Oculus Science Journal
Issue 5
FOCUS — B iased Signaling: The Key to Safer, More Powerful Drugs? By JIHO PARK
Drugs such as magic mushrooms and opiates are highly effective in treating many severe medical conditions. However, they are deemed illegal due to their high addictivity and numerous side effects, including hallucination, nausea, and sedation. Even common household medications, such as xylometazoline, are limited in usage due to the side effects they can cause. Recent findings based on biased signaling and G-protein coupled receptor mechanisms, however, present the ability to create and modify drugs without their undesirable side effects. Biased signaling, which is the selectivity for signal transduction pathways, can most extensively be applied to signal transduction based on G protein-coupled receptors, or GPCRs, a large group of transmembrane receptors that function through the use of G proteins. GPCRs take part in many major cell signaling processes for eukaryotes, including essential roles in senses, such as sight and smell, to even embryonic development and the “fight or flight” response. Most importantly, GPCRs are also heavily linked to diseases and medication and are a target for around 30 to 50 percent of all modern medicines. For instance, powerful drugs such as LSD and antihistamines function by attaching to human GPCRs. A GPCR molecule is made up of a polypeptide chain with seven transmembrane ⍺-helices connected by three extracellular and three intracellular loops. On the extracellular portion of each G protein-coupled receptor, there is a specific ligand-binding site that allows for certain appropriate signaling molecules to connect and induce an intracellular response. Each GPCR and ligand is different — meaning that only specific ligands can attach to each type of GPCR molecule and that most ligands will induce different reactions from one another. When a signaling molecule binds to the extracellular receptor of a GPCR molecule, the GPCR is “activated” and changes its conformation, which induces a chain of events, ultimately affecting cell functions. This change in the GPCR’s structure then allows for a G protein to bind to the intracellular portion of the receptor, which allows for the exchange of the G protein’s GDP into higher-energy GTP. Thus, the G protein is activated and dissociates from the receptor. The activated G protein then regulates target proteins that relay and amplify the signal via second messengers. This process is terminated only when the GTP is hydrolyzed to GDP and the ligand dissociates from the GPCR. As mentioned, via the regulation of target proteins by the activated G proteins, GPCRs can initiate a variety of signal transduction pathways. Each ligand, when coupled with a GPCR, can cause several simultaneous changes - a combination of both beneficial and hazardous ones - in
the cell. Biased signaling, however, enables us to be selective of the signal transduction pathways we wish to trigger, thus meaning it may be possible for us to be able to engineer drugs that only trigger the positive effects that current medicines have. Signaling can be altered through any of the three parts to a ternary complex - the receptor, transducers/effector molecules, and most importantly, the ligand. Receptor bias is regulated by adjusting the receptor of the GPCR to improve or rid its ability to bind to certain ligands and transducers. This is accomplished through differential splicing or mutation, and can alter transduction rates of certain signals, leading to more effective medicine. Another form of biased signaling is the system bias, which takes place due to differences in the amount of transducer expressed by the GPCR when a signal is received. While it appears in many forms, such as differences by cell type, tissue type, and organism classification, it is rarely engineered and is sometimes a cause to deviations in experiments based on signal transduction. While both methods mentioned above can effectively regulate the signal transduction of GPCRs, they are not frequently used in the status quo due to their cost, limitations, or engineering difficulty. Instead, the ligand bias mechanism is used, as it is simpler to apply and very effective. In this type of bias, a ligand induces the GPCR to change its structure in a specific way that causes a distinct coupling to the signal transduction cascade, ultimately forming a biased response relative to a reference agonist, or, a ligand that induces the “normal and balanced” result. As most GPCRs have binding sites that allow for the binding of various ligands, a ligand bias can be applied in most situations, which is another cause for its popularity. To apply this form of bias, a ligand is modified or engineered based on examinations and simulations of the way that a GPCR reacts when exposed to certain ligands. Through careful examinations of the cellular process, scientists are able to pinpoint the exact signals a drug induces and can test for changes in the ligand that will result in repression of the side effects a drug causes. Specifically, changes in the ligand can cause slight alterations in the final conformation of the GPCR, altering its affinity for different G-proteins - some of which may be the cause for side effects. Today, some experts have been able to make significant advances in creating new and effective drugs using ligand bias mechanisms. For instance, in a research article published on Science magazine, one of the world's leading sources of scientific research, titled “Molecular mechanism of biased signaling in a prototypical G protein-coupled receptor,” a team of scientists, researchers, and engineers have revealed discoveries that could lessen or eliminate possible side effects in many GPCR drugs. Specifically, they have identified a “molecular mechanism of
biased signaling … for AT1R”, and are nearly certain that their findings can be generalized into more GPCR-class drugs such as LSD and other psychedelics. With further research in the field, many of the current medicines could be improved drastically, and with proper adjustments, even illegal drugs may soon become legalized for safe commercial use. As such, the development of biased signaling will open many doors to more powerful and effective medicines, and will possibly become the next big leap in human health.
Works Cited Gurbel, Paul A, et al. “G-Protein-Coupled Receptors Signaling Pathways in New Antiplatelet Drug Development.” Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, U.S. National Library of Medicine, Mar. 2015, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4836833/. Smith, Jeffrey S., et al. “Biased Signalling: from Simple Switches to Allosteric Microprocessors.” Nature Reviews Drug Discovery, vol. 17, no. 4, 2018, pp. 243–260., doi:10.1038/nrd.2017.229. Suomivuori, Carl-Mikael, et al. “Molecular Mechanism of Biased Signaling in a Prototypical G Protein–Coupled Receptor.” Science, vol. 367, no. 6480, 2020, pp. 881–887., doi:10.1126/science.aaz0326.
Bubbles suggest an innovative way to artificially pollinate flowers By SUNMIN LEE Bees are major pollinators responsible for sustainable agriculture and the associated economic factors such as maintaining adequate food supply. However, due to climate change and habitat loss, they, as well as other pollinator species, are experiencing declines in population, which is assumed to affect 3 to 8 percent of global crop production. The cause of a mysterious phenomenon of beehives’ disappearance, or colony collapse order, is still unknown, although many theories have been offering explanations such as diseases and other disorientations. In consideration of the bee’s contribution to the ecosystem and food supply, concern over its population decline is growing, and the significance of developing a substitution cannot be stressed enough. Since farmers rely heavily on bees for pollination in the status quo, many researchers are striving to find novel technologies that are capable of replacing natural pollinators. There is always the option of direct pollination using feather brushes, but roboticists desire to invent clever ways to provide convenience and greater consistency in pollination. Most of these methods involve drones, one of the earliest ones being introduced by Eijio Miyako, a chemist in AIST. Remodeled after the hairy features of a bee, horse hairs are attached to the drone using a sticky ionic gel. The drone functions as a robotic replacement for bees, able to transport pollen from one flower to another. However, it is indeed not a perfect solution since the propellers often damage the flowers, preventing them from growing healthy fruits. Therefore, Miyako discovered another technique that the drones could incorporate: bubble guns. Without making significant changes, they can be used to blow bubbles with pollen grains rather than just the bubbles themselves. Inspired during a date with his son, he realized that pollen carried by bubbles is less likely to be damaged or wasted by failing to land on the pistil. After learning about the soap bubble’s unique, ideal features, Miyako developed a suitable bubble solution by randomly selecting five different surfactants — substances that reduce the surface tension of a liquid — and detecting one that can produce the most bubbles in one trigger of a bubble gun. Lauramidopropyl betaine was the best surfactant as a foaming agent, forming the most bubbles and showing a high success rate in germination and pollen tube elongation, unharming, or even helping pollen activity. Miyaki then tested the results again with different concentrations of surfactants and pollen, finding that a high concentration of surfactant and a lower number of pollen grains are most suitable for bubble formation; pollen grains are discovered to have water-insoluble agglomeration that prevents producing steady membranes.
After finding the optimal surfactant and pollen grain concentrations, Miyaki controlled pH and added other chemicals such as boron, calcium, magnesium, and potassium to promote better germination; calcium binds to the pectate carboxyl groups on the pollen wall, greatly increasing the growth of pollen, and other chemicals’ roles are to assist calcium. To stabilize the bubbles, Miyaki also included gelatin and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose. With the perfect bubble solution containing a stable liquid membrane and large surface area, Miyaki was finally satisfied and confident that the bubble would not burst while transferring the pollen. In the actual experiment, the bubbles showed high performance, hitting 90 percent of the flowers that successfully pollinated. At this stage of development, there are certainly some components that could be improved. For example, if a plant identifying robot can be added, the drone would be able to narrow down the scope and perfectly shoot the bubble in the right direction. Additionally, this technology is vulnerable to the surrounding environment, so it has limits in its application and might not be suitable for a large scale project. However, carrying pollen grains with bubbles provides numerous benefits that transcend other delivery methods. First, as aforementioned, it reduces the risk of damaging the pollen and the flower by safely landing on the pistil. Second, the bubble’s stickiness helps pollen easily attach to the flower, decreasing the number of pollen grains wasted. Finally, since pollen grains can be scattered uncontrollably, the use of bubbles help contain the pollen grains and directly target them toward the flowers. Miyaki well-incorporated his idea onto the unique characteristics of soap bubbles that include flexibility and lightweight so that its necessary traits can be conserved and lacking properties can be refined. With these successes, there seems to be a great chance of this technology to be implemented and applied to our society, possibly substituting the growing absence of pollinators in the future.
Works Cited
Schaft, Peter van der. “Pollination Drones Seen as Assistants for Ailing Bees.” Robotics Business Review, 28 Mar. 2018, www.roboticsbusinessreview.com/agriculture/pollination-drones-assist-ailing-bees/. Prisco, Jacopo. “Researchers Use Drone to Pollinate Flower.” CNN, Cable News Network, 9 Mar. 2017, edition.cnn.com/2017/03/09/world/artificial-pollinator-japan/index.html.
Yang, Xi, and Eijiro Miyako. “Soap Bubble Pollination.” IScience, Elsevier, 17 June 2020, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589004220303734. Giaimo, Cara. “Blowing Bubbles to Pollinate Flowers.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 17 June 2020, www.nytimes.com/2020/06/17/science/bubbles-pollinating-bees.html.
Hummingbirds: The world in a different spectrum By JIWON LEE Colors. It’s a simple concept, really. Light, which is a colorless form of electromagnetic radiation that exhibits the behaviors of a wave, travels at different wavelengths and reflects off the surfaces of objects to activate cells in our retina. Some types of light, such as ultraviolet light, X-rays, and gamma rays are not visible to the human eye, because they simply do not fall under the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that we can see. Even when the wavelengths fall in the range of visible light, however, we are still unable to see all of them. This is because some surfaces of objects absorb certain wavelengths better than others, and the wavelengths that are not as well absorbed are the colors we identify the object as. The colors visible to us are quite clear. The primary colors of light, which are red, blue, and green, combine in varying amounts to produce the rest of the colors in the visible light spectrum. At this point, one may raise the question: why, then, do other animals perceive light differently from us? Bees detest shades of black, and dogs are unable to distinguish between red and green. Why is this so? If all objects reflect light off their surfaces in a relatively consistent manner, and the colors that certain wavelengths represent stay constant, why is there such a vast difference in the types and colors of light that different species see? The answer lies in the varying structures of our eyes. More specifically, the types of cone cells that are located in the retina of vertebrate animals determine the range of colors we can see. Humans, who have three color cone types in their eyes, are able to detect and respond to light with wavelengths from approximately 380 to 740 nanometers. Comparatively, dogs only have two color cone types in their retina, which is responsible for their red-green colorblindness. Birds, on the other hand, have four color cone types, allowing them to see a wider spectrum of light than both humans and dogs. While this has been a known fact for some time, exactly ​how birds see color has remained a mystery. But now, through the intensive study one team at Harvard University has conducted on wild hummingbirds, the answer has become more clear.
Photo credits: Business Insider (LINK) Caption: A visualization of the drastic difference in color recognition between dogs and humans Many animals, including humans, have the ability to see non-spectral colors, which are colors that are unable to be produced by a monochromatic light and require two or more color cones to be discernible. Scientists have predicted that birds, with a greater number of color cones, are able to see a larger range of non-spectral colors compared to humans. To test this hypothesis, the team of researchers used behavioral experiments involving shades from natural plumage and plants, eventually reaching the conclusion that wild hummingbirds could indeed perceive non-spectral colors such as UV+red and UV+green. Moreover, apart from the affirmation that birds could indeed see non-spectral colors in the ultraviolet spectrum — which has wavelengths that fall between 10 and 400 nanometers — the scientists also made an unexpected discovery: the extra color cone that birds have could cause them to see more colors as non-spectral than humans. While it has been a known fact that many species of reptiles and aquatic vertebrates, including common types of fish, exhibit a similar trait, this ability was not yet explored in hummingbirds. The researchers, having now established solid proof that wild hummingbirds can discriminate a broader range of colors and identify a larger portion of them as non-spectral than human beings can, are now hoping to examine how this color-distinguishing ability affects their behavior, such as how it may aid hummingbirds in their foraging endeavors.
The addition of a single type of color cone allows hummingbirds to see the world from an almost entirely different viewpoint than many other animals. However, they are far from the most generously endowed — mantis shrimp, the subject of my article for the third issue, have 16 types of color cones in their retina, and the vivid colors that characterize their world are but imaginative elements in our eyes. In the large electromagnetic spectrum, the range of light that is visible to us is startlingly limited, and this discovery is but a reiteration of this fact.
Works Cited
“Colours of Light.” Science Learning Hub, Science Learning Hub, 2020, www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/47-colours-of-light. Greenwood, Veronique. “Hummingbirds Navigate an Ultraviolet World We Never See.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 19 June 2020, www.nytimes.com/2020/06/19/science/hummingbirds-color-vision.html. “How Do We See Color?” Pantone, Pantone LLC, 2020, www.pantone.com/color-intelligence/articles/technical/how-do-we-see-color. Stoddard, Mary Caswell, et al. “Wild Hummingbirds Discriminate Nonspectral Colors.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, HighWire, 28 Apr. 2020, www.pnas.org/content/early/2020/06/09/1919377117.
Blue Light: Shined For Success Or Blinding Brightness? By ERIC YOON The advent of the digital age has promulgated a scathing image of blue light, for good reason: at night, exposure to blue light from our phones inhibits melatonin release and reduces the quality of sleep. Blue light, however, has also been a key component in jump-starting our circadian rhythm when we wake up and its benefits are often overlooked in light of the media attention around the harms. This article will illustrate what it means, the harms, and ways to prevent it from causing long term damage. On the electromagnetic spectrum, waves exist from low-frequency radio waves to high energy gamma rays. Right on the border between visible light and UV light exists blue light, the most high energy form of visible light. Its short wavelength causes it to pass right through the retina, penetrating to the cornea. Some studies suggest a link between exposure to light at night, such as working the night shift, to some types of cancer, diabetes, heart disease, and obesity. However, this linkage is not proof that nighttime light exposure causes these conditions; nor is it clear why it could be bad for us. One thing we do know, though, is that exposure to light suppresses the secretion of melatonin, a hormone that influences circadian rhythms. However, as mentioned earlier, blue light has also been shown to promote numerous benefits, especially in the morning, serving as one of the major signals of the morning. These include wakefulness, dictating circadian rhythms, alertness, and general cognitive function (find separate source). We experience this every day when we wake up to sunlight, which forces us to wake up whether we want to or not. Consider, then. Blue light is all around us, and there’s little to be done to avoid it. We, as humans, have made our daily lives one where we stare at it for long periods of time, which can cause damaged retinal cells and age-related macular degeneration. What can we do about it? Most easily, stop looking at your phone before you sleep. Try to minimize it with other activities that don’t involve direct light, such as reading books. A step further is to buy blue light protection glasses, which specifically block blue light and are useful if you have to stare at a computer screen and often forget to look away and take breaks. Taking the correct steps in managing blue light intake will promote wakefulness, better eyesight, and general health, which is of dire importance.
Works Cited Choi, K., Shin, C., Kim, T. et al. Awakening effects of blue-enriched morning light exposure on university students’ physiological and subjective responses. Sci Rep 9, 345 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-36791-5 Hallows, J. (2012, May). Blue light has a dark side. Retrieved from https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/blue-light-has-a-dark-side Heiting, G. (2020, July 04). How blue light is both bad for you AND good for you! (Huh?). Retrieved from https://www.allaboutvision.com/cvs/blue-light.htm Holzman D. C. (2010). What's in a color? The unique human health effect of blue light. Environmental health perspectives, 118(1), A22–A27. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.118-a22
Addressing Climate Change In The Face of COVID-19 By HUGH KANG As we near the 75th anniversary of the United Nations, we also enter a new phase of the world: the “new normal” of the post-pandemic age. In the year 2020, the world is experiencing an unprecedented loss of human lives and economic collapse at a size and speed that has never been seen in our lifetimes. 1 Not only will international recovery from the pandemic be of utmost priority, but more importantly, the UN will also need to redirect their focus on very pressing matters that have been set aside during the pandemic, namely climate change. What we need more than anything else are practical, sustainable, and enduring solutions that can be applied almost immediately to address these environmental matters. In this article, a clear assessment of the changes that the pandemic has brought upon the climate change conversation will be presented through both a short-term and long-term analysis of its environmental impacts.
But before anything else, it is important to understand the scientific breakdown of climate change. Climate change is a noticeable variation in average weather conditions that occurs over several decades. It’s not the normal day-to-day variability in weather: rather, it measures the long term change in the climate. Typically, the energy from sunlight is reflected off the surface of the earth and released from our atmosphere, causing the planet to cool. However, the way climate change works is that certain atmospheric gases, otherwise known as greenhouse gases, prevent this energy, or heat, from being released from our atmosphere, causing an overall increase in Subhanji, Tientip, and Zenathan Hasannudin. 2020. “Financing SDGs under a New Normal: Challenges and Response to COVID-19 Pandemic.” ESCAP. April 29, 2020. https://www.unescap.org/blog/financing-sdgs-covid-19 1
warmth in our planet. The most notable example of the greenhouse gases would be carbon dioxide, and CO2 emissions are an effective measure of the potential of climate change.2
The pandemic lockdown and enforcement of social distancing have stopped people from using their vehicles, working, and consuming large amounts of fossil fuels. Along the same lines, empirical work has shown that the COVID-19 pandemic has caused the biggest decrease in carbon emissions than any other human event in recent history.3 It is estimated that up to 2.6 billion metric tons of CO2 emissions have been prevented due to the impact of the pandemic alone, which is around 8% of the projected amount of emissions for 2020.4 Due to this, people have even reported that skies have cleared in cities like Delhi, Mumbai, and Seoul in a matter of weeks.5
enchak, Melissa. 2019. “Global Climate Change: What You Need to Know.” NRDC. January D 28, 2019. https://www.nrdc.org/stories/global-climate-change-what-you-need-know. 3 Lombrana, Laura Millan, and Hayley Warren. "How Coronavirus Impacts Climate Change." Bloomberg.com. May 08, 2020. Accessed June 30, 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2020-how-coronavirus-impacts-climate-change/. 4 Rathi, Akshat. "Pandemic Will Lead to Historic Decline in 2020 Global Emissions." Bloomberg.com. April 30, 2020. Accessed June 30, 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-04-30/renewables-are-the-only-winners-in-histo ric-decline-in-energy-demand?sref=HJFr5loq. 5 Robin Hicks, "Delhi, Mumbai, Seoul and Wuhan See Record-breaking Clear Skies as Covid-19 Lockdowns Subdue Air Pollution," Eco, April 21, 2020, |PAGE|, accessed June 30, 2020, https://www.eco-business.com/news/delhi-mumbai-seoul-and-wuhan-see-record-breaking-clearskies-as-covid-19-lockdowns-subdue-air-pollution/) 2
However, the belief that these reductions in emissions will have a significant impact in the long run is misleading. Carlo Buontempo, director of the Copernicus Climate Change Service, has put forth the perspective of many climate scientists by stating that “Because of the inertia in the climate system, even if we were to significantly reduce or stop our emissions today, you would still see the increase in temperatures expected for the next 20 years almost unaffected.”6 The improvements we see during the COVID-19 pandemic will be nothing but temporary, short-lived impacts for our world. As of April 2020, the world is still suffering from a global average atmospheric carbon dioxide level of 414.16 parts per million (ppm) as of May 2020.7 And according to Pierre Friedlingstein, a chairman of Mathematical Modelling of Climate System at the University of Exeter, the nearly 10% reduced annual emission will have little effect on the expected increase of 2 ppm in the carbon dioxide level by the end of the year 2020.
Continuous increase in ppm
From the current pandemic, we are able to see the importance of making solutions that are sustainable. Through the mandatory social distancing of people, collapse of economies, and millions of people in unemployment, we are able to see how these tremendous changes are effective solutions to climate change, but due to their lack of sustainability and long-term effects, Millan Lombrana and Hayley Warren, "How Coronavirus Impacts Climate Change," Bloomberg.com, May 08, 2020, |PAGE|, accessed June 30, 2020, https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2020-how-coronavirus-impacts-climate-change/ 7 “Earth's CO2 Home Page.” CO2.Earth, www.co2.earth/. 6
Laura
climate change will continue to escalate in the coming years. Thus, the world has come to realize that the solutions we enact and construct will not be effective if they simply reduce carbon emissions since they should also be sustainable and effective in the long run. Clearly, the COVID-19 is not just a simple health crisis: at its core, it will have a devastating and long-lasting impact on the world’s economy and societies. As stated by Guterres, “COVID-19 outbreak has moved from being a health crisis to becoming the worst human and economic crisis of our lifetimes.”8According to recent empirical studies by the IMF, global economic growth is projected to -3 percent by the end of the year. 9 This would classify as the worst economic recession since the 20th century’s Great Depression. What this ultimately means is that the world will have to fight economic recession and social issues in tandem with global warming, mostly prioritizing the former. Due to the tremendous impact and magnitude of the COVID-19 crisis, many of the political capital, resources, and attention will be focused on the imminent crisis rather than the Nationally Determined Contributions that have been established as the core of the Paris Climate Agreement. 10 For instance, the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties has already been delayed a year due to the emergence of the pandemic, ultimately meaning that countries will not have the opportunity to introduce their strategies of combating climate change. 11 It can be concluded that while the COVID-19 crisis has brought short-term environmental benefits, it will devastate the environmental efforts of the international community in the future. The future of the planet continues to lie in the hands of humanity, and our ultimate mindset recovering from the pandemic will determine the Earth in which our future generations live on.
Gareth Willmar and Fiona Broom: “SDG Setback ‘Tremendous as COVID-19 Accelerates Slide, Interpress Service” 9 “World Economic Outlook, April 2020 -- Chapter 1: The Great Lockdown.” 2020. IMF. April 2020. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2020/04/14/weo-april-2020. 10 "Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)." Unfccc.int. Accessed June 30, 2020. https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement/nationally-deter mined-contributions-ndcs. 11 IISD's SDG Knowledge Hub, "Event: UN Climate Change Conference (UNFCCC COP 26): SDG Knowledge Hub: IISD," SDG Knowledge Hub, |PAGE|, accessed June 30, 2020, https://sdg.iisd.org/events/2020-un-climate-change-conference-unfccc-cop-26/) 8
Works Cited Subhanji, Tientip, and Zenathan Hasannudin. 2020. “Financing SDGs under a New Normal: Challenges and Response to COVID-19 Pandemic.” ESCAP. April 29, 2020. https://www.unescap.org/blog/financing-sdgs-covid-19 Denchak, Melissa. 2019. “Global Climate Change: What You Need to Know.” NRDC. January 28, 2019. https://www.nrdc.org/stories/global-climate-change-what-you-need-know. Lombrana, Laura Millan, and Hayley Warren. "How Coronavirus Impacts Climate Change." Bloomberg.com. May 08, 2020. Accessed June 30, 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2020-how-coronavirus-impacts-climate-change/. Rathi, Akshat. "Pandemic Will Lead to Historic Decline in 2020 Global Emissions." Bloomberg.com. April 30, 2020. Accessed June 30, 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-04-30/renewables-are-the-only-winnersin-historic-decline-in-energy-demand?sref=HJFr5loq. Robin Hicks, "Delhi, Mumbai, Seoul and Wuhan See Record-breaking Clear Skies as Covid-19 Lockdowns Subdue Air Pollution," Eco, April 21, 2020, |PAGE|, accessed June 30, 2020, https://www.eco-business.com/news/delhi-mumbai-seoul-and-wuhan-see-record-breakin g-clear-skies-as-covid-19-lockdowns-subdue-air-pollution/) Laura Millan Lombrana and Hayley Warren, "How Coronavirus Impacts Climate Change," Bloomberg.com, May 08, 2020, accessed June 30, 2020, https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2020-how-coronavirus-impacts-climate-change/ Gareth Willmar and Fiona Broom: “SDG Setback ‘Tremendous as COVID-19 Accelerates Slide, Interpress Service”
“World Economic Outlook, April 2020 -- Chapter 1: The Great Lockdown.” 2020. IMF. April 2020. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2020/04/14/weo-april-2020. "Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)." Unfccc.int. Accessed June 30, 2020. https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement/national ly-determined-contributions-ndcs. IISD's SDG Knowledge Hub, "Event: UN Climate Change Conference (UNFCCC COP 26): SDG Knowledge Hub: IISD," SDG Knowledge Hub, |PAGE|, accessed June 30, 2020, https://sdg.iisd.org/events/2020-un-climate-change-conference-unfccc-cop-26/)