OUTBREAK OF COVID-19, ITS EFFECTS AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY: A REVIEW

e-ISSN: 2582-5208 International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science Volume:02/Issue:09/September-2020

Impact Factor- 5.354

www.irjmets.com

OUTBREAK OF COVID-19, ITS EFFECTS AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY: A REVIEW Awuchi, Chibueze Gospel*1, Asoegwu, Chisom Rachael*2, Ogbuji, Okechukwu Elvis*3, Udube, Vivian Chinyere*4, Ezuru, Ikenna Stanley*5, Awuchi, Chinaza Godwill*6, Peters, Goodness Chioma*7, Ukpe, Aniefiok Emem*8 *1,2,3,4,5Department

*6Department

of Environmental Management, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria.

of Physical Sciences, Kampala International University, Kampala, Uganda.

*7Department

of Forestry, Imo State Polytechnic, Umuagwo, Imo State, Nigeria. *8Ecosphere

Consulting, Abuja, Nigeria.

ABSTRACT Pandemics such as COVID-19 are known to be a universal epidemic of contagious diseases which is capable of increasing morbidity and death over a wide geographic region. There are indications that various environmental factors such as urbanization, temperature, climate change and potentially unsafe relationship between human beings and wildlife may result to the outbreak and spread of pandemic events such as COVID-19; which may in turn influence the environment. The relationship between COVID19 effects and environmental sustainability is a complex relationship, considering that the pandemic has both influenced the physical systems of the environment positively and negatively, but the question is how sustainable are these influences. Emerging reports from China shows that the decline in air pollution witnessed during the lockdown is gradually ending as the government relaxes the lockdown order. Also, waste recycling as one of the most essential aspects of environmental sustainability has reduced in some countries such as the USA and Italy since the COVID-19 lockdown for the fear of the virus spreading through recycling centers. Therefore, the issue of how sustainable the impact of the pandemic is remains unrequited presently, as more discoveries, advances and considerations continues to emerge from the post COVID-19 pandemic effects, putting into consideration the core issues that required attention in the phase of COVID-19 outbreak, which are classified as Short-term, Medium-term, and Long-term.

Keywords: Environment, COVID-19, Pandemic, Zoonosis, Emission and Sustainability.

I.

INTRODUCTION

Pandemics are global outbreaks of contagious diseases which are capable of increasing morbidity and death over an extensive geographic area and may create a significant unbalance in the economy, environment, socialization and policy making (Mahdav et al., 2017). A variety of environmental factors can influence the outbreak and spread of pandemic events which may in turn have a feedback on the environment (Sorin et al., 2020). A typical example is the zoonotic infectious disease discovered in Wuhan, a subprovincial city in Hubei, China in 2019, which was caused by a new class of SARS-CoV-2, and was codenamed COVID-19 (short for Coronavirus Disease 2019), then declared a pandemic between February and March 2020 by the “World Health Organization (WHO)”. A report from WHO (2020) shows that as at 2020/08/24, 02:22pm CEST, there are approximately a cumulative of 23,311,719 confirmed cases including 806,410 deaths globally with Europe and America as the worst hit.

According to Ellen (2020), COVID-19 has shown that people, communities and our planet are inextricably connected – risks to the health and well-being of one, impact the health and well-being of all. As the virus emerges, and continues to spread, there were unconfirmed reports which linked the rate of transmission of the virus to environmental factors such as temperature range and humidity according to regions.

However, while some studies stated that domestic weather conditions of lesser temperature, mild diurnal temperature range and low humidity maybe favorable to the transmission of the virus (Liu et al., 2020), other studies claimed that there is no proof that warmer weather can determine the decline of the case counts of the COVID-19 pandemic (Zhu and Xie, 2020). As at date, the COVID-19 Pandemic remains a www.irjmets.com

@International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering, Technology and Science

[256]

e-ISSN: 2582-5208 International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science Volume:02/Issue:09/September-2020

Impact Factor- 5.354

www.irjmets.com

major threat to human existence as there are no vaccines or treatments confirmed by the UN’s specialized agency responsible for international public health, WHO for COVID-19. Although, recent reports emerging from Russia and China claims that the two countries have made a breakthrough in the development of a vaccine for the COVID-19 infectious disease (CNN, 2020; CGTN 2020). However, there are so many ongoing clinical trials to evaluate potential treatments and prevention of the virus.

As the pandemic continues to spread, governments all over the world are seeking and adjusting their economic policies for the aftermath of the lockdown associated with the pandemic, which has put a halt to most economic activities including businesses, industrial activities and transport networks as the mostly affected; as road and air transport came to a halt as people were ordered to stay indoors to encourage social distancing which was one of the measures adopted to reduce the rapid spread of the pandemic. As the lockdown continues globally, there were speculations that the earth is gradually recovering air pollution. These speculations were later confirmed to be accurate according to reports by some space agencies such as “National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)” and “European Space Agency (ESA, 2020)” which shows a significant improvement in air quality across Europe (ESA, 2020; Martha, 2020 as reported by BBC News), Asia and the USA (NASA, 2020), credited to a decline in nitrous oxide emission resulting from the COVID-19 lockdown. A report from United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) shows that not all the environmental consequences of the lockdown have been positive, as volumes of non-recyclable waste increased due to severe cuts in agricultural products export levels (Robert Hamwey, 2020, an Economic Affairs Officer of UNCTAD).

II.

URBANIZATION AND THE WIDESPREAD OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES

As humans continue to spread across the world, so have infectious diseases. Undoubtedly, even in this present age, outbreaks are almost constant, though not every outbreak reaches pandemic level like the COVID-19. According to Nicolas (2020), the increase in global connections and relationships is a driving force behind pandemics. From few hunting and assembly of tribes to the metropolitan area, humanity’s dependence on each other has also created chances for the spread of diseases. Urbanization is bringing more people to rural areas, and thereby turning it into denser neighborhoods, while increase in population is putting greater pressure on the environment. At the same time, passenger air traffic nearly doubled in the past decade. These macro trends are having a profound impact on the spread of infectious disease. Nicolas (2020) opined that “Urbanization in the developing world is bringing more and more rural residents into denser neighborhoods, while population increases are putting greater pressure on the environment.” The visualization below shows how many vulnerable persons, on the average, a sick person can infect.

Source: Visual History of Pandemics by Nicolas (2020) www.irjmets.com

@International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering, Technology and Science

[257]

e-ISSN: 2582-5208 International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science Volume:02/Issue:09/September-2020

III.

Impact Factor- 5.354

www.irjmets.com

ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

Environmental sustainability is a responsible relationship with the environment to avoid destruction or degradation of the natural resources, which allows a long-term environmental quality. Environmental sustainability is one of the three pillars of sustainability, and also the most important of all. This is because the other two (Social and Economic) are reliant on the superior system they live within, which is the environment. The “principle of the three pillars of sustainability” says that to solve the problems of sustainability, the three pillars of sustainability must be sustainable. The application of environmental sustainability helps to guarantee that the desires of today's populace are fulfilled without putting into danger the ability of coming generations to meet their own needs. Environmental sustainability covers a variety of issues, starting from a precise location to universal. Universal issues comprise concerns about GHG mitigation, climate change, and renewable energy, while the location specific challenges are soil erosion, water management, soil quality, and air and water pollution (Parijat et al., 2019).

Fig.-3.1: The 3 Pillars of Sustainability The goals of Environmental Sustainability can be summarized based on Daly (1990) sustainable theory, which has been accepted widely as: 

For Renewable Resources: the rate of harvest should not exceed the rate of regeneration (sustainable yield);



For Pollution: The rates of waste generation from projects should not exceed the assimilative capacity of the environment (sustainable waste disposal); and



For Nonrenewable Resources: the destruction of the non-renewable resources should involve equivalent advancement of renewable replacement for that resource.

IV.

PANDEMIC'S EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

COVID-19, Ebola, influenza, SARS, and MERS as “emerging infectious diseases (EIDs)”, most recently, cause large scale death and morbidity, disturb trade and travels, and incite civil disturbances (Pike et al., 2014). There is a rising policy interest in the connections between universal environmental change and human health, such as non–communicable disease effects of climate change, death and morbidity from harsh weather events, pollution related asthma, and spread of vector borne diseases (Watts et al., 2018).

According to Morse et al. (2012), approximately, about 70% of “emerging infectious diseases” and almost all recent pandemics, originate from human interactions with animals (mainly wildlife), and their emergence shoots from combined contacts among wild and domestic animals and humans. The emergence of diseases show a relationship between human population concentration and wildlife variety, and is motivated by changes associated with human activities such as deforestation and expansion of agricultural land (i.e. land use change), increase of livestock production, and intensified hunting and trading of wildlife (Allen et al., 2017; Jones et al., 2008). www.irjmets.com

@International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering, Technology and Science

[258]

e-ISSN: 2582-5208 International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science Volume:02/Issue:09/September-2020

V.

Impact Factor- 5.354

www.irjmets.com

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COVID-19 AND THE ENVIRONMENT

The COVID-19 outbreak was caused by a combination of two related trend. The first is the increasingly intricate and possibly harmful relationship between humans and wildlife. The harvesting and selling of wild animals as meats and plants is an unvarying risk to the continued existence of many species, as well as intermittently posing a hazard to human society through the emergence and spread of viruses, as in the current case of the COVID-19 pandemic. A research by Johnson et al. (2020) suggests that a rise in human utilization of wildlife may lead to more possibility of zoonosis.

The second trend is “Urbanization”, which is the widespread and accelerated movement of people and goods across borders, which is a feature of modern globalization as mentioned in previous section of this article. While harmful relationship between humans and wildlife allowed the transmission of the COVID19 virus from animals to humans, urbanization enabled its succeeding spread to a pandemic level. Both the range of the market for wildlife species, the quantity and speediness of human movement globally, give importance to the enormous impact of human activity on nature and probably vice versa.

VI.

THE IMPACTS OF COVID-19 ON THE PRESENT ENVIRONMENT

According to Sorin et al. (2020), the impact of COVID-19 on the environment raised attention from the very beginning of the crisis, consisting of: (a) Observations and analysis of the immediate effects and (b) Estimations related to long-term changes.

Qualitative assumptions prevail, while consistent quantitative research must wait for relevant data sets and additional knowledge. Most aspects of the environmental impact of COVID-19 have not directly resulted from the virus itself. Instead the consequence of the mitigation measures adopted to checkmate the spread of the virus or closing of the economic sectors through the lockdown (stay at home, stay safe) order has affected the environment directly. Moreover, the impact of COVID-19 on socio-ecological systems may be highly variable, from radical changes in individual lifestyle, society and international affairs (United Nation (UN), 2020), to simply facilitating a faster change than would normally have emerged (Haass, 2020). A study by Awuchi et al. (2020), which is in confirmation with NASA (2020) report shows that the lockdown order implemented by the government of many countries impacted the environment positively by improving air quality across Europe, Asia, India and the USA. Figure 5.1 below shows airborne particle levels in Northern India in 2016 to the first quarter of 2020 amidst the COVID-19 lockdown as reported by NASA (2020). The satellite image shows that after a week of the lockdown, aerosol levels in Northern India has fallen at a 20years low for this time of the year.

Awuchi et al. (2020) further highlighted that although the lockdown impacted the environment positively, but not all the environmental consequences of the lockdown that accompanied the emergence of COVID19 have been positive, as it was confirmed by the “United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)” that the volumes of non-recyclable waste have gone up; harsh cuts in agricultural and fishery export levels have led to the production of large amount of organic waste and maintenance, and even the supervision of usual ecosystems have been momentarily suspended as an outcome of the COVID-19 lockdown. Also, a similar report from Reuters (2020) shows that as an outcome of the extraordinary use of disposable facemasks, a large number of masks were discarded in the environment, thereby adding to the global burden of medical plastic waste. Also, the immediate impact of the pandemic on the soil environment through the inadequate disposal of the medical waste can be associated with the rising risks of food insecurity and interruption of the food supply chain following reports that the virus can remain viable on surfaces for several days (Van et al., 2020).

www.irjmets.com

@International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering, Technology and Science

[259]

e-ISSN: 2582-5208 International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science Volume:02/Issue:09/September-2020

Impact Factor- 5.354

www.irjmets.com

Fig. 6.1: Airborne particle levels as it plummets in Northern India.

Source: (NASA, 2020)

Fig. 6.2: Pictures showing deserted roads across the world during the COVID-19 lockdown.

www.irjmets.com

@International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering, Technology and Science

[260]

e-ISSN: 2582-5208 International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science Volume:02/Issue:09/September-2020

VII.

Impact Factor- 5.354

www.irjmets.com

COVID-19 PANDEMIC EFFECTS AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

The immediate outcome of COVID-19 on the environment can be noticed mostly in the quality of air and change in climate, Aquatic systems and water resources, and the soil and land environment; all these classified together as the physical systems of the environment.

The relationship between COVID-19, its effects and environmental sustainability is unquestionably a very complex connection. Although COVID-19 has certainly created both some positives and negatives for the environment as highlighted in the previous sections of this work, but the question is how long these will last.

7.1.

In Air Quality and Climate Change:

There are indications and also confirmed reports that improvement in air quality resulting from the drop in emissions due to the COVID-19 is in fact only a short-term impact; and that when the lockdown is relaxed and industrial and transportation activities restarts, it may actually lead to a higher level of carbon emissions. According to a report from NASA (2020) which shows the levels of NO2 in Central and Eastern China from February 10–25 (i.e. during the quarantine) and April 20 to May 12 (i.e. after restrictions were lifted), it was observed that during the lockdown, there was a noticeable reduction in a key air pollutant in China after the country shut down transportation and much of its economy. But in three months later, with most COVID-19 lockdowns ending in the country and economic activities resuming, the levels of NO2 have returned to near normal for this time of year. Although, scientists expected this spring back in air pollution in the country. Figure 6.1 below shows satellite images captured

by NASA during and after lockdown in China.

Fig. 7.1: Nitrogen Dioxide Levels in China during and after the lockdown. Source: (NASA, 2020) 7. 2. Reduction in Waste Recycling and Management A report from UNCTAD (2020) shows that since the outbreak of COVID-19 and the lockdown that accompanies it, the quantities of non-recyclable waste have increased globally. Recycling is one of the most common and useful way to prevent environmental pollution, conserve energy and natural resources (Varotto and Spagnolli, 2017; Ma et al., 2019). Recycling as one of the most imperative phases of environmental sustainability, averting pollution and reusing natural resources has reduced since the COVID-19 lockdown. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic countries such as the USA and Italy have stopped or www.irjmets.com

@International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering, Technology and Science

[261]

e-ISSN: 2582-5208 International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science Volume:02/Issue:09/September-2020

Impact Factor- 5.354

www.irjmets.com

reduced their recycling activities in some of their cities, as there were concerns about the risk of the pandemic spreading in recycling centers (Manuel et al., 2020). In Italy, infected individuals have been stopped from sorting their waste and this has made the task of recycling almost impossible.

7. 3. In Aquatic Systems and Water Resources Although there is no confirmation on the survival of the SARS-CoV-2 virus in drinking water or wastewater (WHO, 2020b), but countries like China have strengthen the disinfecting regimes in their water treatment plants mainly through increased use of chlorine. This is targeted at minimizing the risk of COVID-19 being spread through the water supply. But on the contrary, excessive presence of chlorine in domestic water could generate harmful effects on people's health as recorded by Koivusalo and Vartiainen, (1997).

VIII.

IMPLICATIONS OF COVID-19 ON THE ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY

According to preliminary analysis conducted by the “Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES, 2020)”, which was aimed at understanding the environmental and sustainability challenges associated with the crisis, and their potential solutions, IGES categorized core issues requiring attention in the phase of COVID-19 outbreak in the “Short-term”, “Medium-term”, and “Long-term”.

Fig. 8. 1. Core issues requiring attention in the phase of COVID-19 outbreak and the post-pandemic recovery.

Short term Measures: Needs to Address Urgent Concerns  Management of Medical Waste: Since the inception of COVID-19 pandemic, medical facilities have witnessed a flare-up in the use of some kinds of medical equipments, such disposable-facemasks and medical handgloves, which have caused a fast increase in medical - waste. In partnership with relevant United Nations and other organizations, IGES will begin evaluating the management of medical - waste in some selected developing countries mainly in the Asian region, to identify constraints and possible solutions.

www.irjmets.com

@International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering, Technology and Science

[262]

e-ISSN: 2582-5208 International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science Volume:02/Issue:09/September-2020 

Impact Factor- 5.354

www.irjmets.com

Management of the Adverse Impacts of Air Pollution

In areas with increased levels of air pollution, the number of people suffering from respiratory diseases is on the rise. Infected persons are mostly likely to be at a greater risk for severe illness and early death. It is evident that the emergency lockdowns and stay-at-home orders that accompanied COVID-19 have improved the air quality in many countries across the world (Awuchi et al., 2020), but the challenge is sustaining this improvement. Therefore, it is imperative to spot solutions that are sustainable to prevent pollution levels from returning or even reaching even higher levels than it was before the lockdown. 

Understanding the Sustainability Work-styles and Life-styles:

Secluded works are being introduced speedily globally. It is suggested that social activities occur by the same approach, which will lead to considerable changes in lifestyles as well as work - styles. Practices like that may help to improve the environment and work-life balance, and also should be maintained to any possible level, even after the end of the emergency period.

8. 2. Medium term Approaches: Creating the Pathway for Post Crisis Green Recovery 

Endorsement of Green Recovery:

It is vital to take - up procedures that can build a world that is more skilled at running similar disasters for future purposes, after the crisis. Considering this, it is advised that every country while building measures for a large scale economy, should also consider building a society that will be more sustainable, flexible and inclusive in the future.

8. 3. Long Term Measures: To Create a Flexible and Society that is Sustainable. 

Sustainable and Combined Measures:

The endorsement of a “Regional Circulating and Ecological Spheres (Regional CES)”, which aims for a sustainable growth at the regional level through combined efforts towards attaining varied, societal, economic and environmental objectives, is also considered as a logical approach in the long-term.

Considering this, IGES planned to establish a research on how to apply the “Regional CES” conception in two areas in the Asian continent, in partnership with some institutes. 

Reliable Urban Environmental Approaches in Developing Countries:

The original sources of pandemics in urban settlements are numerous, considering the fact that necessary daily activities, such as transportation and shopping are done in comparatively crowded confinements.

Therefore, cities are encouraged to tackle all types of environmental issues associated with non sustainable manufacturing and utilization guide, noting that cities are the basic foundation of polluting their environment, which makes the preexisting health situations of their residents worse. 

Approaches for Climatic Acclimatization Scheming:

The ecosystem is changing drastically as a result of climatic change. These changes increases shift in zones where species from diverse environment interact, hence raises the risk of pathogen overflow. That is to say that it is entirely possible that change in the climate can become an indirect issue which contributes to the rise in frequency of infectious diseases such as COVID-19. Therefore, as witnessed in this present pandemic, it is essential to consider the risks associated with the outbreak of infectious diseases as an important effect of climate change. 

Approaches for Controlling Global Risks:

It is now very evident that risks associated with global outbreak of infectious diseases such as COVID-19 pandemic can result in an enormous social and economic impact, i.e. disturbance of universal supplychains and the crumbling of universal tourism activities. Therefore, measures and policies to make supply-chains sustainable and pliant should be considered an obligation for both international and domestic. In addition, guidelines to encourage progressive tourism activities globally should be largely strengthened.

www.irjmets.com

@International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering, Technology and Science

[263]

e-ISSN: 2582-5208 International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science Volume:02/Issue:09/September-2020

IX.

Impact Factor- 5.354

www.irjmets.com

CONCLUSION

The emergence of the pandemic COVID-19 maybe perceived as both a disaster and a relief to the environment, considering its negative and positive influences on the environment. Environmental factors such as urbanization which involves widespread movement of people, goods and services across the borders, then, temperature, climate change and unsafe relationship between human beings and wildlife; all these combined influences the transmission of the zoonosis to humans, which also has influence on the environment.

COVID-19, its effects and environmental sustainability has an intricate affiliation, considering that the pandemic has both influenced the physical environment positively and negatively, but the challenge remains how sustainable these influences are. Emerging report from countries such as China has shown that the positive effects in air pollution recorded during the lockdown is gradually ending and may likely become worst in the coming months. Also there are growing concerns in some countries across Europe and America due to the suspension and reduction of waste recycling activities for the fear of the virus spreading through waste recycling centers. Considering these challenges the question of how sustainable the impact of the pandemic is remains unanswered at the moment, as more developments and considerations continues to emerge from both its positive and adverse effects.

X.

REFERENCES

[1]

Varotto, and A. Spagnolli. (2017). Psychological strategies to promote household recycling. A systematic review with meta-analysis of validated field interventions. J. Environ.

Psychol., 51 (2017), pp. 168-188

[2]

Awuchi, Chibueze Gospel, Asoegwu, Chisom Rachael, Anyahara, Jessica Nene, and Saloka, James.

(2020). Environmental Impacts of COVID-19 Outbreak. Int’l Res. Journal of Modernization in Engr., Tech., and Science. Vol. 2, Issue 8/August 2020. Pp. 805-813.

[3]

Ma, X. Li, Z. Jiang and J. Jiang. (2019). Recycle more, waste more? When recycling efforts increase resource consumption. J. Clean. Prod., 206 (2019), pp. 870-877.

[4]

Convolutional Neural Network (CNN). (2020). Russia aims to approve COVID-19 Vaccine. Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com /2020/07/28/europe/russia-corona virus - vaccine-approvalintl/index.html?utm_content=2020-07-29 zT01 %3A02% 3A56& utm_medium= social&utm_source= fb CNN&utm_term=link. [Accessed August 2020].

[5]

Ellen, J. (2020). Pushing Sustainability Forward Through a Pandemic. Retrieved from https://eponline.com/articles/2020/05/27/pushing-sustainability forward-through-apandemic.aspx [Accessed August 2020].

[6]

European Space Agency (ESA). (2020). Coronavirus lockdown leading to drop in pollution across Europe.

Retrieved from https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/Copernicus/Sentinel5P/Coronavirus_lockdown_leading_to_drop_in_ pollution_across_Europe [Accessed August 2020].

[7]

Global Television Network, CGTN. (2020). Are media exaggerating concerns over China’s COVID-19 vaccine. Retrieved from https://news.cgtn.com/news/2020-08-21/Are-media-exaggeratingconcerns-over-China-s-COVID-19-vaccine--T8zo Z96QWA /index.html. [Accessed August 2020].

[8] Global Shifts in Mammalian Population Trends Reveal Key Predictors of Virus Spillover Risk.

Proceedings. Biological Sciences, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2019.2736.

[9] Haass, R. (2020).The Pandemic Will Accelerate History Rather Than Reshape It. Retrieved from: https://www.foreigna_airs.com/articles/united-states/2020-04-07/pandemic-will-acceleratehistory-rather-reshape-it [Accessed August 2020].

[10] Harcourt, J.L.; Thornburg, N.J.; Gerber, S.I. Aerosol and surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 as compared with SARS-CoV-1. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020, 382, 1564–1567.

www.irjmets.com

@International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering, Technology and Science

[264]

e-ISSN: 2582-5208 International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science Volume:02/Issue:09/September-2020

Impact Factor- 5.354

www.irjmets.com

[11] Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES, 2020). Implications of COVID-19 for the Environment and Sustainability. Retrieved from https://www.iges.or.jp/en/news/20200514.

[Accessed July 2020].

[12] J. Pike, T. Bogich, S. Elwood, D. C. Finnoff, and P. Daszak. (2020). Economic optimization of a global strategy to address the pandemic threat. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 111, 18519–18523 (2014).

[13] Johnson, Christine K., Peta L. Hitchens, Pranav S. Pandit, Julie Rushmore, Tierra Smiley Evans, Cristin C.W. Young, and Megan M. Doyle.

[14] Kate E. Jones, Nikkita G. Patel, Marc A. Levy, Adam Storeygard, Deborah Balk, John L. Gittleman and Peter Daszak. (2008). Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Retrieved from https://www.nature.com/articles/nature06536. [Accessed July 2020].

[15] Liu, J.; Zhou, J.; Yao, J.; Zhang, X.; Li, L.; Xu, X.; He, X.; Wang, B.; Fu, S.; Niu, T. (2020). Impact of meteorological factors on the COVID-19 transmission: A multi-city study in China. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 138513.

[16] M. Koivusalo, and T. Vartiainen. (1997). Drinking water chlorination by-products and cancer Rev. Environ. Health, 12 (1997), pp. 81-90 [17] Madhav N., Ben, O., Mark, G., Prime, M, Edward, R., and Nathan, W. (2020). Disease Control Priorities: Improving Health and Reducing Poverty. 3rd edition. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525302/ [Accessed August 2020].

[18] Manuel A.Zambrano-Monserrate,, María AlejandraRuano and LuisSanchez-Alcalde. (2020). Indirect effects of COVID-19 on the environment. Science of the Total Environment. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138813. [Accessed July 2020].

[19] N. Watts et al. (2018). The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: From 25 years of inaction to a global transformation for public health. Lancet 391, 581–630 (2018).

[20] NASA Earth Observatory. (2020). Airborne Nitrogen Dioxide Plummets Over China. Retrieved from https://earthobservatory. nasa.gov /images/146362/airborne-nitrogen-dioxide-plummets-overchina [Accessed August 2020].

[21] NASA Earth Observatory. (2020). Airborne particle levels as it plummets in Northern India.

Retrieved from https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/146596/airborne-particle-levelsplummet-in-northern-india [Accessed July 2020].

[22] NASA Earth Observatory. (2020). Nitrogen Dioxide Levels in China during and after the lockdown.

Retrieved from https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/146741/nitrogen-dioxide-levelsrebound-in-china. [Accessed July 2020].

[23] Nicolas L. (2020). Retrieved from https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/03/a-visual-historyof-pandemics. [Accessed July 2020].

[24] Pandemic on the Environment: A Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 4140; doi:10.3390/ijerph17114140. www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph. [Accessed July 2020].

[25] Parijat, G., Patrick, W., and Deepayan, D. (2020). Biofuels, food security, and sustainability. Science of the Total Environment. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803954-0.00012-7.

[Accessed July 2020].

[26] Robert, H. (2020). Environmental impacts of coronavirus crisis, challenges ahead. Retrieved from https://unctad.org/en/pages/newsdetails. aspx?OriginalVersion ID=2333 [Accessed July 2020].

[27] Sorin, C., Cristian, M. A., Teodoro, G., Mathew, H., Adrian, P., and David, R. L. (2020). Observed and Potential Impacts of the COVID-19 [28] Stephen S Morse, Prof Jonna AK Mazet, Mark Woolhouse, Colin R Parrish, Dennis Carroll, William B Karesh, Carlos Zambrana-Torrelio, W Ian Lipkin, and Peter Daszak. (2012). Prediction and prevention of the next pandemic zoonosis Retrieved from https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(12)61684-5/fulltext.

[Accessed August 2020]. www.irjmets.com

@International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering, Technology and Science

[265]

e-ISSN: 2582-5208 International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science Volume:02/Issue:09/September-2020

Impact Factor- 5.354

www.irjmets.com

[29] Toph Allen, Kris A. Murray, Carlos Zambrana-Torrelio, Stephen S. Morse, Carlo Rondinini, Moreno Di Marco, Nathan Breit, Kevin J. Olival and Peter Daszak. (2017). Global hotspots and correlates of emerging zoonotic diseases. Retrieved from https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-009238. [Accessed August 2020].

[30] Van Doremalen, N.; Bushmaker, T.; Morris, D.H.; Holbrook, M.G.; Gamble, A.; Williamson, B.N.; Tamin, A.; [31] World Health Organisation (WHO). (2020b). https://www.who.int/publications-detail/watersanitation-hygiene-and-waste-management-for-covid-19 (2020). [Accessed August 2020].

[32] World Health Organization (WHO). (2020). Retrieved from https://covid19.who.int/. [Accessed August 2020].

[33] Zhu, Y. and Xie, J. (2020). Association between ambient temperature and COVID-19 infection in 122 cities from China. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 138201.

www.irjmets.com

@International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering, Technology and Science

[266]