Nanotechnology Application in Building and Facade Construction of The Future

C3254426 AC3.1

Chapters Introduction History of Nanotechnology Applications of Nanotechnology Current Uses of Nanotechnology in Architecture The Future of Nanotechnology in Architecture

Bibliography Illustrations Further Sources

Introduction I want to build a billion tiny factories, models of each other, which are manufacturing simultaneously. . . The principles of physics, as far as I can see, do not speak against the possibility of manoeuvring things atom by atom. It is not an attempt to violate any laws; it is something, in principle, that can be done; but in practice, it has not been done because we are too big. — Richard Feynman, Nobel Prize winner in physics (Feynman, 1959).

The intention of this critical essay is to evaluate the evolution of nanotechnology and how this has affected the development of building and façade construction.

I aim to examine how nanotechnology has developed throughout different applications, the development and current uses of nanotechnology throughout architecture and the future predictions of the application of nanotechnology in building and façade construction.

The world is forever changing - climate change, natural disasters and human intervention. The human nature to survive, expand and rule affects us in ways in which we interact with life and our lives. Our technology must evolve with us to support our thirst to conquer.

Nanotechnology is the engineering of matter at an atomic scale. It has been accepted into all aspects of life which has resulted in human kind sculpting its own world from nano-foods to nano-materials.

The development of nanotechnology in architecture has allowed for more efficient living, using materials that are designed for specific tasks for which they are needed. I aim to critically assess the effect nanotechnology has had and will have on architecture.

Our imagination is stretched to the utmost, not, as in fiction, to imagine things which are not really there, but just to comprehend those things which are there. - Richard Feynman

Fig1. Scale Down to a Nanometer

History of Nanotechnology Nanotechnology has developed throughout many aspects of human life over the last five decades.

Initiated by the American physicist Richard Feynman in 1959, whose lectures included exploration of theories of construction at the atomic and molecular scale. This deeper exploration explained the interactions between electrons and their antimatter counterparts, positrons. Feynman expressed his observations using Feynman diagrams, a pictorial representation showing the behaviour of subatomic particles.

Fig2. Example of a Feynman Diagram

However, it wasn’t until 1981 that experimental nanotechnology began. IBM scientists in Zurich developed the first scanning tunnelling microscope (STM) which enabled them to see individual atoms by scanning a minute probe over the surface of a silicon crystal. In 1985 the scientists discovered how to create the buckminsterfullerene (also known as the C60), a perfectly spherical shaped molecule consisting of sixty carbon atoms. This structure was named after Buckminster Fuller, the American systems theorist, inventor and futurist.

Fig3. The Buckminsterfullerene

Fig4. Biosphere for the 1967 World Expedition. A geodesic dome designed by Buckminster Fuller.

During initial years, nanotechnology was kept within the sciences. Though many experiments were carried out, and the possibilities of applying nanotechnology explored, very little was actually applied. Few industries of the time had adopted the use of nanotechnology and applied it to their specific fields in order to become more advanced. However all this was about to change.

In 1992 the U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation's Subcommittee on Science, Technology, and Space held a hearing on the topic of "New Technologies for a Sustainable World." Nanotechnology was heavily discussed, influenced by Feynman’s proven theories. It was believed that it may become the basis for sustainable development. This would enable an increase in the material standard of living while decreasing consumption of resources and reducing the impact

upon the environment. Molecular nanotechnology was further believed to have broad applications.

It provided a general-purpose method for processing materials, molecule by molecule. By its nature, the committee concluded, it would be highly efficient in both materials and energy use.

This was followed by Dr. Gibbons, the Director of the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy, whom in 1994 addressed the National Conference on Manufacturing Needs of US Industry.

At this point ‘Nanoscience has become an engineering practice.’ Dr Gibbons Statement 1994 (Gibbons, 1994).

The Statement continued that in accordance to the ‘theoretical and experimental advances in nanoscience and nanotechnology, precise atomic and molecular control in the synthesis of solid state three-dimensional nano-structures is now possible’ (Gibbons, 1994).

Dr Gibbons declared the next step would be the emergence of nanotechnology, established by the ability to manipulate individual atoms and molecules during the manufacturing process which would be initiated by the manufacture of a wide variety of products. From this point on nanotechnology became accepted as an essential route mankind must invest time and resources into to understand, develop and harness. Industries have taken nanotechnology into consideration to strive to new levels of product development. Areas of expertise ranging from the military striving for advances in surveillance systems, precision-guided munitions and information technology to medicine. Nadrian C. Seeman discovered a way, through nanotechnology, of attaching strands of DNA to one another in order to manipulate and construct complex devices on a nanoscale. The application of nanotechnology flourished allowing industries to work to smaller scales reaping the rewards of the Nanotechnological age.

Fig5. K Eric Drexler's vision of a nanorobot outlined in his 1986 book Engines of creation.

Applications of Nanotechnology Nanotechnology has been used to improve many aspects of human life and has heavily influenced many areas of expertise. In medicine, nanotechnology combined with biology has allowed for the development of contrast agents, which is a nanomaterial used for cell imaging and in the treatment for cancer.

However one of the greatest developments through the application of nanotechnology is the evolution of tissue engineering. Using nanotechnology we can reproduce and repair damaged tissue because using suitable nanomaterials to artificially stimulate cell growth. In a presentation by surgeon Anthony Atala, director of the Wake Forest Institution of Regenerative Medicine, he explains the extent to which mankind has used nanotechnology in his area of expertise. In 2011 at the Technology, Entertainment and Design Talks, he demonstrated how a 3D printer that uses that living cells is able to print a synthetic kidney that can be used in transplants, thus solving the current global organ shortage. He also introduced a patient who received an engineered bladder ten years ago proving the technology works. In terms of architecture this is similar to a ‘reprap’ machine. This is a 3D printer that uses plastics to reproduce models. This machine can be adapted to print with other materials which have been adapted by nanotechnology to print actual facades or structural components. If the machine was big enough it would it not be able to print a building as long as there weren’t too many layers of different materials.

Fig6 . Photograph of the most advances 3D printer printing a lung for transplant.

Nanotechnology has also been applied to chemistry and enabled the development of nanomaterials as well as assembly at a nanoscale. This has allowed molecules to be manufactured at a primary level. This has resulted in particles being specifically designed to fulfil tasks required. This includes chemical catalysts, catalytic convertors and photo catalytic devices. Nanochemistry has allowed for advances in the development of waste water treatment, air purification and energy storage devices.

With the use of tools at a nanoscale new improved methods can be introduced, such as ‘ultrafiltration’ which filters between 10 and 100 nanometres. This can further be used in medical renal dialysis and nanoporous membranes which filter below 10 nanometres and are mainly used to remove ions or the separation certain fluids. This kind of advance in making water, as well as other liquids, purer and cleaner could change the way in which buildings are serviced. This would make the filtration of rain water or water from a local source much easier and quicker. Insert an ultrafiltration membrane into a drainpipe or downspout and the water flowing out of the bottom would be purified.

Fig7. Showing an ultrafiltration tube.

The ways in which mankind receives information and communication has also changed dramatically with the application of nanotechnology. High-tech production processors such as those in computers, novel semiconductor and optoelectronic devices have become both faster and smaller.

Carbon nanotubes are extremely efficient to the extent that technology in field fission display screens may in the future take over the LCD screen as current prototypes already use half the power of the LCD screen. However, this is not fully developed yet and so Sony has not put it on the commercial market. It will be the next generation of flat screen; thinner, more power efficient and better colour quality than previous models.

There is also Nanologic, which is the improvement of electronic devices at a nanoscale. This has led to improvement in performance in a range of aspects of electronic devices. These involve virtually everything from signal processing to better simulation and modelling capabilities. All these advances improve architecture as well. As the performance of devices such, as monitors and processors, rapidly improve, the programs that architects also use improve. 3D modelling capabilities become more advanced so designs become more elaborate. Programs can consider more aspects such as weather changes, material strengths, life of materials and how it may age. The devices are then able to then send these instructions to machinery which will make improved high-tech components design.

Advances in consumer goods due to the application of nanotechnology have been seen by the general public such as the genetically modified foods as well as the processing and packaging of produce. House hold products have been impacted in terms of ‘easy to clean’ surfaces on ceramics and glass as well as the application of nanomaterials to improve smoothness and heat resistance of household equipment for example the flat iron used in hair straighteners. Due to nanotechnology sunglasses now have protective and anti-reflective coatings to prevent scratching and enhance vision, this scratch resistant coating is also a fundamental part of laser surgery. Nanotechnology has also been used in textiles to make them water, stain or wrinkle replant, allowed for cleaning at lower temperatures and been applies to cosmetics such as longer lasting UV protection sun screens. In terms of building and façade construction these applications can be reconfigures to allow for smoother surfaces that can be maintaining for efficiently, surfaces that adapt to different temperatures and surfaces that can be withstand harsher environments. A nanoprotective skin that can withstand greater temperature differences and harsher environments could be applied to traveling equipment such as building and facade materials that are used expeditions in deserts or the arctic. A façade that can withstand the temperature changes and sand storms of the Sahara desert could lead to it being much more habitable!

The most important evolution in technology due to the application of nanotechnology is in energy.

Through the application of nanotechnology into energy projects energy consumption has reduced due to more advanced insulators and more efficient lights; such as LED’s rather than filament lamps.

There has also been an increase in the efficiency of energy production such as the technology in solar cells which continue to evolve rapidly becoming more efficient, there is also the aims to make combustion more efficient using nanotechnology to design a catalyst which maximised the surface area of the combustion reaction which would result in all combustion engines becoming more efficient, if a car got more power per reaction in the engine then it would need less fuel and using

less fuel would reduce its carbon emissions going back to protecting the plant. This is another way in which energy consumption has become more evolved due to nanotechnology as it has allowed for the creation of green energy also known as environmentally friendly energy. One of which is the use of nanotechnology to create the fuel cells powered by hydrogen which has already been introduced to the commercial market through car companies such as Audi, Honda and BMW. If this can be done with a car engine can it not be adapted to power buildings? And the use of LED’s as lighting which use much less power. For façade design LED’s are a much more effective way to illuminate an exterior. The world’s largest LED display screen which also uses solar power is situated in Beijing. The Green Pix Zero Energy Media Wall, designed by New York-based architect Simone Giostra, uses 2,292 colour LED’s, is comparable to a 2.200 m2 monitor but is completely solar powered.

Fig8. Hydrogen Engine.

Fig9. The GreenPix Zero Energy Media Wall.

It can be seen, through the application of nanotechnology, human life has advanced drastically.

Being able to work at a nanoscale in everything from materials and electronics to the human body has completely restructured the way in which mankind works. We can now work faster and more precisely because of advances in electronics. We can build higher with lower maintenance costs and more efficient equipment, have cleaner water and air, have cleaner energy and even grow new synthetic skin if we injure ourselves. We can even correct vision if we can’t see clearly.

A fascinating amelioration, in terms of the possibilities of the uses of nanomaterials in the last decade, is Graphene. This may have a significant impact upon the future of building and façade design. Graphene is a flat layer of carbon atoms which are bonded to form a two-dimensional honeycomb arrangement. The first crystals of Graphene were discovered in 2004 but had been searched for since 1859. It is the first 2D element ever discovered and so has unique properties.

Graphene is the lightest and strongest material known to man. It is harder than diamond and is approximately 300 times stronger than steel. Furthermore it is the thinnest material known to man as its atomic structure is only one atom thick, it is also a practically transparent material and is perfectly flexible.

Fig10. Computer interpretation of a sheet of Graphene.

Graphene, has resulted in more super materials which are two-dimensional, ie. one atom thick.

These new materials can be engineered on demand to meet the needs of many industries.

One of the most extraordinary advantages of Graphene is its conductive properties. It performs as effectively as copper in terms of electrical conductivity and out performs all other known materials in terms of heat conductivity. The future of the application of Graphene into many industries is almost certain. For example, digital interface display manufactures such as Samsung have already begun exploring the possibility of applying Graphene. A display screen which is lighter, stronger and electronically more efficient may become possible. The next mobile may wrap around the users wrist, unfold when the users takes a call or writes a text message, then unfold further to enable the

user to watch a film or write an essay. It will bring mobile communication and working, to the next level technologically and it could open from a screen into a touch pad laptop, combining the current touch screen technology and the new Graphene material. All these devices would be lighter and stronger than any previous devices. Imagine the development of body armour for the military that was lighter, more durable, and could stretch up to twenty-five percent greater than its original size yet remain completely impervious. Other possibilities might include automobiles with safety mechanisms which completely protect their internal occupants.

Fig11. Programed Graphene sheet.

The majority of this research has come to light over the last three decades. Mankind is becoming more technologically advanced incredibly quickly and thus vastly improving human life. Will mankind continue to progress at this rate?

Current Uses of Nanotechnology in Architecture Nanotechnology has allowed architectural design and building construction to become much greener. This is due to fabrication, starting at a molecular level and so allowing structures to become more efficient. Nanoarchitecture involves materials and devices, which have been adapted by the application of nanotechnology. As a result of this they have become more successful at the tasks they are intended for. Nanotechnology has been used mainly to improve the sustainability of buildings. This involves making materials more resistant to the effects of the weather, enabling them to be self-cleaning and/or making new materials which can create clean power to allow the structures to function.

Self-Cleaning Glass Nanotechnology has been applied to glass, creating two types that self-clean; Firstly, ‘Hydrophobic Glass’ which mimics the ‘Lotus Effect’. On a Lotus leaf there are protrusions to the scale of 1.0 x 10-5 m. Each protrusion is itself covered in nanoscale ridges of a hydrophobic waxy substance, this has been mimicked in the structure of the glass using nanotechnology. When water droplets land on the surface, they sit lightly on the tips of the hydrophobic protrusions. This structure traps a layer of air between the surface and the water droplet preventing the water from wetting the surface. This also allows for the droplets to be easily displaced if the surface is at an angle at which the droplets can travel (greater than fifteen degrees from the horizontal). The droplets will run off the surface collecting any dirt and so leavening it clean.

Fig12. Diagram showing Hydrophobic surface supporting a water droplet.

An example of this can be seen in Locusan self-cleaning paint which was used in 2006 on the Ara Paris Museum in Rome. Designed by Richard Meier and Partners with the aim of better optimal use and low maintenance. The coating has protected the white facade from the heavily polluted city so that the frequency of cleaning has been significantly reduced.

Fig13. Ara Paris Museum in Rome Secondly ’Hydrophilic glass’ has a photo-catalytic coating, in the form of titanium dioxide, applied to its surface. This results in the water sheeting rather than remaining in droplets and so flowing freely off the surface. The photo-catalytic coating chemically reacts with the ultraviolet rays in sunlight.

This photo-catalytic process oxidizes any organic material on the glass, breaking down dirt and other organic matter on the surface and so cleaning it. However it works on organics matter, but the process does not break down inorganic matter such as paint splatter.

Fig14. Diagram showing Hydrophobic surface with a water droplet spreading across it in a thin film.

For façade design this allows for greater and more complex glass structures as cleaning is not an issue. More significantly, using either type, more elaborate angles can be used because as long as water can run off the surface, the glass will not become dirty. However dirt is a problem at joins or at angles where it may collect. Both technologies can be applied to other materials. The Hydrophobic method has already been applied to fabrics to prevent stains from coffee and red wine.

Further research is being looked into for swimsuits and ships hulls with an intention of reducing the drag effect water has during motion.

This photo-catalytic coating also has a secondary use in hotter climates. Instead of waiting for rain to wash the surface, jets of water can allow the surface to have a constant sheet of water flowing across it. This will evaporate rapidly taking with it ambient heat from the surface of the structure and so reducing the indoor temperature.

The Narita International Airport in Japan incorporated the photo-catalytic membrane in the refurbishment of its terminal 1 in 2006. The coating has resulted in a reduction of maintenance and cleaning cost. It is also believed that having cleaner external surfaces such as the windows has made internal conditions for passengers more comfortable as they feel as though they are in a cleaner environment.

Fig15. The roof of Terminal 1 at Narita International Airport

A second example is of the MSV Arena Soccer Stadium in Duisbury Germany which opened in 2004.

The 120 meter wide by 11 meter high glass facade comprised of Pilkington Activ Suncool™ 53/4 which was used due to its self-cleaning properties as well as its UV protection properties.

Fig16. MSV Arena Soccer Stadium showing the Pilkington glass faรงade.

Solar Protection Solar protection has become possible through the application of nanotechnology as it has allowed for electrochromic smart windows. These work by having nano layers between the panes of glass which can change colour when an electrical current passes through them. In the case of windows it goes from coloured to translucent. The process is an oxidation reaction where the ions in a compound lose an electron. The ions are in two conductive nano layers. When a voltage is passed through the layers the voltage forces the ions from the ion storage layer, through the ion conducting layer where they lose their electron and into the electrochromic layer making the surface opaque.

Once the voltage has been passed through the electrochromic layer it does not need to remain on, as the electricity is only needed for the initial change. The reaction can be reversed by passing the voltage through the electrochromic layers again.

Fig17, 18.Diagrams show the reaction that takes place in electrochromic smart windows.

Another type of solar protecting glass is photochromatic, in this the glass reacts to light exposure.

The surface contains embedded microcrystalline silver halides within the glass substrata which respond to uv light. When the surface is exposed it reacts with the UV, making the surface darken.

This chemical change is completely reversible so when the surface is not exposed, it lightens again.

Photochromatic solar protection is most commonly used in lenses for glasses where the user’s lenses darken in strong sunlight but lighten again when out of direct ultraviolet light eg. indoors. This can be used by architects for facades which get direct sunlight light at certain times of day. As the sun moves across the façade the windows darken so as not to blind the occupants, this also reduces solar gain.

Fig19. Shows how photochromatic lenses change when subjected to UV light.

Self-Cleaning Concrete Another material which with the application of nanotechnology can be created to be self-cleaning is concrete. Using a similar theory to that of ’Hydrophilic glass’ the concrete is combined at a nanoscale with titanium oxide (TiO2). This again works as a photo catalyst. However unlike where the glass has a hydrophilic coating, here the titanium oxide has been chemically bonded to the concrete. The titanium oxide in this case works as a semi-conductor. The energy in natural light causes the TiO2 to create a charge, separating the electrons. This disperses on the surface and reacts with external substances, decomposing organic compounds such as; soot, grime and oil, biological compounds such as mould, algae and bacteria, pollutants such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and tobacco smoke. Then when it rains the water washes the unwanted matter away and thus keeps the material clean.

Fig20.Diagram showing how the titanium oxide keeps the concrete clean.

An example of this is the Jubilee Church in Rome which uses the nanotechnology to keep its exterior walls clean. The majority of industry uses for standard concrete which can be stained by organic materials, biological materials and pollutants can be efficiently replaced by self-cleaning concrete to provide a surface with reduced cleaning costs. This allows concrete to be a more widely used façade material. It had previously been seen by some as a material that shouldn’t be used for façades as it becomes dirty easily. With the new advanced version, concrete will become more acceptable as it will not accrue dirt so quickly.

Fig21. The Jubilee Church in Rome

Anti-fogging and Anti-reflective The anti-fogging coating uses titanium oxide similar to hydrophilic glass. It also results in the attraction of water and so rather than droplets collecting on the surface they form an ultra-thin film.

This transparent film does not prevent a person seeing clearly and the application can be used on most transparent materials ranging from a bathroom mirror to skiing goggles. This coating is also being developed into a spray which can be applied to surfaces which haven’t had the nanocoating applied during manufacture. However it is not yet on the market for the general public as the effect does not last long enough.

The anti-reflective treatment consists of silicon dioxide balls which make up a second skin for the surface. The nanoscale structure is used as a nano film on top of the glass altering the reflective index. The amount of reflected light is reduced from eight percent down to one percent thus reducing the amount of light reflected and so preventing the mirror effect that would normally occur. This process is used for windows and for glass used in exhibition spaces. It has also been found to be useful when layered onto solar or PV panels. This makes the panels more efficient as it reduced the light that reflects off, allowing for more energy to be absorbed and resulting in up to a fifteen percent performance increase.

Fig21.

Fig22.

Fig22. Shows how the anti-fogging coating acts similar to hydrophilic glass.

Fig23. Shows how the anti-reflective coating works on glass to reduce reflection.

Nanocomposite steel Nanocomposite steel is created in a similar way to other nanocomposite materials where two or more materials are combined at a nano level resulting in a mutated compound being created. This is done to control and develop improved structural properties. MMFX created an improved atomic structure more like to that of plywood which reduces the brittle effect steel has. This results in the ductile strength being almost doubled resulting in construction projects being completed with 20 to 50% less steel and up to 60% lower labour costs due to construction time reductions.

Fig24. Shows the structure of the improved plywood like structure of MMFX Steel.

Coatings The composite coatings also have the advantage of prolonging the life of the materials. This is achieved greater water resistance, improved anticorrosion properties and greater UV protection.

Nanocomposite materials are composed of a nano-ceramic organic hybrid solution. The solution can be either aqueous or solvent based depending upon what it would be applied to as it forms a nano thin protective film over the material. For instance, in the case of steel a strong chemical bond is created between the nano-ceramic organic hybrid material and the metal surface. This improves the corrosion resistance significantly. The weather proofing coating makes the steel more hard wearing.

For façade design the overall result will be the steel will last longer and demand less maintenance. If combined with the nano-composite steel the fixings and any components that connect the structure to the façade will be stronger. The fittings also will last longer and hold a greater weight, resulting in fewer fixings being needed and so designers can design more free standing or self-loading structures.

These materials, which have been enhanced by nanotechnology, are leading building and facade construction into the future. Materials are being made stronger and more weather resistant. This results in buildings and their facades becoming more sustainable, more responsive to their environments and more effective for the purpose for which they are intended.

Graphene The previous nanotechnological applications to architecture considered improving current materials and surfaces through the application of nanotechnology. Graphene however is a completely new material, its properties are unique and so could lead architecture to new heights in terms of sustainability and design. Façade skins would become stronger but thinner and conduct heat more effectively in order to heat or cool spaces. Walls could have an electrical nervous system build into them due to Graphene’s electrical conductive properties meaning facades could become digital displays. Temperature and motion sensors could be incorporated making a structure’s internal temperature remain constant and take into consideration heat given off by occupants in a space. As Graphene is the strongest and lightest material known to mankind, if mankind can limit the flexibility of it, it could be used as a structural building material. For facades being durable and agile it could be programed to react to different environmental conditions and will need less maintenance as it is very difficult to damage. It could possibly perform more functions than any single material that is currently in use.

Fig25. Shows a flexible touch screen made from Graphene. Compared to other materials this touch screen would be virtually indestructible.

The Future of Nanotechnology in Architecture This chapter has been strongly influenced by the modern architectural pioneer John Johansen.

Architects are trained to create using the technology they have available to them. However, looking at nanotechnology, architects should be able to create using materials which are designed specifically for their design rather than being constrained by the resources they currently have available to them.

Fig26. Image of modern architectural pioneer John Johansen.

If scientists can use robots at a nanoscale to manipulate DNA and doctors grow synthetic skin, why can’t architects use the same technology to bring even more exciting designs to life? Architects could be creating the materials and structures that previously were deemed impossible but are now made possible. Materials being made stronger and so bear greater loads, thus structures can be designed to make virtually anything possible. If architects can make materials stronger, clean themselves, react to light as well as other applications, where will the evolution stop? There are currently assembly robots at a nanoscale which have been used to develop these advanced nanomaterials.

However when will a self-assembling molecule be developed?

John Johansen mentions the theory of programming growth molecules which once programmed would grow to become the designed structure or feature rather than it having to be built mechanically. The resultant architecture would grow in a semi organic manner.

Fig27. Illustrations by John Johansen showing a structure growing over time.

A building could be constructed (or grow?) from stronger lighter material. This would reduce the amount of material needed and make construction easier. The services within the building itself, would be dramatically improves by the additional properties of the new materials. These would include such things as the speed of electrical systems, the purification of water and the control of light and heat. In addition, the nature of the faรงade would reduce running costs due to its selfcleaning and energy harnessing properties.

Fig28. Could a structure organically grow encompassing new properties as it develops?

Graphene verges on this concept. Though as it doesn’t grow, its durability, weight and strength could allow for stronger, lighter and more self-sustaining designs. Through future development the use of an electronic “nervous system” which could be embedded into its skin could lead to the next generation of building and facade construction. Current predictions see the near future of architecture evolving and becoming more self-sustaining. With all the global issues more use will need to be made of renewable fuels and recyclable materials. Future research will concentrate on buildings creating their own energy.

Predictions also depend on who consulted. For example, Professor Richard Smalley from Rice University in Texas believes ‘it will take a single nanorobot millions of years to assemble a useable amount of matter’ and therefore this technology is only theoretical. Whereas Eric Drexler who wrote "Engines of Creation" and introduced the term ‘nanotechnology’ believes ‘using nanorobots to build more nanorobots and then create matter would considerably speed up this process’, and so considers this technology to be a practical possibility.

As we anticipate the future, with buildings created from nanoarchitecture – of phenomenal strength, lightness, integral structure, seamless continuity of surface, transparency, and in evolving, growing forms – these buildings will reshape the man-made environment. Created from the subatomic level without the use of natural resources, waste-producing factories or laborious physical labour, these masterfully-programmed buildings will not outdo the modesty of the natural world. They will exist in symbiotic harmony with the natural environment, adjusting their forms to the needs of people and the seasonal changes of light, temperature and humidity. – John M. Johansen (Johansen, 2011)

The words of John Johansen are theoretical and currently would be viewed by most as a fictitious frivolous future in architecture. However the human race is rapidly evolving due to of the application of and research into nanotechnology. I have discussed in this study many exciting advances that will make the future a more sustainable and architecturally extraordinary place. It is clear to me that nanotechnology has a positive impact upon existing architectural technologies and will have a significant influence upon the very way in which we design buildings and aspire to envisage and create architecture.

Bibliography Feynman.R, 1959, Physicist and Nobel Laureate Lecture. Available at:< http://www.innovationamerica.org/dr-feynmans-small-idea> [accessed 20.12.2011] Gibbons.J, 1994.

The National Conference on Manufacturing Needs of US Industry. Available at <

http://www.foresight.org/Updates/Update20/Update20.1.html#anchor57200> [accessed 20.12.2011] Johansen.J, 2011 Building That Exist in Symbiotic Harmony with Nature. <http://www.johnmjohansen.com/Official-Website.html> > [accessed 20.12.2011]

Illustrations Fig1. Scale Down to a Nanometer - my own image Fig2. Example of a Feynman Diagram â&#x20AC;&#x201C; my own image

Fig3. The Buckminsterfullerene - http://inventorspot.com/articles/bucky_balls_32825. accessed 27.12.2012 Fig4. Biosphere for the 1967 World Expedition. A geodesic dome designed by Buckminster Fuller. http://www.flickr.com/photos/rene_ehrhardt/2616462127/.accessed 26.12.2012 Fig5. K Eric Drexler's vision of a nanorobot outlined in his 1986 book Engines of creation. http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues/2008/November/ColumnThecrucible.asp .accessed 29.1.2012 Fig6 . Photograph of the most advances 3D printer printing a lung for transplant. http://www.yiggler.com/2011/06/3d-printing-is-transforming-manufacturing-around-the-world/. accessed 24.1.2012 Fig7. Showing an ultrafiltration tube. http://www.filterwater.com/t-ultrafiltration.aspx. Accessed 24.1.2012 Fig8. Hydrogen Engine - my own image Fig9. The GreenPix Zero Energy Media Wall. http://www.treehugger.com/interior-design/in-beijingworlds-largest-led-display-uses-solar-power.html. Accessed 29.1.2012

Fig10. Computer interpretation of a sheet of Graphene. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world11476301. Accessed 12.1.2012 Fig11. Programed Graphene sheet. http://www.techsmart.co.za/gadgets/gizmos/Graphene_the_miracle_material.html. Accessed 12.1.2012 Fig12. Diagram showing Hydrophobic surface supporting a water droplet.- my own image Fig13. Ara Paris Museum in Rome. http://www.abcroomsinrome.com/wpcontent/uploads/2010/07/ara_pacis_03.jpg. Accessed 7.1.2012 Fig14. Diagram showing Hydrophobic surface with a water droplet spreading across it in a thin film. – my own image.

Fig15. The roof of Terminal 1 at Narita International Airport. http://www.airporttechnology.com/projects/narita-international/narita-international4.html. Accessed 22.1.2012 Fig16. MSV Arena Soccer Stadium showing the Pilkington glass façade. http://www.pilkington.com/resources/msv_arena_duisburg_1.jpg. Accessed 22.1.2012 Fig17, 18.Diagrams show the reaction that takes place in electrochromic smart windows. http://home.howstuffworks.com/home-improvement/construction/green/smart-window4.htm.

Accessed 23.1.2012 Fig19. Shows how photochromatic lenses change when subjected to UV light. http://www.policemag.com/Channel/Patrol/Products/Images/Photochromic-BallisticSunglasses/251.aspx. Accessed 29.1.2012 Fig20.Diagram showing how the titanium oxide keeps the concrete clean. http://www.concretedecor.net/All_Access/504/CD504_New_Tech.cfm. Accessed 26.1.2012 Fig21. The Jubilee Church in Rome. http://www.concretedecor.net/All_Access/504/CD504_New_Tech.cfm. Accessed 26.1.2012 Fig22. Shows how the anti-fogging coating acts similar to hydrophilic glass. – my own image Fig23. Shows how the anti-reflective coating works on glass to reduce reflection. – my own image Fig24. Shows the structure of the improved plywood like structure of MMFX Steel. http://www.mmfx.com/technology.shtml. Accessed 22.1.2012

Fig25. Shows a flexible touch screen made from Graphene. Compared to other materials this touch screen would be virtually indestructible. http://www.mobileinquirer.com/2011/what-is-graphenemobile-phones-of-the-future-report/. Accessed 28.1.2012

Fig26. Image of modern architectural pioneer John Johansen. http://www.johnmjohansen.com/Official-Website.html. Accessed 20.12.2011 Fig27. Illustrations by John Johansen showing a structure growing over time. http://www.johnmjohansen.com/Theoretical-Architecture.html. Accessed 20.12.2011 Fig28. Could a structure organically grow encompassing new properties as it develops? http://www.johnmjohansen.com/Nanoarchitecture.html. Accessed 20.12.2011 Further Sources http://esonn.fr/esonn2010/xlectures/mangematin/Nano_Green_Building55ex.pdf http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9939 http://www.johnmjohansen.com/Official-Website.html http://www.corearchitect.co.uk/nano-technology-and-the-architecture-of-the-future/ http://www.corearchitect.co.uk/the-nano-revolution-in-architecture/ http://www.cbparch.com/NanoTech%20Materials%20for%20Green%20Building_CATHRYN%20BAN G%20PARTNERS.pdf http://www.nanotechbuzz.com/50226711/nanotechs_for_real_in_the_building_industry.php http://www.foresight.org/nano/history.html http://www.nanoscience.com/education/afm.html http://www.personal.reading.ac.uk/~scsharip/tubes.htm http://www.nano.org.uk/nano/nanotubes.htm http://www2.arch.uiuc.edu/elvin/nanoarch.htm http://www.nanowerk.com/spotlight/spotid=1007.php http://www.scribd.com/alientroops/d/31429761-NanoArchitecture-Nanotechnology-andArchitecture

http://www.reinste.com/ http://www.teachengineering.org/view_lesson.php?url=http://www.teachengineering.org/collectio n/duk_/lessons/duk_surfacetensionunit_lessons/duk_surfacetensionunit_less4.xml http://www.self-cleaning-glass.com/fileadmin/pdf/SCG__ProjectBrochure_V4.pdf http://www.replacement-windows.com/self-cleaning-glass.php http://www.concrete.org.uk/services/fingertips_nuggets.asp?cmd=display&id=826 http://api.ning.com/files/PWAs4kCsbeDebfnUvyBiK0tjFpl8CfjF2zZTUbPjjRy3rZXyqvDK4kRrKZ3mseoY KWylxB34iXPkUf4I6J7lVS2Ct2KKvJB8/GREENNANOARCHITECTUREmastrdegree.pdf http://www.dowcorning.com/content/publishedlit/26-1625-01.pdf http://www.elin.ttu.ee/eldes/LOENGUD/NANOEL/IED0060_nano_applic.pdf http://www.nanoforum.org/dateien/temp/Nanotechnology%20in%20Consumer%20Products.pdf?1 9012007151421 http://eprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk/20981/1/ProgPV2010.pdf http://www.ias.ac.in/pubs/splpubs/pjubileebook/129.pdf http://www.forbes.com/sites/toddwoody/2011/05/09/alcoas-self-cleaning-smog-eating-buildings/ http://www.alcoa.com/aap/north_america/pdf/ecoclean/EcoClean_Newsletter2.pdf http://home.howstuffworks.com/home-improvement/construction/green/smart-window4.htm http://nanoarchitecture.net/ http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/02/100224134327.htm http://science.howstuffworks.com/nanotechnology4.htm http://www.kurzweilai.net/the-drexler-smalley-debate-on-molecular-assembly http://www.scientistlive.com/European-ScienceNews/Nanotechnology/Nanotechnology%3A_Promising_uses_for_graphene/22903/ http://metamodern.com/2010/10/05/the-2010-nobel-prize-for-graphene-nanotechnology/

http://sensingarchitecture.com/6779/uses-of-nanotechnology-for-architectural-design-thegraphene-skin/ http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/anthony_atala_printing_a_human_kidney.html http://www.graphene-flagship.eu/GF/Videos.php http://inhabitat.com/new-graphene-super-paper-is-10x-stronger-than-steel/