2023 Irish Primary Principals and Deputy Principals Health and Wellbeing - October 2023 by Irish Primary Principals’ Network

IRISH PRIMARY SCHOOL LEADERS’ WELLBEING METRICS: A NATIONAL STUDY OF IRISH EDUCATORS’ HEALTH AND WELLBEING

2023

Dr Ben Arnold Dr Mark Rahimi Dr Marcus Horwood Professor Phil Riley

OCTOBER 2023

Produced and published by: Research for Educational Impact (REDI) ISBN: 978-0-7300-0713-5 Copyright © Deakin University 2023 Suggested Citation: Arnold, B., Rahimi, M., Horwood, M. & Riley, P. (2023) Irish Primary School Leaders’ Wellbeing Metrics 2023: A National Survey of Educators’ Health and Wellbeing. Melbourne: Research for Educational Impact (REDI), Deakin University. NOT FOR RESALE. All material in this document is protected by copyright. Use of these materials including copying or resale may infringe copyright unless written permission has been obtained from the copyright owners. Inquiries should be made to the publisher.

The Research Team Chief Investigators Dr Ben Arnold Dr Mark Rahimi Dr Marcus Horwood Professor Phil Riley

Technical Support Zoe Wang Sachin Wasnik Irish Advisory Group Shay Bannon (Facilitator) Brian O’Doherty (IPPN President) Paul Byrne (NAPD Deputy Director) Acknowledgements The Educator Health and Wellbeing Research Group at Deakin University are very grateful to the Irish Primary Principals and deputy principals Network (IPPN) and the National Association of Principals and deputy principals and Deputy Principals and deputy principals (NAPD) for funding this research. We would also like to thank all of the school leaders who participated in this research project. Your time and effort helps us to understand the nature of school leaders work and wellbeing in Ireland. Authors: Dr Ben Arnold Dr Mark Rahimi Dr Marcus Horwood Professor Phil Riley

Contact info@educatorhealth.org

Contents 1. Research Summary

2. Key findings

3. Introduction

4. Survey Participants

5. Primary school leaders’ health and wellbeing

14 14

Irish primary school leaders’ psychological and general health Levels of stress and burnout among Irish primary school leaders Levels of stress and burnout among Irish school leaders

General and psychological health and wellbeing: changes over time Medical conditions and use of medication Primary school leaders’ experiences of work

17 17

Summary

6. Primary school leaders' psychosocial work environments Primary leaders’ average working hours Primary school leaders’ work activities Primary school leaders' perceptions of their work responsibilities

20 20 21 21

Primary school leaders’ work environments: job demands Primary school leaders' work environments: job resources School leaders’ perceptions of the quality of leadership in Irish primary

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schools Primary school leaders' sources of support

School leaders' sources of stress Work environment and mental health Relationship between the work environment and school leaders' burnout Relationship between the work environment and school leaders' stress Summary: school leaders' work and health

30 31 32

32 33

7. Offensive Behaviours against school leaders Irish school leaders' experiences of offensive behaviours Offensive Behaviours: school leaders' gender Offensive Behaviours: job role Offensive behaviours in relation to school geolocation Summary

35 35

8. Recommendations

9. References

10. Appendix

36 36 37 37

List of Figures Figure 1. The school leaders' health and wellbeing research framework Figure 2. Sample distribution by gender Figure 3. Sample distribution by role Figure 4. Sample distribution by years of leadership experience Figure 5. Sample distribution by number of years teaching prior to leadership role Figure 6. Irish primary school leaders' health and wellbeing Figure 7. Irish primary school leaders' reported burnout Figure 8. Irish primary school leaders' reported stress Figure 9. Irish Primary school leaders' health and wellbeing measures Figure 10. Irish primary school leaders' health and wellbeing in 2015, 2022 and 2023 Figure 11. Irish Primary school leaders' medical conditions Figure 12. Prescription medication use by Irish primary school leaders (%) Figure 13. Job satisfaction and work-life conflict Figure 14. Irish primary school leaders' average hours spent on school leadership during their last full working week Figure 15. Average hours spent on leadership activities during the last full working week Figure 16. Irish primary school leaders' perceptions about the amount of time spent on leadership tasks (not teaching) Figure 17. Irish primary school leaders' perceptions about the importance of key leadership responsibilities Figure 18. Irish primary school leaders' perceptions about the importance of key leadership responsibilities Figure 19. Irish primary school leaders' perceptions about the sustainability of the school leadership job role Figure 20. Job demands for Irish primary school leaders in 2022, 2023 and a 'healthy working population' Figure 21. Measures of work organisation and job contents for Irish primary school leaders in 2022, 2023 and a 'healthy working population' Figure 22. Irish primary school leaders' job resources compared to a 'healthy working population' Figure 23. Irish primary school leaders' perceptions of school governance and BOMs Figure 24. Primary school leaders' sources of support (%) Figure 25. Irish primary school leaders' sources of stress (out of 10) Figure 26. Correlation between key aspects of the work environment and burnout among Irish primary school leaders Figure 27. Correlation between key aspects of the work environment and primary school leaders' stress Figure 28. Irish school leaders' experiences of offensive behaviours (%) Figure 29. Offensive behaviours according to school leaders’ gender

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Figure 30. Offensive behaviours by primary school leaders' role Figure 31. Offensive behaviours by primary school location

1 Research Summary Health and wellbeing Mental health difficulties are prevalent among primary school leaders in Ireland. Nearly half of primary leaders surveyed report severe levels of burnout, and the situation appears to have worsened from previous years. Roles and responsibilities Based on the findings in 2022 and 2023, the roles of primary school leaders in Ireland are increasingly complex and multifaceted. Administrative tasks often take precedence over the core leadership activities related to teaching and learning, resulting in role dissatisfaction and feelings of being overwhelmed.. Demands at Work Irish primary school leaders are experiencing high levels of workrelated stress in 2023, characterized by escalating quantitative demands and an increasing work pace. They also grapple with constant emotional pressures in their roles. Job resources While some school leaders experience quality leadership from their supervisors and receive collegial support, these aspects are not consistently provided. Generally, school leaders encounter a collaborative atmosphere, high levels of trust, and a sense of justice, although there is variation in these experiences. Work and health The stressors 'sheer quantity of work' and 'a lack of time to focus on teaching and learning' were reported as the most significant sources of stress. Work-related stress primarily stems from the sheer volume of tasks and limited focus on core teaching and learning activities. This has a profound impact on school leaders home lives and is strongly correlated with both heightened stress levels and burnout symptoms. Work-life conflict

A significant majority of primary school leaders are grappling with the challenge of balancing work and personal life, notably exceeding what is considered healthy for working individuals. This trend indicates a decline in work-life balance over the past two years.

2 Key Findings Allocation of working time (school term) In 2023, 64% of Irish primary school leaders indicated a work commitment exceeding 40 hours per week. More than 42% reported a weekly workload surpassing 45 hours, while approximately 11% disclosed working in excess of 55 hours per week.

64%

42%

11%

More than 45 hours per week

More than 40 hours per week

More than 55 hours per week

Demands at Work In 2023, Irish primary school leaders faced heightened job demands, exceeding what's typical in a 'healthy working population' (Denmark). Notable increases were observed in work pace, emotional demands, and workload intensity.

Healthy working population Irish primary school leaders 2022 Irish primary school leaders 2023

59.5 0

100

7 5

72.3 75.7

Emotional Demands

100

40.2 0

77.4

Work Pace

40.7 0

73.5

Quantitative Demands

64.9 69 100

Health and Wellbeing of School Leaders Primary school leaders' average Selfrated Health

Primary school leaders' average Stress

Primary school leaders' average Burnout

Healthy working population

Healthy working Population

66/100

58/100

Mental health outcomes:2015 vs 2022 vs 2023 60 66 69 0

Burnout

100

47 51 53

Sleeping Troubles

100

25 29 29.4 0

Somatic Stress

100 2015

2022

2023

Major Sources of Stress IIn 2023, the sheer volume of work remains the most prominent stressor, exacerbated by increased work pace and workload demands. Following closely is the heightened stress from a lack of time to focus on core leadership tasks like teaching and learning. However, the third leading source of stress shifted from’teacher shortages’ in 2022 to ‘resourcing needs’ and ‘government Initiatives’, reflecting intensifying some challenges and complexities in the role.

Sheer quantity of work

8.9

Lack of time to focus on teaching & learning

8.7

Resourcing Needs & Government Initiatives

7.8

Access to support The majority of school leaders (78%) reported that their partner was a source of support. Additionally, colleagues from their own workplace, along with colleagues from different workplaces, were also identified as significant sources of support by a high proportion of primary school leaders.

78%

76%

61%

Partner

Colleague in workplace

Colleague in different workplace

Leadership in the school: capacity for shared leadership SSchool leaders rated their ability to share leadership tasks on a scale from 1 to 10, where 1 represents 'no ability' and 10 indicates 'completely able'.

32.1%

5.4%

rated their capacity to share leadership as a maximum 3 out of 10 or less

rated their capacity to share leadership as a 9 or 10 out of 10

Leadership in the school: sustainability of the leadership role School leaders were asked to rate the sustainability of their role on a scale of 110, where 1 indicates 'totally unsustainable' and 10 represents 'completely sustainable'.

30.4%

2.7%

rated the sustainability of their role as a 1 or 2 out of 10

rated the sustainability of their role as a 9 or 10 out of 10

3 Introduction In 2023, as schools have returned to normal operations following the Covid-19 pandemic, school leaders have contended with new challenges, including, staff shortages and student mental health problems. These new pressures have added to concerns about the impact of school leadership work on leaders' health and wellbeing (Arnold, Rahimi & Riley, 2021; Diliberti, Schwartz & Grant, 2021). There is evidence that school leadership work is stressful and it can lead to mental health problems for leadership professionals (Rahimi & Arnold, 2022; Riley et al., 2021). Poor mental health can impact on health and sustainability of school systems. For example, burnt out teachers report lower levels of work engagement and satisfaction and they are more motivated to leave the profession (Desrumaux et al., 2015). The health and wellbeing of school leaders and teachers is also important for learning and wellbeing in school communities and school systems (Rahimi, Arnold, Horwood & Riley, 2022). The Irish Principal and Deputy Principal Health and Wellbeing Survey For the advancement of healthy and sustainable schools and educational systems, it's vital for all involved in education to grasp the significance of the health, work, and well-being of school leaders. This report shares insights from the second year of our ongoing three-year study, specifically focusing on the Irish Primary Principal and Deputy Principal Health and Wellbeing Survey conducted in 2023. This document offers a snapshot of the well-being, work conditions, and roles of school leaders, also incorporating data from our 2022 survey. This project aims to monitor the work, health, and well-being of Irish school leaders on an annual basis. The evidence gathered through this year's analysis, along with last year's, will serve as crucial inputs for formulating policies and strategies. The ultimate goal is to foster safe, healthy, and sustainable work environments for Ireland's educational leaders. Measuring Irish school leaders' work, health and wellbeing The measures utilised in the survey were informed by our research framework, which focuses on the work and health of teachers and school leaders. (see Figure 1). Therefore, the survey covers the following key dimensions of leaders’ health and wellbeing at work: health and wellbeing

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experiences of their work working conditions and the work environment leader characteristics school characteristics

Figure 1. A research framework for school leaders' work, health and wellbeing (adapted from Sorenson et al., 2016)

In the initial section of this report, the 2023 findings concerning the health, wellbeing, and job-related indicators for Irish school leaders are presented. The mental health aspect specifically explores how often school leaders encounter various mental health challenges, including stress, burnout, sleep disturbances, depressive symptoms, and self-efficacy. Physical health is explored through general health metrics and reported medical issues. Additionally, attitudes towards work are investigated, focusing on job satisfaction, the balance between work and personal life, and intentions to exit the profession. The report's subsequent section scrutinises the work conditions and professional settings in which Irish primary school leaders operate. The discussion begins with an overview of working hours, the distribution of time, and the leaders' perceptions about whether they have adequate time for their primary tasks. It then pivots to an evaluation of the psychosocial aspects of the work environment, discussing significant demands and available resources. This part concludes with an analysis linking these psychosocial factors to the health and wellbeing of school leaders. Comparison data from 2023 and 2022 are provided in each section (see Rahimi, Arnold, Horwood & Riley, 2022), along with references to a 'healthy working population' (Denmark) for context. The majority of the1 metrics in our survey come from the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire (COPSOQ-III), considered the benchmark in self-reported measures for occupational health and safety (Burr, et al., 2019).

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More information about the survey is included in the Appendix

The COPSOQ-III is structured with overarching domains, as well as specific subdomains or scales. These components are well-validated and stable metrics for assessing both the psychosocial work environment and individual health and wellbeing (Burr, et al., 2019; Burr, Albertsen, Rugulies, & Hannerz, 2010; Dicke et al., 2018; Kiss, De Meester, Kruse, Chavee, & Braeckman, 2013; Thorsen & Bjorner, 2010). For ease of comparison across different areas, all COPSOQ domain scores are converted to a 0-100 scale.

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4 Survey Participants The Irish Primary Principals Network (IPPN) disseminated survey invitations to its principal and deputy principal members in February 2023. The findings presented are drawn from a collective pool of 372 respondents. This includes 321 participants who fully completed the questionnaire and an additional 51 who partially completed it, yet provided responses to key sections. The participants consist of 179 new respondents and 193 who had also participated in the 2022 survey. This section of the report furnishes a detailed overview of the survey sample. Gender and Role In the survey sample, 275 respondents, making up 74% of the total, identified as female, while 97 respondents, or 26%, identified as male, as shown in Figure 2. A substantial majority, 78% or 268 individuals were working as primary school principal. The remaining 22% of the sample, comprising 76 participants, were engaged in roles as either deputy or acting principals, as indicated in Figure 3.

Figure 2. Sample distribution by gender

Figure 3. Sample distribution by role

Years in current role A significant number of school leaders who participated in the survey possessed substantial experience in educational settings; half of the respondents reported having over 12 years of leadership experience in schools, and 45% had been employed in schools for a decade or more prior to assuming a leadership role (refer to Figures 4 & 5).

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Figure 4. Sample distribution by years of leadership experience

Figure 5. Sample distribution by number of years teaching prior to leadership role

5 Primary school leaders’ health and wellbeing This section provides an analysis of the health and wellbeing of Irish primary school leaders, with a particular emphasis on both general and psychological health. For the purpose of this study, psychological health is described as one's capacity to effectively navigate the fundamental aspects of both life and work. This encompasses not only the lack of adverse mental health conditions like stress and depression but also includes basic positive mental attributes that facilitate leaders' work engagement, such as self-efficacy. Irish primary school leaders’ psychological and general health The analysis starts by examining one measure of general health, specifically selfrated health, followed by a focus on three critical indicators of psychological health: burnout, stress and sleeping troubles (see Table 1). Table 1. Key survey measures of general and psychological health

Self-rated Health measures the school leader’s overall assessment of their general health. Burnout assesses the degree of physical and mental fatigue/exhaustion. Stress assesses the tension or strain resulting from exposure to adverse or demanding circumstances. Sleeping troubles assesses sleep length and interruptions during sleep. As indicated by Figure 6, the 2023 analysis, reveals that Irish primary school leaders have experienced heightened levels of burnout, stress, and sleeping troubles, marking an intensification of these negative mental health outcomes compared to the 2022 figures. Specifically, these mental health issues are notably more prevalent among Irish primary school leaders than in a standardised 'healthy working population.' The self-rated health of these leaders has also seen a decline, dropping from 60.8 in 2022 to 57.5 in 2023, which is considerably lower than the self-rated health score of 66 observed in the 'healthy working population.

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Figure 6. Irish primary school leaders' health and wellbeing (means out of 100)

Levels of stress and burnout among Irish primary school leaders Stress and burnout serve as pivotal indicators of occupational health and wellbeing. Elevated levels of these factors correlate with a wide array of detrimental psychological and physical health outcomes (Salvagioni, Melanda, Mesas, González, Gabani and Andrade, 2017). Figure 7 demonstrates a decrease in the 'Low' burnout category from 17.3% in 2022 to 12.5% in 2023. The 'Moderate' category also witnessed a slight decline, moving from 37.3% in 2022 to 33.6% in 2023. Conversely, the 'High' burnout category rose from 38.2% in 2022 to 43.3% in 2023, and the 'Severe' category escalated from 7.2% in 2022 to 10.6% in 2023. These changes indicate a concerning trend of escalating burnout among Irish primary school leaders over the course of the year.

2022

2023

Figure 7. Irish primary school leaders' reported levels of burnout in 2022 & 2023

In terms of experiencing stress, as demonstrated in Figure 8, In 2022, 37% of respondents fell into the 'Low' stress category, a figure that declined to 29.3% in 2023. The 'Moderate' stress category saw an increase from 44.2% in 2022 to 47% in 2023. Similarly, the 'High' stress category rose from 16.2% in 2022 to 21.2% in 2023. The 'Severe' stress category remained relatively stable, with a slight decrease from 2.6% in 2022 to 2.5% in 2023. This suggests an overall escalation in stress levels among Irish primary school leaders over this one-year period.

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2022 2023 Figure 8. Irish primary school leaders' reported levels of stress in 2022 & 2023

Levels of stress and burnout among Irish school leaders Stress and burnout serve as crucial indicators of occupational health and wellbeing, and elevated levels in these dimensions are linked with a broad spectrum of adverse psychological and physical health outcomes (Riley et al., 2021). The observed increases in 'High' and 'Severe' categories for both stress and burnout from 2022 to 2023 among Irish primary school leaders signal a concerning escalation in mental health challenges. These results underscore the need for targeted support to ameliorate these rising levels of occupational stress and burnout. Irish primary school leaders’ psychological health and wellbeing: additional key outcomes The survey also collects information on three other indicators classified as 'negative' for mental health—namely Depressive Symptoms, Somatic Stress, and Cognitive Stress—as well as one 'positive' mental health indicator (self-efficacy) (see Table 2). Table 2. Key survey measures of mental health and wellbeing

Depressive Symptoms measures the degree of depressive symptoms. Somatic Stress assesses physical indicators of a sustained stress reaction. Cognitive Stress assesses cognitive indicators of a sustained stress reaction. Self-efficacy assesses self-confidence or the individual's faith in their own ability to solve the problems they face in life. On average, Irish primary school leaders indicated experiencing depressive symptoms, somatic stress, and cognitive stress to a moderate extent. These indicators exhibited a discernible increase from the 2022 to 2023, and were significantly more prevalent compared to a 'healthy working population.' The levels of self-efficacy among Irish primary school leaders remained relatively stable between 2022 and 2023, but were nonetheless lower than a 'healthy working population' (see Figure 9).

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Figure 9. Irish Primary school leaders' health and wellbeing measures (means out of 100) in 2022 & 2023

Irish primary school leaders’ general and psychological health and wellbeing: changes over time Compared to the 2015 survey results, there has been a marked decline in several critical aspects of mental health among Irish primary school leaders by 2023. On average, these leaders are showing higher levels of burnout, an increase from 59.7 in 2015 to 69.2 in 2023. Sleep-related issues have also escalated, rising from 47.4 in 2015 to 53.2 in 2023. Further, the data indicate growing challenges related to cognitive and somatic stress, which have increased to 41.0 and 29.4 respectively in 2023, up from 35.3 and 24.7 in 2015. Additionally, self-rated health and self-efficacy have shown a downward trend (see Figure 10).

Figure 10. Irish Primary school leaders' health and wellbeing in 2015 and 2022 and 2023 (means out of 100)

Irish primary school leaders’ health: medical conditions and use of medication Approximately half of Irish primary school leaders in 2023 reported having no medical conditions. Of those with medical issues, thyroid disease and gastrointestinal disorders were notably prevalent, at 8.6% and 6.5%, respectively. (see Figure 11).

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Figure 11. Irish Primary school leaders' medical conditions in 2023 (%)

Nearly 47% of Irish primary school leaders in 2023 were using some form of prescription medication, according to the data. Medications for controlling cholesterol and managing blood pressure were among the most commonly reported prescriptions, with 9.7% and 8.1% usage rates respectively (see Figure 12).

Figure 12. Prescription medication use by Irish primary school leaders in 2023 (%)

Primary school leaders’ experiences of work In addition to assessing the mental and physical well-being of Irish primary school leaders, this section also explores their perceptions about their job and the influence of work on their personal lives. Two pivotal aspects of the school leaders' professional experience—job satisfaction and work-family conflict—are examined here (see Table 3). Table 3. Survey measures of experiences of work

Job Satisfaction assesses the degree of pleasure or positive emotions that school leaders experience as a result of their work. Work-family conflict measures the consequences of work on family/personal life. On average, Irish primary school leaders indicated a moderate level of job satisfaction, with scores slightly below those observed in a 'healthy working population'. The data also revealed a noticeable increase in work-life conflict among these leaders from 2022 to 2023, with levels significantly higher compared to the 'healthy working population' (see Figure 13).

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Figure 13. Job satisfaction and work-life conflict (means out of 100)

Summary The survey findings reveal concerning trends in the mental well-being of Irish primary school leaders for the years 2022 and 2023. Specifically, 43.3% in 2023 reported experiencing 'high' or 'severe' levels of burnout, an increase from the previous year. Stress levels also escalated, with only 29.3% indicating 'low' stress in 2023, as opposed to 37% in 2022. Marked elevations were observed in negative mental health indicators such as depressive symptoms, somatic stress, and cognitive stress, when compared to a standardised 'healthy working population.' Job satisfaction showed a slight decline over the one-year period and was lower than that of the 'healthy working population.' Work-life conflict, conversely, exhibited an uptick, indicating more pronounced imbalances between professional duties and personal life. These alarming patterns also include a decline in self-rated health, with scores dropping from 60.8 in 2022 to 57.5 in 2023. The figures underscore that mental health issues among Irish primary school leaders are not only prevalent but also likely to be intensifying, signalling an urgent need for targeted interventions to improve their well-being.

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6 Primary school leaders' psychosocial work environments The term 'psychosocial work environment' describes the various conditions affecting how employees go about their jobs, such as workload levels, quality of leadership, and peer support. These psychosocial elements or 'aspects' can vary in their impact on workers' job experiences. While some are constant, others may appear sporadically or during specific seasons. Certain psychosocial aspects are considered 'risks' or 'hazards' due to their potential negative effects on employee well-being. For instance, extensive work hours, high workloads, and limited autonomy have been linked to adverse health outcomes (Stansfeld & Candy, 2006). Conversely, factors like strong social bonds and higher levels of autonomy can enhance worker health (Stansfeld & Candy, 2006). This section of the report provides an analysis the psychosocial work settings of Irish primary school leaders. Recognising the long hours many of these leaders put in to meet job requirements, the section starts by examining their average working hours and how their time is spent. Subsequent analysis homes in on other crucial facets of their psychosocial work settings, including job demands, interpersonal relations, and organisational structure. Primary leaders’ average working hours On average, in 2023, participants devoted 41.9 hours (slightly higher than the 2022 average of 41.1 hours) in a typical workweek to activities such as school management, overseeing staff, liaising with other educators, teaching, and other job-related tasks. As indicated by Figure 14, a majority of school leaders (59.2%) worked between 36 and 50 hours during their most recent full working week on leadership tasks. Specifically, 9.2% devoted 51-55 hours, while 8.2% spent 56-60 hours. A small proportion (2.7%) worked more than 60 hours.

Figure 14. School leaders' average hours spent on school leadership responsibilities during their last full working week (%)

Primary school leaders’ work activities In the survey, school leaders in their first participation were asked about the amount of time they spent on different activities associated with their role. 2 Figure 15 shows the average hours that primary school leaders spent on different leadership activities. Irish primary school leaders allocated their time across various leadership activities. Overall, the largest proportion of time was spent on teaching and related tasks, consuming an average of 25.9% of their working time or nearly 11.4 hours in a full working week. Administration within the school came next, taking up 14.9% or about 6.5 hours. Leadership and management activities within the school, including strategic planning and staff meetings, accounted for 13.7% or approximately 6 hours. Other categories like parent or guardian interactions and performance management of staff took up smaller portions of time, averaging around 2-3 hours per week.

Figure 15. Proportions of working time (%) and average hours spent on leadership activities during the last full working week (pooled data)

Primary school leaders' perceptions of their work responsibilities Primary school leaders were asked about their time allocation across different job functions, asking if they felt the time spent was 'too much,' 'too little,' or 'just right' (Walker et al., 2019). Figure 16 indicates the primary school leaders' perceptions regarding how their time is distributed among these various tasks.

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Proportions and averages are presented for all school leaders who reported working on that activity

Figure 16. Irish primary school leaders' perceptions about the amount of time spent on leadership tasks (%)

In 2023, a notable majority of primary school leaders felt overwhelmed with 'administration within the school' and external management tasks, indicating that they are spending too much time in these areas. Conversely, many leaders expressed the need for more time dedicated to core educational activities. Specifically, they felt they spent insufficient time on curriculum planning, engaging with students, internal leadership and management, staff performance management, and teaching-related responsibilities. This highlights an imbalance between administrative duties and educational leadership tasks that warrants attention. Irish primary school leaders place a high value on key areas of leadership. A vast majority of survey participants consider 'Leading Learning and Teaching' as a critical aspect of their role. Similarly, significant emphasis is put on 'Leading School Development' and 'Managing the Organisation,' with most leaders categorising them as highly important. 'Developing Leadership Capacity,' while still considered crucial, received somewhat less unanimous agreement on its utmost importance. This underlines the priority leaders place on direct educational impact and organisational management over leadership development within their teams (see Figure 17).

Figure 17. Irish primary school leaders' perceptions about the importance of key leadership responsibilities (%)

Opportunities to share the responsibilities of the leadership role among staff members The survey results shed light on the limited scope for distributed leadership among Irish primary school leaders. As indicated by Figure 8, only a small fraction feel they can fully share leadership responsibilities, as evidenced by just a few rating this ability at the higher end of the scale. Conversely, almost a third feel severely restricted in their capacity to delegate leadership tasks, assigning low ratings (as a 3 out of 10 or less) to their school's capability for shared leadership. This data suggests a pressing need for strategies to bolster leadership distribution within Irish primary schools.

Figure 18. Irish primary school leaders' perceptions about the capacity to share the responsibilities of the leadership role in their school (%)

School leaders' perceptions about the overall sustainability of the school leadership role The survey reveals significant concerns about the long-term sustainability of leadership roles among Irish primary school leaders. A mere sliver of respondents view their roles as fully sustainable, while a majority have severe reservations, with over half rating their roles' sustainability at 4 or below. A concerning proportion even rated their roles at the extreme low end, reflecting serious doubts about the viability of current school leadership structures. This data underscores the urgency of examining and potentially overhauling the support systems for school leaders to make their roles more sustainable.

Figure 19. Irish primary school leaders' perceptions about the sustainability of the school leadership job role (%)

Primary school leaders’ work environments: job demands Job demands encompass various facets of work that necessitate continuous physical, cognitive, or emotional exertion. These can be organisational, social, physical, or psychological in nature. Irish school leaders were surveyed about their experiences with five key job demands: the amount of work they have (quantitative demands), the speed at which they need to work (work pace), mental challenges (cognitive demands), emotional challenges, and the requirement to suppress emotions. (see Table 4). Table 4. Survey measures of school leaders’ job demands

Quantitative Demands reflect the amount of work an individual experiences relative to their ability to complete that work. They can be assessed as an incongruity between the number of tasks and the time available to perform the tasks in a satisfactory manner. Work Pace assesses the speed at which tasks must be performed. It is a measure of the intensity of work. Cognitive Demands assesses demands involving the cognitive abilities of school leaders. The relationship between Cognitive Demands and wellbeing is complex. Facing new tasks or overcoming new challenges triggers strain but because it involves task variation or learning, it can also increase job satisfaction and facilitate personal development. Emotional Demands assesses when school leaders must deal with or are confronted with other people’s feelings at work or placed in emotionally demanding situations. Other people comprise both people not employed at the workplace (e.g., parents and students) and people employed at the workplace (e.g., colleagues, superiors or subordinates). Demands for Hiding Emotions assesses when an employee must conceal their own feelings at work from other people. Other people comprise both people not employed at the workplace (e.g., parents and students) and people employed at the workplace (e.g., colleagues, superiors, or subordinates). The scale shows the amount of time individuals spend in surface acting (pretending an emotion that is not felt) or down-regulating (hiding) felt emotions.

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In both 2022 and 2023, Irish primary school leaders reported elevated levels of all five job demands when compared to a healthy working population. They frequently encountered more work than they could handle and were often required to work at a brisk pace. The cognitive demands of their roles were high, with leaders regularly facing complex problems and decision-making tasks. Additionally, they were often in emotionally charged situations that required them to manage their own emotional responses. Over the span of a year, these job demands not only persisted but generally increased, underscoring the challenging nature of their roles. (see Figure 20).

Figure 20. Job demands for Irish primary school leaders in 2022, 2023, and a 'healthy working population' (means out of 100)

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Primary school leaders' work environments: job resources Job resources refer to the various elements in school leaders' professional environments that facilitate the attainment of work objectives, while also promoting personal and professional development. These resources can be either physical or social, and they may encompass factors such as solid work relationships, transparent leadership, and a climate of trust.

Job resources: the organisation of school leaders' work This section of the report begins with an examination of the organisational structures and management paradigms that shape the roles of school leaders within educational institutions. The focal point of this analysis encompasses four critical dimensions: the extent of professional autonomy or influence wielded by school leaders, the avenues for career and skill development, the heterogeneity of work tasks, and the intrinsic meaningfulness associated with their roles. Educational settings characterised by elevated levels of autonomy, robust opportunities for professional development, and a pronounced sense of vocational meaningfulness may contribute to the optimisation of school leaders' overall health and well-being. (see Table 5). Table 5. Survey measures of work organisation and job contents

Influence at work assesses the degree of control or influence that school leaders have over their work role, tasks and activities. Possibilities for Development assesses the opportunities for school leaders to develop and apply their personal and professional knowledge/skills in their work. Variation of work assesses the extent that school leaders' tasks and activities are varied. Meaning of Work assesses the meaning that school leaders find in their work. Control Over Time evaluates the degree to which school leaders have the autonomy to manage and allocate their working hours effectively. Figure 21 on 2022 and 2023 data reveals that Irish primary school leaders generally report moderate levels of autonomy, indicating that they sometimes possess the ability to influence their work. They also frequently encounter chances for professional growth and skill development. Their work offers moderate variability, while they report high levels of finding their work meaningful. When compared to a 'healthy working population,' Irish school leaders consistently scored higher across these dimensions, specifically in their opportunities for development and sense of work meaning. However, it is noteworthy that control over their working time remained notably low in both 2022 and 2023.

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Figure 21. Measures of work organisation and job contents for Irish primary school leaders in 2022, 2023 and a 'healthy working population' (means out of 100)

Job resources In the subsequent parts of this section, the focus shifts to exploring various job resources accessible to school leaders. The analysis centers on Irish school leaders' perceptions concerning the competency of their superiors, the quality of their relationships with colleagues, prevailing levels of trust among staff, the sense of communal spirit within the team, and the presence of fairness in their professional settings (see Table 6). Table 6. Survey measures of job resources Quality of Leadership assesses the leadership quality of school leaders' superiors. Social Support from Colleagues Inside and Outside of School assesses the extent to which school leaders can obtain support from colleagues if they need it. Sense Community at Work assesses whether there is a feeling of being part of the group of employees at the workplace (e.g., if employee’s relations are good and if they work well together). Trust Regarding Management (Vertical Trust) assesses whether employees can trust management and vice versa. Vertical trust can be observed in the communication between the management and the employees. Mutual Trust between Employees (Horizontal Trust) assesses whether

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employees can trust each other in daily work or not. Trust can be observed in the communication in the workplace, e.g., if one freely can express attitudes and feelings without fear of negative reactions. Justice assesses whether workers are treated fairly or not.

Figure 22 indicates that Irish primary school leaders, on average, describe their work environments as marked by collaborative relationships, high degrees of trust, and a sense of justice. However, these leaders indicate that they experience 'moderate' quality of leadership and 'intermittent' social support from colleagues. Compared to a healthy working population, Irish primary school leaders reported higher levels of trust in management and organisational justice. Their perceived quality of leadership has seen an increase from 2022 to 2023, although it remains comparable to the healthy working population. Social support from colleagues remains stable across the two years and is closely aligned with the healthy working population's experiences. Their sense of community at work and mutual trust between colleagues outperforms that of the healthy working population.

Figure 22. Irish primary school leaders' job resources in 2022 and 2023 compared to a 'healthy working population' (means out of 100)

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School leaders’ perceptions of the quality of leadership in Irish primary schools The viewpoints held by Irish primary school leaders regarding the calibre of leadership within their institutions are significantly influenced by their interactions with fellow school leaders and the Board of Management (BOM). According to Irish legislative framework, the majority of school principals are answerable to the BOM, an entity tasked with ensuring the school functions in the best interests of the students and provides an 'appropriate' educational experience. To this end, the BOM appoints a school principal who is responsible for overseeing the day-to-day operations of the school. However, research suggests that BOMs may not always fulfill their roles effectively, potentially adding to the workload of school leaders (Stynes, McNamara & O'Hara, 2018).

The survey reveals varied perceptions among Irish primary school leaders concerning governance and Board of Management (BOM) responsibilities. A majority of leaders express that their workload is heavily influenced by the current governance structure. When it comes to the clarity of roles, leaders indicate significant room for improvement. Most do not believe that BOM members have a clear understanding of their roles or the related legislation, nor do they think BOM members are adequately trained for their responsibilities. However, there is strong consensus among school leaders about the direct connection between their ability to focus on core leadership tasks and the sustainability of their roles. This underscores the importance of well-defined roles and adequate training for BOM members in facilitating effective school leadership.

Figure 23. Irish primary school leaders' perceptions of school governance and BOMs in 2023 (%)

Primary school leaders' sources of support In the years 2022 and 2023, primary school leaders identified their partners as their principal source of support. Professional relationships within their own workplaces also stood out as a strong pillar of support, and this form of backing appears to be on the rise. Interactions with colleagues in other workplaces provided yet another layer of professional support. Friends are clearly valued as a source of emotional and possibly professional sustenance. Family members also figured prominently, although to a somewhat lesser extent compared to other sources. No school leaders reported a complete absence of support in either year (see Figure 24).

Figure 24. Primary school leaders' sources of support in 2022 and 2023 (%)

School leaders' Sources of Stress

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Primary school leaders were asked to rate their main sources of stress at work on a scale from 1 to 10. The results indicate that the largest source of stress is the ‘sheer amount of work’, with an average score close to 9 out of 10. This is closely followed by ‘lack of time to focus on teaching and learning’, both scoring above 8. Other notable sources of stress include ‘the need for more resources’, ‘government initiatives’ and ‘teacher shortages’. Employer expectations also stayed consistently stressful across the two years.

Lesser but still important stressors included the mental health of students and staff, financial management issues, and problems with parents. Lower-ranking stressors like interpersonal conflicts, managing complaints, and union disputes seem to be less of a concern (see Figure 25).

Figure 25. Irish primary school leaders' sources of stress in 2022 & 2023 (out of 10)

Work environment and mental health The final part of this section provides an exploration of the psychosocial aspects of the work environment, most closely linked with pivotal facets of school leaders' mental well-being. Particular attention is given to those work conditions most strongly correlated with stress and burnout among school leaders.

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The relationship between the work environment and school leader burnout Figure 26 provides a correlation heat map highlighting key factors related to burnout among Irish primary school leaders. Stress and work-life balance issues are the most strongly linked to burnout, suggesting that leaders who struggle with these aspects are very likely to experience high levels of burnout. Issues such as depressive symptoms also appear to contribute significantly to burnout. Workload, or the sheer amount of work, has a moderate association with burnout. Leaders burdened by excessive responsibilities are somewhat more prone to experiencing burnout. Factors like emotional demands and the pace of work have weaker but still relevant connections to burnout. Overall, this analysis points to a range of work environment factors that contribute to burnout, with stress and work-life balance being the most critical.

Figure 26. Correlation between key aspects of the work environment and burnout among Irish primary school leaders (2022-23 pooled data, N= 696)

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The relationship between the work environment and school leaders' stress Figure 27 reveals what factors are driving stress among school leaders. Regarding other mental health measures, apart from struggling with a high level of depressive symptoms, feeling burnt out and mentally strained are also significant drivers of stress among school leaders. Further, Issues with balancing work and personal life, as well as physical symptoms like poor sleep, also play a big role. Having too much work (quantitative demands) isn't as strongly connected to stress as these other factors. The analysis suggests that mental health support could play a crucial role in managing school leaders' stress levels. This insight underscores the need for future policies to include targeted mental health interventions as part of a holistic approach to alleviate stress among school leaders.

Figure 27. Correlation between key aspects of the work environment and primary school leaders stress (2022-23 pooled data, N= 696)

Summary: The wellbeing and work landscape for Irish primary school leaders Irish primary school leaders find themselves in challenging work settings marked by complex job roles and intense demands. The leaders identified administrative tasks as consuming much of their work hours, often overshadowing essential roles such as curriculum development, student engagement, and staff management. Compared to 2022 and the benchmarks set for a healthy working population, the demands on school leaders have intensified in 2023. There's a noticeable increase in both the volume of work (quantitative demands) and the speed at which they're expected to perform (work pace). Additionally, school leaders have reported higher cognitive and emotional strain, reflecting the broader trend of a more stressful work environment.

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Comparing 2022 and 2023, Irish school leaders have reported escalating job demands. The workload has increased and there's a greater emphasis on speed, contributing to elevated stress and burnout levels. While leaders indicated some sense of control over their roles, they also experienced varied levels of quality leadership and social support from colleagues. Nevertheless, a strong social fabric is present, evidenced by collaborative relationships and a high degree of trust among staff.

Key stressors for 2023 notably shifted and now include 'Resourcing Needs' and 'Government Initiatives,' along with the perennial issue of work-life balance. This heightened workload and stress also show a significant negative impact on leaders' personal lives. The conditions are ripe for both heightened stress and burnout, calling for urgent interventions. It's clear that leaders need more consistent support, as well as the time and resources to fulfil their roles effectively. Given the current trends, mental health support could be a critical component for future initiatives aimed at stress and burnout reduction. The situation warrants immediate attention.

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7 Offensive Behaviours against school leaders In the survey, 'offensive behaviours' is the term employed to encapsulate aggressive or hostile actions directed towards school leaders while on duty. This phrase is synonymous with ‘workplace violence’ or ‘occupational violence and aggression’. According to the Health and Safety Authority of Ireland, such violence is defined as instances where employees are verbally abused, threatened, or physically attacked during work-related scenarios, posing a direct or implied risk to their safety and well-being (2007, p. 1). This part of the report scrutinises the encounters of primary school leaders with four specific types of offensive behaviours over the past year: threats of violence, physical altercations, bullying and cyber bullying. Table 7. Measures of offensive behaviours

Threats of Violence assesses the exposure to the threats of physical violence in the workplace. Physical Violence is exposure to physical violence in the workplace. Bullying refers to the repeated exposure to unpleasant or degrading treatment at work. Cyber Bullying assesses the experience of online harassment or abusive behaviours in a work-related context.

Irish school leaders' experiences of offensive behaviours Over the last two years, there has been a noticeable shift in the kinds of offensive behaviours encountered by Irish primary school leaders. While workplace bullying and threats of violence have generally increased, there was a slight decline in instances of cyber bullying. Physical violence also saw a notable rise, making it a growing concern. These trends are further illustrated in Figure 28.

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Figure 28. Irish school leaders' experiences of offensive behaviours (%) in 2022 & 2023

Offensive behaviours: school leader gender In 2023, female school leaders at Irish primary schools were more likely to report experiencing bullying, threats of violence, and physical violence than their male counterparts. However, male leaders reported higher instances of cyber bullying. This underscores a gender differential in the experience of offensive behaviours in the school environment, as illustrated in Figure 29.

Figure 29. Offensive behaviours according to school leaders’ gender

Offensive behaviours: job role In 2023, primary principals were generally more likely to report experiences of bullying, cyber bullying, and threats of violence compared to deputy or acting principals. However, deputy or acting principals had a notably higher proportion of experiences related to physical violence (see Figure 30).

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Figure 30. Offensive behaviours by primary school leader role

Offensive behaviours in relation to school location In 2023, school leaders in urban primary schools reported a higher incidence of both threats of violence and physical violence compared to their counterparts in non-urban settings. Conversely, the rates of reported bullying were almost identical between urban and non-urban primary schools. This suggests a geographical influence on the types of negative behaviours school leaders encounter (see Figure 31).

Figure 31. Offensive behaviours by primary school location

Summary The analysis reveals nuanced patterns concerning Irish primary school leaders' experiences with various forms of negative behaviours at work, including bullying, cyberbullying, threats of violence, and physical violence. These behaviours seem to be influenced by several factors such as gender, role, and geographical setting. Specifically, female leaders appear more susceptible to most forms of these behaviours compared to male leaders. Likewise, principals and deputy/acting principals demonstrate divergent patterns in their experiences, with deputies notably facing higher instances of physical violence. Geographically, urban environments report heightened threats and acts of physical violence, whereas bullying rates are nearly uniform across urban and non-urban settings. The prevalence of such behaviours poses serious implications, potentially affecting the leaders' overall well-being and performance. Consequences could include a higher likelihood of leaders taking leave, contemplating a career change, or struggling to fulfil their responsibilities effectively. These findings underscore the imperative for stakeholders to understand and address the various forms of negative behaviours against school leaders through comprehensive policies, strategic initiatives, and preventive measures to foster healthier, safer school communities.

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8 Recommendations The results of the 2022 and 2023 surveys demonstrate that Irish primary school leaders face a number of work-related challenges that impact on their health and wellbeing. While they report experiencing meaningful work and community trust within their institutions, the leaders are also navigating a range of stressors including high workloads and teacher shortages. These elements often preclude them from dedicating sufficient time to key leadership responsibilities and are associated with negative mental health outcomes, such as burnout. Based on the findings of this analysis, the authors offer several key recommendations to promote the health and wellbeing of school leaders and provide them with the conditions necessary to succeed in their roles.

1.Take Action: Address Principal Workload The results demonstrate that urgent action to reduce principal workload is required. While reviews of workload are welcome, the results in this report demonstrate that the current design and scope of the principal and deputyprincipal role is unsustainable. Given that the organisation of principals’ and deputy principals’ work and their working conditions are heavily influenced by actors, policies and processes beyond the school, it is critical that policymakers and systems administrators take responsibility for leading the development of more healthy and sustainable systems. Principal workload is unlikely to be reduced without removing responsibilities from principals, especially administrative duties, through the addition of staffing, and resources, an appropriate governance structure, and the redesign of the principal role. The Government should work in consultation with IPPN, NAPD and other key stakeholders to develop a strategy to reduce principal workload. The strategy should include concrete actions that respond to school leaders needs and prioriities, and a mechanism to assess the efficacy of these actions- baseline workload data could be drawn from the current report. 2. Assess and Identify Issues: Develop a framework for identifying and assessing the challenges that principals face at work

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On an ongoing basis into the future, work in consultation with the professional associations (IPPN & NAPD) to develop an evidence-informed approach to assessing the health and wellbeing of the principal workforce. Although research and policy interest in principal health and wellbeing has drastically increased, the Department of Education does not have a mechanism for assessing and identifying the key issues affecting the workforce. Going forward following the implementation of recommendation 1, the Government should work with relevant stakeholders and experts to develop a coherent framework to identify and assess the challenges leaders face at work, especially in relation to emotional demands, work-life balance and mental health and wellbeing.

4. Ongoing Monitoring and Policy Evaluation Given the worsening metrics in mental well-being, ongoing monitoring is crucial for evaluating the efficacy of implemented policies and strategies. Feedback should be sought regularly from school leaders for continual improvement. Any policies or interventions implemented should be rigorously evaluated for effectiveness, especially since this survey presents a detailed, multi-faceted picture of the challenges school leaders face. In particular, the rise in cyberbullying warrants a review and possibly an update of the school's current cyber security policies to protect both students and staff. 5. Provide direct, individualised support to school leaders School leaders face unique challenges that may vary by role, school type, and personal circumstances. Therefore, individualised support can offer targeted solutions that are most relevant to the leader's specific context. This could involve nuanced problem-solving approaches, emotional support strategies, or personalised coping mechanisms. Moreover, the effectiveness of such support can be continuously monitored and adjusted to better meet the evolving needs of each leader. With increasing levels of stress, emotional demands, and burnout reported in the 2023 data, this form of bespoke support becomes even more critical. 6. Provide professional development opportunities Policymakers and systems administrators should ensure that school leaders have adequate and relevant information, training, instruction or supervision about their work from a suitably qualified school leadership professional. Online or inperson professional development should provide school leaders with opportunities to learn about: the job role and the work that primary school leaders are required to carry out the psychosocial and physical risks associated with the work leadership strategies for promoting healthy, safe and sustainable workplaces systems, policies and procedures to promote healthy workplaces and respond to issues information about support services and resources

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9 References

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Arnold, B., Rahimi, M., & Riley, P. (2021). Working through the first year of the pandemic: a snapshot of Australian school leaders’ work roles and responsibilities and health and wellbeing during covid-19. Journal of Educational Administration and History, 53(3-4), 301-309. Beausaert, S., Froehlich, D. E., Riley, P., & Gallant, A. (2021). What about school principals’ well-being? The role of social capital. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 1741143221991853. Beddoe, L., Davys, A. M., & Adamson, C. (2014). Never trust anybody who says “i don’t need supervision”: practitioners’ beliefs about social worker resilience. Practice, 26(2), 113-130. Burr, H., Albertsen, K., Rugulies, R., & Hannerz, H. (2010). Do dimensions from the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire predict vitality and mental health over and above the job strain and effort—reward imbalance models? Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 38(3_suppl), 59-68. Burr, H., Berthelsen, H., Moncada, S., Nübling, M., Dupret, E., Demiral, Y., ... & Pohrt, A. (2019). The third version of the Copenhagen psychosocial questionnaire. Safety and health at work, 10(4), 482-503. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "What" and "Why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the selfdetermination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268. DOI: 10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01. Dicke, T., Marsh, H. W., Riley, P., Parker, P. D., Guo, J., & Horwood, M. (2018). Validating the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire (COPSOQ-II) using set-ESEM: Identifying psychosocial risk factors in a sample of school principals. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00584. Desrumaux, P. et al. (2015). The impact of job demands, climate, and optimism on well-being and distress at work: What are the mediating effects of basic psychological need satisfaction?, Revue Europeenne de Psychologie Appliquee, 65(4), 179-188. Kiss, P., De Meester, M., Kruse, A., Chavée, B., & Braeckman, L. (2013). Comparison between the first and second versions of the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire: psychosocial risk factors for a high need for recovery after work. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 86(1), 17-24. Pejtersen, J. H., Kristensen, T. S., Borg, V., & Bjorner, J. B. (2010). The second version of the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 38(Suppl 3), 8-24. Richardson, J., Khan, M., Iezzi, A., Sinha, K., Mihalopoulos, C., Herrman, H., et al. (2009). The AQoL-8D (PsyQoL) MAU Instrument: Overview September 2009. Melbourne: Centre for Health Economics, Monash University. Rahimi, M., Arnold, B., Horwood, M., and Riley, P. (2022). The New Zealand Primary Teacher Occupational Health, Safety and Wellbeing Survey: 2021 Data. Melbourne: Research for Educational Impact (REDI). Deakin University. Richardson, J., Iezzi., K M A, & Maxwell, A. (2014). Validity and reliability of the Assessment of Quality of Life (AQoL)-8D multi-attribute utility instrument. The Patient- Patient-Centered Outcomes Research, 7(1), 85-96. Riley, P., See, S. M., Marsh, H., & Dicke, T. (2021). The Australian principal occupational health, safety and wellbeing survey: 2020 data. Australian Catholic University, Sidney, Australia. Salvagioni, DAJ., Melanda, FN., Mesas, AE., González, AD., Gabani, FL., & Andrade, SM. (2017). Physical, psychological and occupational consequences of job burnout: A systematic review of prospective studies. PLoS One. 2017 Oct 4;12(10):e0185781. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0185781. Stansfeld, S., & Candy, B. (2006). Psychosocial work environment and mental health—a meta-analytic review. Scandinavian journal of work, environment & health, 443-462. Thorsen, S. V., & Bjorner, J. B. (2010). Reliability of the Copenhagen psychosocial questionnaire. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 38(3_suppl), 25-32. DOI: 10.1177/1403494809349859. Trepanier, S.-G., Fernet, C., Austin, S., Forest, J., & Vallerand, R. J. (2014). Linking job demands and resources to burnout and work engagement: Does passion underlie these differential relationships? Motivation and Emotion, 38(3), 353-366. DOI: 10.1007/s11031-013-9384-z. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063. Wren-Lewis, S., & Alexandrova, A. (2021). Mental health without well-being. In The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy: A Forum for Bioethics and Philosophy of Medicine (Vol. 46, No. 6, pp. 684-703). US: Oxford University Press.

10 Appendix Participant care Each participant received an interactive, user specific report of their survey responses benchmarked against responses of their peers and members of the general population upon their completion of the survey. Returning participants were also provided with a comparison of their 2021 results against their results from previous years. The survey included the assessment of three “red flag” risk indicators: Self-harm; Quality of Life; and Occupational Health. The red flag indicators are calculated as follows: Self-harm – a participant response of “sometimes”, “often” or “all the time” to the question “Do you ever feel like hurting yourself?” Quality of Life – when aggregate scores on quality of life items fell two standard deviations below the mean for the school leader population. Occupational Health – when the composite psychosocial risk score fell into the high or very high-risk groups. The report of any individual or combination of the three triggers resulted in the participant receiving a red flag notification, informing them of the indicator(s). The notification also included links to Employee Assistance Programs and local support services. The survey The survey captured three types of information drawn from existing robust and widely used instruments. 1. Comprehensive school demographic items drawn from: a. The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS; Williams, et al., 2007). b. Program for International Student Assessment (PISA; Thomson, et al., 2011). c. International Confederation of Principals surveys were used to capture differences in occupational health and safety (OH&S) associated with the diversity of school settings and types. 2. Personal demographic and historical information. 3. School leaders’ quality of life and psychosocial coping were investigated by employing two widely used measures: The Assessment of Quality of Life – 8D (AQoL-8D; Richardson, et al., 2009; Richardson, Iezzi & Maxwell, 2014). The Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire-III (COPSOQ-III; Burr, et al., 2019).

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Other measures used in the survey include: a. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT: Babour et al., 2001), developed for the World Health Organization. b. Passion (Trepanier, Fernet, Austin, Forest & Vallerand, 2014; Vallerand, 2015). c. The Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS: Watson, Clark, and Tellegen, 1988). d. Basic Psychological Needs at Work Scale (BPNWS: Deci & Ryan, 2004; Van den Broeck, Ferris, Chang, & Rosen, 2016). e. ‘Life Events’. f. COVID-19 related questions were added. The combination of items from these instruments allows for a comprehensive analysis of variation in both occupational health, safety, and wellbeing, as a function of geolocation, school type, sector differences and the personal attributes of the school leaders themselves. Our survey instrument relies heavily on the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire (COPSOQ-III). This questionnaire is regarded as the “gold standard” in occupational health and safety self-report measures. It has been translated into more than 25 languages and is filled out by hundreds of thousands of workers each year. The structure of the COPSOQ consists of higher order domains and contributing subdomains/scales. These have been found to be very robust and stable measures, by both ourselves (Burr, et al., 2019; Dicke et al., 2018) and others (Burr, Albertsen, Rugulies, & Hannerz, 2010; Kiss, De Meester, Kruse, Chavee, & Braeckman, 2013; Thorsen & Bjorner, 2010). All COPSOQ domain scores are transformed to 0-100 aiding comparisons across domains. To maintain the participant anonymity, aggregate data is reported at demographic grouping levels. Some subgroups were unable to be reported due to insufficient sample size. Reporting results of subgroups of insufficient size may not provide a true reflection of the subgroup; and risk identifying primary school leaders if reported by the small subgroup. As some participants only partially completed the survey, some of the participant numbers for domains and subscales may vary. Subgroup distributions will be reported as a percentage of the data sample size.

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