less dense cemeteries appeased peoples fear

of the spread of disease due to miasmic odors from unhygenic burial grounds as well as promoting a return to nature at the end of ones life. For

the living, these newly invented landscapes became so wildly popular, they inspired planners and designers to create public parks, essentially rural

cemeteries without burials. Although it may seem strange to establish a municipal cemetery on a relatively remote island, city officials were planning

for a rapidly expanding populous with changing attitudes towards burial. Although exact numbers of burial records on Hart Island could not be

included, one can interpolate the exponential increase in burials from the overall population of New York City.

10,406,000

10

9 9,345,000

7,894,000 8,200,000

6,822,000

Woodlawn Cemetery Est. 1863 400 Acres 300,000 burials

Hart Island Est. 1869 100 Acres 800,000 burials

Comparing Hart Island to Greenwood Cemetery, a private cemetery established during the Rural Cemetery Movement, offers some striking insights in regards to density of burials. Less than half the amount of burials have occurred in over four times the amount of space. Although both were established in pastoral “rural” landscapes, the deliberate Romantic planning and maintenance is clear in Woodlawn’s aerial photo.

Google Earth Woodlawn Cemetery

7

Burial Chronology

Many of the burial markers on the island have been lost to fire or obscured by invasive vines and shrubs.

Furthermore, lapses in burial records prove locating individuals difficult.

However, it can be understood that many of the older burial grounds are further above the flood plain and on the northern end of the island. At one point, Hart Island was referred to as Spectacle Island because of the narrow land bridge that existed between the larger northern and southern sides of the island.

Landscape Strategy City Cemetery, New York. Ann Sharrock, Melinda Hunt, Ian Fisher. 2015 NOAA

8

Claire Yaffa

BURIAL

The City Cemetery

The window period to claim a body from the morgue can be as short as 48 hour. Those who are not identified and claimed by friends or family are interned on Hart Island. Of the 50,000 people who die each year in New York City, around 1,500 to 3,000 individuals are interned here. Many of them are homeless or unidentified bodies found in transportation hubs or washed ashore in waterways. Others are elderly individuals who have no next of kin. Roughly 300 to 600 individuals are held in cold storage for selection by the chief medical examiners office for educational cadavers before eventually being buried at Hart Island.

John Surico, “The Journey from Death to Hart Island,” Urban Omnibus. October 14th, 2015.

Nina Bernstein. “Unearthing the Secrets of New York’s Mass Graves.” The New York Times. May 15, 2016.

10

Burials at Risk

Because the older burial grounds were sited farther above the flood plain, the DOC is forced to continue burials in areas at risk of flooding and erosion.

Hunt, Melinda, and Joel Sternfeld. Hart Island. Zürich: Scalo, 1998.

Nina Bernstein. “Unearthing the Secrets of New York’s Mass Graves.” The New York Times. May 15, 2016.

11

2/20/2009 Burial Trench

Burial Trench

6/17/2011

4/7/1994 400’

Burial Trench

Burial Trench

12/20/2004 Burial Trench

11/3/2012 Burial Trench

Burial Trench

2015

7/4/2007 Burial Trench

Burial Trench

Burial Trench

Trenches

In 1989, bull dozers moved to the south end of the island. Burials occur in trenches that measure roughly 15 feet wide and 8 feet deep, amounting to around 500 linear feet a year. Trees and buildings that stand in the way are removed, resulting in a veritable path of destruction.

Google Earth

12

1990

2000

2005

2010

Tree coverage that is removed is replaced with ground that is barely covered in herbaceous vegetation, leaving burials vulnerable to erosion. This can be clearly seen in landsat imagery where bright orange indicates dense canopy and bright green indicates turf or bare earth.

Data available from the U.S. Geological Survey.

13

James Carroll

ECO mgmt

Westchester New Rochelle

The Bronx

Pelham Bay Park

Nassau

The Pelham Islands

Hart Island is situated within a collection of reefs, shallows, rocks and islands of various sizes.

Historically known as the Pelham Islands, they are located between the borders of the Bronx and Westchester counties and include City Island, Davids Island, Huckleberry Island and Hart Island.

This heterogeneous mix of habitats allows for the expansion of ecological restoration efforts. Hart Island in particular hosts existing intertidal marshes and shallow waters and mudflats to provide for wetland, eel grass and oyster restoration efforts.

New York Public Library U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and The Port Authority of NY and NJ. Hudson-Raritan Estuary Comprehensive Restoration Plan. Vol. 1. 2009.

15

Ecological Surveys

Although the island is limited to human visitation, it is filled with habitat for wildlife. Some of the older burial grounds have been given over to volunteer plants, while newer burial grounds have claimed older growth for continued internments. The Sections on the following page show both the existing forests and burials grounds, as well as opportunities for ecological restoration.

Department of Parks and Recreation. 1989 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and The Port Authority of NY and NJ. 2009.

16

10’ intervals

10’ intervals

10’ intervals

10’ intervals

10’ intervals

10’ intervals

10’ intervals

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

17

Change in coastal marsh

2025

2055

2085

2100

Sea Level Affected Marshes Model

The Sea Level Affected Marshes Model (SLAMM) simulated the processes involved in wetland conversions and shoreline changes during long-term sea level rise. Like many other places in the world, those area that were once originally marsh land but were filled in, will be more susceptible to sea level rise. Whereas most coastal areas in this region are already developed, the conditions on Hart Island offer a rare opportunity to plan for this type ecological restoration.

“SLAMM-View.� SLAMM-View. Accessed May 24, 2016. http://sv3.slammview.org/slammview3/.

18

Cemetery/Park

While the Parks Department does not accept management of land used as a current burial ground, advocates for the transfer of ownership to the DPR point to the long list of cemeteries owned by them already and parks that have burial grounds in them.

Young, Sybil. “Introduction to the Maintenance of Historic Cemeteries.�

19

Long Island Sound

Historically known as the Pelham Islands, this archipelago of islands sits in the western narrows of the Long Island Sound. In terms of New York Cities water quality, this area is relatively free of problems. But when compared to the larger scale of the Long Island Sound, it is riddled with problems such as hypoxic conditions stemming from storm water runoff, and treated sewage overflow. Many sites along the sound are harbors that require continual dredging from the Army Corps of Engineers. As the Corps has been receiving increased pressure from the Department of Environmental Protection to stop dumping dredged material in deposit sites, they are now looking for more beneficial uses for dredge. The material could be used for burial mounding on Hart Island would could easily be incorporated into ecological restoration practices. The Island, over time, could be included into a long list of Long Island Sound environmental stewardship sites. Existing nearby sites include Pelham Bay Park as well as Davids and Huckleberry Islands.

US Army Corps of Engineers, 2015.

Regional Plan Association, 2006.

Long Island Sound Study, 2011.

20

Michael Appleton for The New York Times

ACCESS

Co-op City

Pelham Bay Park

City Island

Ferry Point Park

Soundview Rikers

Laguardia Airport

Laguardia Airport

Citywide Ferry System Expanded

The Soundview ferry terminal is slated to open in 2018 as part of a new citywide ferry system. The initial study for the ferry system included many other sites, located close to Hart and City Islands. An expanded service could provide increased access to this remote are of the city. Ferry services could not only increase access to Hart Island for mourners, but also to other natural resource areas in the region.

Special Initiative for Rebuilding and Resiliency US Army Corps of Engineers

22

Nesting Season Restrictions Birdwatching

Stewardship

Birdcounts

Ecological Restoration Oyster Restoration

Fishing

MORE ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT

Island for Birds

You Are Here

Arboretum Private Burials

Green Jobs Training

Geneology Research Stewardship MORE ACCESS

LESS ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT

LESS ACCESS

Green Burial Island

Future Scenarios

Sculpture Park

Memorials

Nature Classes Films Cultural Heritage Center Green Jobs Training

Island for the People

In order to understand the possible futures of Hart Island, a matrix was devised where the x-axis related to access or pedestrian circulation and the y-axis related to ecosystem management. The scenario that became most desirable was Green Burial Island future, where more access and more ecosystem management was promoted.

Island for Birds

The DOC, despite continued protests from organizations and court cases, continues to limit public access to Hart Island. Only blood relatives are allowed once a month visits to graves. But the DOC has started consulting with local ecological restoration and environmental stewardship groups. The corrections officers have now used prison labor to include restoring oyster beds, salt marshes, and underwater eelgrass fields; reforesting parts of the island to promote harbor heron nesting; and managing invasive species. This is part of a new program at Rikers Island called Jobs for Parks, a green jobs training program that allows inmates to build skills applicable to restoration and landscaping work. The DOC has also used this as an opportunity to improve their appearance against prison reform protesters who have advocated for improved conditions on Rikers Island.

Island for the People

Due to increased advocacy for removing the potter’s field from the island and realizing that they have reach the capacity to bury bodies on the island sustainably, the DOC in this scenerio has entrusted the future ownership of the island to the National Parks Service. Given the rich cultural history of the island, the NPS has included the burial grounds into a long list of historic cemeteries in the United States. Federal funding now allows increased ferry access, and visitors can mix respectfully with mourners. Areas such as the cold war missile silo, the civil war cemetery and the AIDS burial ground have been respectfully and artfully memorialized. However, increased foot traffic has resulted in disturbances to wildlife. Nesting areas of terns, black crowned herons and other wading bird species have been abandoned.

23

Green Burial Island

In this scenario, the DOC has similarly reacted to advocates for prison reform and used the island for green jobs training. It has also looked to increase the capacity of the island for continuing burials. The remaining low-lying terrain has been designated as a testing ground for green burials. By contracting witht the Army Corps of Engineers, the Department of Corrections has accepted stockpiles of dredged material from the Long Island Sound. The Army Corps of Engineers is happy to deposit material for beneficial usage, as they have gained increased pressure from the Department of Environmental Protection in their practice of dumping material in open water sites. Bodies will now be buried in mounds and planted over, both reducing the risk of erosion and sea level rise, and providing future ecological and social use. The environmentally friendly form of burial has attracted private burials, which allows the DOC to increase overhead, which helps cover the cost of increased ferry access for visitors.

Long Island Sounds Narrows Recreation Area

The accessibility matrix was extended to other areas in the Pelham Islands region, emphasizing the possibility for a interconnected park.

Like a Gateway National Recreation Area for the Long Island Sound, the cultural and ecological value of these island could be increased with proper management and increased access

24

Ecological

PROGRAM ZONING +Eco Mgmt/-Circulation Cultural

+Eco Mgmt/+Circulation -Eco Mgmt/+Circulation

ECOLOGICAL

Shorelines and Shallows Maritime Forest Closed Forest Woodlands Coastal Wetland

lS

ite

(US Army Corps of Engineers, NYC DPR 1989 Survey) )

Fu

tu

re

Bu

ria

BURIALS 2050’s 1-in-100 Year Storm (13” Sea Level Rise) FEMA Current 1-in-100 Year Flood Zone Burial Sites at Risk of Flooding

se

ha

ou Ph

oe

ni

Vi s

x

H

eb az rG ito

C

o

Dy

na

Ta p m e o i H Bu lor l ou tc Sh se he op rS ho p

Burials 1896-1970 Burials 1970-1980 Burials 1980-1990 Burials 1990-Present (Ann Sharock, Melinda Hunt, CUNY Institute for Sustainable Cities, New York Panel on Climate Change )

BUILT

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Existing Conditions

25

Hart Island

is the world’s largest tax funded cemetery and the only one in the world to use prison labor to bury the dead. It is the final resting place of almost one million New Yorkers. So why

is it not on the subway map millions of New Yorkers ride everyday?

Because up until recently, the Department of Corrections did not allow mourners on the island. However, thanks to a class action law suit relatives of the dead and the general public are allowed to finally visit and pay homage to the dead. Let city officials know you want to go there by placing this sticker on a subway map near you.

Subway Sticker Pamphlet

26

Models

27

MOUND

Proposed burials would serve both as a monument to those extra marginalized plague burials, as well as a dynamic landscape for future generations

Varied spacings of mounds would result in varied paths in between

Each successive level of mounding would continue after a 10 year disinternment period

6’ tall Each mound represents roughly 1 year or 2,000 burials

Trees would be planted after the disinternment period

el of tinue after a nt period

The accumulation of burial mounds could serve as a monumental landscape of varied topographies and views.

Fighting the Flood

In this design intervention, the remaining land waiting for internments would be used for mounding.

As opposed to excavating soil, burials would be elevated above rising sea level elevations by taking advantage of dredged material from the Long Island Sound and rubble from demolished buildings.

Working with a 20 year disinterment window period, mounding could occur on top of other mounds or plantings could occur. The resulting landscape could provide views to the Sound and back to the City, as well as acting as a future land bridge between the north and south sides of the island.

Proposed burials would serve both as a monument to those extra marginalized plague burials, as well as a dynamic landscape for future generations

Varied spacings of mounds would result in varied paths in between

Each successive level of mounding would continue after a 10 year disinternment period

Trees would be planted after the disinternment period

The accumulation of burial mounds could serve as a monumental landscape of varied topographies and views.

6’ tall Each mound represents roughly 1 year or 2,000 burials

29

Proposed burials would be place within a 1’ deep trench. The excavated soil would be used for a berm walkway. The trenches would be planted with a native groundcover.

These trenches would be oriented to allow for the migration of salt marsh plants. Inmates would be trained to manage the salt marsh restoration, preparing them with experience for parks department jobs.

The saltmarsh would absorb nitrogen runoff from the burials and protect the burials from erosion.

Mourner new sen stewards the buria

Continued Burial as Memorial

In the 1980s, 16 victims to the AIDS virus were buried deeper than usual in the area of the island that was historically used for yellow fever burials.

As an inversion to the extra deep burials, the mounds would lift the burials skyward, creating a monumental landscape visible from the surrounding area.

30

2022

2033

2043

2070

Fighting the Flood

An earlier study showed the maximum expression of linear mounds. Calculated by 1,000 feet per year, or 2,000 burials at 3 coffins high, the plan shows how mounds (unstacked) could spread across the landscape. A fence (in red) shows where current burial areas would be less accessible due to construction machines. Once the disinterment period of 20 years ends, reforestation would follow.

31

MOUND PHASING Berms

Burial Mound 10-12 years Burial Mound 3-5 years Burial Mound 1-2 years

CIRCULATION Major

Minor Demolished buildings used for fill

TOPOGRAPHY

6’ SLR Shoreline

Burial Mound Axon 32

Burial Mound Axon 33

Topography

34

Mound Phasing

Circulation 35

C M

Salt

bs

Ha

structi on Jo

h Resto r ars

AID

on ati

ng sti

ero or H n Ne rb

on

dwatching Bir

S Memoria l

sta fore ti on Re

ati on or

ster Rest Oy

Programming

While Rikers inmates are on the island twice a week, their work is expanded to include constructing the mounds as well as ecological restoration work elsewhere on the island. These new jobs would be incorporated into existing horticulture therapy programs on Rikers, as well as job training programs in cooperation with the Parks Department.

36

View looking north along burial mound path.

Birds eye view of the mounds.

37

Case Study: Tumuli

Burial mounds, or “Tumuli,” have been used to bury the dead throughout many different civilizations around the world. From the Ancient Etruscans in the Mediterranean to the pre-Colombian Adena culture of the Ohio River Valley, burial mounds were a way of incorporating architecture and ritual into settlements. Many of these mounds were used as royal tombs which would serve as public monuments for future generations.

Hågahögen, Sweden

Grave Creek Mound, West Virginia

Gyeongju, South Korea

Tinghøjen, Denmark

Sulm Valley, Austria

Gamla Uppsala, Sweden 38

MARSH

20’ high Markers for every 100 burials

6’ Sea Level Rise

15’ wide Walkway with Drains

ery 100

Grave markers would remain visible well above rising sea levels

Accepting the Flood

As a reverse alternative to the previous scenario, this one would accept sea level rise and the salt marsh migration that would come with it. Burial trenches would be oriented in a way to accept rising water and would be planted with successional species and would be managed to promote the growth of spartina and other salt marsh plants. These new intertidal areas would give a poetic meaning to the process of grieving. As the grave becomes older and less likely to be visited, it will be turned over to the migrating salt marsh, which would stabilize the remains. 20 foot tall grave markers would designate the burial to be seen from a distance.

15’ wide Walkway with Drains

20’ high Markers for every 100 burials

Grave markers would remain visible well above rising sea levels

6’ Sea Level Rise

40

sh would gen runoff ials and burials from

Proposed burials would be place within a 1’ deep trench. The excavated soil would be used for a berm walkway. The trenches would be planted with a native groundcover.

Mourners could find a new sense of stewardship towards the burial grounds.

Proposed burials would be place within a 1’ deep trench. The excavated soil would be used for a berm walkway. The trenches would be planted with a native groundcover.

The rising sea level would reflect the passage of time and give a poetic sense to the process of grieving.

These trenches would be oriented to allow for the migration of salt marsh plants. Inmates would be trained to manage the salt marsh restoration, preparing them with experience for parks department jobs.

The saltmarsh would absorb nitrogen runoff from the burials and protect the burials from erosion.

These trenches would be oriented to allow for the migration of salt marsh plants. Inmates would be trained to manage the salt marsh restoration, preparing them with experience for parks department jobs.

Mo ne ste the

The saltmarsh would absorb nitrogen runoff from the burials and protect the burials from erosion.

The marsh burials would be a rare opportunity to plan for the migration of salt marsh ecologies.

The future landscape could serve as an important habitat for wildlife as well as the cultural use as a burial ground.

Mourners could find a new sense of stewardship towards the burial grounds.

The rising sea level would reflect the passage of time and give a poetic sense to the process of grieving.

The marsh burials would be a rare opportunity to plan for the migration of salt marsh ecologies.

The future landscape could serve as an important habitat for wildlife as well as the cultural use as a burial ground.

41

4

3

ne Zo

ne Zo

1

ne

ne

Zo

Zo

2

PHASES

CIRCULATION

MARSH CHANNELS 6’ SLR

4’ SLR

2’ SLR

TOPOGRAPHY

42

43

M

T 44

P

C

M

45

4

3 ne

Zo

ne

Zo

2

1 ne

Zo

ne

Zo

1’ SLR

2’ SLR

3’ SLR

4’ SLR

5’ SLR

6’ SLR

46

View looking west towards City Island and Manhattan

View looking upland along path and marsh burial trench.

47

Case Study: Pioneer Cemeteries

Many of the early pioneer cemeteries in the Midwest have now become valued for their preservation of early prairie plant communities. Because burials have been left undisturbed, ecological communities have been left as is, leaving a stark contrast with surrounding farmland.

Tomlinson Cemetery, Illinois

Tomlinson Cemetery, Illinois

Smith Cemetery, Ohio

Smith Cemetery, Ohio

Bigelow Cemetery, Ohio

Bigelow Cemetery, Ohio

48

WORKS CITED Bernstein, Nina. “Unearthing the Secrets of New York’s Mass Graves.” The New York Times. May 15, 2016. Accessed May 24, 2016. http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/05/15/nyregion/new-yorkmass-graves-hart-island.html.

Bloomberg, Michael. A Stronger, More Resilient New York. New York City: NYC Special Initiative for Rebuilding and Resiliency, NY. “Burial & Cremation Services | Funeral Arrangements & Services | Cemetery & Mausoleum | Woodlawn Cemetery - Bronx, Westchester County, NYC, NY.” The Woodlawn Cemetery. Accessed May 24, 2016. http://www.thewoodlawncemetery.org/.

Cox, Jennifer R. Long Island Sound Stewardship Initiative 2006 Stewardship Atlas. Regional Plan Association, 2006.

Department of Parks and Recreation, “Hart Island Bronx Ecological Assessment,” Natural Resources Group. 1989 Dredged Material Management Plan and Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement: Long Island Sound Connecticut, New York and Rhode Island. Public Review Draft. US Army Corps of Engineers, 2015.

French, Stanley. “The Cemetery as Cultural Institution: The Establishment of Mount Auburn and the “Rural Cemetery” Movement.” American Quarterly 26, no. 1 (1974): 37-59.

Hunt, Melinda, and Joel Sternfeld. Hart Island. Zürich: Scalo, 1998.

“Sound UPDATE: Islands Issue.” Newsletter of the Long Island Sound Study, 2011.

Landscape Strategy City Cemetery, New York. Ann Sharrock, Melinda Hunt, Ian Fisher. September, 2015.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and The Port Authority of NY and NJ. Hudson-Raritan Estuary Comprehensive Restoration Plan. Vol. 1. 2009.

Young, Sybil. “Introduction to the Maintenance of Historic Cemeteries.” Speech, Urban Cemetery Lecture Series, The Parks Department Arsenal, New York, May/June 2007.

Wikipedia. Accessed May 24, 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City#cite_noteEncNYC-211.

49