The Urbanism of Al Jazeera

THE URBANISM OF AL JAZEERA How the emergence of local media has shaped the imaginary of cities in the Middle East since 1990.

A project by the Masters of Architecture Research Studio, School of Architecture, University of Technology, Sydney.

Masters of Architecture 2015 University of Technology, School of Architecture, Sydney, Australia

Studio Leader Urtzi Grau Research Leader Endriana Audisho Masters of Architecture Students Michelle Beck Chrishani Thayaparan Estelle Rose Rehayem

Introduction 8 Timeline of Media Outlets since 1990 18 Timeline of Events since 1990 22 Shifts of Al Jazeera 40 Voids in Media 56 Overview 56 Case Study 01: Jenin Refugee Camp 64 Overview 64 Local & International Coverage 66 Reconstruction of event through media 72 The Imaginary 76 Claim 80 References 82 Nahr Al Bared 84 Overview 84 Local & International Coverage 86 Reconstruction of event through media 100 The Imaginary 104 Claim 106 References 108 Ain al Hilweh 112 Overview 112 Local & International Coverage 114 Reconstruction of event through media 116 The Imaginary 119 Claim 120 References 122 Zaatari Refugee Camps 124 Overview 124 Local & International Coverage 126 Reconstruction of event through media 128 The Imaginary 131 Claim 134 References 136 Rise of Social Media 140 Overview 140 The Egypt Revolution 152 Overview 152

Media Coverage 154 Reconstruction of events through media 170 Claim 178 Bahraini Uprising 182 Overview 182 Media Coverage 184 Reconstruction of event through media 190 Claim 200 Jordan Protests 204 Overview 204 Media Coverage 206 Reconstruct of event through media 212 Claim 222 References 224 Attacks on Media 232 Overview 232 Attack on Kabul Bureau 244 Overview 244 Investigation 246 Attack on Al Jazeera in Cyber Space 252 Overview 252 International Coverage 254 Attack on Baghdad Bureau 258 Overview 258 Local & International Coverage 260 Investigation 264 References 272 Attack on the Press: Iraq 274 Overview 274 Local & International Media Timeline 276 Attacks on Press 292 References 300 Lexicon 302 References 304

Introduction

“The new media has dramatically affected conceptions of Arab and Muslim identity, linking together geographically distant issues and placing them within a common Arab “Story”.1

The notion of the imaginary, which Cornelius Castoriadis once defined as the constructed representation of a society, is being used here to describe the “construction” of the city, in all senses of the word; physically and virtually.

The claim is that the city is always under construction through multiple mechanisms of representation and the intersection in the mediation of media and architecture allows one to frame architectural discourse in a new light.

The Role of Media in the Middle East In Edward Said’s, Orientalism, he defines “Orientalism” as a way of seeing that distorts perceptions of Arab peoples and cultures as compared to that of the United States and Europe. In the media terrain, before 1996, British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and Cable News Network (CNN) dominated coverage on events in the Middle East. As Said states, “the West” constructed “the East”. Orientalism is one of the first texts in which someone theorizes how representations of the Middle East and in general, non-westerners, have been depicted. It has to be understood that Said’s Orientalism is being referenced here as a historical document to frame the projections of Western ideologies.

As a consequence of this common ‘Arab Story’, the aim of this study is twofold.

Firstly, to understand the context of how the common Arab “Story” of the Middle East has been moulded to the public eye through different forms of media, but more importantly, to investigate and reveal the realities of the events covered by the media, through the re-construction of the event solely through media sources. The construction of the event through media The hegemonic power of BBC and CNN will reveal a new reading into the imaginary2 constructed an exterior and homogenous image of cities in the Middle East. The Gulf of the host city.

War in 1990 saw a new type of conflict 1 Lynch, M, Voices of the New Arab Public: Iraq, coverage. This was the first time where Al-Jazeera and middle east politics today, Columbia University Press people from all over the world were able (2006) , New York. p.4 2 Cornelius Castoriadis’: society is an imaginary to watch live picture of the war, but it was institution.

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Information quickly and easily flows across borders, the impact of which is often profound, especially during periods of conflict. As conflict and civil war continues to rage in the Middle East, we are exposed and further, saturated by an array of news headlines, images and documentaries on an hourly basis. This mass exposure (or in some cases, lack of exposure) has shaped a homogenous image of the Middle East, one that is constructed by the reoccurrence and repetition of conflict through different mediums of media. This is further advocated in Mark Lynch’s Voices of the New Arab Public: Iraq, Al-Jazeera and Middle East politics today, as he states:

The Battle of Jenin in 2002 is a great example of this external portrayal and is mentioned in greater detail in the upcoming chapter, Voids in Media. Occurring at a time when Al Jazeera was not locally dominant, the battle was reported by the media to have started on the 2nd of April 2002, with variations of the start date until the 3rd of April. There was no footage from the 2nd15th of April, the period of attack, which in turn constructs a blind spot in the coverage.

With limited access to the site, there were conflicting narrations by BBC and CNN. An example of this is that of how the Israeli Defence Force (IDF) entered Jenin. CNN claim they entered through the East, whilst BBC through the West. Therefore, the event is read through the varying media sources and in a state of blurred resolution.

to their locality, they were the only ones who were covering the war. Removing copyright laws were obvious attempts by Al Jazeera to make its vision of the world relevant and allow it to circulate more freely, creating a hegemonic account. Even though BBC or CNN did not re-use the footage, the release of video coverage on a Creative Commons repository encourages a wider debate.

This is further highlighted when CEO of Creative commons, Joichi Ito, adds: “Video news footage is an essential part of modern journalism. Providing material under a Creative Commons license to allow commercial and amateur use is an enormous contribution to the global dialogue around important events. Al Jazeera has set the example and the standard that we hope others will follow.”3

What had previously taken place only in the elite press or at a coffeehouse shifted into a global agenda4. The shift from local to an international stage is not as smooth as it has been described. Within a short 19 years, Al Jazeera has gone through several operational shifts that have not only impacted their internal structure but how events have been portrayed. With the increase in Al Jazeera’s The emergence of local media in the media presence from a local perspective, Middle East, predominantly Al Jazeera, has what are the shifts and affects that it has re-shaped the image of cities, as it was the introduced? first time a post-colonial perspective was understood and externally sought after.

Contrary to the Battle of Jenin, the setup of a Creative Commons license during the Gaza war, 2008-2009, is a clear example of 3 https://creativecommons.org/press-releases/ Al Jazeera’s dominance at a local scale. Due entry/12166 4

Lynch, p.132

Al Jazeera: An oscillation between media Three effects of Al Jazeera’s shifts, which and events will be expanded on under each specific shift below, have been identifying as the This is Al-Jazeera television from Qatar…- following: These are the words uttered by Al-Jazeera announcers every day and heard by millions 1. Voids in Media: of Arab viewers worldwide.

The inability of international media outlets to cover specific events, due to locality Al-Jazeera, which literally translates to ‘The or language constraints, sees the absence Island’, a Doha-based broadcaster that of media or the construction of media launched on the 1st of November 1996, coverage voids. The emergence and local arose from an event; the closure of the model of Al Jazeera instantly shifts this, as BBC’s Arabic language television station they are now more present from the local due to attempts by the Saudi government perspective. to suppress information. Al Jazeera started off by offering 6 hours of programming per 2. Rise of Social Media: day and by 1999 this expanded to 24-hour Social media in a lot of cases, specifically broadcasting. From that point on, the once- in the Arab Springs, is becoming an actual anonymous Al-Jazeera, the Arabic satellite news source. This effect questions how Al TV news network became a household Jazeera operates with social media? What name5. is their response? How do they deal with the citizen as an ad-hoc journalist? Is the Al Jazeera has undergone four key shifts in citizen competition for them? its networking history; starting from a local model, growing into an international model, 3. Media under Attack: focusing on an economic model and finally The rise and discourse of Al Jazeera has responding to the rise of social media. valeted the fact that media is a target through conflict. It obviously broadcasts Each shift has not only impacted its internal events as a media outlet, but in some operation but has produced distinct effects cases, such as attacks on media, it becomes on how events have been broadcasted, in the event itself. Here we see Al Jazeera contrast to other media outlets, both locally oscillating between media and events. and internationally. To highlight the effects of the shifts in Al Jazeera, events in the As events under these three effects become Middle East will be studied through and the anchor of examination in understanding parallel to the four shifts mentioned above. Al Jazeera’s shifts, it has to be understood that any event can be represented in more than one way, 5 El-Nawawy, M, Iskandar, A, Al-Jazeera: How the free Arab news network scooped the world and changed the Middle East, Westview Press (2002), Colorado. p. 21

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INTROD UCTION

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only from an international perspective.

CNN were reporting live radio from Rashid Hotel, as satellite technology had recently emerged. This was a defining moment in the history of media as CNN were reporting 24-hour news coverage, while no other network was able to do this. This was dubbed the CNN effect and defined by CNN’s exclusive footage and coverage of the start of the Gulf War.

6 Goodnow, K, Museums, the Media and Refugees: Stories of Crisis, Control and Compassion, Museum of London and Berghahn Books (2008), London. p.75

7 Kampf, Z, Liebes, T, Transforming Media Coverage of Viloent Conflicts: The New Face of War, Palgrave Macmillan (2013), p.63

opened bureaus in other conflict-based cities around the Middle East, including Baghdad for the coverage of the 2003 Iraq War. The network’s facilities and footage of the Iraq War were highly sought after by international networks and consequently, sparked the rise to several similar local stations, such as Al Arabiya.

explored in the case study event of the Zaatari Refugee Camp in which Al Jazeera captures the whole event, in a response to the current crisis in Syria. All four case studies are further analysed in the ‘Voids in Media’ chapter.

Shift 02: Internationalisation Model

The second shift in Al Jazeera, which is still ongoing, but distinctly emerged in 2003, is an internationalisation model. As tension against Al Jazeera’s broadcasts escalated, specifically after the Iraq War, Al Jazeera focused on making its content unique and accessible to audiences all across the world.

The cancellation by George Bush of Chief Financer, Emir Hamad’s trip to the US solidified Sheikh Hamid’s decision to invest in Al Jazeera English to “once and for all clear Al Jazeera’s name in the West’. As mentioned earlier, the release of video footage of the Gaza War, 2008-2009, on a creative commons repository is the most obvious Any event can be studied in relation to example of this international agenda. voids in media but the most extreme and fitting example is attacks on refugee camps, On April 8, 2003, during the US-led because subsequently after the media void, invasion of Iraq, a US missile, striking they appear inextricably changed, and this an electricity generator and setting fire, change cannot go unnoticed. As mentioned destroyed Al Jazeera’s Baghdad bureau. above, the Battle of Jenin 2002 is a great Correspondent Tareq Ayoub was killed, the example of an external portrayal, where office and his cameraman severely injured. there is a local void in the media. Al Jazeera Subsequently, this had repercussions on all was not well established at this time and other media outlets, Al-Jazeera related or international broadcasters did not have not. Most of the other journalists within access. On the other hand, in the case of the area, including Abu Dhabi TV, and Nahr Al Bared and Ain al Hilweh, one can international correspondents from Spain see the progression of Al Jazeera’s emergence and Germany at Palestine Hotel were also and infiltration when there is a void attacked and killed. This attack drew a lot for international media. This is further of criticism as Al Jazeera’s Kabul bureau When Al-Jazeera launched, it changed the way the world viewed reports and broadcasts for news in the Middle East as it became the dominant news network as opposed to CNN and CNN Arabic. This was the first time international information was produced and projecting from the Arab countries themselves. Instantly, there was a change in the perception of the city, as Al Jazeera’s increased local presence became a response to the local void in media that distinctly constructed an external and homogenous image of the cities in the Middle East.

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with each seeking to be more persuasive, The success of the “Al-Jazeera effect” is credible, or apparently objective than evident in the way it has transformed others6. the media environment in the Middle East. The Middle East is constantly being In Beatriz Colimina’s ‘Privacy and watched and this mass exposure has created Publicity’, there is an emphasis on the a homogenous image. How can we shift content of the system of representation, our gaze past this image, to investigate the whether it is a photograph, drawing or shifts in Al Jazeera and how they have had film in understanding the architectural an effect on the imaginary of cities through object. Instantly, we have new sense of the coverage of events? space- one that is defined by images rather Shift 01: Local Model than physical architectural elements.

The architectural object is not ignored, but rather studied in a different way. The The launch of Al Jazeera is the first model building or architecture is understood here and shift in local media. In 1996, Al Jazeera in the same way as all the media that frame was created shortly after Emir Sheik Hamad it, as a mechanism of representation in its bin Khalifa Al-Thani took power from his own right. She claims that the building is father. Around the same time as Al Jazeera’s after all, a “construction”, in all senses of the launch, the BBC- Orbit Communications partnership in the Middle East came to an word: physically and virtually. end. BBC broadcasted a story on human The aim here is not to uncover the truth rights in the Saudi Kingdown, which showed about these events but something quiet footage of the beheading of a criminal. Saudi opposite. The coverage of the event will owned Orbit Communications pulled out. speak to us in a new way as the architecture, Disappointed by the lack of press freedom building, monument, object, square, or in the Arab world, Sheik Hamad, pledged people covered will bear witness to events to let Al-Jazeera “report the news as they see and construct an imaginary of the city. Each it.” event is firstly studied through both local and international coverage, which includes Al Jazeera came to the attention of many images, videos, newspaper articles etc. The in the western world during their airing interplay between sources from local and of Osama bin Laden and the Taliban international players will never align and in Afghanistan after the September 11 further, will influence the way events are attacks on the United States. Criticized for shaped and received. Each source constructs giving a voice to terrorists7, the network claimed they were given the videotapes a separate cartography of the city. because it had a large Arab audience.

Seeing this is an opportunity, Al Jazeera

repercussions of media in the cities? The attack on the Kabul Bureau, Attack on Al Jazeera in Cyber Space, Attack on Baghdad Bureau and the Attack on the Press: Iraq are further expanded on in the chapter, ‘Attacks on Media’.

Marking the end of the Battle of Baghdad, the falling of the Saddam Hussein Statue in Firdous Square was a heavily televised event that also sparked a lot of criticism.

The tag that supplemented the release of the Control Room documentary, “Two Channels. Two Truths”, highlights the discussion on the value of images. Critics questioned the media as constructing a pre-existing narrative, or staging the event specific to their bias.

Shift 03: Economic Model

Al Jazeera’s dominance came as a result of its locality within zones of conflict and therefore, has turned into a target by many bodies such as, other media outlets and U.S. Military forces (Pentagon) for its sought after footage. When Al-Jazeera is switched off, attacked and unavailable, the media wipes out and the city is viewed in a different way. The imaginary is formed, and an individual is only able to respond to an array of international perspectives.

The public sphere then reads the city differently. These international perspectives are built upon information sourced from ‘other’ sets of information, as the internal sources are lost. Predominantly, one cannot determine the evidence when the source of investigation is blacked out. When broadcasting channels are attacked, the voice of the country is also attacked- what happens to the city? What are the physical

By 2006, Al Jazeera was directed towards commercial success. As a subsidiary of the Al Jazeera media Network, Al Jazeera international was first envisioned as a completely separate entity, which was to operate in complete autonomy from the original Al Jazeera Arabic brand. Tension in regards to facilities, wages and extra advantages caused competition between Al Jazeera Arabic and Al Jazeera International.

Seeing the strain this competition had on the business, the board of Directors stepped in and implemented a major restructure.

Each subsidiary of Al Jazeera operated directly under the board of directors but by 2006 Al Jazeera had grown in scale and consequently, this model was no longer feasible.

The promotion of Wadah Khanfar, the Arabic Channel managing director; saw many changes to the Al Jazeera International brand. Three of the most notable changes were: i. The change of name from Al Jazeera International to Al Jazeera English ii. The appointment of Ibrahim Hetal as Deputy Manager, who was to work directly under Nigel Parsons.

iii. The change in the hiring pattern for Al Jazeera English. Previous hiring models saw a large proportion of anglo-journalists whilst this new business structure saw an increase in diversity.

Facebook to schedule the protests’ ... [we use] Twitter to coordinate, and YouTube to tell the world”8 from an anonymous Arab Spring activist in Egypt is emulated throughout the Arab region’s youth protest organisers.

The protests are born and nurtured through Shift 04: The Rise of Social Media social media and rely on mass exposure for In 2011, the release on Wikileaks their success. connected the Al Jazeera Media Network general director to the US government and Social media is also used as a marketing suggested that the US government could tool to advertise the site of protest. In order alter Al Jazeera’s news broadcast. Wadhar for the protest to claim as much exposure Khanfar resigned and Ahmed bin Jassim as possible, the recognisability of the site Al Thani became the new director general. becomes integral. Recognition of a site can The Arab Springs, at its peak during Thani’s occur on two different levels; the distinct dictatorship, changed the relationship name of the site and through monumental between traditional forms of media and representation. Tahrir Square, Cairo, Egypt self-organized social media. The rise of is a prime example of distinction through social media transformed the citizen into an informal journalist. Therefore, there is name whilst the Pearl Roundabout in Al a direct link between Wikileaks and the rise Manamah, Bahrain is an example of object of social media as all of a sudden, not only recognition. In both cases, the protest is is there an increase in access of information recognised and remembered by reference but there release of constant information to a physical location in the city. The aim becomes an expectation of these quasi- of recognisability is to maintain a stable journalist roles. narrative beyond the public demonstration itself. By giving the public demonstration a The attention given to protests in the recognised place or icon within the city, the Middle East has increased with the use event lives on post demonstration. of the Internet. Traditional local media networks throughout the Middle East are During the protest and as a consequence of struggling to maintain media coverage social media, the ‘citizen’ sits alongside local control since the rise of social media and and international coverage, as another type online networking systems. As mentioned of broadcaster in relation to protest. Each of above, the Arab Springs is the first mass these three actors have a different intention movement in the Middle East region to and construct separate images of the city. strongly incorporate social media and 8 Alexander, A (2011), Internet role in Egypt’s online protests. Comments such as “We use protests <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12400319>

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was also bombed in the U.S Invasion of Afghani station. It is clear what effect media has on the city, especially when it becomes a target of attack. It not only has detrimental physical repercussions but humanitarian effects on the city and its people.

Conclusion Whether it be a local newspaper, international TV broadcasting or a mobile video taken by a civilian, each form of media is highly charged and plays a role in the construction and narration of each event and further, imagination of the host city. As outlined above, a series of case studies in the Middle East, ranging under the categories of Voids in Media, to the Rise of Social Media to Attacks on Media have been studied through the four key shifts in Al Jazeera to understand the Urbanism of Al Jazeera. Subsequently, the media sources of each event were used as evidence or clues for producing architectural documents that re-construct the event through media. It is a given that each event has a myriad of portrayed views but as they are forced together, shape a new understanding and imaginary of the city and also reflect the shifts in media outlets,

specifically Al Jazeera. The Middle East will no longer be read as a single image stitched through conflict. The city is always under construction through multiple mechanisms of representation and the intersection in the mediation of media and architecture allows one to frame architectural discourse in a new light.

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They don’t match but construct opposing imaginaries of the city. We move from the stable image from one media outlet (historically, BBC as the dominant media broadcaster), to the flow of several images that are always being reconstructed based on each protest. What is the physical consequence of the protest on the city during and after the demonstration? How does the media represent this time lapse and further, how does it create a new reading of the city? These questions have been further explored in the case studies of the Egyptian Revolution, Bahraini Uprising and Jordan Protests, which can be found in the chapter, ‘Rise of Social Media.’

pre1990- 19931992 1999

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Closure

Political Alliance

Website Launch

Opening

Events

2014

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Closure

Political Alliance

Website Launch

Middle East Region

24 March 1994 BBC Arabic Launch

1991 Middle East Broadcasting Media Launch 1979 Gulf Daily News Launched

1971 (BRTC) Set up 1967 Bahrain News Agency Launch

1976 Akhbar Al Khaleej Newspaper Launched (Pro-government)

1985 Bahrain News combined with Ministry of Information 1989 Al Ayam Newspaper launched (Pro-government)

1995 Al Watan Newspaper launched

Qatar

1996 The Peninsula Newspaper launched 1996 Show Time TV Launch

Jordan

26 October 1975 Jordan Times Launched

31 May 1971 Al Ra’i Launched 1972 Al Liwaa Newspaper Launched

1993 The Star Newspaper Launched 1991 Shihan Newspaper Launched

1991 Télé Lumière Launched First Christian TV station in Lebanon

1 September 1970 L'Orient Le Jour 1959 Newspaper Launch Télé Liban Launch First Lebanese public TV network 1952 The Daily Star Newspaper Launched

1997 Star Select TV Launch 1 November 1996 Al Jazeera Opening

1985 Al Sharq Newspaper Launched

1985 Jordan Radio and Television Corporation Launch (JRTV)

1997 Daily Tribune Newspaper Launched

1994 Orbit Communications Launched

1 June 1978 Gulf Times Newspaper Launched 10 December 1979 Al Raya Newspaper Launched (pro-government) 6 March 1972 Al Arab News Launched

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January 1993 Bahrain Radio and Television Corporation (BRTC) became independent body

1991 Al-Manar TV Founded (Hezbollah) 1992 Founded TV (LBCI) 1974 As-Safir Newspaper Launch

1985 Lebanese Broadcasting Corporation International Founded Entity TV (LBCI)

7 November 1991 Murr Television Launch

1996 (LBCI) TV Global Launch 15 Feb 1993 Future TV Launch (Future Movement)

MEDIA TIMELINE

Bahrain

20122014

21 April 1996 BBC Arabic Closure 1988 Al Hayat Re-lauched

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Lebanon

20112012

Media Broadcasters post-1990 Controversy

1946 Al Hayat First Issue

INTRODUCTION

20082009

Events Timeline Since 1990

Media Broadcasters since 1990 Opening

20062008

1 January 1999 Al Jazeera, first day of 24 hour broadcasting

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Closure

Website Launch

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Opening

Events

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Closure

Website Launch

Political Alliance

Middle East Region

19 October 2003 Al Arabiya pan-arab channel launch 2002 Saudi Arabia banned Al Hayat

2013 Iraq threatens to ban Al-Arabiya

2004 Al Arabiya launched Arabic & English website

3 March 2003 Al Arabiya launch

2013 CNN Baghdad office closure.

7 September 2004 Iraq banned Al-Arabiya within nation for a month

2006 Al-Waqt Newspaper Launched (nationalist)

2002 Al-Wasat Newspaper launched (Independent)

Bahrain

2009 Orbit Defunct

2006 Al Jazeera launched international English website

Jordan

2003 Al Ra’i Palestine edition launched

2006 Al Ahali Newspaper Launched

1 January 2011 Roya TV

2005 Al Anbat Newspaper Launched (Nationalist)

2003 Assabeel Newspaper Launched (Islamic Conservative)

September 2000 National Broadcasting Network (NBN) Launched Global 4 October 2001 Al Jadeed TV Launched (March 8 Alliance)

2003 Télé Lumière launched global 2006 Al Balad Newspaper

7 April 2009 Murr Television Re-launch 2006 Al Akbar Newspaper Launch

2012 Gulf Thejas Launched

2012 Qatar Chronicle English News Web Portal Launched

Show Time TV Defunct 1 August 2004 Al Ghad Newspaper Launched (Liberal)

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2011 LuaLua TV launch 8 July 2010 Information Affair Authority Launched

2007 Middle East Chandrika Newspaper Launched

2001 Al Jazeera launched a free Arabic language website

12 May 2011 Bahrain Mirror

May 2007 OTV Launch

MEDIA TIMELINE

Qatar

March 2012 Al Arabiya launched new channel called Al Hadath

2008 BBC Arabic Re-launch

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Lebanon

2014

Media Broadcasters post-1990 Controversy

2002 End of BBC partnership with Al Jazeera

INTRODUCTION

20122014

Events Timeline Since 1990

Media Broadcasters since 1990 Opening

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Events Timeline Since 1990

Events Timeline since 1990 International Issues

National Issues

Territorial Conflict Involvement

20082009

Peacemaking Bystanders

Cooperation and Treaties

Provision of Aid Dispute Settler

Middle East Region

August 1990 Iraq invades Kuwait

Host to Peace Talks

Involed side-taker

29 Novemver 1990 The UN Security Council authorized the use of ‘necessary means’of force against Iraq if it did not withdraw from Kuwait by the 15th of January 1991.

Giver

Political

Reciever

Religious

Civilian Unrest

Oppressive Militia Response

Positive Advancement

Critical International Involvement

Unrest/Protest/Disputes

October 1991 Middle East peace conference opens in Madrid, attended by Israeli, Syrian, Lebanese, Jordanian and Palestinian delegations. The conference opens dialogues on Arab-Israeli and Israeli-Palestinian relations.

15th January 1991 Persian Gulf War began

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Bahrain

July, 1991 Bahrain rejects Qatars territorial claim made to the ICJ.

Qatar

15th January, 1991 As part of the Gulf Cooperation Council, Bahrain and Qatar participate in the Iraq War aka ‘Operation Desert Storm’ August 1990 After Iraq invades Kuwait, Qatar says it will allow foreign forces on its soil. Qatari troops later take part in the liberation of Kuwait.

July, 1991 Qatar takes is territorial claim of the Hawar Islands, Fasht al Dibal & Qitat Jaradah before the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in the Hague but Bahrain rejects the claim.

Lebanon

Jordan

16th of August 1990 President Bush met with Jordan’s King Hussein in Kennebunkport, Maine, where he urged the monarch to close Iraq’s access to the sea through the port of Aqaba.

30th of August 1990 UN Secretary-General Javier Perez de Cuellar arrived in Jordan to try to mediate the Persian Gulf crisis.

Month of hostage releases.

10th fo April, 1990 Three European hostages were released in Lebanon by the Abu Nidal Palestinian guerrilla group.

22nd of April, 1990 Pro-Iranian kidnappers in Lebanon freed American hostage Robert Polhill after nearly 39 months of captivity.

24th of August, 1990 Irish hostage Brian Keenan was released by his captors in Lebanon after being held more than four years.

EVENTS TIMELINE

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1990 In Lebanon Al-Manar was founded to give voice to Hezbollah the Shiites. In 1997 Al-Manar Television received a broadcasting license from the Lebanese government. In 2004 the US designated it as a terrorist entity.

6th February, 1991 While Jordan’s King Hussein did not provide copius aid during the Gulf war he tilted sharply toward Iraq in the Gulf War, describing the conflict as an effort by outsiders to destroy Iraq and carve up the Arab world.

October 1990 The end of Lebanons civil war.

Marked by the Syrian air force attacks the Presidential Palace at Baabda causing Aoun to flee.

24th of December, 1990 Omar Karami began serving his first term as prime minister and continued to until the next election.

1991 The National Assembly orders the dissolution of all militias, except for the powerful Shia group Hezbollah. The South Lebanon Army (SLA) refuses to disband. The Lebanese army defeats the PLO and takes over the southern port of Sidon.

21st of July, 1991 Jordan became the fourth Arab country to sign on to a US-backed Middle East peace conference.

1991 The National Assembly orders the dissolution of all militias, except for the powerful Shia group Hezbollah. The South Lebanon Army (SLA) refuses to disband. The Lebanese army defeats the PLO and takes over the southern port of Sidon.

1st of November 1991 The 3-day Middle East peace conference recessed in Madrid. The conference led to Israeli deals with Jordan and the Palestinians and established the principle of land for peace.

1991 The civil war in Lebanon ended.

20th of July, 1991 Lebanon joined Syria in agreeing to participate in Mideast peace talks with Israel.

13th of January 1992 Israeli, Palestinian and Jordanian negotiators began talks in Washington on Palestinian autonomy.

1992 Legalisation fo polticial parties in Jordan by King Hussein

8th of August, 1991 Lebanese kidnappers freed British TV producer John McCarthy, held hostage for more than five years; however, a rival group abducted Frenchman Jerome Leyraud, threatening to kill him if any more hostages were released Leyraud was freed three days later.

September 1992 Rafik Hariri becomes prime minister in Lebanon’s first elections since 1972

pre1990- 19931992 1999

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Media Broadcasters Since 1990 19901991

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Events Timeline Since 1990

Events Timeline since 1990 International Issues

National Issues

Territorial Conflict

Peacemaking Bystanders

Provision of Aid

Cooperation and Treaties

Dispute Settler

Host to Peace Talks

Involed side-taker

September 13 1993, Oslo declaration of principles. PLO and Israel agree to recognise each other.

Middle East Region

Involvement

20082009

Giver

Political

Reciever

25 February 1994 Baruch Goldstein, an American-Israeli settler, enters Al-Haram Al-Ibrahimi (The Cave of the Patriarchs), a religious site in Hebron, and kills 29 Palestinians,

Civilian Unrest

Religious Oppressive Militia Response

Positive Advancement

Critical International Involvement

26 October, 1994 Israel and Jordan sign a peace treaty ending 45-years of hostility. Israel agrees to recognise the special role of Jordan over Muslim holy sites in Jerusalem.

25 February 1994 Baruch Goldstein, an American-Israeli settler, enters Al-Haram Al-Ibrahimi (The Cave of the Patriarchs), a religious site in Hebron, and kills 29 Palestinians,

28th September, 1995 Interim agreement on the future of Israeli-occupied Gaza and the West Bank is signed by Israel and the PLO. The agreement recognises the formation of a Palestinian Interim Self-Government Authority - an elected council.

Unrest/Protest/Disputes

4 November 1995 Yitzhak Rabin, Israel's prime minister, is assassinated by Yigal Amir, an Israeli orthodox Jewish student who is against the Middle East peace plan. Shimon Peres takes over as prime minister.

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14th of September 1993 Israel and Jordan signed a framework for negotiations, a day after the signing of a PLO-Israeli peace accord.

Jordan

1993 Jordan lifted press restrictions.

Lebanon

June 1995 A reshuffle, the cabinet now includes five Shia ministers.

February, 1995 Bahrain rejects the ICJâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mediation in its territorial dispute with Qatar.

February, 1995 Attempts to mediate in the ICJ over the Hawar Islands, Fasht al Dibal & Qitat

Qatar

Bahrain

5th December 1994 Shia cleric Sheikh Ali Salman was arrested after calling for the restoration of the National Assembly and Criticising the royal family. Civilian demonstrations followed.

1992 December The establishment of a 30-member Consultative Council, appointed by the emir for a four-year term.

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INTRODUCTION

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25th of July, 1993 Israel launched its heaviest artillery and air assault on Lebanon since 1982 in an attempt to eradicate Hezbollah and Palestinian guerrilla threats. Guerrillas fired rockets into Israel. The fighting ended July 31 with a U.S.-brokered cease-fire. Israel and Hezbollah then agreed not to attack civilian targets, but the cease-fire was short lived.

November, 1993 Jordan held new elections in which each voter has one vote.

November, 1993 King Hussein let Islamic parties run for Parliament but rewrote voting rules to limit the number of seats that they could win. This angered the Muslim Brothers who said that the system favors local politicians with tribal ties rather than ideologically based lists. They win only a handful of seats and boycott the next 27th of February, 1994 elections.

A Maronite church near Beirut was bombed and 10 people were killed.

25th of July, 1994 Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Jordan's King Hussein signed a declaration at the White House ending their countries' 46-year-old formal state of war.

26th of October, 1994 Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin of Israel and Prime Minister Abdel Salam Majali of Jordan signed a peace treaty in a ceremony attended by President Clinton.

8th of August, 1994 Israel and Jordan opened the first road link between the two once warring countries.

27th of February, 1994 A Maronite church near Beirut was bombed and 10 people were killed.

1995 Sheikh Khalifa deposed by his son, Hamad, in a bloodless coup.

1995 The new Emir soon abolished the information ministry that controlled newspapers and broadcasting. Sheik Hamad also gave women the right to vote and introduced satellite television.

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23 October 1998 Wye River Memorandum is negotiated between Israel and the Palestinian Authority to implement the 1995 interim agreement. The memorandum examines redeployment of Israeli troops from areas occupied since 1967 and Palestinian guarantees on security.

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Bahrain Qatar Jordan

February 1998 Sheikh Khalid Bin-Muhammad Bin-Salman Al Khalifah replaces British citizen, Ian Henderson, as Director of the Security and Intelligence Service (SIS).

September, 1996 The Consultative Council members are increased from 30 to 40.

1996 Al-Jazeera satellite TV launches, as an independent channel funded by the emir.

Based in Qatar but broadcasting to much of the Arab world, it establishes a reputation for its news coverage and willingness to tackle controversial issues.

December 1995 France and Jordan signed an accord for joint war games and technical assistance as well as French training for the army and air force.

19th of August, 1996 Citizens rioting over higher bread prices for two days.

13th of March 1997 A Jordanian soldier fired on Israeli junior high school girls on a field trip at Naharayim . Seven girls were killed and six injured.

In Beit Shemesh, Israel, Jordan's King Hussein knelt in mourning with the families of seven Israeli schoolgirls gunned down by a Jordanian soldier.

Lebanon

February, 1997 Lebanon detained 5 members of the Japanese

10th of March, 1996 Hezbollah guerrillas launched a wave of bomb and rocket attacks on Israeli troops in south Lebanon.

April 1996 "Operation Grapes of Wrath", in which the Israelis bomb Hezbollah bases in southern Lebanon, southern Beirut and the Bekaa Valley. UN base at Qana is hit, killing over 100 displaced civilians. Israel-Lebanon Monitoring Group, with members from US, France, Israel, Lebanon and Syria, set up to monitor truce.

Israeli withdrawal

1997 1997 Filled with territorial conflict Filled with territorial conflict between Lebanon and Israel in between Lebanon and Israel in

25th of September, 1997 Khaled Mashaal [the political leader of Hamas] was chemically attacked by two men in Amman, Jordan. Hamas accused the men of being Israeli Mossad agents. Jordan's King Hussein intervened, forcing Israel to send the antidote that saved the Hamas leader's life and release the group's jailed founder in exchange for the freedom of its captured agents.

30th of July, 1997 The US lifted a 12-year ban on US citizens visits to Lebanon.

4th of November, 1997 It was reported that Jordan receives $225 million in annual aid from the US.

20th of February, 1998 In Jordan a pro-Iraq march turned violent and one person was killed.

26th of January, 1998 The Supreme Court suspended an 10th of December 1997 29th of September 1997 amendment to the press law, passed last Jordan expelled 7 Iraqi A change of press law saw May, and cleared the way for 12 diplomats after Iraq Jordan shut down 13 newspapers to resume publishing. executed 4 Jordanians weekly newspapers for allegedly failing to maintain assets and cash to 18th of December, 1997, 1st of April, 1998 $430,000.

A foundation stone was laid for Israel accepted the 1978 UN the new US consulate in Resolution 425 for withdrawal Beirut. from the south of Lebanon.

1998 Filled with territorial conflict between Lebanon and Israel in apart of Israelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s plan to eliminate the PLO. A lot of civilian deaths.

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December 1998 "Operation Desert Fox", the US and UK bombing campaign against Iraq.

Bahrain Qatar

December, 1999 Sheikh Hamad Bin-Khalifah Al Thani (emir of Qatar) visited Bahrain and both countries established comitees to settle territorial disputes.

1999 Municipal elections, the first democratic polls since 1971, mark the start of a democratisation programme.

30 August 1999 Police in Amman stormed offices linked to the radical Palestinian Hamas movement.

1998 Samih Toukan founded Maktoob in Amman, Jordan, a software firm dedicated to replacing English with Arabic in e-mail systems.

Maktoob.com was the world’s 1st Arab language Web site. In 2000 the firm received a $2.5 million cash injection from an Egyptian investment bank and launched the first Arabic e-mail.

15th October 1998, The parliament approved Gen’l.

Emile Lahoud as president.

4th of February. 1998 It was reported that the 300,000 Palestinians living in Lebanon in refugee camps were barred from work outside the camps except for common labor or agriculture.

22nd of December, 1998, In Lebanon an Israeli rocket killed woman and her 6 children.

2000 Filled with territorial conflict between Lebanon and Israel in apart of Israel’s plan to eliminate the PLO. A lot of civilian deaths.

1998 Rafik Hariri resigned as prime minister.

30 August 1999 Police in Amman stormed offices linked to the radical Palestinian Hamas movement.

23rd of December, 1998 In Lebanon Hezbollah guerrillas retaliated against Israel with Katyusha rockets at Kiryat Shemona. 16 Israelis were injured.

21st of November, 1999 King Abdullah of Jordan pardoned 25 Hamaz members and expelled 4 of them to Qatar.

23rd of December, 1998 In Lebanon Hezbollah guerrillas retaliated against Israel with Katyusha rockets at Kiryat Shemona. 16 Israelis were injured.

29 December, 1998 In Lebanon the Israeli army assassinated Zahi Naim Hadr Ahmed Mahabi, a top Hezbollah explosives expert.

Unrest/Protest/Disputes

January, 2001 Summit between Israel and Palestinian Authority is held at Egyptian resort of Taba. The talks are designed to lead to 'final status' agreements on refugees, territory, security and Jerusalem. Differences remained between Israel and the Palestinians despite the discussions.

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December 1998 Bahrain provides military facilities for "Operation Desert Fox", the US and UK bombing campaign against Iraq.

6th October 1998, Syria anointed army chief Emile Lahoud, a Maronite Christian, as Lebanon’s president.

Critical International Involvement

February 2001 Referendum on political reform; Bahrainis overwhelmingly back proposals under which Bahrain would become constitutional monarchy with elected lower chamber of parliament and independent judiciary.

31st December, 2000 Regional defense pact signed by Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.

2000 February - A cousin of the emir and 32 other people are jailed for life for planning a foiled coup in 1996.

28th of March, 2000 Jordan with US intelligence help indicted 28 followers of Osama bin Laden for plotting attacks against American tourists in Dec.

5th of May, 2000 Israel and Hezbollah guerrillas in Lebanon agreed to a cease-fire.

18th of September, 2000 A military tribunal sentenced 6 Muslim militants to death for planned terrorist attacks against US and Israeli targets in Jordan. 4 of the 6 were tried in absentia.

23rd of April, 2000 King Abdullah II made his first state visit to Israel and spent 4 hours in Eilat with Prime Minister Barak.

May, 2000 After the collapse of the South Lebanon Army [SLA] and the rapid advance of Hezbollah forces, Israel withdraws its 16th of June, 2000 The Israeli pullout from Lebanon was finished according 5th of August, 2000 to UN Sec.-Gen. Kofi Annan. Lebanese Prime Minister UN peacekeeping troops began spreading out along Salim Hoss claimed that some Israeli outposts were still the border between Israel and Lebanon. present inside their border.

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Jordan

Positive Advancement

September, 2000 Emir of Bahrain appoints 4 women into the Consultive Council. This increase in political diversity also includes 1 Christian and 1 Jewish businessman.

20th of October, 1998 King Hussein of Jordan joined Pres. Clinton to press for the Israeli-Palestinian compromise.

Lebanon

2014

Religious Oppressive Militia Response

July 2000, The Camp David summit between Ehud Barak, Israel's prime minister, Yasser Arafat, leader of the Palestinian Authority, and President Bill Clinton. Aimed at reaching a "final status" agreement the talks break down after two weeks and the US and the Israelis blame Arafat for refusing to accept a proposal drafted by their negotiators.

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13 November, 2001 Al Jazeera Kabul office destroyed in war-zone, Afganistan.

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20th March 2003 Iraq War Begins

2-1 5 April 2002 Battle of Jenin

27 March, 2003 Al Jazeera Web Attack from US citizen

Critical International Involvement

Unrest/Protest/Disputes

8 April, 2003 Baghdad Bureau destoryed and Al Jazeera journalist, Tariq Auayoub killed.

Abu Dabi Tv Office Attacked Palestine Hotel struck by US missile May 2003 US defeats Saddam Hussein and take over Iraq.

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Qatar Jordan Lebanon

February 2002 Bahrain turns itself into a constitutional monarchy and allows women to stand for office in a package of reforms.

March, 2001 Bahrain settles long-running border disputes with Saudi Arabia and Qatar.

March, 2001 Qatar settles long-running border disputes with Saudi Arabia and Bahrain.

23rd of September, 2001 The Gulf Cooperation Council pledge to support the international coalition against terrorism.

24th of September, 2001 The US rewarded Jordan for its role in the anti-terrorist coalition with the passage of a free trade treaty.

May 2002 Local elections are held, Bahrain's first poll for almost 30 years. For the first time women vote and stand as candidates, but fail to win a seat.

October 2002 First parliamentary elections held, for nearly 30 years. Authorities say the turnout was more than 50% despite a call by Islamists for a boycott.

March-April 2003 Qatar-based US Central Command forward base serves as the nerve centre in the US-led military campaign in Iraq.

2002 Qatar looms large in US plans for a possible war against Iraq. Its al-Udeid air base is developed and expanded. Washington says it will deploy US Central Command staff to Qatar.

9th of April, 2002 Queen Rania led a pro-Palestinian march in Amman.

May 2003 Thousands of victims of alleged torture petition king to cancel law which prevents them from suing suspected torturers.

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April 2003 Voters approve a new constitution, which provides for a 45-member parliament with 30 elected members and the rest selected by the emir.

September 2003 Jordan's Central Bank retracts its decision to freeze accounts belonging to leaders of Hamas.

14th of May, 2002 It was reported that the Jordanian court had recently granted the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 1st divorce under a new law.

October 2003 A new cabinet is appointed following the resignation of Prime Minister Ali Abu al-Ragheb. Faisal al-Fayez is appointed prime minister. The king also appoints the three female ministers.

23rd of November, 2002 Some of the world's richest countries agreed to offer about $4.3 billion in financial support for debt-ridden Lebanon.

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May 2004 Protests in Manama against fighting in the Iraqi holy cities of Najaf, Karbala. The king sacks the interior minister after police try to prevent the protest.

September 2004 Bahrain and US sign free trade pact; Saudi Arabia condemns the move, saying it hinders regional economic integration.

Jordan Lebanon

February 2004 Jordan's King Abdullah and Syrian President Bashar al-Assad launch the Wahdah Dam project at a ceremony on the River Yarmuk.

Terror

29th of January, 2004 Israel released 435 prisoners in a swap, mediated by Germany, with the Lebanese guerrilla group Hezbollah in exchange for an Israeli businessman and the bodies of 3 Israeli soldiers.

April 2004 Eight Islamic militants are sentenced to death for killing a US government official in 2002.

2004 UN Security Council resolution aimed at Syria demands that foreign troops leave Lebanon. Syria dismisses the move. Weeks of political deadlock end with the unexpected departure of Rafik Hariri as Prime Ministerwho had at first opposed the extension.

January 2006 US President George W Bush signs a bill to enact the 2004 US-Bahrain free-trade agreement after it is approved by the US Congress.

March- June, 2005 March- June, 2005 Thousands of Bahraini citizens Thousands of Bahraini citizens protest in marches and demand a protest in marches and demand a fully-elected parliment. fully-elected parliment.

June 2005 Qatar's first written constitution comes into effect, providing for some democratic reforms.

Qatar

Bahrain

April 2004 Nada Haffadh is made health minister - the first woman to head a government ministry.

June 2005 Qatar's first written constitution comes into effect, providing for some democratic reforms.

March 2005 Jordan returns its ambassador to Israel after a four-year absence. Amman recalled its envoy in 2000 after the outbreak of the Palestinian uprising.

April 2005 A new cabinet is sworn in, led by Prime Minister Adnan Badran, after the previous government resigns amid reports of the king's unhappiness over the pace of February 2005 Rafik Hariri is killed by a reforms. car bomb in Beirut. The attack sparks anti-Syrian rallies and the resignation of Prime Minister Omar Karami's cabinet.

November 2005 Qatar and the US launch a $14 billion joint project to build the world's largest liquefied natural gas plant. Most of the gas will be exported to the US.

17th of April, 2006 Qatar commits $50 million dollars to the Palestinian government in aid to make up for the shortfall after the US and EU cut off funding.

August 2005 Three missiles are fired from the port of Aqaba. Two of them miss a US naval vessel; a third one lands in Israel. A Jordanian soldier is killed.

April 2005 A new cabinet is sworn in, led by Prime Minister Adnan Badran, after the previous government resigns amid reports of the king's unhappiness over the pace of reforms.

April 2005 Calls for Syria to withdraw its troops intensify until its forces leave in April.

Assassinations of anti-Syrian figures become a feature of political life.

June 2005 Anti-Syrian alliance led by Saad Hariri wins control of parliament at elections. Hariri ally Fouad Siniora becomes prime minister.

November 2005 Sixty people are killed in suicide bombings at three international hotels in Amman. Al-Qaeda in Iraq claims responsibility. Most of the victims are Jordanians. A day of mourning is declared.

September 2005 Four pro-Syrian generals are charged over the assassination of Rafik Hariri.

12th of July, 2006 Acting on behalf of the Arab nations, Qatar circulated a revised draft UN Security Council resolution demanding Israel end its offensive in the Gaza Strip and release Palestinian officials it has arrested.

June 2006 Iraq's prime minister announces that Jordanian-born Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, the leader of al-Qaeda in Iraq, has been killed in an air strike.

July-August 2006 , Israel attacks after Hezbollah kidnaps two Israeli soldiers. Israeli-Lebanese war begins Civilian casualties are high and the damage to civilian infrastructure wide-ranging in 34-day war. UN peacekeeping force deploys along the southern border, followed by Lebanese army troops for first time in

4th of September, 2006 Qatar announced that it would contribute 200-300 troops to the UN peacekeeping force in Lebanon making it the first Arab country to commit soilders to the peace effort in Lebanon

August 2006 King Abdullah criticises the United States and Israel over the fighting in Lebanon.

4th of September, 2006 Lebanon benefits from the additional UN peacekeeping troops contributed by Qatar.

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Bahrain

September 2007 Thousands of illegal foreign workers rush to take advantage of a government-sanctioned amnesty.

May 2008 A Jewish woman, Houda Nonoo, is appointed Bahrain's ambassador to the USA. She is believed to be the Arab world's first Jewish ambassador.

September 2007 Qatar and Dubai become the two biggest shareholders of the London Stock Exchange, the world's third largest stock exchange.

Qatar Jordan Lebanon

ber, 2006 fits from the peacekeeping uted by Qatar.

November 2006 The Shia opposition wins 40% of the vote in a general election. A Shia Muslim, Jawad bin Salem al-Oraied, is named as a deputy prime minister.

July 2007 First local elections since 1999. The main opposition party, the Islamist Action Front, withdraws after accusing the government of vote-rigging.

May-September 2007, Siege of the Palestinian refugee camp Nahr al-Bared following clashes between Islamist militants and the military. More than 300 people die and 40,000 residents flee before the army gains control of the camp.

November 2007 Parliamentary elections strengthen position of tribal leaders and other pro-government candidates. Fortunes of the opposition Islamic Action Front decline. Political moderate Nader Dahabi appointed prime minister.

March 2008 St Mary's Roman Catholic Church becomes the first official Christian church inaugurated in Qatar.

Christians were previously not permitted to worship openly.

December 2008 Authorities arrest several people who allegedly planned to detonate homemade bombs during Bahrain's national celebrations.

December 2008 Saudi Arabia and Qatar agree final delineation of borders and pledge to boost co-operation after diplomatic relations restored in March.

April 2009 King pardons more than 170 prisoners charged with endangering national security, including 35 Shias being tried on charges of trying to overthrow the state.

January 2009 Qatar cuts trade ties with Israel over Gaza offensive. Was sole Gulf state to have trade ties with Israel.

August 2008 King Abdullah visits Iraq. He is the first Arab leader to visit the country since the US invasion in 2003.

May 2008 Parliament elects army chief Michel Suleiman as president, ending six-month-long political deadlock. Gen Suleiman re-reappoints Fouad Siniora as prime minister of national unity government.

October 2008 Lebanon establishes diplomatic relations with Syria for first time since both countries gained independence in 1940s.

July 2009 Military tribunal sentences an Al-Qaeda militant to death for his involvement in the 2003 killing of US diplomat Laurence Foley in Amman.

March-April 2009 International court to try suspected killers of former Prime Minister Hariri opens in Hague. Former Syrian intelligence officer Mohammed Zuhair al-Siddiq arrested in connection with killing, and four pro-Syrian Lebanese generals held since 2005 freed after court rules there is not enough evidence to convict them.

June 2009 The pro-Western March 14 alliance wins parliamentary elections and Saad Hariri forms unity government.

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February 2011 Thousands of protesters gather in Manama, inspired by popular revolts that toppled rulers in Tunisia and Egypt. A security crackdown results in the death of several protestors.

Oppressive Militia Response

Positive Advancement

Critical International Involvement

Unrest/Protest/Disputes

28 July 2012 Zaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;tari Camp recognised as a refigee camp.

April, 2011 The Government, pushed by the rising number of protests moves to ban two main political parties which represent the Shia Majority .

March 2011 Qatar joins international military operations in Libya.

April 2011 Qatar hosts meeting of international "contact group" on Libya, which calls on Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi to quit.

January 2011 Tunisian street protests which unseat the president encourage similar demonstrations in other countries, including Jordan.

February 2011 Against a background of large-scale street protests, King Abdullah appoints a new prime minister, former army general Marouf Bakhit, and charges him with carrying out political reforms.

January 2011 Government collapses after Hezbollah and allied ministers resign.

Religious

Civilian Unrest

Reciever

2011 Arab Spring Protests throughout the middle east

November 2011 Government concedes that "excessive force" was used by security forces in Bahrain against pro-democracy protesters.

February 2012 Police thwart opposition attempts to protest on the anniversary of the crackdown on last year's mass demonstration on the site of the demolished Pearl square.

Protests nonetheless resume through the spring.

March 2011 Saudi troops are called in following further unrest. Protests continue, despite ban on demonstrations.

Lebanon

2014

June 2011 Najib Mikati forms cabinet dominated by Hezbollah. The UN's Special Tribunal for Lebanon issues four arrest warrants over the murder of Rafik Hariri. The accused are members of Hezbollah, which says it won't allow their arrest.

November 2011 Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani says elections to the advisory council will be held in 2013, in what would be Qatar's first legislative elections.

October 2011 Protests continue through the summer, albeit on a smaller scale, prompting King Abdullah to replace Prime Minister Bakhit with Awn al-Khasawneh, a judge at the International Court of Justice.

April 2012 The controversial Bahrain Formula 1 Grand Prix takes place amid anti-government protests.

April 2012 The controversial Bahrain Formula 1 Grand Prix takes place amid anti-government protests.

May 2012 Leading opposition activist Abdulhadi al-Khawaja ends a three-month hunger strike in jail.

May 2012 Leading opposition activist Abdulhadi al-Khawaja ends a three-month hunger strike in jail.

January 2012 The Afghan Taliban say they are setting up a political office in Qatar to facilitate talks.

April 2012 Prime Minister Awn al-Khasawneh resigns abruptly, have been unable to satisfy either demands for reform or establishment fears of empowering the Islamist opposition. King Abdullah appoints former prime minister Fayez al-Tarawneh to succeed him.

15th of January, 2012 UN chief Ban Ki-moon, speaking in Beirut, called for an end to Israeli occupation of the Palestinian territories, saying the illegal building of settlements worked against a two-state solution. Ban Ki-moon also demanded that

6th of May, 2012 In Lebanon more than 1,000 people marched in Beirut calling for the establishment of a secular state in the country which is ruled by a system of power-sharing along religious lines.

21st ofsaid January, 2012 navy Lebanese officials said the Syrian navy arrested 21st of January, 2012 Lebanese officials the Syrian arrested three Lebanese fishermen and confiscated their boat in Lebanese three Lebanese fishermen and confiscated their boat in Lebanese waters off the northern town of Arida. waters off the northern town of Arida.

June 2012 Appeals court partially overturns long jail sentences on 20 medics for taking part in anti-government protests. Nine are acquitted, and the rest were given much shorter sentences.

August 2012 Sporadic anti-monarchy protests continue.

2012 October Protesters clash with riot police in Manama at funeral of Ali Ahmed Mushaima, who died in prison after being jailed for taking part in pro-democracy demonstrations. The authorities indefinitely ban all protests and gatherings.

February 2013 National dialogue talks begin in effort to end unrest.

April 2013 Several weeks of unrest involving opponents of the Formula 1 Grand Prix, who allege the event is used by the government to gloss over its poor human rights record.

October 2013 Court upholds 15-year jail sentence for poet Mohammed al-Ajami who was convicted of inciting people to overthrow government.

October 2012 Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa al Thani visits Gaza, the first head of state to do so since Hamas took power there five years previously.

October 2012 King Abdullah calls early parliamentary elections for January.

Opposition political parties decides to continue to boycott them in protest at unequal constituency sizes and lack of real parliamentary power. The King appoints Abdullah Ensour.

January 2013 Pro-government candidates victorious in parliamentary elections which are boycotted by the main opposition Islamic Action Front.

2012 November King Abdullah also appoints a new ambassador to Israel, filling a post that has been vacant for two years.

March 2013 New government sworn in, with incumbent Abdullah Ensour reinstalled as prime minister following unprecedented consultation between the king and parliament.

November 2012 Clashes between protesters and supporters of the king follow mass demonstrations in Amman against the lifting of fuel subsidies, at which calls for the end of the monarchy are heard. Three people are killed.

25th of June, 2012 In Lebanon the headquarters of Al-Jadeed TV, a leading TV station in Beirut, was attacked with burning tires after it hosted a hard-line Sunni Muslim cleric who harshly criticized the country's Shiite Muslim leaders.

September 2013 Bahrain's main Shia opposition groups pull out of talks with the government in protest at the arrest of a leading member of Wefaq, the main Shia opposition society.

21st of August, 2012 In Lebanon overnight clashes between supporters and opponents of President Bashar Assad left two dead and as many as 45 wounded.

12th of January, 2012 Lebanese media and officials said the Lebanese army has detained a man on suspicion of collaborating for years with Israel's Mossad spy agency.

July 2013 Britain deports Muslim cleric Abu Qatada to Jordan, where he faces terrorism charges, after an eight-year legal battle.

June 2014 Radical Muslim preacher Abu Qatada, deported from the UK after a long legal battle, is found not guilty of terrorism offences by a court in Jordan over an alleged plot in 1998.

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5 April 2014 Zatari Refugee Camp Riot 1 Refugee death

January 2014 The government suspends deadlocked reconciliation talks with the Shia opposition.

May 2014 Leading rights activist Nabeel Rajab is released after two years in prison; he urges the government and the opposition to engage in dialogue.

27th June, 2014 The United Arab Emirates arrested two Qatar citizens, Hamad Ali al-Hamadi and Yousef Abdelsamad al-Mulla, at the Ghweifat border crossing between Saudi Arabia and the UAE. Both were described as "spies" by Emirati media.

May 2014 Jordan expels Syrian ambassador over accusations that Jordan harbours Syrian rebels.

29th of December, 2013 Lebanon's President Michel Suleiman said Saudi Arabia is giving the Lebanese army $3 billion to buy equipment from France, calling it the largest grant ever given to the country's armed forces.

30th of December, 2013 Lebanese forces fired on Syrian aircraft that violated the country's airspace.

July 2014 Bomb blast kills police officer, the latest in a series of attacks on security forces.

39

October 2014 Main Shia opposition group Al-Wefaq banned for three months.

November 2014 Parliamentary elections, boycotted and dismissed by the Shia opposition as a farce.

September 2014 Qatar and four other Arab states take part in US-led air strikes on Islamic State militants in Syria

16th of November, 2014 Gulf states agreed to welcome Qatar back to the fold following a row over its support for Islamists. Last March Bahrain, Saudi Arabia and the UAE announced the withdrawal of their envoys from Qatar in protest at its "interference" in their internal affairs by supporting Islamists.

26th of November, 2014 It was reported that Qatar is covertly training moderate Syrian rebels with US help to fight both President Bashar al-Assad and Islamic State and that the program has been running for nearly a year.

September 2014 Jordan is one of four Arab states to take part, together with the US, in air strikes on Islamic State militants in Syria.

November 2014 Jordanian authorities arrest the deputy head of the country's Muslim Brotherhood organisation, in the first arrest of a major opposition figure in Jordan for several years.

December 2014 Jordan executes eleven men convicted of murder, ending a moratorium on

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Provision of Aid

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Involvement

Events

Shifts in Al Jazeera’s Operation

2001

Al Jazeera came to the attention of many in the western world during their airing of Osama bin Laden and the Taliban in Afghanistan after the September 11 attacks on the United States. Criticized for giving a voice to terrorist, the network claimed they were given the videotapes because it had a large Arab audience.

41

Attacks on Media

SHIFTS TIMELINE

$140 million Chief Financier Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani 1996-2013

The media terrain before 1996 saw the hegemonic power of BBC and CNN construct an external and homogenous image of cities in the Middle East, specifically in the case of CNN’s 24-hour news coverage of the Gulf War in 1990.

Media

INTRODUCTION

40

Dubbed the CNN effect due to their exclsuive footage and coverage from teh Rashid Hotel in Baghdad. This was the first time people from all over the world were able to watch live pictures of the war, but it was only from an international perspective.

Hegemonic Power : Gulf War

Board of Directors Chairman Sheikh Hamad Bin-Thamir Al Thani [Cousin to the Emir]

Saudi Arabia. April 1996 the BBC broadcasted a story on human rights in the Saudi Kingdom. It showed footage of the beheading of a criminal. Soon after the agreement between BBC and saudiowned ORBIT COMMUNICATIONS fell through .

The launch of Al Jazeera is the first model. In 1996, Al Jazeera was created shortly after Emir Sheik Hamad bin Khalifa al-thani took power from his father. Around the same time as AlJazeera’s launch, The BBC-orbit communications partnership in the Middle East came to an end. BBC broadcasted a story on human rights in the Saudi Kingdom, which showed footage of the beheading of a criminal. Saudi owned orbit communications pulled out. Disappointed by the lack of press freedom in the Arab world, Sheik Hamad, pledged to let Al-Jazeera “report the news as they see it.”

November 1996 Launch of Al Jazeera

Attack on Kabul Bureau 2001 Losing the Al-Jazeera Kabul bureau, in November of the 2001 U.S. invasion of Afghanistan, meant losing a source of internal recordings and reports on the specific event, and possibly more information on the invasion at the time.

Events

Shifts in Al Jazeera’s Operation

43

2003

Suddam Hussein Statue 2003

Attacks on Media

Iraq War

Attack on Baghdad Bureau 2003

Attack on Al Jazeera in Cyber Space 2003

Enzo Baldoni 2004

Suicide Al Arabiya Bureau Bombing 2004

This uncertainty between the media outlets, is again reflected here on the reports outlining the attack of the Al Jazeera website.

Italian freelance journalist Enzo Baldoni was one executed in August of 2004 by a group self declared“Islamic Army of Iraq,” the purpose of this was so that Italy can withdraw its 3000 troops from Iraq.

Another attack by internal insurgent groups was a suicide car bomb that ripped through the Baghdad bureau of the Al-Arabiya news station, killing five employees and wounding several others. This attack was just the initiation of many other attacks and threats from the Islamic State and self-promoted insurgent groups.

Christian Chesnot and Georges Malbrunot 2004 The use of journalists as hostages by insurgent groups did not end there, later following Enzo’s execution, two French journalists were kidnapped and only luckily freed four months later in December.

Media

The attack on the Baghdad Bureau, during the Iraq War in April 2003, had repercussions on all other journalists within the war zone. Following this, all other journalists within the area, including Abu Dhabi TV, and international correspondents at Palestine Hotel were also attacked.

SHIFTS TIMELINE

INTRODUCTION

42

2002

Battle of Jenin It was reported that on the 2nd April 2002, that the Israeli Defence Forced, surrounded the Jenin Refugee Camp, creating an exclusion zone. A void in media was created, between the 2nd-14th April, the conflict ensued leaving to the destruction of part of the camp.

As tension against Al Jazeera’s broadcasts escalated, specifically after the 2003 Iraq War, Al Jazeera focused on making its content unique and accessible to audiences all across the world. George Bush cancelled the itinerary of Al Jazeera’s Chief Financer, Emir Hamad, to the US. The cancellation of the trip solidified Sheikh Hamad’s decision to invest in Al Jazeera English to “once and for all clear Al Jazeera’s name in the West.”

2003 Internationalisation Model

Director of News Al Jazeera Arabic Language Channel [Doha]

Director of News Al Jazeera Arabic Language Channel [Doha] Director general of Al Jazeera Network Wadah Khanfar 2006-2011

Events

Shifts in Al Jazeeraâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Operation

45

Attacks on Media

Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani 1996-2013 Chief Financier

SHIFTS TIMELINE

$$ Board of Directors

Chairman Sheikh Hamad Bin-Thamir Al Thani [Cousin to the Emir] Managing Director of News Al Jazeera English Language Channel [Doha] Nigel Parsons Deputy Managing Director Aljazeera Network at Aljazeera English Ibrahim Helal

Media

INTRODUCTION

44

As a subsidiary of the Al Jazeera media Network, Al Jazeera international was first envisioned as a completely separate entity which was to operate in complete autonomy from the original Al Jazeera Arabic brand. Tension in regards to facilities, wages and extra advantages caused competition between Al Jazeera Arabic and Al Jazeera International. Seeing the strain this competition had on the business, the board of directors stepped in and implemented a major restructure. Each subsidiary of Al Jazeera operated directly under the board of directors but by 2006 Al Jazeera had grown in sccale that is model was no longer feasible.

2006 Economic Model

Director of News Al Jazeera English Language Channel [Doha] Paul Gibbs

Director of News Al Jazeera English Language Channel [Doha] Steve Clark

Events

Shifts in Al Jazeeraâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Operation

47

Attacks on Media

Nahr Al Bared 2007 The conflict between the Lebanese Army and that of Fatah continued for 3 months, to which destroyed the whole of this refugee camp and displaced thousands of refugees.

Ain Al Hilweh 2007 In response to the conflict occurring in Nahr al Bared, Jund al-Sham attacked a Lebanese patrol point in the Ain Al Helweh refugee camp. This clash caused a temporary displacement and confusion within the camp due to the void that exist within local media.

SHIFTS TIMELINE

$$ Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani 1996-2013

Chief Financier

Board of Directors

Chairman Sheikh Hamad Bin-Thamir Al Thani [Cousin to the Emir]

Director general of Al Jazeera Network Wadah Khanfar 2006-2011

Managing Director of News Al Jazeera English Language Channel [Doha] Nigel Parsons

Managing Director of News Al Jazeera Arabic Language Channel [Doha]

Media

INTRODUCTION

46

Director of News Al Jazeera Arabic Language Channel [Doha]

Introduction of website material for Al Jazeera- 2007

Director of News Al Jazeera Arabic Language Channel [Doha]

Deputy Managing Director Aljazeera Network at Aljazeera English Ibrahim Helal

Director of News Al Jazeera English Language Channel [Doha] Paul Gibbs

Director of News Al Jazeera English Language Channel [Doha] Steve Clark Updating of Website

Events

Shifts in Al Jazeera’s Operation

Tunisia Revolution 2011

48

49

It transformed the citizen into an informal journalist and acknowledges the increased access to information as an expected norm for these quasi-journalist roles. The ‘citizen’ sits alongside local and international coverage, each constructing a separate image of the city.

Attacks on Media

Gaza War The continued conflict in late 2008- Jan 2009 between Gaza and Israel ensued, in which the Israeli Defence Force sought to halt rockets from being fired into Israel. This conflict meant there was a restriction in media access, and some media stations were attacked themselves.

Chief Financier Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani 1996-2013

Assigned to Washington

Media The setup of a Creative Commons license during the Gaza war, 2008-2009, is a clear example of Al Jazeera’s dominance at a local scale and an attempt to shape the city at a local level. Removing copyright laws were obvious attempts by Al Jazeera to make its vision of the world relevant and allow it to circulate more freely, creating a hegemonic account.

$$

Board of Directors Chairman Sheikh Hamad Bin-Thamir Al Thani [Cousin to the Emir]

Director general of Al Jazeera Network Ahmed bin Jassim Al Thani 2011-2013

Tony Burman was fired after a dispute over the differences in coverage between Al Jazeera Arabic and Al Jazeera English

Creative Commons

SHIFTS TIMELINE

INTRODUCTION

The use of social media as a broadcasting technique was first seen through the Tunisian revolution that starting in December 2010. This event was the catalyst for other uprisings in the Arab nations due to the mass communication that was made possible.

Managing Director of News Al Jazeera Arabic Language Channel [Doha] Director of News, Al Jazeera Arabic Language Channel [Doha] Ibrahim Helal Nov 2011- present

Director of News Al Jazeera Arabic Language Channel [Doha]

2011 Rise of Social Media

Events

Shifts in Al Jazeera’s Operation

51

Jordanian Uprising 2011

Bahrain Uprising 2011

Egyptian Revolution 2011

Attacks on Media

The use of social media as a broadcasting technique was first seen through the Tunisian revolution that starting in December 2010. This event was the catalyst for other uprisings in the Arab nations due to the mass communication that was made possible.

The Bahraini Uprising is a series of protests associated with the Arab Spring movement. Here the Pearl Roundabout is significant in the power conflict in Al Manamah. Through the use of recognizable public space, the Pearl Roundabout Monument, an architectural object at the centre of the public space; becomes a symbol of the power struggle in Bahrain.

The Shabab 24 March is an easily forgotten event in the Arab Spring protest movement. The protest escalated from an event which demanded for governmental reforms and anti-corruption into an event considered as unpatriotic and influenced by the Muslim brotherhood revolutionaries in Egypt and Libya.

Resigned due to wikileaks

Media

Al Jazeera Cables on Wikileaks

Managing Director of News Al Jazeera English Language Channel [Doha] In 2011, a release on Wikileaks connected the Al Jazeera Media Network general director to the US government and suggested that the US government could alter Al Jazeera’s news broadcast. Wadhar Khanfar resigned the next day and Ahmed bin Jassim Al Thani became the new director general, shaping yet another shift in Al Jazeera.

Deputy Managing Director Aljazeera Network at Aljazeera English

Director of News Al Jazeera English Language Channel [Doha]

Director of News Al Jazeera English Language Channel [Doha]

The Arab Springs is the first mass movement in the Middle East region to strongly incorporate social media and online protests. Comments such as “We use Facebook to schedule the protests’ ... [we use] Twitter to coordinate, and YouTube to tell the world” highlights that protests are born and nurtured through social media and heavily rely on mass exposure. The prolific and conflicting media coverage of protesters occupying squares, roundabouts and other significant monuments in the urban landscape, creates a running and ever changing narrative of the city. Have we yet again constructed a homogenous image of the Middle East?

Arab Springs, A Homogenous Image?

SHIFTS TIMELINE

INTRODUCTION

50

Events

Shifts in Al Jazeeraâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Operation

53

SHIFTS TIMELINE

Zaatari Refugee Camps 2014

Attacks on Media

Due to the mass influx of Syrian refugees in Jordan, there have been a series of riots about the conditions of living. This riot caused the death of a Syrian refugee camp. It highlight the lack of local media within this newly established urban environment and the confusion of facts that occur when tragedy strikes.

Media

INTRODUCTION

52

Further update in the website to include instant newsfeed update and inclusion of twitter feed.

New Emir of Qatar Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani

Al Jazeera America Esteblished 2013

Voids in Media Overview

The consequence of voids in media is that the sequence of events during a crisis become ambiguous, one simply cannot accurately describe what has occurred.

Furthermore, voids in media have spatial consequences in the understanding of the city. The void creates a new reading of the city; in a particular moment the city disappears and then reappears inextricably changed. That time period in which the city disappears is a state of exception, which is explored in Giorgio Agamben’s text, State of Exception. This notion of the state of exception is one that is difficulty defined as it applies to many different circumstances, mostly in times of internal strife or it’s “ close relationship to civil war, insurrection and resistance1.” In short he describes it as a “zone of undecidability”2 and a “zone free of any juridical law and order3.” It has become a norm in governments to use this concept of creating a state of exception to control internal conflicts. This is expanded on as Agamben states, “the declaration of the state of exception has gradually been replaced by an unprecedented generalisation of the paradigm of security as the normal technique of government.”4 1 Agamden, 2005, The State of Exception , Chicago Press, USA p.2 2 Agamben, 2005, p.2 3 Agamben, 2005, p.2 4 Agamben, 2005, p.14

57

VOIDS IN MEDIA

Voids in media refer to the non-existence of media coverage or that of a blind spot when covering an event. The void in media has no time limit, set duration or a planned time in which it will occur throughout the event. The void is unexpected and unpredictable. The exclusion of media is influenced by a variety of ways. Usually, the void in the broadcast is due to a spatial constraint. For example, in refugee camps, there is a setting up of physical barriers barring the media from accessing the site of crisis for safety reasons or political reasons. There can also be a political constraint where the government or ruling party preventing media coverage on a certain topic.

The void becomes a state of exception as media is a tool for documenting events and without the coverage, it would be like the event never occurred, as there is a limit on its identity. Therefore, there is a suspension of law, “the state of exception is not a special kid of law, rather, insofar as it is a suspension of the juridical order itself,”5 as those acting within the city cannot be held accountable for their actions as there is no coverage or evidence.

Any event can be studied in relation to voids in media but the most extreme and fitting example is attacks on refugee camps, because subsequently after the void, they appear inextricably changed, and this change cannot go unnoticed. Voids in media and refugee camps are inextricably linked, as they are both a state of exception.

Refugee Camps The concept of the diffusion of borders is integral when talking about refugee camps within the Middle East. The mass displacement of people into these host countries creates this diffusion. Today, with an estimated 75 million displaced people in the world, the scale of displacement is an issue difficult to camouflage. The mass explosion of displaced bodies becomes the genesis of unexpected cities, new social environments and complex urban relationships.

We have entered a humanitarian crisis and therefore, the architect has a responsibility to explore refugee camps and their complexity. This complex system is dependent on 5 Agamben, 2005, p.4

Foremost is it important to understand refugee and the rights available to them. A refugee is a person who has “owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it.”6 This was subsequently updated in the 1967 Refugee Protocol, which removed the “geographical and temporal” elements of refugee status. These protocols are in place to make sure the rights of refugees are protected.

However, it is important to note that one has to physically cross an international border to become a refugee. If not they are described as “Internally Displaced People. ” The implication of this status is they remain a responsibility of their own country. They do not share the same protections as refugees do. They become what Eyal Weizman dubbs as the “excluded from the excluded as they haven’t crossed the border of their country in order to gain refugee status”.7 Refugee camps have been defined as “temporary settlement”8 for refugees. This definition doesn’t take into account the complex urban organisation within refugee camps of districts, streets and commercial precincts and as a consequence, there are shifting borders through rapid growth over the past 15 years. Refugee camps can be either located in this contemporary setting within an existing urban environment or as in a separate entity from the host country’s urban environment. There seems to be a preference for separation as the host government prefers to “separate refugees from local resident and minimize conflict over scarce resources.”9 6 UNCHR 1951 Refugee Convention 7 Weizman, E, 2011, The Least of All Possible Evils: Humanitarian Violence from Arendt to Gaza, Verso, London 8 Grbac, P, 2013, Civitas, polis, and urbs: reimagining the refugee camp as the city, Refugees Study Centre, Vol 96 pp1-31 9 Sanyal, R., 2012. Refugees and the City: An Urban Discussion. Geography Compass, Vol.­6(11), pp. 633-644

59

OVERVIEW

VOIDS IN MEDIA

58

Different media broadcasters have different limits of access to the location of events. Consequently, this lack of access constructs a void. Al Jazeera has recognised this void in local media in the pan Arab community and subsequently has been more present in covering events in the Middle East, and in some cases, “filled” in this void. The voids exist due to the physical limits of colonial broadcasters such as BBC and CNN, as they are unable to have access to the events in the same way that Al Jazeera does currently.

Al Jazeera’s access has been developing over time. Cases such as the Battle of Jenin, are a great example that shows a void in media. Al Jazeera had not been launched at this time and international broadcasters did not have access.

Their inability to gain access to the site created a void and ambiguity of the narrative of the event.

its host government and as it transforms the relationship is tested and questioned. The study of the destruction of refugee camps allows us to understand its next iterative stage.

The camp is transforming from what once was designed to be a temporary solution into a permanent condition and physically manifesting and embedding itself into its host city. The refugees remain in progressively in a “continuous states of temporariness”.10 Due to the very heterogeneity of the camps, the idea of refugees huddling in tents is growing more out-dated as these camps increase in scale and are evolving into a complex and important layer in the city. This shift is a contemporary iteration of the refugee camp.

There is a direct link to the image of the refugee camp and how this reading can be developed through the media coverage that occurs either within the camp or externally from the camp. What happens to the reading on the urban environment when there is no media at all, or when media is restricted? The scale of the refugee camp is questioned through media portrayal. As their inclusions or exclusion of destruction or non-destruction create an imaginary of the city. Thus creating a continuous shifting of borders occurs during a crisis and a blurring of the camp.

10 Boanco, C., 2011. ‘Violent spaces’: Production and reproduction of security and vulnerabilities. The Journal of Architecture, 16(1), pp. 37-55 11 Agier, 2008, On the Margins of the World: The Refugee Experience Today

These refugee camps are investigated to understand how the media presents the attack and consequently what the new reading of the city is. This new reading is the point in which the imaginary is created.

61

OVERVIEW

VOIDS IN MEDIA

60

When a refugee camp is destroyed or attacked, there is a sense of further destruction due to the fact that the places were traditionally “transformed into humanitarian sanctuaries”.11 It can be understood that the reading of the city only occurs when there is a crisis or some destruction to the refugee camp. These are the only opportunities the media has to cover the refugee camp and the way in which one views the camp. The reading of the city occurs through the media coverage’s focus or its exclusion of the attack on the camp. It is important to note though that this reading of the city is always at a distance, media’s ability to infiltrated is very difficult and only media broadcasters such as Al Jazeera as mentioned have that ability in most cases.

The refugee camps explored in this chapter are Jenin Refugee Camp, Nahr al Bared, Ain al Hilweh and Zaatari Refugee Camp. All four are very different situations of refugee camps, as the Jenin Refugee Camp, Nahr Al Bared and Ain El Hilweh are located within urban environment whilst the Zaatari Refugee camp was created due to the current humanitarian crisis, and exists as a separate entity to Amman’s urban environment. The case study of Jenin, that will be explored, highlights Al Jazeera non-existence as it hadn’t emerged as a credible media broadcaster at the time of the event. The local perspective was missing. In the case of Nahr Al Bared and Ain al Hilweh, one can see the progression of Al Jazeera’s emergence and infiltration when there is a void for international media. This is further explored in the most recent event of the Zaatari Refugee Camp in which Al Jazeera captures the whole event, in a response to the current crisis in Syria.

21/08/12 03/09/12 15/11/12 31/01/13 03/02/13

29th March 2002

26/03/13 14/03/13 01/04/13 15/04/13 04/05/13

2nd April 2002

15th April 2002

63

62

Al Zaatari Refugee Camp Rapid growth.

OVERVIEW

VOIDS IN MEDIA

Jenin Refugee Camp 2002 The shifting of borders during crisis.

Current (2015)

3rd June 2007 2012

September 2007

1994 June 2007

May 2007

Nahr al Bared 2007 The shifting of borders during crisis.

Ain Al Hilweh 2007

Jenin Refugee Camp Battle of Jenin 2002

VOIDS IN MEDIA

64

I72

The Battle of Jenin 2002 was reported by the media to have started on the 2nd April 20021, with the variations of starting on the 3rd of April2. It is important to understand that this event occurred before the launch of the internationalisation of Al Jazeera aT it being the local media in the Middle East. As a consequence it affected the way in which the event iT understood and narrated. The media understandT that the catalyst of this event was through a series of suicide attacks on Israeli Settlement with the most notable to be the massacre in Netanya. The Battle of Jenin was just one event of a series that took place within the West Bank during the Second Intifada and part of Operation Defensive Shield.

1 Blair, 2002, Horror stories from the siege of Jenin, viewed, 19th March, 2015, <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/1390985/Horrorstories-from-the-siege-of-Jenin.html> 2 The Telegraph, 2002, ‘Bad things did happen - we had no choice’, viewed: 19th March, 2015, <www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/1391712/ Bad-things-did-happen-we-had-no-choice.html>

Refugee Camps and the ability of journalism to get into the site, createE a series of unverified events due to the lack of real time data and media coverage. This interruption of coverage creates a new reading for the city, the imaginary.

3 Turk, 2003, Searching Jenin: Eyewitness Accounts of the Israeli Invasion, Cune Press, Seattle

65

JENIN REFUGEE CAMP

An exclusion zone was set up by the Israeli Defence Force. This barred media and medical personnel from entering Jenin refugee Camp during the time of their operation. There were no media reports of what was occurring in the camp whilst the operation occurs.

This blind spot that has occurred within the event makes the sequences of events to be in question and one cannot accurately describe what did occur. In the aftermath it was reported that it began with shelling of the camp as the Israeli Defence Force entered on foot to occupy a section of the camp. They moved through the houses in order to gain access and avoid sniper casualties. The entry of tanks and bulldozers caused the main destruction of a select zone.3

Local Coverage

3rd April

4th April

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I1: 15th April

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I7: 18th April

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I10: 23rd April

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I15: 23rd April

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I21: 24th April

I22: 24th April

I23: 24th April

67

International Coverage

MEDIA COVERAGE

JENIN REFUGEE CAMP

66

2nd April

Media Coverage The media coverage occurs in the aftermath with this event. As there was an exclusion zone set up that kept out all media. This create a series of blind spots with the media coverage.

Local Coverage

22nd April

23rd April

24th April

25th April

26th April

27th April

28th April

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1st May

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I24: 24th April

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I27: 24th April

I28: 24th April

I29: 24th April

I30: 27th April

I31: 27th April

I32: 29th April

I33: 29th April

I34: April

I135. May

I36: May

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International Coverage

69

MEDIA COVERAGE

JENIN REFUGEE CAMP

68

21st April

Local Coverage

16th May

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I62: May

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71

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MEDIA COVERAGE

JENIN REFUGEE CAMP

70

15th May

I74: 2002

I67: May

I68: May

I69: May

I70: Jenin 2002

I71: Jenin 2002

I72: Jenin 2002

I73: 2002

01

I37

I35

I36

32.4601, 35.28918

I39

Hawashin district

0m

16

L4

180

m

200m L5 220m

240m

L1 Jenin, West Bank 32.4611, 35.3 A1

260m

Reconsturction of Event Through Media

D.3 400yardsx400yards

D.1

F3

D.3 Worst Hit Refugees

D.4 Worst Hit F3 IDF D.2 100 Yardsx100 Yards

F4 F2

0m

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F1

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180

m

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D1. Searching Jenin D2. Haaretz D3. The Telegraph D4. The Guardian

Entry with Tank Positioning T1. CNN

Bulldozer

B1. Searching Jenin P1. Searching Jenin P2. Human Rights Watch B2. Human Rights Watch 260m

Entry on Foot

F1. CNN Reconsturction of Event Through Media F2. Searching Jenin The conflicting media sources creates a F3. BBC conflicting narration of the event F4. Human Rights Watch

77

THE IMAGINARY

JENIN REFUGEE CAMP

76

1:10000

x200%

x400%

x800%

x1200%

x1600%

Blurred Resolution of Jenin As one zooms into the refugee camp the blurred condition is created. It highlights the interiority of the refugee camp and how one cannot necessarily view inside at all times.

79

THE IMAGINARY

JENIN REFUGEE CAMP

78

x400%

Jenin In the aftermath the border of Jenin is refocused to that of the area of destruction. This becomes the new reading of the city.

This refocusing zooms into the city which is already blurred.

Everything else fades away. The pixilation occurs due to the exaggeration of the scale of the area and its dislocation from the city

Claim

From the investigation into the Jenin Refugee Camp one is able to understand the way in which the media presents the refugee camp and how the media affects the perception of the camp on an urban level and hence, the imaginary.

The physical void that is created by the IDF in the Jenin Refugee Camp is comparable to and realises Agamben’s theory of the state of exception. As the refugee camp ceases to exist due to the void, a zone of ambiguity is created. This ambiguity of the actions happening inside the void makes one question the sequence of events, as one cannot accurately describe what occurred as the refugee camp transitions out of a state of exception and back into reality.

The borders shifted in this period of crisis from that of the open borders of the city of Jenin to the temporarily closed borders of the exclusion zone. This creates a change in focus from that of the exclusion zone whilst the event is taking place. In the aftermath the border is further refocused to the destruction zone.

One can only read the area of the destruction through the varying media sources depiction and locations discussed as they present the destruction zone as the whole city rather it just being one small section of the city.

81

CLAIM

JENIN REFUGEE CAMP

80

As explored an exclusion zone was set up during the operation in the Jenin refugee camp, which prohibited media coverage of the event. Subsequently the only media coverage was in the aftermath. This created a void. The blind spot that occurred between 2nd- 15th April is integral in understanding, as it then makes one question the validity of the reportage due to the lack of real time data. It also presents a situation in which there are varying perspectives on the event. However, these perspectives are able one to form an understanding of the refugee camp’s relation to the urban environment through a way in which the borders shifted in time.

In this moment the destruction zone is the city. It is viewed in high definition whilst the rest of the refugee camp sits in the blurry state of existence.

REFERENCES

L1. Giacaman and Johnson, 2002, Who Lives in Jenin Refugee Camp?, Abudis, Birzeit University, viewed 19th March 2015<www.abudis.net/jenin_population.html> L2. Giacaman and Johnson, 2002, Who Lives in Jenin Refugee Camp?, Abudis, Birzeit University, viewed 19th March 2015<www.abudis.net/jenin_population.html> L3. Giacaman and Johnson, 2002, Who Lives in Jenin Refugee Camp?, Abudis, Birzeit University, viewed 19th March 2015<www.abudis.net/jenin_population.html> L4. Giacaman and Johnson, 2002, Who Lives in Jenin Refugee Camp?, Abudis, Birzeit University, viewed 19th March 2015<www.abudis.net/jenin_population.html> L5. Author Unknown,2010, Jenin in Ruins, viewed, 19th March 2015<peace4palestinehousewife4pale.blogspot.com.au/2010/07/> L6. Hoffman,2002, The Israeli Genocide in Palestine, March 29 - April 18, 2002 , Idaho, viewed: 19th March 2015, <www.revisionisthistory.org/palestine52.html> L7. Author Unknown,2010, Jenin in Ruins, viewed, 19th March 2015<peace4palestinehousewife4pale.blogspot.com.au/2010/07/> L8. Hoffman,2002, The Israeli Genocide in Palestine, March 29 - April 18, 2002 , Idaho, viewed: 19th March 2015, <www.revisionisthistory.org/palestine52.html> L9. Hoffman,2002, The Israeli Genocide in Palestine, March 29 - April 18, 2002 , Idaho, viewed: 19th March 2015, <www.revisionisthistory.org/palestine52.html> I1. Author Unknown,2010, Jenin in Ruins, viewed, 19th March 2015,<peace4palestinehousewife4pale.blogspot.com.au/2010/07/> I2. Author Unknown, 2002,Life and Dead, Destruction in Jenin, viewed: 19th March 2015,<http://www.peacenowar.net/Palestine/News/April%2015%2002--Jenin.htm> I3. Author Unknown, 2002, Photos for April 15, 2002, Lawerence Journal World, viewed: 19th March 2015,<www2.ljworld.com/photos/2002/apr/15/> I4.Author Unknown,2010, Jenin in Ruins, viewed, 19th March 2015<peace4palestinehousewife4pale.blogspot.com.au/2010/07/> I5. Author Unknown, 2002,Life and Dead, Destruction in Jenin, viewed: 19th March 2015,<http://www.peacenowar.net/Palestine/News/April%2015%2002--Jenin.htm> I6. Author Unknown, 2002,Life and Dead, Destruction in Jenin, viewed: 19th March 2015,<http://www.peacenowar.net/Palestine/News/April%2015%2002--Jenin.htm> I7. Hoffman,2002, The Israeli Genocide in Palestine, March 29 - April 18, 2002 , Idaho, viewed: 19th March 2015, <www.revisionisthistory.org/palestine52.html>

I14.Hoffman,2002, The Israeli Genocide in Palestine, March 29 - April 18, 2002 , Idaho, viewed: 19th March 2015, <www.revisionisthistory.org/palestine52.html> I15.Hoffman,2002, The Israeli Genocide in Palestine, March 29 - April 18, 2002 , Idaho, viewed: 19th March 2015, <www.revisionisthistory.org/palestine52.html> I16.Hoffman,2002, The Israeli Genocide in Palestine, March 29 - April 18, 2002 , Idaho, viewed: 19th March 2015, <www.revisionisthistory.org/palestine52.html> I17. Author Unknown, 2002, Jenin Refugee Camp - West Bank - 23 April 2002 , viewed: 19th March 2015, <http://www.interpeace.com/ippajenin.htm> I18.uthor Unknown, 2002, Jenin Refugee Camp - West Bank - 23 April 2002 , viewed: 19th March 2015, <http://www.interpeace.com/ippajenin.htm> I19.uthor Unknown, 2002, Jenin Refugee Camp - West Bank - 23 April 2002 , viewed: 19th March 2015, <http://www.interpeace.com/ippajenin.htm>

I75. Delahaye, 2002, Luc Delahaye turns war photography into an uncomfortable art Jenin 2002, Guardian News, viewed: 19th March 2015, <www.theguardian.com/ artanddesign/2011/aug/09/luc-delahaye-war-photography-art>

I23.Primeau, 2007, Jenin, Palestine, viewed: 19th March 2015,<www.primeau-canada. com/pal-jenin.htm>I24.www.primeau-canada.com/pal-jenin.htm I25.Primeau, 2007, Jenin, Palestine, viewed: 19th March 2015,<www.primeau-canada. com/pal-jenin.htm> I26.Primeau, 2007, Jenin, Palestine, viewed: 19th March 2015,<www.primeau-canada. com/pal-jenin.htm>I27.www.primeau-canada.com/pal-jenin.htm I28.Primeau, 2007, Jenin, Palestine, viewed: 19th March 2015,<www.primeau-canada. com/pal-jenin.htm> I29.Primeau, 2007, Jenin, Palestine, viewed: 19th March 2015,<www.primeau-canada. com/pal-jenin.htm> I30. Author Unknown,2010, Jenin in Ruins, viewed, 19th March 2015<peace4palestinehousewife4pale.blogspot.com.au/2010/07/>

I.9Hoffman,2002, The Israeli Genocide in Palestine, March 29 - April 18, 2002 , Idaho, viewed: 19th March 2015, <www.revisionisthistory.org/palestine52.html>

I32.Author Unknown, 2002,Life and Dead, Destruction in Jenin, viewed: 19th March 2015,<http://www.peacenowar.net/Palestine/News/April%2015%2002--Jenin.htm>

I10.Hoffman,2002, The Israeli Genocide in Palestine, March 29 - April 18, 2002 , Idaho, viewed: 19th March 2015, <www.revisionisthistory.org/palestine52.html> I11.Hoffman,2002, The Israeli Genocide in Palestine, March 29 - April 18, 2002 , Idaho, viewed: 19th March 2015, <www.revisionisthistory.org/palestine52.html>

I33.Author Unknown, 2002,Life and Dead, Destruction in Jenin, viewed: 19th March 2015,<http://www.peacenowar.net/Palestine/News/April%2015%2002--Jenin.htm> I34.Author Unknown, 2002,Life and Dead, Destruction in Jenin, viewed: 19th March 2015,<http://www.peacenowar.net/Palestine/News/April%2015%2002--Jenin.htm> I35. Towell, 2002, Distro - Aftermath in Palestine. Jenin, Israel. 2002 Larry Towell, Magnum Photos, viewed 19th March 2015, <www.magnumphotos.com/C. aspx?VP3=SearchResult&ALID=2K7O3RBWILAP>

D2. Harel, 2002, Destruction everywhere, no signs of a massacre, Haaretz, Israel, viewed: 19th March 2015, <www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/destruction-everywhereno-signs-of-a-massacre-1.47737> D3. Blair, 2002, Blasted to rubble by the Israelis, The Telegraph, United Kingdom, viewed: 19th March,<www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/ israel/1391132/Blasted-to-rubble-by-the-Israelis.html> D4. The Guardian 83

I73.Author Unknown, 2009, Jenin News, viewed: 19th March, 2015, <samsonblinded. org/news/wp-content/uploads/HLIC/d09dfd60794c7dec054aefcd0ae299c3.jpg>

I21.Author Unknown,2010, Jenin in Ruins, viewed, 19th March 2015<peace4palestinehousewife4pale.blogspot.com.au/2010/07/> I22.Primeau, 2007, Jenin, Palestine, viewed: 19th March 2015,<www.primeau-canada. com/pal-jenin.htm>

D1. Turk, Searching Jenin: Eyewitness Accounts of the Israeli Invasion, Cune Press (2003) Seattle

I72.Author Unknown, 2002,Life and Dead, Destruction in Jenin, viewed: 19th March 2015,<http://www.peacenowar.net/Palestine/News/April%2015%2002--Jenin.htm>

174.Author Unknown, n.d, Mount Scenario Development, viewed: 19th March 2015, <csel.eng.ohio-state.edu/productions/xcta/1.3.html>

I31. Author Unknown,2010, Jenin in Ruins, viewed, 19th March 2015<peace4palestinehousewife4pale.blogspot.com.au/2010/07/>

I13.Hoffman,2002, The Israeli Genocide in Palestine, March 29 - April 18, 2002 ,

I70. Author Unknown, 2002, Destruction of Jenin refugee camp , Electronic Intifada, viewed: 19th March 2015, <http://electronicintifada.net/content/destruction-jeninrefugee-camp/939 9> I71.Author Unknown, 2002, Destruction of Jenin refugee camp , Electronic Intifada, viewed: 19th March 2015, <http://electronicintifada.net/content/destruction-jeninrefugee-camp/939 9>

I20.uthor Unknown, 2002, Jenin Refugee Camp - West Bank - 23 April 2002 , viewed: 19th March 2015, <http://www.interpeace.com/ippajenin.htm>

I8.Hoffman,2002, The Israeli Genocide in Palestine, March 29 - April 18, 2002 , Idaho, viewed: 19th March 2015, <www.revisionisthistory.org/palestine52.html>

I12.Hoffman,2002, The Israeli Genocide in Palestine, March 29 - April 18, 2002 , Idaho, viewed: 19th March 2015, <www.revisionisthistory.org/palestine52.html>

I36 -I69.Towell, 2002, Distro - Aftermath in Palestine. Jenin, Israel. 2002 Larry Towell, Magnum Photos, viewed 19th March 2015, <www.magnumphotos.com/C. aspx?VP3=SearchResult&ALID=2K7O3RBWILAP>

Drawing References Drawing A1 F1. Author Unknown, 2002, Jenin combat began with gunfire, ended by bulldozers , CNN, viewed: 19th March 2015, <http://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/ meast/05/04/jenin.combat/> F2. Turk, Searching Jenin: Eyewitness Accounts of the Israeli Invasion, Cune Press (2003) Seattle F3. Kafala , 2002, The battle for Jenin, BBC, Jerusalem, viewed: 19th March 2015, <news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/middle_east/1926194.stm> B1. Turk, Searching Jenin: Eyewitness Accounts of the Israeli Invasion, Cune Press (2003) Seattle B2. Human Rights Watch, 2002, Background: the Battle Inside Jenin Refugee, viewed: 19th March 2015,<www.hrw.org/reports/2002/israel3/israel0502-03. htm#P156_22749> P1. Turk, Searching Jenin: Eyewitness Accounts of the Israeli Invasion, Cune Press (2003) Seattle P2. Human Rights Watch, 2002, Background: the Battle Inside Jenin Refugee, viewed: 19th March 2015,<www.hrw.org/reports/2002/israel3/israel0502-03. htm#P156_22749> T1. Author Unknown, 2002, Jenin combat began with gunfire, ended by bulldozers , CNN, viewed: 19th March 2015, <http://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/ meast/05/04/jenin.combat/>

REFERENCES

JENIN REFUGEE CAMP

82

Idaho, viewed: 19th March 2015, <www.revisionisthistory.org/palestine52.html>

Nahr Al Bared Seige of Nahr al Bared 2007 The Lebanese army has no control over these areas based on the Cairo agreement of 1969 that they still honour.

This event as it is stretched over three months, created an interesting spatial situation. The siege in which was put in place created a situation where no one could enter or exit the camp. Subsequently, this creates a void in media, as there was no access to the site. Further, the information in which they received was limited as the Lebanese army controlled as much as they could, as it would compromise their positions and military tactics.

The three month long conflict in Nahr al Bared was reported to have begun on the 20th of May 20071. Nahr Al Bared is located in northern Lebanon on the outskirts of Tripoli. Some media outlets reported this event as a response by the Lebanese Army. The Lebanese army had attempted to arrest the culprits of a bank robbery in Tripoli and it is suggested that they are members of Fatah al Islam. 2 The guard posts of the refugee camp were attacked, which led the Lebanese army sending reinforcement to control the conflict and seizing the camp. It is important to understand that each Lebanese refugee camp has guard post outside, they are control the entry points of the refugee camp. These camps exist as their own entity within cities, as a Palestinian refugee camp.

1 Alarabiya.net, (2007). Lebanese army battles Palestinian militants, <www.alarabiya. net/articles/2007/05/20/34632.html> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

2 KOMO News, (2007). Dozens killed in Lebanon gunbattle between Islamic militants, security forces. <www.komonews.com/news/national/7600082.html> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

The void was not only limited to the event but the exclusion zone continued on after the victory. The void in media constructs the image of the battle through different pieces or traces of information. There is no direct or clear narrative to be told, due to the direct exclusion of media. Through this event one can see the different movement of people and the different characters, which have taken part in this event from the reporters, humanitarian aid, the refugees trying to escape, the Lebanese army, and that of Fatah al Islam.

In this event one has to use each media source to compile the narrative, for example international media sources such as BBC3 and the Daily Mail4 describe how the camp became seized. The events aren’t conflicting but the narrative has gaps in it, as it has been described that the Lebanese Army controlled the outlet of media in order to protect their tactics and positions.

The series of events that took place and the subsequent destruction of the camp create a new reading of the city.

3 News.bbc.co.uk, (2007). BBC NEWS | Middle East | Lebanese troops battle militants, <news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6673639.stm> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

4 Mail Online, (2007). Death toll nears 70 as Lebanese army pounds Palestinian camp. <www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-456464/Death-toll-nears-70-Lebanesearmy-pounds-Palestinian-camp.html> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

85

OVERVIEW

NAHR AL BARED

84

Al Jazeera 86

21st May 2007

L1.22nd May 2007

L2. 22nd May 2007

L3. 22nd May 2007

L4. 22nd May 2007

L5. 22nd May 2007

L6. 22nd May 2007

L7. 22nd May 2007

L8. 23rd May 2007

L9. 23rd May 2007

L10. 23rd May 2007

L11. 23rd May 2007

L12. 23rd May 2007

L13. 23rd May 2007

L14. 23rd May 2007

L15. 23rd May 2007

L16. 23rd May 2007

L17. 23rd May 2007

L18. 23rd May 2007

L19. 23rd May 2007

L20. 23rd May 2007

L21. 23rd May 2007

L22. 23rd May 2007

I1. 20th May 2007

I2. 20th May 2007

I3. 20th May 2007

I4. 20th May 2007

I5. 21st May 2007

I6. 21st May 2007

I7. 21st May 2007

I8. 21st May 2007

I9. T21st May 2007

I10. 21st May 2007

I11. 21st May 2007

I12. 21st May 2007

I13. 21st May 2007

I14. 21st May 2007

I15. 21st May 2007

I16. 21st May 2007

I17. 21st May 2007

I18. 21st May 2007

I19. 21st May

I20. 21st May 2007

I21. 21st May 2007

I22. 21st May 2007

I23. 21st May 2007

I24. 21st May 2007

I25. 22nd May 2007

I26. 22nd May 2007

I27. 22nd May 2007

I28. 22nd May 2007

I29. 22nd May 2007

I30. 22nd May 2007

I31. 22nd May 2007

I32. 22nd May 2007

I33.22nd May 2007

I34. 22nd May 2007

I36. 23rd May 2007

I37.23rd May 2007

87

International Coverage

NAHR AL BARED

MEDIA COVERAGE

20th May 2007

Media Coverage There is a continous of stream of coverage in the first few days of the event. One can see the difference of coverage between that of Al Jazeera and International Media . This difference highlights the void in international broadcasting

Al Jazeera 88

I29. 23rd May 2007

24th May 2007

25th May 2007

26th May 2007

27th May 2007

28th May 2007

29th May 2007

30th May 2007

31stMay 2007

1st June 2007

2nd June 2007

3rd June 2007

4th June 2007

5th June 2007

6th June 2007

7th June 2007

8th June 2007

9th June 2007

10th June 2007

11th June 2007

12th June 2007

13th June 2007

14th June 2007

I38. 23rd May 2007

I39. 23rd May 2007

I40. 23rd May 2007

I41. 24th May 2007

I42. 25th May 2007

I43. 25th May 2007

I44. 25th May 2007

I45. 25th May 2007

I46. 25th May 2007

I47. 26th May 2007

I48. 26th May 2007

I49. T27th May 2007

28th May 2007

29th May 2007

30th May 2007

31stMay 2007

I50. 1st June 2007

I51. 1st June 2007

I52. 1st June 2007

I53. 1st June 2007

I54. 1st June 2007

I55. 1st June 2007

I56. 1st June 2007

I57. 1st June 2007

I58. 1st June 2007

I59. 1st June 2007

I60. 1st June 2007

I61. 1st June 2007

I62. 1st June 2007

I63. 1st June 2007

I64. 1st June 2007

I65. 1st June 2007

I66. 2nd June 2007

I67. 2nd June 2007

I68. 2nd June 2007

I69. 2nd June 2007

89

International Coverage

NAHR AL BARED

MEDIA COVERAGE

128. 23rd May 2007

Al Jazeera 90

15th June 2007

16th June 2007

17th June 2007

18th June 2007

19th June 2007

20th June 2007

21st June 2007

22nd June 2007

23rd June 2007

25th June 2007

26th June 2007

27th June 2007

28th June 2007

29th June 2007

30th June 2007

1st July 2007

2nd July 2007

3rd July 2007

4th July 2007

5th July 2007

6th July 2007

7th July 2007

8th July 2007

I69. 2nd June 2007

I70. 2nd June 2007

I71. 2nd June 2007

I72. 2nd June 2007

I73. 2nd June 2007

I74. 2nd June 2007

I75. 2nd June 2007

I76. 2nd June 2007

I77. 2nd June 2007

I78.2nd June 2007

I79.3rd June 2007

I80. 3rd June 2007

I81. 3rd June 2007

I82. 3rd June 2007

I83. 4th June 2007

I84. 4th June 2007

4th June 2007

I85. 6th June 2007

7th June 2007

8th June 2007

9th June 2007

10th June 2007

I86. 11th June 2007

I87. 12th June 2007

12th June 2007

I88. 13th June 2007

14th June 2007

15th June 2007

16th June 2007

17th June 2007

I89. 18th June 2007

I90. 18th June 2007

19th June 2007

20th June 2007

I91. 21st June 2007

I92. 21st June 2007

91

International Coverage

NAHR AL BARED

MEDIA COVERAGE

Al Jazeera 92

11th July 2007

12th July 2007

13th July 2007

14th July 2007

15th July 2007

16th July 2007

17th July 2007

18th July 2007

19th July 2007

20th July 2007

21st July 2007

22nd July 2007

23rd July 2007

24th July 2007

25th July 2007

26th July 2007

27th July 2007

28th July 2007

29th July 2007

30th July 2007

31st July 2007

1st August 2007

2nd August 2007

I93. 21st June 2007

I94. 21st June 2007

I95. 21st June 2007

I96. 21st June 2007

I97. 21st June 2007

I98. 21st June 2007

I99. 21st June 2007

I100. 22nd June 2007

I101. 23rd June 2007

I102. 23rd June 2007

24th June 2007

25th June 2007

26th June 2007

28th June 2007

I103. 29th June 2007

I104. 29th June 2007

I105. 29th June 2007

I106.29th June 2007

30tth June 2007

1st July 2007

I107. 2nd July 2007

I108. 2nd July 2007

I109. 2nd July 2007

I110. 2nd July 2007

I111. 2nd July 2007

I112. 2nd July 2007

I113. 2nd July 2007

3rd July 2007

4th July 2007

5th July 2007

6th July 2007

7th July 2007

7th July 2007

8th July 2007

9th July 2007

10th July 2007

93

International Coverage

NAHR AL BARED

MEDIA COVERAGE

10th July 2007

Al Jazeera 94

4th August 2007

5th August 2007

6th August 2007

7th August 2007

8th August 2007

9th August 2007

10th August 2007

11th August 2007

12th August 2007

13th August 2007

14th August 2007

15th August 2007

16th August 2007

17th August 2007

18th August 2007

19th August 2007

20th August 2007

21st August 2007

22nd August 2007

23rd August 2007

24th August 2007

25th August 2007

26th August 2007

11th July 2007

12th July 2007

13th July 2007

14th July 2007

II14. 15th July 2007

I115.15th July 2007 16th July 2007

18th July 2007

19th July 2007

20th July 2007

21st July 2007

22ndJuly 2007

29th July 2007

30th July 2007

31st July 2007

1st August 2007

2nd August 2007

3rd August 2007

10th August 2007

11th August 2007

12th August 2007

13th August 2007

14th August 2007

15th August 2007

95

International Coverage

NAHR AL BARED

MEDIA COVERAGE

3rd August 2007

23rd July 2007

4th August 2007

I116. 24th July 2007

5th August 2007

I117. 25th July 2007

6th August 2007

I118. 26th July

7th August 2007

I119. 27th July 2007

8th August 2007

28th July 2007

9th August 2007

Al Jazeera 96

27th August 2007

28th August 2007

29th August 2007

30th August 2007

31st August 2007

1st September 2007

2nd September 2007

8th September 2007

9th September 2007

10th September 2007

16th August 2007

17th August 2007

18th August 2007

19th August 2007

20th August 2007

21st August 2007

22nd August 2007

28th August 2007

29th August 2007

30th August 2007

31st August 2007

1st September 2007

I121. 2nd September 2007

I128. 3rd September 2007

I129. 4th September 2007

I130. 4th September 2007

I140. 4th September 2007

I150. 4th September 2007

I151. 4th September 2007

3rd September 2007

4th September 2007

5th September 2007

6th September 2007

7th September 2007

97

International Coverage

NAHR AL BARED

MEDIA COVERAGE

23rdAugust 2007

I120. 24th August 2007

26th August 2007

27th August 2007

I122. 2nd September 2007 I123. 2nd September 2007 I124. 2nd September 2007 I125. 3rd September 2007

I126. 3rd September 2007

I127. 3rd September 2007

I152. 24th September 2007 I153. 4th September 2007

I156.4th September 2007

I157. 5th September 2007

I154. 4th September 2007

25th August 2007

I155. 4th September 2007

99

98

International Coverage

NAHR AL BARED

MEDIA COVERAGE

6th September 2007

7th September 2007

I158. 8th September 2007

9th September 2007

I159. 10th September 2007

17.4th June 2007 Intensfied An Offensive Against Fatah NY Times

2.21st May 2007 Opened Fire On Roads Leading To The City And Ambushed A Military Unit Komonews

18.6th June 2007 Lebanese Troops Moving Into The Palestinian Refugee Camp Asian News

3.21st May 2007 Militants Burst Out Of The Refugee Camp, Seizing Lebanese Army Positions, Capturing 2 Armored Vehicles And Ambusing Troops China Daily

19. 2nd September 2007 Others Moving Through The Camp Ceders Revolution

NAHR AL BARED

7. 22nd May 2007 Two Hour Cease Fire Monday Afternoon To Let Red Cross In To Get Out Injured NY Times 8.22nd May 2007 Streamed Out Of Nahr El Bared’s Western Gate On Food And In Cars China Daily 9.22nd May 2007 Lebanonese Army Troops, Backed By Tanks And Armored Personnel Carriers, Surrounded The Camp NPR 10. 24th Amy 2007 Red Cross Allowed To Enter, It Is Possinle To Enter From The Back Side ( East Side) Counterpounch 11.22nd May 2007 A Convoy Of Un Relief Supplied Was Hit Tucsoncitizen 12.22nd May 2007 Grendaes And Machineguns At Army Pots On The Camp Perimeter The Guardian 13.3rd June 2007 Forced Milit`Ants To The Southern Part Of The Camp BBC

21. 2nd September 2007 Lebanese Army Took Complete Control Of The Nahr El Bared Refugee Camp Ceders Revolution

25.

27.

22. 3rd September 2007 Another Group Struck Elsewhere To Troy To Escape The Guardian

18.

20.

23. 3rd September 2007 Militants Attepted A Breakout From The Camp The Guardian

9.

6.

16.

ad

6.22nd May 2007 Senveral Militants Tried To Come Onto Main Road NY Times

18.

in ro

100

5.22nd May 2007 Terrified Drivers On The Mains Road North Of The City Scambled Acorss As Soldiers At Army Checkpoints Inspected Cars In Search Of Militants NY Times

22.

28.

20. 2nd September 2007 Lebanese Soldiers Are Searching The Surrounding Areas For Militants Ceders Revolution

24. 3rd September 2007 Militants Went Through An Underground Tunnel To An Area Of The Camp That The Army Controls The Guardian

17.

21.

3.

Blocked Surrounding Roads Aawsat

11.31.

23.

27. 3rd September 2007 Bushes Set Fire To Deny Militants A Hiding Place The Guardian

15.3rd June 2007 10 Day Cease Fire The Guardian

29. 3rd September 2007 Patrol Boats Looking For Bodies In The Sea Aawsat

16.4th June 2007 The Army Hasn’t Entered The Camp’s Official Bounaries, It Has Captured The Militants Positions On Its Outskirts, Confining Militants To About A Third Of The Camp ABC

30. 10th September 2007 Suspected Arrested In El Mineih Alarabiya

10.

14.

22.

26.

25.

2.

3rd September 2007 Set Fire To Fields Aawsat

28. 3rd September 2007 Helicopes Flew Over Th Camp In Low Reconnaissance Runs Aawsat

13.

18.

26. 3rd September 2007 Residents Armed With Guns And Sticks Fanned Out To Protect Their Houses And Prevent Militants From Seeking Refuge The Guardian

14.3rd June 2007 No Independant Access To Camp The Guardian

15.

19.

25. 3rd September 2007 Roads Were Blocked To Stope People Sneaking Out The Guardian

3rd September 2007 Set Fire To Fields

ma

4. 22nd May 2007 With Tanks And Heavy Armor Rumbling Past, Occasionally Openining Fire At Buildings While Snipers On Rooftops Fired At Anything That Moved Inside NY TIMES

29.

8.

1.21st May 2007 Seized Lebanonese Positions At The Entrance Of The Camp Komonews

30. 1.

El, Mina, Triopoli to Bedwaii Refugee Camp

Construction of Event Through Media The inconsistant media coverage is pieced togehter to create a narrative of the conflict in Nahr al Bared, creating a dislocated city.w

31. 10th September 2007 They fled the camp on the night of the 1-2 September Alarabiya

1. Komonnews 2. Komonnews 3. China Daily 4. NY Times 5. NY Times 6. NY Times 7. NY Times 8. China Daily 9. NPR 10. Counterpounch 11. Tucsoncitizen 12. The Guardiana 13. BBC 14. The Guardiana 16. ABC news 17. NY Times 18. Asian News 19. Ceders Revolution 20. Ceders Revolutions 21. Ceders Revolutions 22. The Guardian 23. The Guardian 24. Aawsat and the Guardian 25. Aawsat and the Guardian 26. The Guardian 27. The Guardian and the Aawsat 28. Aawsat 29. Aawsat 30. Alarabiya 31. Alarabiya refugees

humanitarian aid

fatah

residents

reporters

lebanese army

103

102

NAHR AL BARED

CONSTRUCTION OF EVENTS

May 2007

June 2007

December 2007

2012-15

Series of aerials that highlights the destruction in Nahr al Bared and how it has evolved over time to a new urban environment but still dislocated due to the continious military zone.

105

104

NAHR AL BARED

CONSTRUCTION OF EVENTS

The solid border of the siege is higlighted through the distance of the images from various media sources. This border is viewed in high definitons whilst the rest of the refugee camp is in a state of ambiguity. The city is dislocated and one is left with a series of elevations as the city

Claim

Due to the physical void around Nahr al Bared that led to media personnel being forbidden from entering the camp as well as humanitarian aid. The consequence of this is that media is only read at a distance. On top of this, a political constraint was also in place due to the limited release of information from the Lebanese Army as they didn’t want to compromise their tactics and positions.

As a consequence the event is read through splices of time from that of 22nd May -25th, 1st June -10th June and 1st September -3rd September where there was an oscillation between immense coverage to nil. The reasoning for these intermittent voids is unclear, therefore making the narrative of the event consciously unclear. The continuous voids that occurs, in which the city disappears and appears inextricably changed is very much evident in the siege of Nahr al Bared.

The void is a continuous document of destruction of the refugee camp over 3 months due to the conflict between the Lebanese Army and Fatah al Islam. This refugee camp exists as a separate entity from the urban environment. As part of the Cairo agreement, which has been honoured since 1969, the Lebanese Army cannot enter or have any kind of influence over it. This is read on an urban level through the checkpoints in which one has to pass to enter the refugee camp.

The solidification of the border of the refugee camp changed the reading of the city. As it was one that sat within the community of Tripoli but the siege highlights its separateness from Tripoli. This impacts distribution of media as one isn’t able to get into the camp, which is highlighted through the international media coverage as most of the images were at a distance. However, Al Jazeera is able to infiltrate the camp through its reputation it has developed being the “other opinion”.

There is a high definition image of the border but the interior of the camp still exists in a blurry state, as there is a continuous distance of media as it slips in and out of the void, the blurry resolution is in flux. The camp is viewed through a series of dsitant elevations, dislocating it from its environment.

107

CLAIM

NAHR AL BARED

106

This allows for a local perspective of the camp. Therefore, the local coverage is that of the car that film as it drives through the main road of Nahr Al Bared. At this point the road and the immediate surroundings of destroyed buildings sit in high definition.

REFERENCES

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I16. NPR.org, (2007). Lebanon Attacks Militants in Refugee Camp. <www.npr.org/ templates/story/story.php?storyId=10292649> [Accessed 8 Jun. 2015].

L8-24 YouTube, (2007). Exclusive interview with Fatah al-Islam leader - 23 May 2007. [<www.youtube.com/watch?v=Aehhpv2Iob8> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I17. Tran, M. (2007). Lebanese troops shell Palestinian refugees. The Guardian<www.theguardian.com/world/2007/may/21/syria.marktran> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I1. KOMO News, (2007). Dozens killed in Lebanon gunbattle between Islamic militants, security forces. <www.komonews.com/news/national/7600082.html> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

108

I2. Alarabiya.net, (2007). Lebanese army battles Palestinian militants, <www. alarabiya.net/articles/2007/05/20/34632.html> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I4. Getty Images, (2007). Men run away from sniper fire as smoke rises in the distance from the…., <www.gettyimages.com.au/detail/news-photo/men-run-awayfrom-sniper-fire-as-smoke-rises-in-the-news-photo/74317212> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

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I7. Mail Online, (2007). Death toll nears 70 as Lebanese army pounds Palestinian camp. <www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-456464/Death-toll-nears-70-Lebanesearmy-pounds-Palestinian-camp.html> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I8 Getty Images, (2007). Men run away from sniper fire as smoke rises in the distance from the…., <www.gettyimages.com.au/detail/news-photo/men-run-awayfrom-sniper-fire-as-smoke-rises-in-the-news-photo/74317212> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

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I12. Anarkismo.net, (2007). Fierce clashes continue at Palestinian refugee camp in Lebanon - Anarkismo. </www.anarkismo.net/article/5662> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I30. Fattah, (2007). Lebanese Army and Islamists Battle for 2nd Day - New York Times <www.nytimes.com/2007/05/22/world/middleeast/22lebanon. html?n=Top%2FReference%2FTimes%20Topics%2FSubjects%2FI%2FIslam&_ r=0> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

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I15 Getty Images, (2007). Men run away from sniper fire as smoke rises in the distance from the…., <www.gettyimages.com.au/detail/news-photo/men-run-awayfrom-sniper-fire-as-smoke-rises-in-the-news-photo/74317212> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I31. Smh.com.au, (2007). Sixty-six killed in Lebanon camp siege - World - smh. com.au. <www.smh.com.au/news/world/sixtysix-killed-in-lebanon-campsiege/2007/05/21/1179601331755.html> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I32.-35 Cbsnews.com, (2007). Lebanon Refugee Camp Siege. [<www.cbsnews.com/ pictures/lebanon-refugee-camp-siege/> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I36. SFGate, (2007). Bodies piling up in assault on camp / Militants holding off Lebanese army. <www.sfgate.com/news/article/Bodies-piling-up-in-assault-on-campMilitants-2592542.php#photo-2082320> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I38. msnbc.com, (2007). Lebanese army lays siege to refugee camp. <www.nbcnews. com/id/18777683/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/t/lebanese-army-lays-siegerefugee-camp/#.VWa2Ey6BtfE> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I39-41. Cbsnews.com, (2007). Lebanon Refugee Camp Siege. [<www.cbsnews.com/ pictures/lebanon-refugee-camp-siege/> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I42. Peacewithrealism.org, (2007). The Real Apartheid. <www.peacewithrealism.org/ headline/apartheid.htm> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I43. Edition.cnn.com, (2007). Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon: Facts and figures - CNN.com <http://edition.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/meast/05/21/lebanon. camps/index.html?eref=rss_latest> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I44. www.galizacig.galactualidade/2007/05/vermelho_conflitos_no_norte_do_libano I45-46. Peacewithrealism.org, (2007). The Real Apartheid. <www.peacewithrealism. org/headline/apartheid.htm> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I47. Editor, B. (2007). Daily Telegraph’s Editors Run For Cover. HonestReporting. < http://honestreporting.com/daily_telegraph/> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I48. Tadamon.ca, (2007). Tadamon! » Nahr el Bared Relief Campaign: Appeal for support for fleeing refugees. <www.tadamon.ca/post/695> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I49. Palestinalibre.org, (2007). Nuestra Posición: Los Refugiados Palestinos: ¡Que vuelvan a sus hogares!. < http://palestinalibre.org/articulo.php?a=4268> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I50-54. The Orange Room - Lebanon’s number one discussion forums, (2007).

Weekend Pix - Friday June 1st thru Sunday June 3rd 2007. <www.oroom.org/forum/ threads/weekend-pix-friday-june-1st-thru-sunday-june-3rd-2007.26643/> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I55. Cbsnews.com, (2007). Lebanon Refugee Camp Siege. [<www.cbsnews.com/ pictures/lebanon-refugee-camp-siege/> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I56. The Orange Room - Lebanon’s number one discussion forums, (2007).

Weekend Pix - Friday June 1st thru Sunday June 3rd 2007. <www.oroom.org/forum/ threads/weekend-pix-friday-june-1st-thru-sunday-june-3rd-2007.26643/> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I57. Cbsnews.com, (2007). Lebanon Refugee Camp Siege. [<www.cbsnews.com/ pictures/lebanon-refugee-camp-siege/> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I58 Palestinalibre.org, (2007). Nuestra Posición: Los Refugiados Palestinos: ¡Que vuelvan a sus hogares!. < http://palestinalibre.org/articulo.php?a=4268> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I59. Peacewithrealism.org, (2007). The Real Apartheid. <www.peacewithrealism.org/ headline/apartheid.htm> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I60-162. The Orange Room - Lebanon’s number one discussion forums, (2007).

Weekend Pix - Friday June 1st thru Sunday June 3rd 2007. <www.oroom.org/forum/ threads/weekend-pix-friday-june-1st-thru-sunday-june-3rd-2007.26643/> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I63. Cbsnews.com, (2007). Lebanon Refugee Camp Siege. [<www.cbsnews.com/ pictures/lebanon-refugee-camp-siege/> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I64-67. The Orange Room - Lebanon’s number one discussion forums, (2007).

Weekend Pix - Friday June 1st thru Sunday June 3rd 2007. <www.oroom.org/forum/ threads/weekend-pix-friday-june-1st-thru-sunday-june-3rd-2007.26643/> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I68. 20minutes.fr, (2007). A Nahr el-Bared, des tirs de joie pour fêter la fin des combats. <www.20minutes.fr/monde/177854-20070902-nahr-el-bared-tirs-joiefeter-fin-combats> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I69. The Orange Room - Lebanon’s number one discussion forums, (2007).

Weekend Pix - Friday June 1st thru Sunday June 3rd 2007. <www.oroom.org/forum/ threads/weekend-pix-friday-june-1st-thru-sunday-june-3rd-2007.26643/> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I70. Poenglish.blogspot.com.au, (2007). PoEnglish: 06/03/07. <http://poenglish. blogspot.com.au/2007_06_03_archive.html> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I71-73. The Orange Room - Lebanon’s number one discussion forums, (2007).

Weekend Pix - Friday June 1st thru Sunday June 3rd 2007. <www.oroom.org/forum/ threads/weekend-pix-friday-june-1st-thru-sunday-june-3rd-2007.26643/> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I74. Scoop.co.nz, (2007). Exclusive: PhotoEssay Under Siege in North Lebanon | Scoop News. <www.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0707/S00003.htm> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I75-76 The Orange Room - Lebanon’s number one discussion forums, (2007).

Weekend Pix - Friday June 1st thru Sunday June 3rd 2007. <www.oroom.org/forum/ threads/weekend-pix-friday-june-1st-thru-sunday-june-3rd-2007.26643/> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I78. Scoop.co.nz, (2007). Exclusive: PhotoEssay Under Siege in North Lebanon | Scoop News. <www.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0707/S00003.htm> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I79. D. (2007). Libanesische Armee erobert Islamisten-Stellungen | Nahost | DW.DE | 03.06.2007. DW.DE. <www.dw.de/libanesische-armee-erobert-islamistenstellungen/a-2574046> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I80. YouTube, (2007). Nahr El-Bared. [online] <www.youtube.com/ watch?v=MyJasCZK7EE> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I81. D. (2007). Libanesische Armee erobert Islamisten-Stellungen | Nahost | DW.DE | 03.06.2007. DW.DE. <www.dw.de/libanesische-armee-erobert-islamistenstellungen/a-2574046> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I82. YouTube, (2007). Nahr El-Bared. [online] <www.youtube.com/ watch?v=MyJasCZK7EE> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I83. Nytimes.com, (2007). Fighting in Lebanese Refugee Camp Rages, and Spreads New York Times. [online] Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/04/world/ middleeast/04lebanon.html [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I84. Telegraph.co.uk, (2007). Violence spreads to second camp in Lebanon. <www. telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1553585/Violence-spreads-to-second-camp-inLebanon.html> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

109

REFERENCES

NAHR AL BARED

I3. News.bbc.co.uk, (2007). BBC NEWS | Middle East | Lebanese troops battle militants, <news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6673639.stm> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I18. Edition.cnn.com, (2007). Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon: Facts and figures - CNN.com <http://edition.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/meast/05/21/lebanon. camps/index.html?eref=rss_latest> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I37 Edition.cnn.com, (2007). Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon: Facts and figures - CNN.com <http://edition.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/meast/05/21/lebanon. camps/index.html?eref=rss_latest> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I85. Asianews.it, (2007). LEBANON Army enters Nahr el-Bared, first terrorists surrender - Asia News. [online] <www.asianews.it/news-en/Army-enters-Nahr-elBared,-first-terrorists-surrender-9473.html> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I86-87. Premiereurgence.typepad.com, (2007). Actualités: Liban, Ein El Hilweh : l’aide humanitaire de Première Urgence affectée par les affrontements.. <http:// premiereurgence.typepad.com/actualites/2007/06/liban_ein_el_hi.html> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

110

I88. Le Figaro, (2007). Quatrième semaine d’affrontements au nord du Liban. <www.lefigaro.fr/international/2007/06/13/01003-20070613ARTFIG90042quatrieme_semaine_d_affrontements_au_nord_du_liban.php> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I92-99. YouTube, (2007). Lebanese army during combat in Nahr-el-Bared 2007-0621. <www.youtube.com/watch?v=mdvKkaKFQXw> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I100-102. Sietske-in-beiroet.blogspot.com.au, (2007). .: June 2007. [online] Available at: http://sietske-in-beiroet.blogspot.com.au/2007_06_01_archive.html [Accessed 25 May 2015]. I103-106. Palestinianpundit.blogspot.com.au, (2007).

Palestinian Pundit: Lebanese Army Kills Two Palestinians Trying to Return to Nahr El-Bared. [online] Available at: http://palestinianpundit.blogspot.com.au/2007/06/ lebanese-army-kills-two-palestinians.html [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I107-09. Scoop.co.nz, (2007). Exclusive: PhotoEssay Under Siege in North Lebanon | Scoop News. <www.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0707/S00003.htm> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I110. The Orange Room - Lebanon’s number one discussion forums, (2007).

Weekend Pix - Friday June 1st thru Sunday June 3rd 2007. <www.oroom.org/forum/ threads/weekend-pix-friday-june-1st-thru-sunday-june-3rd-2007.26643/> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I111. . Scoop.co.nz, (2007). Exclusive: PhotoEssay Under Siege in North Lebanon | Scoop News. <www.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0707/S00003.htm> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I112. The Orange Room - Lebanon’s number one discussion forums, (2007).

Weekend Pix - Friday June 1st thru Sunday June 3rd 2007. <www.oroom.org/forum/ threads/weekend-pix-friday-june-1st-thru-sunday-june-3rd-2007.26643/> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I113. Scoop.co.nz, (2007). Exclusive: PhotoEssay Under Siege in North Lebanon | Scoop News. <www.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0707/S00003.htm> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I114-15. Happyarabnews.blogspot.com.au, (2007). The Happy Arab News Service: If You’ve got neither Hamas nor Fatah, get yourself Fatah Islam. <happyarabnews. blogspot.com.au/2007/05/if-youve-got-neither-hamas-nor-fatah.html> [Accessed 8 Jun. 2015].

I116. Cbsnews.com, (2007). Lebanon Refugee Camp Siege. [<www.cbsnews.com/ pictures/lebanon-refugee-camp-siege/> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I117. News.xinhuanet.com, (2007). Lebanese army intensifies shelling of Fatah al-Islam militants. [online] Available at: http://news.xinhuanet.com/ english/2007-07/26/content_6431157_3.htm [Accessed 25 May 2015]. I119. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FgqW9LVn7ZM

I121. Author Unknown, (2007). “Civilians” left Nahr L Bared. <www.eliedh.com/ index.php/2007/08/24/civilians-left-nahr-l-bared/> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I122. 20minutes.fr, (2007). A Nahr el-Bared, des tirs de joie pour fêter la fin des combats. <www.20minutes.fr/monde/177854-20070902-nahr-el-bared-tirs-joiefeter-fin-combats> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I123. Author Unknown (2007). World Council for the Cedars Revolution - Complete & Total Victory - Lebanon: Army Takes Nahr El-Bared Camp - Video!. <www.cedarsrevolution.net/jtphp/index.php?option=com_ content&task=view&id=475&Itemid=29> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

111

REFERENCES

NAHR AL BARED

I89-91. Cbsnews.com, (2007). Lebanon Refugee Camp Siege. [<www.cbsnews.com/ pictures/lebanon-refugee-camp-siege/> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I120Author Unknown,(2007). RFI - L’armée progresse pas à pas. <http://www1.rfi. fr/actufr/articles/091/article_54528.asp> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

Ain al Hilweh Flash conflict 2007

113

OVERVIEW

AIN AL HILWEH

112

Concurrently, to that of the siege of Nahr al Bared, there was a flash conflict in the refugee camp of Ain el Hilweh. It is reported that on 3rd June 2007, Jund al Sham militants, who are linked to the Fatah al Islam, attacked a guard post at the Ain el Hilweh refugee camp1. There is a variation in the cause as some media reports in particularly international media bodies such as The Age2 imply that it is a response to the continuous conflict in Nahr al Abred, whilst BBC3 reports that that connection is not clear. This is a minor event but the reading of the city is once again altered because of it. The void in media in this case is the unspecified location of the attack, as well as the consequence of this on the reportage of media about Nahr al Bared.

1 Author Unknown (2007). Violence spreads to second camp in Lebanon. <www. telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1553585/Violence-spreads-to-second-camp-inLebanon.html> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

2 Author Unknown, (2007). Lebanese refugee camp battle spreads - World - theage. com.au. <www.theage.com.au/news/world/lebanese-refugee-camp-battle3 Author Unknown, (2007). BBC NEWS | Middle East | Fighting at second Lebanon camp. <news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6717121.stm> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

Local Coverage 114

L1. 4th June 2007

L2. 4th June 2007

L3. 4th June 2007

L4. 4th June 2007

9th June 2007

10th June 2007

11th June 2007

I1. 3rd June 2007

I2. 4th June 2007

I3. 4th June 2007

I4. 5th June 2007

I5. 5th June 2007

I6. 4th June 2007

I7. 4th June 2007

I8. 5th June 2007

I9. 5th June 2007

I10. 5th June 2007

I11. 5th June 2007

I12. 5th June 2007

113. 5th June 2007

I14. 5th June 2007

I15. 5th June 2007

I16. 5th June 2007

I17. 5th June 2007

I18. 5th June 2007

6th June 2007

7th June 2007

8th June 2007

9th June 2007

10th June 2007

11th June 2007

I19.12th June 2007

I20. 12th June 2007

I21. 12th June 2007

I22. 12th June 2007

L5. 4th June 2007

L6. 4th June 2007

L7. 4th June 2007

L8. 4th June 2007

5th June 2007

6th June 2007

7th June 2007

8th June 2007

115

International Coverage

AIN AL HILWEH

MEDIA COVERAGE

MEDIA COVERAGE The media coverage as a continous stream but you can see the void in local media and how there is no coverage before the event or subsequently afterwards

7.

4.

L2.

L5

L3

L6

Taamir Checkpoint

2

3.

Ain a

l-H

1.5th June 2007 Attack At Entrance Of The Camp The Age

5. ilw eh

community centre

2.4th June 2007 Rocket Proleed Grenade At An Army Checkpoint At Taamir Telegraph

mosque

116

117

AIN AL HILWEH

4.4th June 2007 Lebanses Army Was Sending Reinforcements To The Art Telegraph

CONSTRUCTION OF EVENTS

3.4th June 2007 Shooting At Army Positions From The Roofs Of Several Buildings Telegraph sidon town hall 6.

5.4th June 2007 Firing At An Army Checkpoint Nearby 3 Hour Firefight Which Militants And The Army Exchanged Heavy Machine Ggun Fire And Hand Grenades NY Times

Ain

al-H ilw eh

6.4th June 2007 Hundreds Of Fearfull...Fled And Descdend On Sidonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s City Hall NY Times 7.9th June 2007 Main Roads Repopened World analysis

Construction of even through media The event is construction through each piece of media event and it is highlighted the point of attack was not actually within the refugee camp borders. humanitarian aid

fatah

lebanese army

refugees

reporters

1. The Age 2. Telegraph 3. Telegraph 4. Telegraph 5. NY Times 6. NY Times 7. World Analysis

119

118

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CONSTRUCTION OF EVENTS

At the point of conflict the point of attack is in high definitions and then rest ot the refugee camp and the outskirts of Sida fade. The geographical distance between Nahr al Bared and Ain al Hilweh no longer exists as they merge together due to implications that the attack was linked to what was happening in Nahr al Bared.

Claim

One can see from this event that the geographical location of both refugee camps is unclear due to their link of characters and that of 2 conflicts occurring that the same time.

This insular nature affects the way in which the refugee camp’s relationship to the city is viewed. In this case Al Jazeera is able to infiltrate the refugee camp as a point in which one can understand the event on a base level as they are able to drive through to see the destruction of this flash confliction. This allows for a closer view of the camp as in the international community it is always viewed at a distance and one cannot understand the complexity of the city that exist in this refugee camp as it is one of the oldest refugee in Lebanon. At this point in time, the constellation between the refugee camps in Lebanon is apparent. Rather than the city becoming dislocated due to conflict is is reconnected to a larger system of urban environements that surpass geographical distances.

It is interesting to note that the media coverage highlights the flash conflict to be that of inside the refugee camp however it occurs on the outskirts, specifically at the border patrol. In this moment the border patrol becomes a representation of the refugee camp, the world sees this point as the city and everything else ceases to exist.

121

CLAIM

AIN AL HILWEH

120

It can be said the Ain al Hilweh becomes Nahr al Bared in this instance as; there is a concern that the conflict will spread to other refugee camps. The Palestinian refugee camps are their own entity and the Lebanon Army cannot enter them based on the Cairo agreement 1969 previously mentioned. This agreement has been honoured and thus, Ain al Hilweh is a void in media, as there is no local coverage due to the insular nature of the refugee camp.

REFERENCES

I5-I6. Author Unknown, (2007). Fighting erupts at second Lebanon camp _Photo News—China Economic Net. <http://en.ce.cn/World/pic-news/200706/04/ t20070604_11588406_2.shtml> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I7 Anon, (2007). Lebanese soldiers killed at Palestinian refugee camp. <www.abc.net. au/new/2007-06-04/lebanese-soldiers-killed-at-palestinian-refugee/58578> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I8. Usatoday30.usatoday.com, (2007). Lebanese army shells camp for 5th day USATODAY.com. <usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2007-06-05-lebanon_N. htm> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I9-10. The Orange Room - Lebanon’s number one discussion forums, (2007).

Today’s Pix - Tuesday, June 5th, 2007. <www.oroom.org/forum/threads/todays-pixtuesday-june-5th-2007.26714/.jpg [Accessed 25 May 2015] I11. Usatoday30.usatoday.com, (2007). Lebanese army shells camp for 5th day USATODAY.com. <usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2007-06-05-lebanon_N. htm> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I12. The Orange Room - Lebanon’s number one discussion forums, (2007). Today’s Pix - Tuesday, June 5th, 2007. <www.oroom.org/forum/threads/todays-pix-tuesdayjune-5th-2007.26714/.jpg [Accessed 25 May 2015] I13 Author Unknown, (2007). Lebanese refugee camp battle spreads - World theage.com.au. <www.theage.com.au/news/world/lebanese-refugee-camp-battle-spre ads/2007/06/04/1180809421629.html> [Accessed 25 May 2015]. I14. www.vg.no/ nyheter/utenriks/libanon/nye-kamper-i-palestinsk-flyktningleir-i-libanon/a/189301/ I15-18 The Orange Room - Lebanon’s number one discussion forums, (2007).

Today’s Pix - Tuesday, June 5th, 2007. <www.oroom.org/forum/threads/todays-pixtuesday-june-5th-2007.26714/.jpg [Accessed 25 May 2015] I19-20. Author Unknown, (2007). Ain al-Hilweh: Lebanon’s biggest refugee camp. <www.theguardian.com/news/gallery/2007/jun/12/internationalnews. internationalnews> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

Drawings 1. Author Unknown, (2007). Lebanese refugee camp battle spreads - World - theage. com.au. <www.theage.com.au/news/world/lebanese-refugee-camp-battle-sprea ds/2007/06/04/1180809421629.html> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

2-4. Author Unknown (2007). Violence spreads to second camp in Lebanon. <www. telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1553585/Violence-spreads-to-second-camp-inLebanon.html> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

5. Author Unknown, (2007). Fighting in Lebanese Refugee Camp Rages, and Spreads - New York Times. <www.nytimes.com/2007/06/04/world/ middleeast/04lebanon.html?_r=0> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

6 Author Unknown (2007). Violence spreads to second camp in Lebanon. <www. telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1553585/Violence-spreads-to-second-camp-inLebanon.html> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

7. Author Unknown, (2007). The Bitterness at Ain al Hilweh Camp :: WorldAnalysis.net :: An In-Depth Look At What Is Going On In The World.

<worldanalysis.net/postnuke/html/index.php?name=News&file=article&sid=413> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

8. Author Unknown, (2007). BBC NEWS | Middle East | Fighting at second Lebanon camp. <news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6717121.stm> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

9. Author Unknown, (2007). The Epoch Times | Militants Threaten to Expand Lebanon Camp War. <www.theepochtimes.com/news/7-6-7/56207.html> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

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References L1.-L8 Al Jazeera English, 2007, Exclusive footage of Ain al-Hilweh camp in southern Lebanon, <www.youtube.com/watch?v=i36ziE3KXhY> [Accessed: 24th May 2007] I1. Author Unknown, (2007). BBC NEWS | Middle East | Fighting at second Lebanon camp. <news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6717121.stm> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I2. Author Unknown, (2007). Palestinian families flee Ain al-Hilweh refugee camp in south Lebanon. <www.astandforjustice.org/photos14/06-04-06.htm> [Accessed 25 May 2015] I3. Author Unknown (2007). Violence spreads to second camp in Lebanon. <www. telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1553585/Violence-spreads-to-second-camp-inLebanon.html> [Accessed 25 May 2015].

I4-5. The Orange Room - Lebanon’s number one discussion forums, (2007). Today’s Pix - Tuesday, June 5th, 2007. <www.oroom.org/forum/threads/todays-pix-tuesdayjune-5th-2007.26714/.jpg [Accessed 25 May 2015]

Zaatari Refugee Camp Riot 2014 This event is just one of many riots that occur within the Zaatari Refugee Camp. It highlights the on-going humanitarian crisis occurring in the Middle East. It also provides inside view into the camp itself, as it is one of the largest refugee camps in the world and one of the fastest growing. The media coverage of these events is usually external. There is seemingly no internal coverage of the events and the videos that are taken have been edited to suit the media outlet it is sent to. Thus obscuring our perception of the camp. Subsequently the imaginary of the Zaatari camp is reformed through this editing process. Due to its growth it is providing a new and unexpected urban environment and questioning is possibility of permanence.

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The media reported that on 5th April 20141 a riot broke out with in the Zaatari Refugee Camp located in Jordan close to the Syrian border. As the riot ensued the accounts of those affected varied. It is possible 222 or 293 police and refugees were injured with one subsequent death occurring4. The event caused the destruction of tents and homes of those living within the camp. Footage from an anonymous was sent to Al Jazeera, which was subsequently aired on 6th April.

1 BBC, 2014, Syria crisis: Deadly clash in Jordan’s Zaatari camp, viewed: 26th March 2015, <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-26908587 2 Alrabiya, 2014, Jordan police deny clashes killed Syrian refugee, viewed, 26th March, 2015 <http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2014/04/06/ Jordanian-policemen-Syrian-refugees-hurt-in-camp-riots-.html> 3 Al Monitor, 2014, Jordan fears pro-Syrian regime ‘sleeper cells’ in Zaatari, viewed: 26th March, 2014, <www.al-monitor.com/pulse/security/2014/04/jordan-zaataricamp-syria-refugees-riots-sleeper-cells.html#> 4 BBC, 2014, Syria crisis: Deadly clash in Jordan’s Zaatari camp, viewed: 26th March 2015, <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-26908587>

AL Jazeera

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Due to the circumstances of a refugee camp, there is no internal media coverage of this event. The media coverage that does exist, only occurs over the immediate date of the riot, and is not spoken about afterwards.

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6+2 Reconstruction of Events Through Media The ambiguous nature of events creates 3 possibilities, and a variety of reportage. This reinforces how one can’t zoom into the event and the refugee camp.

B1 The nature of the refugee camp creates an ambiguity.

It is further explored through the variation in media sources about the event.

death

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Reading Camp From Extetior One can only read the camp from the exterior.

The impenetrable boundary of the refugee camp causes a rebound.

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3 refugees injured

rioted started when refugees attempt to leave the camp illegally attack police stations

28 policement injured

two refugess injured

10 arrested

several involved

thousands fled

700 refugees gather 28 policement injured

30 wounded

5000 rioted

another injured

9 tents 5 homes burnt

dozens rioted

22 policemen injured set fire to tents and vehicles

29 policement injured

6 tents 2 caravans burnt started when Syrian child ran over

man was killed

B3 The strong border around the refugee camp is highlighted, creating an ambiguity within the event as one cannot construct the event.

The distance of media it then reinforced.

Claim

The camp shares features of an ad hoc city with its strict organisation of space. It consists of districts, roads, hospitals, prayer spaces and commercial space, all elements that fit within a contemporary urban society only differing by its temporality. The rapid growth of this refugee camp to 80,000 refugees, there is an immediate sense of permanence in its structure. The refugees exist both under the host country’s law and outside it2.

These elements are never discussed in the media and in particularly in the riots that occurred. The riot had no professional local media coverage. The only footage was from a bystander who sent a video to Al Jazeera, which was subsequently edited and overlaid with commentary, disrupting the understanding of the riot. It re-frames the event as only an observation discussing the camp in vague and ambiguous terms. Again, there is a sense that one is viewing the event from afar. At this point one can see how Al Jazeera has become the source of viewing inside the camp during a point of crisis.

1 SBS, 2014,Man dead in Syria refugee camp riot, viewed: 26th March, 2015, <http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/2014/04/07/man-dead-syria-refugee-campriot> 2 Sanyal, R., 2012.

Further to viewing the event from afar, the media doesn’t present the event in a consistent way. Differing media sources present an inconsistent number for those injured and arrested. The location of the riot is never pinpointed either. There is a sense of confusion in the aftermath, pushing one to the outside of the camp rather than to zoom into specificity of the event.

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Zaatari Refugee camp is presented as a traditional “type” of refugee camp. This consisting of one that is segregated from urban centre, as it is located on the periphery of Jordan close to the Syrian border. The camp itself is presented as one. The media presents the image of the camp as this impenetrable, where people enter but no one exits. This is because the camp is always presented at a distance. Most mentions of the refugee camp are accompanied with an aerial image of the camp to show its magnitude1. In this case the imaginary stops at the edge of the camp, the camp is always read from the exterior.

References

Image References 01. SBS, 2014,Man dead in Syria refugee camp riot, viewed: 19th March, 2015,<http:// www.sbs.com.au/news/article/2014/04/07/man-dead-syria-refugee-camp-riot> I1. Author Unknown, 2014, Aftermath Of Riot In Zaatari Camp For Syrian Refugees viewed: 26th March 2015, <www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/syrian-refugees-survey-the-damage-of-the-clashes-that-took-news-photo/483061263>

Al-Akhbar Management, 2014, Jordanian security forces kill Syrian refugee in Zaatari camp clashes, viewed: 26th March 2015, <english.al-akhbar.com/node/19303>

I2.Author Unknown, 2014, Aftermath Of Riot In Zaatari Camp For Syrian Refugees viewed: 26th March 2015, <www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/syrian-refugees-survey-the-damage-of-the-clashes-that-took-news-photo/483061263>

Al Hayat, 2014,Fears that Regime Sleeper Cells Return to Zaatari After Riot, Syrian Observer, viewed: 26th March 2015, <www.syrianobserver.com/EN/News/27039/ Fears+Sleeper+Cells+Return+to+Zaatari+After+Riot>

I3.Author Unknown, 2014, Aftermath Of Riot In Zaatari Camp For Syrian Refugees viewed: 26th March 2015, <www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/syrian-refugees-survey-the-damage-of-the-clashes-that-took-news-photo/483061263>

Author Unknown, 2014, Syria crisis: Deadly clash in Jordan’s Zaatari camp, BBC, viewed: 26th March 2015,<www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-26908587>

I4.Author Unknown, 2014, Aftermath Of Riot In Zaatari Camp For Syrian Refugees viewed: 26th March 2015, <www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/syrian-refugees-survey-the-damage-of-the-clashes-that-took-news-photo/483061263> I5.Author Unknown, 2014, Aftermath Of Riot In Zaatari Camp For Syrian Refugees viewed: 26th March 2015, <www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/syrian-refugees-survey-the-damage-of-the-clashes-that-took-news-photo/483061263> I6.Author Unknown, 2014, Aftermath Of Riot In Zaatari Camp For Syrian Refugees viewed: 26th March 2015, <www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/syrian-refugees-survey-the-damage-of-the-clashes-that-took-news-photo/483061263> I7.Author Unknown, 2014, Aftermath Of Riot In Zaatari Camp For Syrian Refugees viewed: 26th March 2015, <www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/syrian-refugees-survey-the-damage-of-the-clashes-that-took-news-photo/483061263> I8.Author Unknown, 2014, Aftermath Of Riot In Zaatari Camp For Syrian Refugees viewed: 26th March 2015, <www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/syrian-refugees-survey-the-damage-of-the-clashes-that-took-news-photo/483061263> I9. Author Unkown, 2014, Jordanian Police were Injured in Clashes with ` Syrian Refugees ‘ Burning Six Tents and Attacking a Police Station , Ace NewsGroup, viewed: 26th March 2015, < http://acenewsservices.com/2014/04/06/jordanian-police-were-injuredin-clashes-with-syrian-refugees-burning-six-tents-and-attacking-a-police-station/> I10.Author Unknown, 2014, U.N. alarmed by deadly Syrian protest in Jordan camp ,viewed: 26th March 2015,<english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2014/04/06/ U-N-alarmed-by-deadly-Syrian-protest-in-Jordan-camp.html> I11. Author Unknown, 2014, Jordan fears pro-Syrian regime ‘sleeper cells’ in Zaatari, Al-Monitor, viewed: 26th March 2015, <www.al-monitor.com/pulse/security/2014/04/jordan-zaatari-camp-syria-refugees-riots-sleeper-cells.html> I12. Author Unknown, 2014, Aftermath Of Riot In Zaatari Camp For Syrian Refugees viewed: 26th March 2015, <www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/syrianrefugees-survey-the-damage-of-the-clashes-that-took-news-photo/483061263> I13. Oddone, 2014, One Syrian killed in refugee camp riots, Jordan Time, Amman, viewed: 26th March 2015,< jordantimes.com/one-syrian-killed-in-refugee-camp-riots> I14-I22. Author Unknown, 2014, Syria crisis: Deadly clash in Jordan’s Zaatari camp, BBC, viewed: 26th March 2015,<www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-26908587>

i24new, 2014, Jordan: Riots erupt in Syrian refugee camp, viewed: 26th March 2015, <www.i24news.tv/app.php/en/news/international/middle-east/140406-jordan-riotserupt-in-syrian-refugee-camp> Philip, 2014, Deadly riots hit largest refugee camp for Syrians, The Times, United Kingdom, viewed: 26th March 2015, <www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/world/middleeast/article4056162.ece>

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Author Unknown, 2015, Man dead in Syria refugee camp riot, SBS, viewed: 26th March 2015, <http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/2014/04/07/man-dead-syria-refugee-camp-riot> Author Unknown, 2014, U.N. alarmed by deadly Syrian protest in Jordan camp ,viewed: 26th March 2015,<english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2014/04/06/ U-N-alarmed-by-deadly-Syrian-protest-in-Jordan-camp.html> Author Unknown, 2014, Jordan fears pro-Syrian regime ‘sleeper cells’ in Zaatari, Al-Monitor, viewed: 26th March 2015, <www.al-monitor.com/pulse/security/2014/04/jordan-zaatari-camp-syria-refugees-riots-sleeper-cells.html> Author Unknown, 2014, Syrian refugee killed in Jordan camp riot , Relief Web, viewed: 26th March 2015, <reliefweb.int/report/jordan/syrian-refugee-killed-jordan-camp-riot> Author Unknown, 2014, Jordanian police, Syrian refugees hurt in camp riots, Times of Israel, , viewed 26th March 2015<www.timesofisrael.com/jordanian-police-syrian-refugees-hurt-in-camp-riots/> Author Unknown, 2002, 22 Jordanian policemen, 3 Syrian refugees injured in AlZaatari camp riot, Filipino Times, viewed: 26th March 2015,<filipinotimes.ae/ breaking-news/2014/04/06/22-jordanian-policemen-3-syrian-refugees-injured-in-alzaatari-camp-riot/> Author Unknown, 2014, Police clash with Syrian refugees in Jordan’s Zaatari camp, Deutsche Welle, viewed: 26th March 2015, <www.dw.de/police-clash-with-syrian-refugees-in-jordans-zaatari-camp/a-17546846> Author Unknown, 2014, Jordan: Syrian refugee reportedly killed in Zaatari clashes, Albawaba, viewed 26th March 2015, http://www.albawaba.com/news/jordan-zaataricamp-566624 Bulos, 2014, Calm returns to Syrian refugee camp in Jordan after deadly clash, LA Times, viewed: 26th March 2015, <articles.latimes.com/2014/apr/06/world/la-fg-wnjordan-syria-refugee-camp-20140406> Oddone, 2014, One Syrian killed in refugee camp riots, Jordan Time, Amman, viewed: 26th March 2015,< jordantimes.com/one-syrian-killed-in-refugee-camp-riots> Lucas, 2014, Syria Daily, April 6: At Least 1 Killed in Fighting in Refugee Camp in Jordan, EA World View, viewed: 26th March 2015, <eaworldview.com/2014/04/syriadaily-least-1-killed-fighting-refugee-camp-jordan/> Kuhn,2014, 1 Syrian refugee killed, 29 police officers injured in Zaatari riot, Woman in Jordan, viewed 26th March 2015, <womeninjordan.org/en/2014/04/1-syrian-refugee-killed-29-police-officers-injured-in-zaatari-riot/>

REFERENCES

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Drawing References- Drawing B1, B2, B3 Alarabiya, 2014, Jordan police deny clashes killed Syrian refugee, viewed: 26th March 2015,<english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2014/04/06/Jordanian-policemen-Syrian-refugees-hurt-in-camp-riots-.html>

The Rise of Social Media Overview The attention given to protests in the Middle East has increased with the use of the internet. Traditional local media networks throughout the Middle East are struggling to maintain media coverage control since the rise of social media and online networking systems.

This link to social media is now a well established part of contemporary media organisations. Older organisations are limited as they are struggling to incorporate social media into their traditional media office structures. This is particularly evident in the comparison of the Bahrain News Agency to the Bahrain Mirror Publication’s Facebook and Twitter accounts. The younger media outlet, the Bahrain Mirror Publication includes social media more than the older established agency. The higher frequency of posts on social media coupled by the accessibility of information on search engines reflect on the flow of information and the diversity of attendees of the Arab Spring protests. The protests are born and nurtured through social media.

From this comparison one can also reflect on the censorship requirements and invisible media boundaries placed on established news agencies which still cater for many pans-arab governments.

The looming threat for a journalist who insults the monarchy and expresses political dissent is persecution which is in contrast to a ‘citizen’ taking raw footage

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THE RISE OF SOCIAL MEDIA

The Arab Springs is the first mass movement in the Middle East region to strongly incorporate social media and online protest. Comments such as ‘We use Facebook to schedule the protests’ ... [we use] Twitter to coordinate, and YouTube to tell the world’ from an anonymous Arab Spring activist in Egypt is emulated throughout the Arab region’s youth protest organisers.

The citizen becomes one of the three different scales of media communications used for broadcasting protests.

These include the national media platform, the international media platform and the newly included citizen. Each scale of media and each media source has its own agenda and alliances. The strong link of the national media outlet to the government increases the likelihood of propaganda within broadcasts.While the connection of local news agencies and the government’s intentions are easier to recognise through comparative case studies of local and international reportings; the agendas of international media sources are harder to pinpoint. Operating on a global scale; the intentions of a foreign media organisation reporting on news outside of its home country are harder to realise and therefore create an impression of impartial news. An example of 9. this is the distribution of Al Jazeera’s ‘Shouting in the

Dark’ Documentary and the decision to only distribute the documentary on the Al Jazeera English Channel.

This occurrence highlights the complexity faced by Al Jazeera as a a pans-local media outlet to the Arab Spring movement. The ultimate decision made by Al Jazeera draws attention to the way the organisation combats a diverse audience and forethought to how certain coverages may impact the immediate locale.

The introduction of the citizen to the scales of media gives a voice piece to the individual, or to the local.

This group is not a collective voice and while opinions from this group may not be considered propaganda, it does not mean that the opinion is not subjective.

A seemingly common theme appearing in citizen broadcasts alongside the diversity of opinion in most cases is the lack of forethought to the effects certain comments may have in the future. Lacking this underlying thought which most professional journalism organisations hold; the purpose of the citizen group seems to be to express opinions and certain ideals. A role which has been influential in changing the political organisations of many countries through the pans-arab region.

The Protest A protest in the broadest sense is an expression or an action in response to a particular event or situation.

Often responding to political conditions, a protest comes in various forms. A precursory understanding of the nature of protests suggests that the methods of protest used in a dispute varies depending on the nature of each political dispute. This research focuses explicitly on protests as a public demonstration or a political rally in response to a politically charged dissatisfaction.

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and posting online. Here, the citizen on a social media platform becomes an uncontrollable and threatening figure to the authoritarian regimes, and also, a threat to the city as they decipher which location the protest will take place. The citizen here has the power to contradict state propaganda and has a platform to do so. The citizen is not a professional journalist and is therefore unaware of the barriers imposed on professionals in media and their output of events in the city. The citizen is not restricted by a journalist’s code of ethics and is consequently not accountable if these codes are not adhered to. In this way the role of the citizen transforms into a temporary journalist for broadcasts which no other journalists has control of. Here, the citizen is able to express a raw and bias perspective without journalistic critique and as a consequence the subjective nature of each citizen post has the power to shift opinion and weaken the control of established media outlets.

While analysing demonstrations it is vital to remember that a protest, is an action in response to a particular event and therefore does not start and stop with the public rally. It is a string of objections which to maximise success requires a follow through. As a dependant stage of a protest, the public rally aids the cause in several ways. The most significant benefit of a peaceful public rally is the increased visibility of the cause. The image of solidarity in the group is expressed within the public space for all to see. The atmosphere of the protest energisers those involved and the event is the ideal platform to increase activist interactions and relationships. The protest becomes a demonstration of public power in this way.

Spaces of Protest The United Nations, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) states that everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.

Each country incorporates this article into their legal system in various ways and differs in interpretation of the phrase. While protests may be accepted in the laws of a particular country, the spaces of protests are often limited to public government owned space. This tends to restrict the exposure of protests especially as countries experience the privatisation of the public sector.

Space is a commonly underplayed aspect of a public demonstration, yet the spatial characteristics of a site affect the visibility, accessibility, attendance and recognition of a protest. A highly visible site increases the exposure of the event and therefore the publicity of the cause. In the same way the accessibility of the site is linked to the visibility of the event. An accessible site is easily reachable by protesters and media sources.

Depending on the number of attendees at the protest event, event organisers have the ability to control the permeability of the site.

Further, the recognisability of the site affects the success of a protest. Recognition of a site can occur on two different levels; the distinct name of the site and through monumental representation. Tahrir Square, Cairo, Egypt is a prime example of distinction through name. A site with a turbulent history, Tahrir square was destined for King Khedive Ismail’s statue in 1952 but was left with an empty pedestal after the revolt that same year. The Arabic to English translation of ‘Tahrir’ as ‘Liberation’ is no coincidence and the organisation of the Arab Spring movement at the same site is only

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Research studies and social discourse are key contributors to the perception of a protest. Both platforms encourages one to believe that a certain demographic is largely responsible for the organisation of public demonstrations. While this may be the case in the general understanding of organised protest rallies, the specificity of this study leaves no room for generalisations and considers the demographic proportions of protest a direct result of the political situation. In this way the people involved in a protest are a derivative of the cause and topic of conflict.

Social Media, Protests and the Imaginary The imaginary of the city is formed through the three actors: local, international and citizen. Each of these actors have a different intention and construct separate images of the city. They don’t match but construct opposing imaginaries of the city. We move from the stable image from one media outlet (historically, BBC as the dominant media outlet), to the flow of several images that are always being reconstructed based on each new protest. Therefore, from an understanding of the dynamic nature of media it can be presumed that one’s imaginary of the city is shaped by the media platforms the viewer is exposed to. For example, an English speaking foreigners understanding of Bahrain’s ‘Day of Rage’ is shaped predominantly by international media sources and in some cases ‘citizen’ updates. While a local in Al Manamah, Bahrain, would be heavily influenced by local media platforms and depending on the social interactions and internet access of the individual by media broadcasts by citizens.

This understanding of media relation to a protest event in a city leads one to believe that the imaginary of a city is reliant on the exposure of the individual.

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strengthened by historical significance. Here the protest is recognised and remembered by reference to a physical location in the city. Similarly object recognition is a powerful advantage in the broadcast of protest events. An example of object recognition is the Pearl Roundabout in Al Manamah, Bahrain.

Initially constructed as a monument to mark the third Gulf Corporation Council meeting, the object now exists as a visual icon for the Bahrain Uprising Protest movement. The existence of the monument in photos circulating through media sources places the protest at a recognisable site and therefore on a locatable site in the city. Even after the demolition of the icon, the inseparable image of the monument on the site keeps the protest alive. The aim of recognisability is to maintain a stable narrative beyond the public demonstration itself. By giving the public demonstration a recognised place or icon within the city, the event lives on post demonstration.

149

OVERVIEW

THE RISE OF SOCIAL MEDIA

148

THE EGYPT REVOLT, 26.610071, 29.982672

THE BAHRAIN UPRISING, 26.230531, 50.561249

A series of protests which occurred in Egypt during 2011.

From the ‘Day of Revolt’ to the ‘Day of Depature’

A series of protests which occurred in Bahrain during 2011.

Protest Events The Egyptian Revolt, the Bahraini Uprising and the Shabab 24 March Movement are all protests which occurred in 2011. Apart of the Arab Spring movement; these events catalyse certain moments in time when order is broken within three different governing systems of the pans-arab region.

151

OVERVIEW

THE RISE OF SOCIAL MEDIA

150

SHABAB 24 MARCH MOVEMENT, ??

A protest which involved the protester occupation of a city roundabout.

The Egypt Revolt The Fall of Hosni Mubarak 2011

Can Egypt Revolt?.... Like in Tunisia, the large protests took many by surprise. They even surprised the leaders of the established political opposition groups who participated in the protests but did not expect them to be that large or inspiring.

[Aljazeera 26th Jan, 2011] The Egyptian revolution arose after the death of Khaled Said[i]; a 28 year old man who was killed by two Alexandria policemen after uploading a video of officers handling illegal drugs[ii]. While his death was unjustifiable, the gruesome details of his corpse and the cover up by the local police department further enraged the Alexandria community who became the first to protest. Khaled Said is not the reason why all Egyptians joined the revolution but he became the catalyst and the first martyr through which the fear of the people was pushed aside[iii]. Discontent towards the Egyptian government did exist within many of the social circles in Egypt, stemming from the disjunct between the wealth entering the country and the benefits which reach the people of Egypt[iv]. To the extreme censorship of material and what is described as an unjust police system[v], this general discontent coupled with the relatable story of Khaled Said and the success of protests in Yemen and Tunisia[vi] had a chain effect of protests through several areas within Egypt.

The focal point of these protests became Tahrir Square.

A historically significant site for the 1952 Egyptian revolution; Tahrir square as translated into â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Liberation Square[vii]â&#x20AC;&#x2122; in Arabic is strengthened through symbolism.

Every stage needs an audience. While the local audience is slightly easier to engage in protests via proximity to protest location; social media is an instrumental tool used by the 2011 Egyptian revolutionaries to reach beyond their physical limits and into the international community. Critical to the broadcast of the 2011 Egyptian Revolution is the Talk to Tweet Twitter[x] program designed by Google specifically for Tahrir Square after the government blocked network signals to the area. Talk to Tweet at Tahrir Square involved an individual calling one of three phone numbers and recording their tweet. This message is then uploaded onto the Twitter Talk to Tweet page[xi]. As the protest progressed international supporters of the cause and concerned individuals set up sites to transcribe and translate messages online[xii]. The porosity of the revolution into international circles is significant to the growth of the protest beyond its geographic location.

This study attempts to understand the power of Tahrir Square in the downfall of President Hosni Mubarak. The intention here is to unravel the complex relationship between photographs, dialogue and distribution methods which have been influential in shaping the imaginary of Tahrir Square.

153

OVERVIEW

EGYPT REVOLUTION

152

From the european influenced architecture surrounding the site[viii] to the turbulent history which left an empty pedestal in the centre[ix]; the site became a stage for the downfall of President Hosni Mubarak.

155

2. 853X510 pixels 25 Jan 2011

137.600X300 25 Jan 2011

3. 853X510 pixels 25 Jan 2011

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Citizen Media Sources Local Media Sources International Media Sources

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141.526X382 25 Jan 2011

Images sequence organised according to date and time of release. The size varies depending on the pixel quality of the photograph and the number associated to the reference system recognises the order in which an internet search produced these findings.

INVESTIGATION

EGYPT REVOLUTION

154

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Citizen Media Sources Local Media Sources International Media Sources

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119.465X260 26 Jan 2011

Images sequence organised according to date and time of release. The size varies depending on the pixel quality of the photograph and the number associated to the reference system recognises the order in which an internet search produced these findings.

INVESTIGATION

EGYPT REVOLUTION

156

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Citizen Media Sources Local Media Sources International Media Sources

124.643X363 26 Jan 2011

123.643X363 26 Jan 2011

128.643X363 26 Jan 2011

Images sequence organised according to date and time of release. The size varies depending on the pixel quality of the photograph and the number associated to the reference system recognises the order in which an internet search produced these findings.

INVESTIGATION

EGYPT REVOLUTION

158

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Citizen Media Sources Local Media Sources International Media Sources

INVESTIGATION

EGYPT REVOLUTION

160

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150.526X382 26 Jan 2011

114.465X260 26 Jan 2011

Images sequence organised according to date and time of release. The size varies depending on the pixel quality of the photograph and the number associated to the reference system recognises the order in which an internet search produced these findings.

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INVESTIGATION

EGYPT REVOLUTION

162

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155.855X510 27 Jan 2011

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Citizen Media Sources Local Media Sources International Media Sources

157.855X510 27 Jan 2011

Images sequence organised according to date and time of release. The size varies depending on the pixel quality of the photograph and the number associated to the reference system recognises the order in which an internet search produced these findings.

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Citizen Media Sources Local Media Sources International Media Sources

INVESTIGATION

EGYPT REVOLUTION

164

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167

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100.878X587 1 Feb 2011

104.878X585 2 Feb 2011

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Citizen Media Sources Local Media Sources International Media Sources

107.878X585 2 Feb 2011

98.878X585 4 Feb 2011

Images sequence organised according to date and time of release. The size varies depending on the pixel quality of the photograph and the number associated to the reference system recognises the order in which an internet search produced these findings.

INVESTIGATION

EGYPT REVOLUTION

166

169

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1. 788X521pixels 14 Feb 2011

101.878X585 Feb 2011

112.878X589 Feb 2011

111.878X589 Feb 2011

102.878X583 Feb 2011

Citizen Media Sources Local Media Sources International Media Sources

103.878X583 Feb 2011

Images sequence organised according to date and time of release. The size varies depending on the pixel quality of the photograph and the number associated to the reference system recognises the order in which an internet search produced these findings.

INVESTIGATION

EGYPT REVOLUTION

168

Ministry of Interior Police Headquarters

AL MANAMAH DISTRICT 26.228411, 50.566231

AL MANAMAH DISTRICT 26.228411, 50.566231

Salmaniya Medical Comp

Salmaniya Medical Complex

171

170

NAMAH DISTRICT 26.228411, 50.566231

Salmaniya Medical Complex

EGYPT REVOLUTION

CONSTRUCTION OF EVENT

57.

58.

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159.

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70.

166.

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168.

3. 15. 162.7. 5. 162. 12.

13.

145.

173. 113.

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169.

60.

50.

125.

Creating Typographies of Views from images.

Collated from Calculated Estimates ofthe Tahrir Square public demonstration where images were taken

52.

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EGYPT REVOLUTION

172

1.

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Creating Typographies of Views from images.

Collated from the Tahrir Square public demonstration

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CONSTRUCTION OF EVENT

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70.

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135.

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16.

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50.

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145.

Creating Typographies of Views from images.

Collated from the Tahrir Square public demonstration

Tanks Street Clinic

KFC

Newspaper Wall

Wall of Martyrs

Water Supply Toilets Food Stalls Flag Sales Kindergaten

Artwork Centre

Empty Pedestal Ring of Bloggers

177

Alexandria The home of Khaled Said, whose death is said to the be the catalyst for the revolution. Protests here are said to be the most diverse in demographic and groups of people. The absence of police at these protests is noticable.

Campsite

Army Guarded Area

Pro-Mubarak supporters

Clash Zone/ Army Made Barracade

Rubbish Bins

Main Stage Campsite

CONSTRUCTION OF EVENT

EGYPT REVOLUTION

176

Pharmacy

Tahrir Square 30.044613, 31.235640 Make-Shift organisation of Tahrir Square during Stage 1 of protests

Construction Site

Army Check Point

CAIRO 26.228411, 50.566231 Suez Suez Protests Involved heavy clashes between protestors and police Tahrir Square Context Tahrir Square Focal point of the protest. Critical to the resignation of Prime Minister Hosni Mubarak.

Creating Typographies of Views from images.

Collated from the Tahrir Square public demonstration

Claim

The Media

The analysis of the image sources and the representation of Tahrir Square in this chapter builds the imaginary of Egypt during the 2011 and the city of Cairo during this period of time. The study distinguishes between recognised local media networks, international media networks and includes another category for the citizen; a social media user who uploads their experiences and perspectives online. The citizen journalist here decentralises the output of information; increasing the diversity of broadcasts and therefore the unpredictability of the effects media releases have on the context. In this case the citizen has a valued opinion, the blocking of the network signal by the Egyptian government was counteracted by the development of social media to compensate. As a countermeasure to censorship and the control of information; this occurrence ultimately brought an end to President Hosni Mubarak’s thirty year reign.

The effect of the citizen in contemporary society is an understated topic which is brought to attention in the analysis of the 2011 Egyptian uprising. Social media gives the citizen a voice to express their opinions

The Recognition Tool Tahrir Square became a focal point for the 2011 Egyptian Revolt. A symbol of power; the site created the image of the revolution and as a key recognition tool linked explicitly to the protest’s success. The square containing an empty pedestal originally meant for the statue of King Farouk1 is symbolically filled by the people of Egypt. Here the people become the image of the Egyptian revolution and the focus of media attention. The section of camera angles arrayed over the site shows no one focus but a moving subject. This changing image of the people of Egypt is evident through the collection of images from numerous media sources. While the short ranged images are harder to locate geographically; the long distance image start to characterise and in some cases shape the event.

179

CLAIM

EGYPT REVOLUTION

178

Tahrir Square is a prime example of social media operating on par with traditional forms of media distribution. Here the absence of social media emitted from Tahrir Square creates a noticeable void. Noticed by those physically not present at the significant site; Speak to Tweet is a case of social media adapting to the restrictions of the situation. Here the citizen’s absence from media distribution is noticed alongside the outputs of traditional local and international media outlets.

and is unlike the traditional model of journalism which requires an individual to undergo training and be a part of an organisation to do so i.e. join the media outlet. To say that the voice of the citizen is a collective voice is not true; the citizen in this broadcasting group is an individual with their own agendas, backgrounds and experiences. While there are some similarities in thoughts emitted from this group; the danger lies in the effects various broadcasts have on the future of the country.

The revolution highlighted the issues in Egyptian politics however the inability for future governments to maintain the country’s stability brings to question the impact social media has on creating disorder but not establishing a stable future solution for the country.

The City Media during the Egypt Revolt reshaped the imaginary of Cairo. Places of conflict, tension and refuge during the protests were highlighted by media through a ‘larger than life lens’. The temporary image of the city at this time is of trauma.

A large portion of Cairo’s city image is represented by the citizen. Here the loss of the citizen voice is realised by outside viewers who linked their image of the city to the experiences of the citizen. Thereby the loss of the citizen is a noticed absence. An understanding of each media source through an analysis of camera angles and media scale aids the generation of the imaginary city and places emphasis on the importance of the people.

___________________________________________________________ 1 Illugadóttir, V (2013) A history of Tahrir (+photos) http://www.yourmiddleeast.com/features/a-history-of-tahrir-photos_10643

181

CLAIM

EGYPT REVOLUTION

180

The Bahraini Uprising The Pearl Roundabout Protest, 2011

‘Anti-government protests in Shia villages around Manama, the Bahraini capital, have left several people injured and one person reported dead. Demonstrators had called for Monday’s ‘Day of Rage’ after apparently being inspired by the recent uprisings in Egypt and Tunisia.’ [Aljazeera 14th Feb, 2011] The 14th of February, 2011, commonly dubbed the ‘Day of Rage’ is frequently used by multiple sources of international media[viii] to describe the start of the Bahraini uprising. This is an attempt by media sources to pinpoint the exact time the Arab Spring Movement reached Bahrain. Protests prior to the February 14th event were rarely reflected on by international media sources. In the same way the later reports expressing the Pearl Roundabout as a central coordinate to the protest demeans the upsurge felt throughout the rest of Bahrain.

The Pearl Roundabout is significant in the power conflict in Al Manamah as it provided a public meeting place for anti-regime leaders and other citizens to meet to project their shared opinions. To do this, they used a recognisable part of the city, the Pearl Roundabout, as the stage. Through the use of recognizable public space, the Pearl Roundabout Monument, an architectural object at the centre of the public space; becomes a symbol of the power struggle in Bahrain between the supporters of the uprise and the governing regime of Bahrain. From the acquisition of the space by protesters on the 18th of February, 2011[ix] to the demolition of the monument and destruction of the space on the 18th of March, 2011[x] by the governing regime, the roundabout was always the focus. The loss of the roundabout symbolised the loss of the meeting place and disperses the anti-government movement,

This study examines the representation of the monument in media from the acquisi­tion of the space #feb14 to the destruction of the monument in March, 2011. The intention is to unravel the constructed Bahraini uprising image through multiple media sources and hence, reveal the imaginary.

183

OVERVIEW

BAHRAINI UPRISING

182

which since the gather­ing at Pearl Roundabout, has struggled to gain the same level of momentum.

185

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7. 320X238 pixels 17 Feb 2011

8. 620X372 pixels 1009 18 Feb 2011

9. 788X521 pixels 0830 18 Feb 2011

2. 620X372 pixels 0634 Sun 20 Feb 2011 INVESTIGATION

BAHRAINI UPRISING

22. 375X281pixels 15 Feb 2011

2. 620X372 pixels 0634 Sun 20 Feb 2011

36. 480X320 pixels 2124 20 Feb 2011

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37. 480X320 pixels 2124 20 Feb 2011

Citizen Media Sources Local Media Sources International Media Sources

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39. 321X480 pixels 2124 20 Feb 2011

Images sequence organised according to date and time of release.

The size varies depending on the pixel quality of the photograph and the number associated to the reference system recognises the order in which an internet search produced these findings.

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40. 480X319 pixels 2124 20 Feb 2011

23. 450X300 pixels 0557 21 Feb 2011

45. 849X508 pixels 20 Feb 2011

21. 700X448pixels 21 Feb 2011 INVESTIGATION

BAHRAINI UPRISING

17. 325X230pixels 20 Feb 2011

21. 700X448pixels 21 Feb 2011

14. 400X300 pixels 22 Feb 2011

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16. 400X300 pixels 22 Feb 2011

Citizen Media Sources Local Media Sources International Media Sources

27. 450X300 pixels 26 Feb 2011

10. 300X180 pixels 7 Mar 2011

33. 460X346 pixels 0925 16 Mar 2011

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31. 360X220 pixels 1441 18 Mar 2011

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1.632X379 pixels 07:47am 19 March 2011 INVESTIGATION

BAHRAINI UPRISING

30. 292X293 pixels 16 Mar 2011

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44. 853X509 pixels 20 Apr 2011

Citizen Media Sources Local Media Sources International Media Sources

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12. 400X292 pixels 4 May 2011

Images sequence organised according to date and time of release. The size varies depending on the pixel quality of the photograph and the number associated to the reference system recognises the order in which an internet search produced these findings.

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Creating Typographies of Views from images.

Collated from the Pearl Roundabout Site public demonstration

CONSTRUCTION OF EVENTS

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CONSTRUCTION OF EVENTS

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Collated from the Pearl Roundabout Site public demonstration

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CONSTRUCTION OF EVENTS

BAHRAINI UPRISING

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BAHRAINI UPRISING

Al Razi Health Centre Al Razi Health Centre

36.

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Al Naim Health Centre

Al Naim Health Centre

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Al Razi Health Centre Al Naim Health Centre Creating Typographies of Views from images.

Collated from the Pearl Roundabout Site public demonstration Al Razi Health Centre Al Naim Health Centre

CONSTRUCTION OF EVENTS

10.

Al Razi Health Centre

Al Naim Health Centre

Al Razi Health Centre

Al Razi Health Centre

Al Naim Health Centre

Al Naim Health Centre

BAHRAINI UPRISING

198

Pearl Roundabout/ Lulu Roundabout #luluroundabout was the main place

of protest for the #Bahrainiuprising.

The Pearl Roundabout became the beacon for power struggle between the protesting citizen’s of Bahrain and the governing

Ministry of Interior Police Headquarters

regime. Tension on the site exponentially escalated after the violent clashes of

#14feb 2011 and up until the demolition of the GCC monument on the 18th of March, 2011.

Minis 199

CONSTRUCTION OF EVENTS

Al Naim Health Centre Secondary places of refuge turned into vital resorts after the military closure and physical blackage of Salmaniya Hospital. Although not equipt to deal with the severity of some injuries; both Health Centre’s made the most of the situation and attempted to cater to all injuries.

M Al Razi Health Centre Secondary places of refuge turned into vital resorts after the military closure and physical blackage of Salmaniya Hospital.

Although not equipt to deal with the severity of some injuries; both Health Centre’s made the most of the situation and attempted to cater to all injuries.

Salmaniya Medical Complex The main place of refuge for protesters turned into a place of tension through compromising media broadcasts drawing attention to victims of protester and police violence.

Reports of injured and dead protesters reaching international media sources caused the government blockage of the area and the creation of a restricted militia controlled zone. Furthermore the site, once a safe haven for injured protestors became a site of disappearing information and crime scenes for the future treason and murder trials of medical personnel.

AL MANAMAH DISTRICT 26.228411, 50.566231 Salmaniya Medical Complex Ministry of Interior Police Headquarters

AL MANAMAH DISTRICT 26.228411, 50.566231

Salmaniya Medical Complex

Claim

The Media

The analysis of image sources and the representation of the architectural object in this chapter builds the imaginary. The study distinguishes between recognised local media networks, international media networks and includes another category for the citizen, a social media user who uploads their experiences and perspectives online.

The addition of the citizen to the media broadcast of the Bahrain uprising decentralized the output of information and increases the unpredictability of the effect of media on the event. In this case, the unpredictable influence of the citizen surprised the Bahraini government and monarchy who went on to claim comments online as state blasphemy and there is a need to suppress these social media sources.

Historically speaking, the Bahraini government and monarchy constrains the media broadcast of local networks and encourage regime propaganda. While the subjectivity of local news broadcasts and the governing opinion on the Bahraini uprising has long been discussed, the subjectivity of the citizen group on social media covering the event is a relatively new discussion[xi]. The key concern when discussing

During the height of the Bahraini uprising movement, the Gulf Corporation Council [GCC] Monument is a symbol of power; a recognisable icon which dominates a place of tension. While dispute occurred throughout the areas of Al Manamah, the roundabout was used as a platform or a leverage by both groups to shout louder than the other.

The Pearl Roundabout Monument is a vital symbol to the power struggle between the people of Bahrain and the Bahraini governing regime. The people are empowered when claiming the Pearl Roundabout.

Noticing the importance of the monument to the uprising, the government demolishes the monument.

The demolition of the symbol disperses the people through the country and takes away the focal point of the uprise. This loss misleads the international community to believe that the power situation in Bahrain is controlled by depriving the people of Bahrain a place to congregate and a public stage to speak out. By demolishing the icon, the ruling regime hoped to stump the number of protests in Al Manamah; however the demolition only heightened the value of the icon and gave further cause for protest marches, social media debates and series of violent outbreaks which remained constant until the following year.

201

CLAIM

BAHRAINI UPRISING

200

The Pearl Roundabout protest is a prime example of the traditional media model clashing with new technology and social communication networks. The traditional controlled media model used by the Bahraini regime stands in stark contrast to the overloaded twitter and Facebook feeds online that anyone has control of. The disparity between both media models add an extra dimension to the protest.

the citizen as a collective group is the diversity of opinion and in the same way the subjective nature of the collective information. The citizen who has no experience in professional media is a force, whose influence has been least realised from within the group helps to construct the imaginary.

The Monument

The City Media during the Bahraini uprising reshaped the imaginary of Al Manamah. Places of conflict, tension and refuge during the protests were highlighted by media through a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;larger than life lensâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;.

Regulated national media outlets filled broadcasts with support of the monarchy and the government.

Many reporting deterred citizens from participating in protest and created an imaginary city of calm where the reasons for citizen protests are based on false rumours and non-existent factsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; The attitude of international media outlets depended on the ties the outlet maintained with Bahrain and supporters of Bahrain.

While Saudi Arabia owned news station, Al Arabiya supported the Bahraini regime, western newspapers sympathised with protesters and many being supporters of democracy held a stead forth opinion of the authoritarian regime . Citizen reports in this instance cannot be compiled into one account or one observation of the imaginary city. While imaginaries conveyed each citizen overlaps, the difference in frame, background and social media coverage generates very different imaginaries of Bahrain.

The exposure of each media source to the individual aids the generation of the imaginary city. This method of constructing the city places an emphasis on areas of tension, conflict and refuge within the city. While all images do not share the same views, the scale of each site in the city increases as the emphasis on each location increases.

203

CLAIM

BAHRAINI UPRISING

202

Jordan Protest The Shabab 24 March Movement 2011

The protest which took place at a roundabout in Amman, Jordan on the 24th of March, 2011 is an example of a ill-defined event. The protest escalated from an event which demanded for governmental reforms and anti-corruption into an event considered as unpatriotic and influenced by the Muslim brotherhood revolutionaries in Egypt and Libya. This becomes an instance where the communication of one group is overshadowed by the presumptions of another.

The protest, organised by youth in Amman relied heavily on social media coverage. While it is a relatively new method of communication, the clarity of the broadcast solely through social platforms disconnected the group from local media networks and international media outlets. This resulted in a lag of information from immediate reporting of the event incorporating information from sources connected to the government to later broadcasts including sources from the Shabab 24 March movement.

While social media seems to act as a leverage for organising the protest, the encouragement of social media in Jordan and the existence of prominent Jordanian figures on social media platforms gave sources in the government prior warning of the events to come. Thereby giving the government enough time

to suppress and hinder the online and particularly international spread of the group.

The ambiguity of the movement is a common theme through this research. While the local community would be able to identify the location of the Shabab 24 March protest campsite, an outsider to the event is unable to identify the roundabout on the city map. The multiple names given to the site by local media, the international community and citizens on social media outlets complicates the situation and is inconsistent with names on prominent mapping sites such as google maps and here maps.

This study aims to identify the location of circle/ roundabout which hosted the Shabab 24 March protest. It will collate sources of information from all three levels of media outputs [international, local and the citizen] and place the protest within the city of Amman. By doing so, the imaginary of the city will be uncovered through each level of media output.

205

OVERVIEW

JORDAN PROTEST

204

March 24th is not an organization or group March 24th is an idea, a cause and targets.. that are wanted by all those who love their native land.. even by some of the baltajiyeh (the thugs) themselves (who attacked the demonstrators), but they donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t know.

It is not allowable to look at March 24th as an organization or a frame, as it is open [shabab 24 march Facebook page. 8th of April, 2011]

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1. 478X300pixels 26 Mar 2011

2. 478X300pixels 26 Mar 2011

JORDAN PROTEST

MEDIA COVERAGE

3. 482X390pixels 26 Mar 2011

22. 639X387pixels 27 Mar 2011

23. 639X387pixels 27 Mar 2011

13. 641X392pixels 27 March 2011

Citizen Media Sources Local Media Sources International Media Sources

14. 641X392pixels 27 March 2011

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16. 641X392pixels 27 March 2011

18. 641X392pixels 27 March 2011

JORDAN PROTEST

MEDIA COVERAGE

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Citizen Media Sources Local Media Sources International Media Sources

7. 639X388pixels 4 April 2011

Images sequence organised according to date and time of release. The size varies depending on the pixel quality of the photograph and the number associated to the reference system recognises the order in which an internet search produced these findings.

31.993138, 35.918336 211

210

8. 639X388pixels 4 April 2011

10. 639X388pixels 4 April 2011 MEDIA COVERAGE

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9. 639X388pixels 4 April 2011

31.985840, 35.897

Ministry of Interior 31.978779, 35.906762

31.979747, 35.918071

10. 639X388pixels 4 April 2011

11. 639X388pixels 4 April 2011

31.973127, 35.909557

Citizen Media Sources Local Media Sources International Media Sources

Images sequence organised according to date and time of release. The size varies depending on the pixel quality of the photograph and the number associated to the reference system recognises the order in which an internet search produced these findings.

The location of #Shabab24 is constantly disputed across several media platforms. The following study is an attempt to deduce the roundabout

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Proposed Roundabout 1

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Proposed Roundabout 1 Proximity to places of significance Proximity to Ministry of Interiorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Office: 2610m Oxford School: 19m

31.993138, 35.918336

Forensic Analysis: Highlighted points on the above map represent possible location of images on the proposed roundabout site. This investigation critically

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Proposed Roundabout 2

Proposed Roundabout 2 Proximity to places of significance Proximity to Ministry of Interiorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Office: 1810m Independence Mall: 306m

31.979747, 35.918071

Forensic Analysis: Highlighted points on the above map represent possible location of images on the proposed roundabout site. This investigation critically

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A. Address Source. Google Images

Proposed Roundabout 3

Proposed Roundabout 3 Proximity to places of significance Proximity to Ministry of Interiorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Office: 900m Independence Mall: 306m

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31.973127, 35.909557

Highlighted points on the above map represent possible location of images on the proposed roundabout site. This investigation critically

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Proposed Roundabout 4

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Proposed Roundabout 4 10.

Proximity to places of significance Proximity to Ministry of Interiorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Office: 1470m Amman National Stadium: 700m 31.985840, 35.897908

Forensic Analysis: Highlighted points on the above map represent possible location of images on the proposed roundabout site. This investigation critically

Proposed Roundabout 4

31.985840, 35.897908

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The ambiguity of the site creates blind spots in the imaginary of the city while simultaneously filling these blind spots with the image of the protest on the international media scale.

Jordan Protest Claim The Media

The time lag of real-time events on established media sources verse speedy social media updates has long been understood. Yet the connection to information on the social media platform is directly linked to a circle of friends or acquaintances thereby excluding or delaying the message to a large portion of the public.

The Shabab 24 March movement solely exists on social media. It provides a broad definition which is only contained in theory, a vague understanding of the events which took place at the protest site and a plethora of names for the circle location, confusing outsiders of the geographical placement of the event.

The Monument The problem with the 24 of March Shabab Movement protest is the inconsistencies in media descriptions coupled with the recognisability of context in protest photos. One claim made for the decision of the chosen site is its reference to Gamal Abdul Nasser, [the Egyptian President who planned the overthrowing of the Egyptian Monarchy in 1952]. The lack of objectivity or recognisability of the site has seen it struggle to place itself within the international forum.

The City The inability to place the Shabab 24 March Movement protest on the Amman city map is a monumental problem. The significance of the event to Jordanian history and the lack of location is a detriment to the city as it creates blind spots within the urban fabric.

Without a location, the event has no grounding and therefore disappears from the city imaginary. However the reference of the roundabout in relation to the Ministry of Interior Office in Amman in the case of the Shabab 24 March movement gives context to the protest and starts to include the protest in the identity of roundabouts within the Ministry of Interior Office proximity.

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The lack of diverse media coverage played a huge role in the misunderstandings surrounding the Shabab 24 Match protest event. While social media provided an up to date insight into the experiences of citizens and groups within a community; the archiving system leaves little room for future reference, study or contemplation.

While symbolism is not a necessity to the international success of a protest, the relationship of the symbol to the memory of media is a significant opportunity which seems to be missed here.

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Bliss: Understanding Culture for people with little cultural understanding<http:// boingboing.net/2011/02/17/bahrain-anti-governm.html> 15. Patton T, 2011, Protesters retake the Pearl Roundabout, February 18 photograph<http://boingboing.net/2011/02/17/bahrain-anti-governm.html> 16. Patton T, 2011, Protesters retake the Pearl Roundabout, February 18 photograph<http://boingboing.net/2011/02/17/bahrain-anti-governm.html> 17. yfrog.com, 2011, [Protesters gathered at Pearl Roundabout. Image from yfrog. com]photograph <http://www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/677/notes-from-thebahraini-field_updated-l> 18. Buail S, 2013, Pearl roundabout taken in January 2010photograph <http://www.bahrainobserver.com/en/page/761/ The+Story+of+Bahrain%E2%80%99s+Pearl+Roundabout.html> 19. Anon, 2011 <http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/03/18/bahrain. protests/> 20. Kozyrev, Y, 2013 Manama, Bahrain, March 19, 2011, On Revolution Road<http://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/moving-walls/20/revolution-road 21. Moore, J, 2011Manama, Bahrain: A man jumps in the fountain as anti government demonstrators reoccupy Pearl roundabout, The Guardian<http://www. opensocietyfoundations.org/moving-walls/20/revolution-road> 22. Al Slaise Y, 2011 @ba7ari Crowds using Pearl roundabout just like egyptianTahrirSqaure #Feb14 #HRW #EU <http://twitpic.com/4038dd>photograph <http://globalvoicesonline.org/2011/02/15/pearl-roundabout-bahrains-tahrirsquare/> 23. Anon, 2011 A picture from Bahrain’s Pearl Roundabout, Libya(and Beyond) Blog: The End of Qaddafiphotograph <http://www.enduringamerica.com/ home/2011/2/21/libya-and-beyond-blog-the-end-of-qaddafi.html> 24. Anon, 2013 <http://www.lobelog.com/the-current-state-of-affairs-in-bahrain/> 25. Anon, 2011 Praying for peace: Bahraini protesters pray and others cheer as it emerges that the military withdrew from Pearl roundabout in an apparent concession to their demands<http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1358570/Middle-Eastmassacre-Video-captures-Bahrain-troops-gunning-protesters.html>

10. Anon, 2011,Protests at Pearl Roundabout in Bahrainby NeilKetchley. Photo: guardian.co.u. photograph <http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/ideas/2011/03/an-arabia-withoutsultans-reflections-from-bahrain/>

26. Al Ramadan M, 2011 Praying for peace: Bahraini protesters pray and others cheer as it emerges that the military withdrew from Pearl roundabout in an apparent concession to their demands<https://www.flickr.com/photos/ mramadan/5532544034/in/photostream/>

11.Anon, 2011,The Pearl Monument on the Pearl Roundabout, Bahrain, February 19, 2011. photograph<http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/ideas/2011/03/an-arabia-withoutsultans-reflections-from-bahrain/>

27. Hassanally S, 2011 Images from the Bahraini Revolution- Lulu(Pearl) Roundabout (Square) <https://www.flickr.com/photos/shabbirhassanally/5479026954/>

12. Anon, 2011,Demolition of the Pearl Roundabout, March 18 2011. photograph <http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/ideas/2011/03/an-arabia-without-sultans-reflections-frombahrain/>

28. Anon 2011 <http://www.stosunki.pl/?q=content/raj-na-rozstaju-dr%C3%B3g>

13. Anon, Protesters stand at the base of the Pearl Roundabout in the Bahraini capital of Manama, February 15, 2011.photograph<http://boingboing. net/2011/02/17/bahrain-anti-governm.html> 14.Patton T, 2011, Protesters retake the Pearl Roundabout, February 18 photograph<http://boingboing.net/2011/02/17/bahrain-anti-governm.html> Patton T, 2011, Protesters retake the Pearl Roundabout, February 18 Ignorance is

29.Ammar H, 2011Bahraini anti-government protesters pray at the Pearl roundabout in Manama in February 2011, before the monument was destroyed.

Photograph<http://www.stosunki.pl/?q=content/raj-na-rozstaju-dr%C3%B3g> 30. Anon, 2011 <http://www.channel4.com/news/bahraini-forces-clear-symbolicheart-of-the-uprising> 31. AOQ, 2011 Photograph<httphttp://www.bna.bh/portal/en/news/450175>

32. AFP, 2011Black smoke billows in Pearl Square in Bahraini capital Manama on March 16, 2011, after Bahraini police killed at least two protesters and wounded dozens more as they assaulted a peaceful protest camp in the capital’s Pearl Square, an opposition party official said. Photograph<http://tribune.com.pk/story/133347/ bahrain-police-clears-out-shiite-protest-camp/> 33. Reuters, 2011, Smoke rises from Pearl Roundabout as police forces move in to evacuate protestors in Manama on March 16, 2011 <http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/ bahrain/bahrain-police-clear-manama-s-pearl-roundabout-1.777901> 34. @nadooi_wish, 2011 @nadooi¬_wish: Found this! A woman protesting at #lulu #Bahrain #feb14 http://yfrog.com/h2hkvrij photograph < http://globalvoicesonline. org/2011/02/20/bahrain-protesters-continue-to-camp-at-pearl-roundabout/> 35. @nadooi_wish, 2011 @nadooi¬_wish: #lulu roundabout this morning. People are arriving there and most of them camped there #bahrain #feb14 http://yfrog.com/ h65zerj photograph < http://globalvoicesonline.org/2011/02/20/bahrain-protesterscontinue-to-camp-at-pearl-roundabout/> 36. @alihasgemii, 2011 @alihasgemii:#Bahrain #feb14 #lulu http://yfrog.com/ h6fd7ij http://yfrog.com/h43hccj http://yfrog.com/hsfkkbj photograph < http:// globalvoicesonline.org/2011/02/20/bahrain-protesters-continue-to-camp-at-pearlroundabout/> 37. @RedhaHaji, 2011 @RedhaHaji Why not talk from the start and saves lives #Bahrain #lulu #feb14 http://yfrog.com/h3h6xcij photograph < http:// globalvoicesonline.org/2011/02/20/bahrain-protesters-continue-to-camp-at-pearlroundabout/> 38. @queendarksideup, 2011 @queendarksideup Scene at 3.33am #Bahrain #feb14 #lulu #bh http://yfrog.com/h0liqhj photograph < http://globalvoicesonline. org/2011/02/20/bahrain-protesters-continue-to-camp-at-pearl-roundabout/> 39. @OhoodAbdul, 2011 @OhoodAbdul:Wonderful image of the #Bahrain Salmanya Hospital medical team @lulu roundabout today http://yfrog.com/ h6t5eoj#Feb14photograph < http://globalvoicesonline.org/2011/02/20/bahrainprotesters-continue-to-camp-at-pearl-roundabout/> 40. @khokhz, 2011 @khokhz: Stunned by the resilience of people and how euphoric they seemed to b back #lulu #bahrain #feb14 http://yfrog.com/h0w2ujijphotograph < http://globalvoicesonline.org/2011/02/20/bahrain-protesters-continue-to-camp-atpearl-roundabout/> 41.Mohammed H, 2011, The Pearl Roundabout statue is torn down in Manama on Friday.photograph<http://www.nbcnews.com/id/42125406/ns/world_newsmideast_n_africa/t/bahrain-demolishes-monument-pearl-square/#.VRNCZ52Ucgk> 42. Anon, 2011, <http://www.enduringamerica.com/home/2011/3/20/libya-andbeyond-liveblog-the-coalition-attacks.html> 43. Liberty4Bahrain, 2011, Demolishing Pearl Roundabout - Pearl Roundabout demolition, [0.49] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mw01_aeBjaY 44. Liberty4Bahrain, 2011, Demolishing Pearl Roundabout - Pearl Roundabout demolition, [0.53] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mw01_aeBjaY 45.Bahrain Protests, 2011, 15th Feb 2011 - Pearl Roundabout Becomes Symbolic Tahrir Square [0.52] <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dI-lZjm3r3s JORDAN 1. kenkenken78, 2011, 24 March-sit Youth’ Early stages of the March 24 sit-in as people gathered, some to participate and others to observe <http://www.jadaliyya.

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[iv]United Nations, (2015) Special Procedures of the Human Rights Council <http:// www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/SP/Pages/Introduction.aspx>

[xix]The Guardian, (2011), Bahrain protesters reclaim Pearl roundabout in central Manama <http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/feb/19/bahrain-protestersreclaim-city-centre-manama>

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com/pages/index/1012/jordans-march-24-youth-sit-in-violently-dispersed-> Jadaliyya Reports

20. Al Jazeera English, ’Inside Story-Unrest in Jordan’ 0.52 <https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=lcaABSH8Tx0>

2.7iber, 2011, Dakhilyyeh Circle- March 24 Protest ‘ Counter-protesters from the Loyalty March (left side) chanting insults at members of the March 24 Youth (right side): http://www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/1012/jordans-march-24-youth-sit-inviolently-dispersed> Jadaliyya Reports

21.SistasReZist, 2011, ’Jordan protest 25 March Zaid al Khawaldeh, Part 1’ 0.04, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Ig5rBfFJ4s> 22.Adoubism, 2011, Baktob Ismek Ya Bladi 24 March 0.05 <https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=aHQ1ZDDQVYk>

3.7iber, 2011, Dakhilyyeh Circle- March 24 Protest ‘ Counter-protesters from the Loyalty March (left side) chanting insults at members of the March 24 Youth (right side): <http://www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/1012/jordans-march-24-youth-sit-inviolently-dispersed->

23. Adoubism, 2011, Baktob Ismek Ya Bladi 24 March 0.23 <https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=aHQ1ZDDQVYk>

5. Ahmad, O, 2011 ’shabab 24 march song’ 0.32 <https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=P92B1Fw5KTc> 6. Ahmad, O, 2011 ’shabab 24 march song’ 0.45 <https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=P92B1Fw5KTc> 7. Ahmad, O, 2011 ’shabab 24 march song’ 0.57 <https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=P92B1Fw5KTc> 8. Ahmad, O, 2011 ’shabab 24 march song’ 1.05 <https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=P92B1Fw5KTc> 9. Ahmad, O, 2011 ’shabab 24 march song’ 1.32 <https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=P92B1Fw5KTc> 10. Ahmad, O, 2011 ’shabab 24 march song’ 1.41 <https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=P92B1Fw5KTc> 11. Ahmad, O, 2011 ’shabab 24 march song’ 1.52 <https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=P92B1Fw5KTc> 12. Ahmad, O, 2011 ’shabab 24 march song’ 2.34 <https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=P92B1Fw5KTc>

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Attacks on Media

Context

When Al Jazeera opened bureaus in other conflictbased cities around the Middle East, including Kabul, Afghanistan and Baghdad, Iraq, for the coverage of the 2003 Iraq War, this is when the network’s facilities and footage were highly sought after by international networks and also consequently, sparked the rise to 1 Miles, H, Al-Jazeera: How Arab TV news challenged the world, Abacus (2005), The United Kingdom, Introduction

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OVERVIEW

It is undeniable that media is an objective voice piece to every city within the Middle East. It becomes an instigator as a medium of terror to the city as a result of their broadcasts and discourse. The physical presence of media in cities, makes the media stations a target, and consequently the civilians and architecture surrounding become a target as well. When Al-Jazeera was launched in November of 1996, it changed the way the world viewed reports and broadcasts for news on the Middle East, and Al-Jazeera became the dominant news network (externally) as opposed to CNN and CNN Arabic. A Doha-based broadcasting station, mixing news from live reports and broadcasts, ‘in-the-field’1 interviews with civilians experiencing events first-hand, to, reports around the world and pre-recorded news packages. Al-Jazeera’s news station felt and looked like any other ordinary western news station, however it varied quite dramatically through the viewpoints and opinions it displayed, by carefully curated and positioned news packages. If one were to observe and compare the headlines, videos, and interviews Al-Jazeera displayed, it is clearly identifiable that the principal differences between it and other twenty-four-hour news networks were the detailed information and images it portrayed and the reactions it received from the public sphere.

several similar and semi-independent satellite stations, such as Al-Arabiya and Abu Dhabi TV. However, on the contrary to the complex flow of opinionated images and videos as displayed by Al Jazeera, AlArabiya and Abu Dhabi TV differentiate themselves as their coverage of the news during the Iraq War for example was ‘staid and muted’2. Or, they would appeal to specific markets through their coverage.

As the figure of media broadcasters is ever increasing, the public is constantly exposed to events and conflict in the Middle East. This over exposure is due to the competitive nature of media broadcasting stations, all recapitulating the same event through images, information and footage, the difference being, some have more sources than the other. Or, on the contrary, some act as a voice piece for locals and direct sources of ‘the other’ within the zones of conflict, giving these stations a particular advantage. Al Jazeera’s dominance came as a result of its locality within zones of conflict and therefore, became a target by the many bodies such as, other media outlets, U.S. Military forces (Pentagon).

Al Jazeera is an example of a media station that played a major role during the Iraq War in 2003, exemplifying this theory of media being a target producing further terror in cities in the Middle East. “Al-Jazeera has successfully identified characteristics of the Arab audience that show similarities, as well as differences.

By detecting and highlighting the links that connect Arabs and westerners worldwide, Al-Jazeera has become part and parcel of the Arab world. It speaks to and for it”4. A media channel that is not hesitant in uncovering corrupt policies, scandals and formulating propaganda, but also sympathises with issues they consider close to home5.

For these reasons, it was “not welcome by the us military” as stated by Soazig Dollet 6, and events such as the attacks on the Al Jazeera Kabul bureau in 2001, Al-Jazeera Baghdad bureau towards the end of the Iraq war in 2003, can be identified as directly targeted to the media channel.

2 Lynch, M, Voices of the New Arab Public: Iraq, Al-Jazeera and middle east politics today, Columbia University Press (2006) , New York, p23.

3El-Nawawy, M, Iskandar, A, Al-Jazeera: How the free arab news network scooped the world and changed the middle east, Westview Press (2002) , Colorado, p.20.

4 El-Nawawy, M, Iskandar, A, Al-Jazeera: How the free arab news network scooped the world and changed the middle east, Westview Press (2002) , Colorado, pIX. 5 El-Nawawy, M, Iskandar, A, 2002, p.21.

6 Jamail, D. 2013, Iraq: The deadliest war for journalists, Al Jazeera, viewed 4 April 2015, < http://www.aljazeera.com/humanrights/2013/04/2013481202781452ht ml>

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ATTACKS ON MEDIA

234

Furthermore, the significance of media throughout the Middle Eastern conflict must be contemplated with an understanding of the discourse which constructs the ‘other’ as it cannot be used to measure the accuracy of the events associated with the headlines and conversation.

The ‘other’ being, what is understood from what is not said directly. A paradox is then formed through what is shown and broadcasted, and what is not shown.

This forms the attitudes from external voices towards the Middle East. However these attitudes should not influence individuals from making statements, with recognition of these influences and debates as displayed by the media - as it constitutes a view of the city that may or may not be accurate. Statements of such emerge from contentious ideas about ‘the other’ which is generally not notions generated from the battlefields and war front, but within the homes of those individuals3 within the cities (local) and those viewing the cities internationally (external).

Media as a target

This also had an effect on other media channels, individual journalists and families, specifically during the Baghdad attack on the Al-Jazeera bureau, an AlJazeera reporter, Tareq Ayyoub was killed, the homes of surrounding residents destroyed, office workers injured, the closely located Abu Dhabi bureau was also attacked, as well as the Palestine Hotel which was housing numerous journalists at the time of the war.

It is clear what effect media has on the city, especially when it becomes a target of attack. It not only has detrimental physical repercussions but humanitarian effects on the city and its people.

01 Snapshot from Control Room documentary, attack on Baghdad Bureau

Further to the aftermath of the attacks on the media and journalists in particular as individuals, comes the physical and humanitarian ramifications on the cities within the Middle East. Therefore it is integral in conversation to also pay particular attention to individuals being targeted. There is a direct link to how individuals such as journalists of Al Jazeera, were targeted as a result of their overall involvement with the channel. The media stations and corresponding journalists are then viewed as a possible threat to the city (by locals). As mentioned previously, the attack on Tareq Ayoub during the Iraq War in April 2003, had repercussions on all other journalists within the war zone. Tareq was attacked after his image and location was displayed live on air during an Al-Jazeera broadcast. Following this, all other journalists within the area, including Abu Dhabi TV, and international correspondents at Palestine Hotel were also attacked.

The outcome of an event as such is reciprocated, as media outlets become seen as targets and threats to cities, particularly within the Middle East.

This is more recently evident with the detainment of Al-Jazeera journalist Ahmed Idris and cameraman Ali Mustafa by Nigerian Military forces, in Nigeria, since March 24, 20157. The pair were filming and broadcasting Nigerian military operations against Boko Haram and have been detained and refused contact with the outside world, though, the pair have reportedly done nothing wrong, but, report news. This enforces the case, that, Al-Jazeera specifically is seen as a target and more so, a threat to communities across the public sphere. â&#x20AC;&#x153;

7 Al-Jazeera 2015, Legal action over Al-Jazeera staff detained in Nigeria, viewed 4 April 2015, <http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/04/al-jazeera-staff-nigeria-150402194145896.html>

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Physical and Humanitarian effects on City

The Imaginary After the attacks on the Al-Jazeera bureau’s on many occasions, the media outlet had to take precaution into who and where it distributed its information. The Doha based media outlet, eliminated any information of it’s office’s location and coordinates online, as well as distributing it to any other media outlets or government officials. However, in the case of war, when the Al-Jazeera offices were located within a war zone, the U.S. Pentagon were the only officials that had the location of the Al-Jazeera office coordinates, such as the Baghdad bureau in the 2003 Iraq war.

The fact that the U.S. Military were aware of the Baghdad office coordinates during the war, reinforces the collusion that they were intentionally targeted during the war.

When media is targeted, the imaginary is formed, and an individual is only able to respond to an array of international perspectives.

8 Al-Jazeera 2015, Legal action over Al-Jazeera staff detained in Nigeria, viewed 4 April 2015, <http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/04/al-jazeera-staff-nigeria-150402194145896.html>

The public sphere then reads the city differently. These international perspectives (external sources of media), are built upon information sourced from ‘other’ sets of information, as the internal sources are lost.

Predominantly, one cannot determine the evidence when the source of investigation is blacked out. For instance, when Al-Jazeera is switched off, attacked and unavailable, the question that is then raised is, who is now reporting from a local perspective? This is when the imaginary is born and one can perceive how the media produces other perspectives of cities.

The imaginary is the notion of predetermined attitudes of cities which reverberate the cultural and political influences at the time as displayed by the media. It is a consequence of the controversy between media stations, producing these images, and thus leads to the attacks on the media. As mentioned previously, Al-Jazeera’s locality and network facilities and footage were highly sought after by international networks and also consequently, sparked the rise to several similar and semi-independent satellite stations which created controversy producing these images of the imaginary and leading to conflicts between the stations for the rise of dominance.

“Propaganda is the conscious or unconscious attempts by the propagandist to advance the cause through the manipulation of the opinion perception and behaviour of the target group”. 9 The complex flow of images, information, interactions, sounds and symbols, not only formulates a networked global society10, both visually and knowledge based, but formulates ‘views’ and ‘opinions’ of the ‘unknown’ (the other) as propagated by the images seen on screens, and this allows for an “extraordinary growth in direction, volume and velocity” 11of propaganda, 9 Willcox. D, Propaganda, the press and conflict: The Gulf War and Kosovo, Routledge (2005) London, p.21.

10 Kishan Thussu, D, Media on the move: global flow and contra-flow, Routledge (2007), New York, p.11.

11 Kishan, p.11.

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238

The detention has been condemned by the Committee to Protect Journalists, the National Press Club, and the Nigeria Civil Society Situation Room, a coalition of organisations working in support of credible and transparent elections” 8, however the pair have not been released as of yet, but held in custody by Nigerian military as the fact that they work with Al-Jazeera is seen as adverse to Nigeria. It is then clear that the threat of physical repercussions on cities from media are when attacks are targeted on media stations, and journalists, and in particular Al-Jazeera journalists reporting in the Middle East. The notion that not only broadcasters but also civilians can no longer be safe when they are based in cities, not only has physical ramifications on the city itself, but effects on the individuals and groups directly linked, hence humanitarian effects on the city.

and generally leads to conflict between and against the media, producing the imaginary of the cities.

241

ABU DHABI TV OFFICE, 33.345690, 44.388433

PALESTINE HOTEL, 33.315085, 44.418319

KABUL BUREAU, 34.535029, 69.161122

BAHDAD BUREAU, 33.345690, 44.388433

Approximate locations in regards to written articles.

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240

The conceptual framework of the nation constituting a powerful force as framed by the media, results in the social form founded on the sense of networks, views, and opinions. Ideologies of these social forms reflect the understanding of the international imaginary that has risen to dominance and has become the basis of the violence and war within the middle east. An individual then, has a new reading of the city through the imaginary. Therefore, media is the place where we need to look for the imaginary of cities, and thus media defines the imaginary.

02

04

05

243

06

OVERVIEW

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242

03

07

08

09

10

12

16

17

18

13

11

14

19

15

20 Research Sources A collation of images in regards to the investigative process, including documentary snap shots, article annotations and article images.

Attack on Kabul Bureau November the 13th, 2001

The attack on the Kabul Bureau, was the initiation of the conspiracy behind media being targeted deliberately by the U.S. Military during the war in the Middle East, specifically in Afghanistan in this case. “Ibrahim Hilal, the chief editor of the Arabic language network, said it had given the location of its office in Kabul to the authorities in Washington - yet on Monday night, its office was destroyed by a bomb that almost wrecked the nearby BBC bureau” 2. Although the U.S. Military and Pentagon representatives, constantly denied that they had deliberately targeted Al-Jazeera, explanations and reasoning of why the office was hit at the time could not be resolved.

1 Jamail, D. 2013, Iraq: The deadliest war for journalists, Al Jazeera, viewed 4 April 2015, < http://www.aljazeera.com/humanrights/2013/04/2013481202781452.html> 2 Wells, M. 2001, Al-Jazeera accuses US of bombing its Kabul office, The Guardian, viewed 2 April 2015, <http://www.theguardian.com/media/2001/nov/17/warinafghanistan2001.afghanistan>

“The US military does not and will not target media. We would not, as a policy, target news media organisations - it would not even begin to make sense” 3.

245

The inability to understand why the offices were hit, lead to continuous conversation around the topic and the notion that the media personnel, as well as any casual civilians surrounding these personnel were not safe, as media was seen as a target.

William Reeve and Rageh Omar, being the only correspondents for Al-Jazeera in the Kabul office at the time, remained in the office although they were told to leave by Doha headquarters, as head office feared for their safety after the Northern Alliance took over during the war. However, the US allegedly did not want to bomb the office while the broadcasters were within the area, “Speaking by telephone to the News World conference of media executives in Barcelona, Mr Hilal said he believed that al-Jazeera’s office in Kabul had been on the Pentagon’s list of targets since the beginning of the conflict but the US did not want to bomb it while the broadcaster was the only one based in Kabul” 4. So it is evident here, that although not targeting particular individual journalists, the media outlet in general was listed as a target during the war, and evidently the attack had repercussions on the staff and civilians surrounding, including the BBC bureau5.

3 Lettice, J. 2003, Al-Jazeera and the net - free speech, but don’t say that. The Register, viewed 2 April 2015, <http://www.theregister.co.uk/2003/04/07/al_jazeera_and_the_ net/ > 4 Lettice, 2003.

5 Lettice, 2003.

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KABUL BUREAU

244

Losing the Al-Jazeera Kabul bureau, in November of the 2001 U.S. invasion of Afghanistan, meant losing a source of internal recordings and reports on the specific event, and possibly more information on the invasion at the time. Although no journalists were killed, the intention of wiping out the sources of recording by attacking groups, was the initiation of conspiracies behind attacks on media in war in the Middle East.

This invasion as well as subsequent invasions in the following years, claimed the lives of a record number of journalists, and was “indisputably the deadliest war for journalists in recorded history” says Dahr Jamail1.

Dih YahyaHealthnet International (HNI)

Handicap International (H I)

Deh Yahya Payi Munar

Focus Humanitarian Assistance Checkpoint United Methodist Committee On Relief (UMCOR) MercyCorps

L'Atmosphere

Noor Mosque

Mohammadia Mosque

Cemetery Tappeh-ye Bibi Mahrow

Ziarat Mtr-zewaruddin (padshah Sabeb)

Concern

Sozo International

Mirvali Zivar Od Din Kowtal-e Dehkeypak

Actionaid

Aga Khan Foundation Guesthouse

Haji M. Dad Mosque

WFP Guesthouse – 1, 4

Flower Street Cafe

Kowtal-e Khvajehboghra

34°36'0"N

Pay Monar

Indigo Carpet Shop

Guesthouse International Rescue Committee (IRC)

Terre Des Hommes (TDH) UNAMA Guesthouse

German Agro Action (GAA)

British Cemetery

Health Club

Checkpoint GTZ Gender Mainstreaming Project

Zarghoona High School

Pol-e Sangi Oxfam Gb

Kowtal-e Pay Monar

Kabul Orthopedic Organisation (KOO)

Kabul Inn

Guesthouse

WFP Guesthouse – 3

IRD - Strategic Provincial Roads (SPR) 3

Belgian Embassy

Koluleh Poshteh

Cemetery

ACBAR

PD10 HQ

Fortification

Kuh-e Khvajeh Ravash

UNHCR Guesthouse

School

Care Main Office

Purozha-i-jadid

Maple Leaf

Finest Superstore Computer Plaza

International Club

District 11

Char Rahi Panjsad Family

Qala-i-dawlat Khvajeh Boghra

Embassy Of The Netherlands Baraki

Hisa-i-doye Khair Khana

ASSA Guesthouse

Habib Bank

UNESCO

Haji Yaqub Circle

Restauranti Rose

National Bank Of Pakistan

Wazir Akbar Khan ICRC Compound

Justice Security Sector Support (JSSP) The Grill

Aga Khan Foundation Roshan Main Office

AIB

Ql Jangi Embassy Of Kazakhstan

Reuters

Park Cinema

Bella Italia

UNICA 1 Guesthouse Cappucino Cafe

Kabul City Planning

UNOPS CRG

Shar-e-now Park

Char Rahi Ansari

USA Embassy

British Embassy

International Relief & Development (IRD)

District 19

ASSA Guesthouse World Food Program

Central Hotel

Deloitte

Embassy Of South Korea

Park Bagram Shop

International Organisation for Migration (IOM)

Qal Eh-ye Najjar

World Health Organization

Boccacio Restaurant

Wazir Abar Khan Mosque

Embassy Of Sweden

GTZ

Euro Guesthouse Embassy of Finland

Embassy Of Denmark

Embassy Of Egypt

Asia Security Group (ASG) Multinet

Restauranti Hirat

Wakhan Cafe

Qal 'eh-ye Gholamow

Currency Exchange

The Living Room Bar& Cafe (ex-lounge)

Sufi Afghan Restaurant

Kandaki Tajamau Fat Man Butcher Shop& Restuarant

Punjab Bank

New World Restaurant

Tarakheyl

Shahri Now

Checkpoint

Embassy Of Turkmenistan

ICRC Bar

Crazy Zaks

Indira Ghandi St

Martini Bar

Embassy Of Spain

Cooperazione Internazionale (COOPI)

Mai Thai Restaurant

Afghan Civil Service Support (ACSS) Capacity D evelopment Program (CDP)

Anaar Restaurant Afghanistan Banks Association

Embassy Of Norway

Restauranti Sharghai

Springfield Restaurant

UNHAS

Microfinance Investment Support Facility for Afghanistan (MISFA)

Golden Star Hotel Hajji Yakub Mosque

Asia Construction Group

The Galleria

Qasaba

District 15

Khishti Hokhtif

UNMACCA Guesthouse

Diana Inn La Cantina Bar& Restaurant (closed) Sherpur

ACF

EU Special Representative Office

Deloitte

UNDP Gueshtouse

Norwegian Afghanistan Committee (NAC) Police Station Park Palace H otel

Taverna du Liban

Ministry of the Haj

Dashi Abdul Samad

Butcher Street

United Nations Office on D rugs and Crime (UNODC) UNAMA Regional Office Checkpoint Office For The Coordination Of Embassy Of The Humanitarian Affairs (OCH A) Slovak Republic

Khair Khana School

Catholic Relief Services (CRS) UXB

ASSA Guesthouse

AIB Bank

Youth

UK Department For International Development (DFID)

UNHCR Guesthouse Swiss Cooperation Office & Swiss Embassy

Agency Coordinating Body For Afghan Relief (ACBAR)

International Committee Of The Red Cross (ICRC)

Golden Key Restaurant

Coordination Of Afghan Relief (COAR) Afghanistan Subnational Governance Programme (ASGP)

District 18

European Commission (EC) Care New Compound

UNAMA C

Embassy Of Uzbekistan

Afghanistan Stabilization Initiative (ASI)

The Other Venue UNDP Guesthouse

Hanzala Mosque

WFP Guesthouse – 2

UNHCR

Panjsad Family

ICRC Guesthouse

Creative Associates

Caritas Germany

Mir Alam Kala

Siah Bini Justice Security Sector Support Program (J SSP)

Restauranti Shandiz Canadian Embassy World Bank Office

Embassy Of Bulgaria

Guesthouse

IMF

Japanese Embassy

UNDP-ELECT

Spinneys Supermarket

Ministry Of Women's Affairs

Dog House

Embassy Of Japan Embassy Of Tajikistan

AED Office and Housing

WFP

Hisa-i-suwumi Khair Khana

Mosque

Old Tow er Place

Cemetery

Police HQ

Bastan Guesthouse

Ganjina

Academy Of Science

Ministry of Economy Training Centre

Cedar House Guesthouse

Restauranti Popolano

Swiss Peace

UNICEF WFP

Hamidi Supermarket

Islamic Studies And Research Association (ISRA) Checkpoint

Char Rahi Quwayi Markaz Restauranti Marcopolo

Humanitarian Aid Organization (intersos)

Well

Aib Bank And Atm

Embassy Of The UAE

Char Rahi Turabaz Khan

Le Bistro Restaurant & Gallery

Chicken Street

Embassy Of Iraq

Restauranti Haji Baba

Checkpoint

Embassy Of Indonesia Embassy Of India Posta Khana-i-shahr-e-now

Chaharaii Sarayi Shamali

Ministry Of The Interior

Qal Eh Dasht

Monument

Inset (b)

Bilak Hayi Sarandoy

Black Water Gate

Ministry Of Planning

Char Rahi Sidarat

Civil Service Management Department (CSMD)

Qala-i-wakil Qal'eh Chowban Bashi

Danish Committee For Aid To Afghan Refugees (DACAAR)

Perwan Seh

Nowabad-e Dehkeypak

Qal 'eh-ye Chaman-e Dehkeypak

Healthnet International (HNI)

Kuh-e Afshar

L'Atmosphere

Focus Humanitarian Assistance MercyCorps United Methodist Committee On Relief (UMCOR)

Concern Actionaid

Terre Des Hommes (TDH)

German Agro Action (GAA) International Rescue Committee (IRC)

Koluleh Poshteh Pretrial Detention Centre (Office)

Belgian Embassy

PD10 HQ

Customs House

KABUL BUREAU

Qala-i-shanan

Qal'eh Vazir Ministry Of Border And Tribal Affairs

Daud Khel

Qala-i-shora

Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD)

Fat Man Butc her Shop& Restuarant Ministry Of Public Health

UK Department For International Development (DFID) United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)

Qal'eh Shanan

Ql Fatehkhan Microrayani Suwum

Supreme Court

Kandaki Tajamau

Shahrara

Baraki Shahrara

Qal'eh-ye-davazdah Eman

World Health Organization

Embassy Of The Netherlands

AL JAZEERA BUREAU APPROX LOCATION A

Counternarc otics Ministry Of Counternarcotics

Baghi Bala

Sinuma Aryob

Aide Médicale Internationale (AMI)

Embassy Of Kazakhstan

British Council

h Meynah Bagh-e Bala Meyna

Wakhan Cafe

Baghi Zanana

Naderia High School Police Station, Registration Of Foreigners

Poly Technic Institute

Karta-i-mamurin

Qal'eh-ye Feyz Mohammed Khan

Karta-i-wali

USA Embassy

EUPOL outer gate EUPOL Inner gate

Qal'eh Sharabian

Sc hool

Ministry Of Transport & Civil Aviation

Qowayee Markaz

Qal'eh-ye Rika

National Press

USAID

International Organisation for Migration (IOM)

Baharistan

Torn School

Maslakh

Intelligence Headquarters

Alukheyl

Ministry Of Public Works

Geologic al Survey Ministry of Mines Deep Industry Afghanistan Geological

Deh Khodadad

International Medic al Corps (IMC) Embassy Of Saudi Arabia

arch And Dev elopment Lab/research Facility School

Qala-i-zaman Khan

IFES STEP Mine Action Coordination Centre (MACCA) EU Delegation Prime Minister's Office Embassy Of China Accelerating Sustainable Agriculture Program (ASAP) Swedish Committee For Afghanistan (SCA) Vice Presedent Office Islahate Edari School

Kart-i-ariana

Independent Directorate for Local Governance (IDLG) UNFPA

Ministry Of Foreign Affairs Civil Sevice Commision Ministry Of Planning

Malalay High School

Javad

District 02

Police Station

Ministry Of Education

Afghan G eodesy And Cartography Head Office (AGCHO)

De Afghanistan Bank Banki Mili

UNHabitat

Kyber Restaurant

Municipal Building

Tapa-i-salam

Maqbareh-ye Seyred Jamal Od Din

Kabul University

Joyi Sheer

Asma'i

Deh Mazang

Fire Department

Murad Khani

Jamal Mena

Traffic Department

Ministry Of Higher Education

Chamani Huzuri

Teacher's College

Kah Furoshi

Dih Buri

Baghi Wahsh Karta-i-char

Agricultural School

Danish Demining Group (DDG)

Karta-i-cahar

Qal'eh-ye Ahmad Khan

Khwaja Safa

Siyah Sang

Sahsahid

Hindu Guzar

Zanabad

Kowtal-e Yek Lengeh

Naw Abadi (zanabad)

Family Hayi Nasaji Bagrami Sc hool

Kharabad Naw Abadi Guzarga

PD03 HQ

Geres

Sayed Noor Mohd Shah Mena

Sang Tarashi

ye Esma'il Khan Qal'ehQal'eh-ye

Sayed Jamalidin Afghan Training Center US Army Corps of Engineers Afghanistan Engineer District (AED)Higher Education Project (HEP) International School Save The Children UK

Saraa-e-Ghazni

Darwaza-i-lahori

Ahangari

Babayi Khudi

Ashiqan Arifan

Baghi Qazi

Deh-mazang

Nahri Darsan

Shor Bazar

District 01

Russian House Of Science And Culture Child Fund

Sc hool

School

Chindawul

Traffic Police

Ibnesina School

Qala-i-moin

approx. location

Dashti Shina Wa Bagrami Ahmad Shah Baba Mena

Saraji

Srah Miasht

Naw Abadi Dehmazang

Prison

Ghazi High School Dept of Infrastructure

Darmalimin

District 12 Naw Abadi Karta-i-now

Akhiri Jada

Kabul Traffic Department

Lycee Music

Tapa-i-maranjan

Afghanistan Chamber of Commerce & Industry (ACCI)

Baghi Ali Mardan

Ghazni Wall

Ariana High School

Takhnik Sanawee

arbi

Mine Detection Centre (MDC) Ministry of Communications Ministry of Public Health

Law School

Afghan Tourist Organization

Lailia Puhanton

Vocational Department

Maqbareh-ye Nader Shah

Afghan G erman Cooperation

Ayesha-i-durani High School

Dehburi

Red Hot Sizzler (bar& Restuarant)

Organization For Mine Clearance And Afghan Rehab (OMAR)

Ministry Of Finance

Bala Kuh

Afghanistan Technical Vocational Ins Institute titute (ATVI)

Deh Now

Shinah

Staff College

Andarabi

Istgahi Akhiri Pahantun Lailia Puhanton

Kota-i-sangi

District 16

Supreme Court

School

Ministry Of Jus tice

District 03

Corrections System Support Program (CSSP)

Ministry Of Mines And Power

Ziarat Sakhi Kart-i-sakhi

Ministry Of Information & Culture Pashtane Bank

Qal-eh Akhond Zadeh

Ministry Of Martys And The Disabled

Pule Mahmudkhan

Ministry Of Defense Istiqlal High School

Deh Afghanan

Ministry of Agriculture

Qal'eh-ye Salo

Part Khel

Ministry of Labor & Social Affairs (MoLSA)

Mili Bus

ICMA Office

EDC O ffice& GH

Governer's Office

Shafakhana Afghan-turk Shafakhna Fransawiha Ali Abad

IDLG Municipality Office

Argi Jumhuri Presidential Palace

Wilayat French Culture

Qoli Abchakan

Food & Agriculture Organisation/ International Labour Organisation

Qarya-i-dih Khuday Dad

ClearPath International (CPI) Alternative Development Program (ADP)

Presidential Palace

National Archives Ministry Of Labor And Social Affairs Ministry Of Economy

Sc hool

Chamani Deh Khudai Dad

Qal'eh-ye Sement Khaneh

Shash Darak Frc rcs

KFW Office Civil Service Management Department (CSMD) Afghanistan National Disaster Management Authority (ANDMA)

Silo-i-markazi

Microrayani Awal

Central Statistics Statistic s Office (CSO) Ec onomic Growth and Governance Initiative (EG GI)

Passport Pass port Office

Kuh-e 'aliabad

MOEW Internal Audit Dept

247

Paktia Kot

Udkheyl

Qabil Boy

Swis s Cooperation O ffice ffic e & Swiss Embassy

Rana Institute

Kabul Education University

shar-e Nanachi

Qiami Khel

Tarnab

INVESTIGATION

emayee

Qala-i-gulbaz

IRD - Afghanistan Vouchers for Increased Productive Agriculture (AVIPA) IRD - Strategic Provincial Roads (SPR) 3

Samarakind Restaurant

Karta-i-parwan Police Academy

l Jahad University

UN Visitors Car Park

Ghaibi Khel

Yakatoot

ACBAR

European Commission Humanitarian Aid (ECHO)

DAI Office

Gumruk

Qal'eh Yakeh Tut

Kabul Orthopedic Organisation Organis ation (KOO)

GTZ Gender Mainstreaming Project WFP G uesthouse – 3

Ministry Of Defense

Istiqlal H igh School

Qal'eh Qabel Bay rorayani Chaharum Mic Microrayani

Embassy Of The UK (old location)

Civil Service Commission Central Regional Office

DHL Shash DarakCheckpoint Kabul Central Library

Pashminabafi

Qala Haji Bibi Mahru

Turquoise Mountain HQ

Afghan Aid

Checkpoint

UN Department For Safety And Security (UNDSS) UNOPS IRIN Independant Electoral Commission (IEC) UNICEF UNAMA United Nations Volunteers (UNV)

Naw Abadi Qabil Boy Immap Office, Green Village

Zarghoona High School

Oxfam Gb

Mosque

EDC Office& GH

UNDP DIAG UNFPA

Qamruddin Khel

Qal'eh Zanabad

Bibi Mahrow

Tappeh-ye Bibi Mahrow

WFP G uesthouse – 1, 4 UNAMA Guesthouse

Flower Street Cafe

Perwan Du

Inset (a)

Afghan Ngo Coordination Bureau (ANCB)

Handicap International (HI)

UN Habitat O ffice

Mosque

Cemetery

Qala-i-musa

Presidential Palace Mosque

Presidential Palace

Gulbahar C entre

Governer's Office

Gula Khel

Qal'eh Mardan

District 09

Qal Eh-ye Musa

Mci

Afghanistan Ngo Safety Office (ANSO) Shelter Now International (SNI) Medair Jen

Sozo International

Tahiya-i-maskan

Bagh-i-bala Palace (former)

Wilayat

Rumi’s Restaurant

Aero

Baghi Wahed

246

ICMA Office Argi Jumhuri Monument

Qal 'eh-ye Khater

The Venue

Land Titling and Registration Activities (LTERA)

Ministry Of Economy

Police Station

Qala-i-mir Abbas

Husseinia Takiyakhana

Advanced Engineering Associates International (AEAI)

Tearfund

Ministry Of Labor And Social Affairs

Bazu Kheyl

ANSO House

WarChild

Taymani Qal-eh-ye Khavas

Park Mosque

District 10 Madera

Hisa-i-awali Hisa-i-awali Taimani Taimani

Chamani Babrak

National Archives

Mosque

Qal'eh Mostari Oasem

Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC)

Police Station

District 04

Checkpoint

Presidential Palace Afghanistan National Disaster Management Authority (ANDMA) Cemetery

Hisa-i-doyietaimani

Monument

Civil Sevice Commision

KFW Office

Char Qal 'eh-ye Vazirabad

Afghan Landmine Survivors' Organization (ALSO)

Chahar Qal Eh-ye Vazirabad

Frcrcs

Ministry Of Foreign Affairs

Mosque

Checkpoint

Cemetery

Khvajeh Ravash

Relax Guest House

Shash D arak

Ariana Hotel (former)

Chamani Chahar Qala Wazir Abad

UNFPA

Embassy Of China

Islahate Edari

Vice Presedent Office

Mustafa Hotel

Office For Weapons Removal and Abatement (WRA)

Khwaja Rawash

Qal Eh-ye Yaknowkheyl Chahar Qala-i-wazirabad

Solidarites

Independent Directorate for Local Governance (IDLG)

Central Statistics Office (CSO)

Prime Minister's Office

School

Malalay High School

Chamani Pesarane Amir Shahid

Badam Bagh

Checkpoint

International Medical Corps (IMC )

Economic Growth and Governance Initiative (EGGI)

Embassy Of Italy

AEGIS

Mine Action Coordination Centre (MACCA)

EU Delegation

Koluleh Poshteh

Mosque

Afghan Commission For Human Rights (ACHR)

Monument

Swedish Committee For Afghanistan (SCA) UNAMA/UNHAS KAIA

Qal'eh Chaman Wazir Abad

Amani H igh School

Fountain

Soccer Field

Tara Khel (kochan)

Accelerating Sustainable Agriculture Program (ASAP)

Qala-i-chaman Dasht School

Qal 'eh-ye Malek Ashur

UNIFEM UNDP Country Office

United States Cultural Center

Monument

Veterinary Department

Embassy Of France

UNICA 2 Guesthouse

Passport Office

Helvetas

Spanish Embassy

International Fed. Of Red Cross

National Directorate of Security (ND S)

Fountain

Sarayi Shamali

UNAMA B Compound

Embassy Of Turkey

Maiwand Bank

Charahi Shaheed

State Film Studio

Zanbaq Circle Checkpoint

UNICA 2 Guesthouse

Kabul Bank HQ

Checkpoint

Khwaja Bughra

Checkpoint

Afghanistan International Bank

World Food Program Gandamack Lodge, Bar & Restaurant

Qal Qal 'eh-ye 'eh-ye Malek Malek 'ashur 'ashur

Checkpoint Checkpoint

Ministry Of Transport & Civil Aviation

Soccer Field

Checkpoint

Afghanistan Deposit Insurance Corporation (ADIC )Unmaca (old Location)

Restauranti Taste

Restauranti Chinese

Checkpoint

Hong Kong Restaurant

Checkpoint

Embassy Of Iran

Flower Street Chelsea Supermarket

Athletic Field

Azizi Bank

Pax Mondial Agency For Technical C ooperation And Development (ACTED)

Istalif Gallery

Afghanistan Research And Evaluation Unit (AR EU)

Embassy Of Germany

Byblos Guesthouse & Restaurant

Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit (AREU) UNHCR

Qala-i-najar Ha School

Embassy Of Libya

Shari Naw

Transformer Station Fuel Station

Chang Thai Restaurant

Surghundi

American Red Cross

Fountain

Park Residence Setara Hotel

BBC Offices

Embassy Of Pakistan

Safi Landmark Hotel Munari Shahrara

Checkpoint

Relief International (RI)

Action Contre la Faim (Action Against Hunger, ACF)

Kabul Micro Finance Bank

Dashti Wazir Abad

School

34°34'0"N

Maryam High School

Golayee Hisa-i-awal

34°32'0"N

Sesadu Panzda

ICRC Teamhouse Crazy 8

Ministry Of Haj (pilgrimage)

Gardanae Kolola Pushta Mosqu

Ajmal Wali International Guesthouse

Cemetery

Afghan TV Station

Qala-i-fathullah UNESCO Guesthouse Asian Development Bank

Public Telephone

School

Samarakind Restaurant

Communications Tower

Munari Kulola Pushta Minaret

Heetal Plaza Hotel

IRD - Afghanistan Vouchers for Increased Productive Agriculture (AVIPA)

Rana Tech

Checkpoint

Hazareh-y e Baghal Hazareh-ye

Janhar Distam

Rahman Mena

Masjide Itifaq

Embassy of Poland

Kab Shahan Palace Iran - Afghanistan Scientific / Religious Research

School

Guzargah

Save The Children Sweden-Norway (SCF-N) RC Central HQ

Hadira Sange Zoghal

AREA

Fabrica-i- Kheste Ukhteef Tappeh-ye Qavalha

USAID Support Compound

Mine Clearance Planning Agency (MCPA) Habibia High School

Afgan Independent Human Rights Commission

Baghi Babur

Kuh-e Shirdarvazeh

Qal'eh-ye Hendu

Qal'eh-ye Shadeh

Karta-i-seh

Bangsidar

Counter Narcotics Police Polic e (CNPA)

Qal'eh-ye Shaghasi

School

Qal'eh-ye Hashmat Khan

UN Regional Office Management Sciences For Health (MSH)

Project for Support of Police (NORAF) Katab University International Assistance Mission (IAM)

Banksivdar

Chamani Bagrami

Qal'eh-ye Khvajeh

Darvazeh-ye Lahori

Qalacha Police Station

Aub Khan Mena

Dasto Khel

Ministry Of Commerce & Industry Indus try

Afghan Tarkanee

National Parliament

Gozargah

Embassy of Poland

Shuhadayi Saliheen

Golkhaneh

Qal'eh-ye Now

Ministry Of Refugee Repatriation

Qal'eh-ye Afghanha Allawuddin

Sc hool

Qala-i-sahibzada Ha

Koli Hashmat Khan

Birishna Kot

Jangalak

Bagrami

Qala-i-shah Khanum

AL JAZEERA BUREAU APPROX LOCATION B

Meydan-e Bozkashi

Girdi Qol

Qal'eh-ye Shokrollah Qala-i-wazir

Qal'eh Malek Karim

Qal'eh Sadr-e A'zam

Tapa-i-qawal Ha

Embassy Of Yugoslavia

AL JAZEERA BUREAU APPROX LOCATION C

Qal'ehcheh-ye Sahebzadeh

Alav Od Din-e Pa'in

Qal'eh-ye Jangalak Wasil Abad

Embassy Of Russia

Qal'eh-ye Vazir

Qal'eh-ye Vaselabad

Qala-i-shukrullah

Bini Hesar

Kamawal

Du Sad Family Rahman Mena Qala-i-hashmat Khan

Karta-i-ghulam Jan Gerd Kowl (qowl)

Puli Safid

Deh Alageh Qal'eh-ye Sardar Va Bini Hes

Alav Od Din-e Bala

Aqa Alishams

a-i-ali Shams Aaqa-i-ali Aaq

Qala-i-khalifa Sahib

Hoseyn Kheyl

Kuh-e Takht-e Shah

District 08

Qal'eh-ye Musa

School

Dih Murad Khan

Zolaikha Mosque

Qala-i-darbaz

Inset (b)

Qala-i-mohsin

Well

School

Bini Hesar

Qal'eh-ye Deh Morad Khan

Shah-e-mardan Mosque

Sanatoryame

Kuh-e Binihesar

Qala -i-ali Mardaan

34°30'0"N

Afghan Development Association (ADA)

arbi Showunzay

Well

Qal'eh-ye Khundar

Qal'eh-ye Akhvond

Qal'eh Rabaz Jayi Rayis Mosque

Qal'eh-ye Gheybi

Wazir Abad

Takhnikum Kabul

Gul Buta Ministry Of Water Power And Irrigation

Hazrat-mohm Mostat Mosque Kamari

Wilayati

Kabul International School American University Of Afghanistan

Solidarites

Checkpoint

Afghan Commission For Human Rights (ACHR)

Deh Qalandar

Gugerd Sazi

Kamari

Qal'eh-ye Vazir

School

Qalal-i-hasan Khan

Sahib Zaman Mosque

Naw Abadi Dih Dana

District 07

Aman

Wazir Abad

Abu Bakr-e-sadiq Mosque

Chihilsutun

Niazi

Vel Velayati ayati Qala-i-bafalak

Char Qal 'eh-ye Vazirabad

Qal'eh SheykhhaDawlat Zai

Qal'eh-ye Hajji Afzal

Afghan Landmine Survivors' Organization (ALSO)

Qal'eh-ye Pakhchak

Niyazi

Qal'eh-ye Mohammad Mohsen

Dih Qalandar

Storage Depot

Lycee Mahmoodi Tarzi

Dih Dana

Mosque

Qala-i-najar Ha

Qala-i-yakhchak

Kuh-e Chehel Sotun

Abshar Teybeh

Dar Ol Aman

Farmi Pilawari

Chahar Qal Eh-ye Vazirabad

Qala-i-hasan Khani Sufla

Qal'eh-ye Chehel Sotun Darulaman Palace Qasri Darlaman

Afghan Pamir Square

Qala-i-hasan Khani Ulya

21

Qala-i-mira

Nu Burja

District 22 Siah Bini

Palace Palace Qal'eh-ye Fotuh

Exploring the ‘unknown’ location of attack through Conceptual Drawing approximations of locations as is stated by various media outlets.

Exploring the ‘unknown’ location of attack as therer minmun information on the location of the office

Qal'eh-ye Adam Khan

Sc hool

Qal'eh-ye Dehdana

Danish Committee For Aid To Afghan Refugees (DACAAR )

Damana

Shekhan

Qasri Chihil Sutun

34°28'0"N

Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation & Development Geologic And Cartographic Department MRRD, GIS Section

Posta Khana-i-qala-i-fatullah

Nu Burja Nohborteh

Mohibullah Mosque

Qala-i-ferqa Mishar Qala-i-ahmad Shah

Dih Yaqub Jama At-khan Ismaelia Mosque

Cemetery

Farmi Ziraat

Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC)

Khvajeh Boghra

Qala-i-mir Ahmad

Qala-i-muhammad Ibrahim

ANSO H ouse Madera

Ziarat-e Shekh'adel Shewaki

Qal'eh Rangmal Hisa-i-awali Taimani WarChild

Pay Monar

Taymani

Dughabad Kuh-e Qal'eh-ye Fotuh Tapa Tajbek Palace (Queens Palace)

Husseinia Takiyakhana

Qala-i-haji Karim Sahak

Mamozai

Well

Baghi Haji Afghan Park

Kariz-e Akhvondan

Advanced Engineering Associates International (AEAI) Mci

1.. AL JAZEERA BUREAU BUREAU, 34.535029, 69.161122

248

BBC NEWS / 1348 / 13 11 2001 The Kabul offices detroyed by a US missile.

WSWS.org / 21 11 2001 None of the 10 journalists working in the offices were hurt, no others were hurt during the attack.

Some employees’ homes were damaged.

BBC NEWS / 1348 / 13 11 2001 Pentagon claims it did not have location coordinate of offices.

The Guardian / 1940 / 17 11 2001 Pentagon denied that deliberate target at al-Jazeera: reason unkown.

Contextual drawing, explaining location and Al Jazeera’s projection of their voice as local media.

KABUL, EAST AFGHANISTAN

13 NOVEMBER 2001

249

INVESTIGATION

KABUL BUREAU

approx. location

“The US military does not and will not target media. We would not, as a policy, target news media organisations— it would not even begin to make sense.”

Sc hool

Afshar-e Nanachi

Ministry of Mines Deep Industry Afghanistan Geologic al Survey

Justice Security Sector Support Program (J SSP)

Sesadu Panzda Qal 'eh 'askar Sc hool

Research And Dev elopment Lab/research Fac ility Sc hool

Pass port Office Accelerating Sustainable Agriculture Program (ASAP)

Kart-i-ariana

Khushal Khan Mena

Central Statistic s Office (CSO)

Mine Ac tion Coordination Centre (MACCA)

EU Delegation

Prime Minister's Offic e Swedish Committee For Afghanistan (SCA)

Char Rahi Panjsad Family Silo-i-markazi Baghi Hazrat

Qala-i-jawad

KFW Office Afghanistan National Disaster Management Authority (ANDMA)

District 02

Sc hool Food & Agriculture Organisation/ International Labour Organisation

Police Station

Civ il Serv ice Management Department (CSMD)

District 15 Ziarat Sakhi

Ali Abad

Kabul University

Sc hool

Tapa-i-salam

Maqbareh-ye Seyred Jamal Od Din

Asma'i

Deh Mazang Dashti Wazir Abad

Traffic Department

Lycee Mus ic

Ibnesina School

Teac her's College

Danish Demining Group (DDG)

Sayed Jamalidin Afghan Training Center US Army Corps of Engineers Afghanistan Engineer District (AED)

Saraa-e-Ghazni

Higher Education Project (HEP)

International School

Al-Jazeera accuses US of bombing its Kabul office | Media | The Guardian http://www.theguardian.com/media/2001/nov/17/warinafghanistan2001...

Chindawul

District 01

Karta-i-cahar

Sc hool

Kharabad

Qal Eh Dasht

Guzargah USAID Support Compound

AREA Mine Clearance Planning Agency (MCPA)

Sc hool

Qala-i-chaman Dasht

Baghi Babur

Habibia High School

Qal 'eh-ye Malek Ashur Wazir Abad Qal'eh-ye Shadeh

Karta-i-seh

Qal'eh-ye Shaghasi

Counter Narc otics Polic e (CNPA)

Banksivdar

Sc hool

Chamani Pesarane Amir Shahid

Char Qal 'eh-ye Vazirabad

Embassy of Poland

Jangalak

Alav Od Din-e Pa'in

Qal'eh-ye Vazir

Perwan Seh

Nowabad-e Dehkeypak

Chamani Babrak

Hayat Khan

Qal 'eh-ye Chaman-e Dehkeypak

Healthnet International (HNI)

Alav Od Din-e Bala

Tahiya-i-maskan Qala-i-moain Mujtaba

Afghanistan Ngo Safety Office (ANSO) Shelter Now International (SNI) Medair Jen

Qala-i-khalifa Sahib

L'Atmosphere

Sozo International

Koluleh Poshteh

Sanatoryame

Pretrial Detention Centre (Office)

Bagh-i-bala Palace (former)

Qal Eh Pakhchak

Belgian Embas sy

Qala -i-ali Mardaan

Turquois e Mountain HQ

Baraki Shahrara

ACBAR

Bagh-e Bala Meynah

Qal'eh-ye Gheybi

World Health Organization

Embassy Of Kazakhstan Wakhan Cafe

Baghi Zanana

Naderia High School

Baharistan

Qala -i- Bakhtyar

EUPOL outer gate EUPOL Inner gate

Intelligence Headquarters

Pass port Office Accelerating Sustainable Agriculture Program (ASAP)

Dih Qalandar

Kart-i-ariana

Lycee Mahmoodi Tarzi

5/04/2015 8:16 PM

Dih Dana

Darulaman Palace Qasri Darlaman

ol Food & Agriculture Organisation/ International Labour Organisation

MOEW Internal Audit Dept

District 02

Police Station

Qal'eh-ye Dehdana Qoli Abchakan

Farmi Pilawari

Shafakhna Fransawiha

Presidential Qasri Palace Chihil Sutun

Alternative Development Program (ADP)

IDLG Munic ipality Office

Argi Jumhuri Presidential Palace EDC O ffic e& GH

Ministry of Agriculture

UNHabitat

Ziarat Sakhi Dar Ol Aman

Kart-i-sakhi

Municipal Building Qala-i-mira

Ky ber Restaurant

Nu Burja

Qarya-i-dih Khuday Dad

Sc hool

Pule Mahmudkhan

Palace Palace Qal'eh-ye Fotuh

Qala-i-hasan Khani Ulya

Ministry Of Financ e

District 16

Red Hot Sizzler (bar& Restuarant)

Maqbareh-ye Nader Shah

Siah Bini

Staff College

Fire Department

Ministry Of Jus tice

Organization For Mine Clearance And Afghan Rehab (OMAR)

Dih Yaqub

Mine Detection Centre (MDC)

Andarabi

Farmi Ziraat

Kabul University

Tapa-i-salam

Maqbareh-ye Seyred Jamal Od Din

Joyi Sheer Khvajeh Boghra

Asma'i

Deh Mazang

Ministry of Communications Ministry of Public Health

Law School

Murad Khani

Afghan Tourist Organization

Pay Monar

Takhnik Sanawee

Baghi Ali Mardan

Lailia Puhanton Traffic Department

Kah Furoshi

Traffic Police

Sar Asyab

Qal'eh-ye Najjarha

Vocational Department Teac her's College

Ibnesina School

Russian House Of Science And Culture Child Fund

Dih Buri

Karta-i-char

Danish Demining Group (DDG)

Nahri Darsan Kabul November 2001 Saraa-e-Ghazni Continuation of exploration ofKarta-i-cahar the unknown location of the office and the Qala-i-muslim are again consequences of media being targeted and blacked out. Locations Shahan Palace blurred and there is a disparity and inaccuracy ofKab events.

Sayed Jamalidin Afghan Training Center US Army Corps of Engineers Afghanistan Engineer District (AED)

Shor Bazar

District 01

Deh-mazang

PD03 HQ

Darwaza-i-lahori

Ahangari

Sayed Noor Mohd Shah Mena

Sang Tarashi Qal'eh-ye Ahmad Khan Siyah Sang

Sahsahid

Hindu Guzar

Kowtal-e Yek Lengeh Family Hayi Nasaji Bagrami

Qal'eh-ye Esma'il Khan Khwaja Safa

Save The Children UK

Sc hool

Kharabad

Chahar Qala Naw Abadi Guzarga

Masjide Itifaq

Embassy of Poland

District 20

Mia Khel

Rahman Mena Sahak

Qala-i-osman Khan

Mia Kheyl

Iran - Afghanistan Scientific / Religious Research

Afghan Development Ass oc iation (ADA) Sc hool

Guzargah

Save The Children Sweden-Norway (SCF-N) RC Central HQ

Qal'eh-ye Moslem

Hadira Sange Zoghal

Mine Clearance Planning Agency (MCPA)

Afgan Independent Human Rights Commission

Qal'eh-ye Lowgari

Fabrica-i- Kheste Ukhteef Tappeh-ye Qavalha

USAID Support Compound

AREA

Baghi Babur

Habibia High School

Embassy Of Yugoslavia

Kuh-e Shirdarvazeh

Qal'eh-ye Hendu

Qala-i-mir Aw Khor Qala-i-fatuh

Qal'eh-ye Shadeh

69°6'0"EBangsidar Banksivdar

Karta-i-seh

Counter Narc otics Polic e (CNPA)

Qal'eh-ye Shaghasi UN Regional Office Management Scienc es For Health (MSH)

Project for Support of Polic e (NORAF) Katab Univ ersity International Ass istance Mission (IAM)

Aub Khan Mena

Ministry Of Commerce & Indus try

Ahmad Shah Baba Mena

Sc hool

Babayi Khudi

Ashiqan Arifan

5/04/2015 8:16 PMBaghi Qazi

Higher Education Project (HEP)

International School

Geres

Qala-i-badal

Baghi Wahsh Agricultural School

Sahak

Sc hool

Chindawul

Dept of Infrastruc ture

Darmalimin

Qala-i-haji Karim

Kuh-e Qal'eh-ye Fotuh

Saraji

Srah Miasht

Naw Abadi Dehmazang

Ghazi High School

Shewaki

Chamani Huzuri

Kabul Traffic Department

Jamal MenaPalace) Tapa Tajbek Palace (Queens

Naw Abadi Karta-i-now

Akhiri Jada

Ghazni Wall

Ariana High School

Dughabad

Ministry Of Higher Educ ation

Qala-i-mir Ahmad

Afghan G erman Cooperation

Ayes ha-i-durani High School

Deh Now

Tapa-i-maranjan

Afghanistan Chamber of Commerce & Industry (ACCI)

Bala Kuh

Afghanistan Tec hnic al Vocational Ins titute (ATVI)

Kota-i-sangi

Chamani Deh Khudai Dad

Ministry Of Martys And The Disabled

Corrections System Support Program (CSSP)

Supreme Court

Sc hool Ministry Of Information & Culture Pashtane Bank

Istgahi Akhiri Pahantun Lailia Puhanton

Niazi

Ministry of Labor & Social Affairs (MoLSA)

Mili Bus

Ministry Of Defense

Afghan G eodesy And Cartography Head Office (AGCHO)

Banki Mili Ministry Of Mines And Power

Ali Abad

Niyazi

Is tiqlal High Sc hool De Afghanistan Bank

Deh Afghanan

Kuh-e Chehel Sotun

ClearPath International (CPI)

ICMA Office

Qal'eh-ye Chehel Sotun

French Culture Gov erner's Office Ministry Of Education

Shafakhana Afghan-turk

Shash Darak

Civ il Serv ice Management Department (CSMD)

Wilayat

Qal'eh-ye Hajji Afzal

Velayati Qala-i-bafalak

Qal'eh-ye Sement Khaneh

Frc rcs

National Archives Ministry Of Labor And Soc ial Affairs Ministry Of Economy

Abshar Teybeh Javad

UNFPA

Microrayani Awal

Ec onomic Growth and Governance Initiative (EG GI)

Ministry Of Foreign Affairs Civ il Sevic e Commis ionMinistry Of Planning

KFW Office Afghanistan National Disaster Management Authority (ANDMA)

Silo-i-markazi

Independent Directorate for Local Governance (IDLG)

Embassy Of China

Vice Presedent Office Is lahate Edari

Sc hool

Qala-i-najar Ha

Deh Khodadad Qala-i-zaman Khan

IFES STEP

Central Statistic s Office (CSO)

Prime Minister's Offic e Swedish Committee For Afghanistan (SCA)

Malalay High School

Ministry Of Public Works

International Medic al Corps (IMC) Embassy Of Saudi Arabia

Chihilsutun

Mine Ac tion Coordination Centre (MACCA)

EU Delegation

Maslakh

Ministry of Mines Deep Industry Afghanistan Geologic al Survey

District 07

Geologic And Cartographic Department MRRD, GIS Section

ment Lab/research Fac ility Sc hool

Qal'eh-ye Vazir

Sc hool

Sc&hool Ministry Of Transport Civil Aviation

Qalal-i-hasan Khan

Afshari Darul Aman

Wilayati

Deh Qalandar

Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation & Development

Kuh-e 'aliabad

Qal'eh-ye Rika

National Press

USAID

Torn School

1 of 2

Gul Buta

Qal'eh-ye Feyz Mohammed Khan

USA Embassy

(IOM)

Qowayee Markaz

chi

1 of 2

Qal'eh-ye-davazdah Eman

Takhnikum Kabul

Karta-i-wali

Naw Abadi Dih Dana

Lycee Mus ic

Daud Khel

Qala-i-shora

Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD)

Ministry Of Water Power And Irrigation Kabul International Sc hool International Organisation for Migration American University Of Afghanistan

Gugerd Sazi Karta-i-mamurin

Dehburi

Ql Fatehkhan Microrayani Suwum

Supreme Court

Fat Man Butc her Shop& Restuarant Ministry Of Public Health

UK Department For International Development (DFID) United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Embassy Of The Netherlands

Police Station, Registration Of Foreigners

District 03

Qal'eh-ye Khundar

Ministry Of Border And Tribal Affairs

Swis s Cooperation O ffic e & Swiss Embassy

Ministry Of Counternarc otics

University

Akhond Zadeh

Kuh-e Binihesar

Qal'eh Vazir

Britis h Counc il

Poly Technic Ins titute

District 06

Udkheyl

Qabil Boy

Kandaki Tajamau

Karta-i-parwan Aide Médicale Internationale (AMI)

Ghaibi Khel

Bini Hesar

Yakatoot

Qal'eh-ye Akhvond

Shahrara

District 08

Qal'eh Yakeh Tut

Qal'eh-ye Deh Morad Khan

IRD - Afghanistan Vouchers for Inc reased Produc tive Agriculture (AVIPA) IRD - Strategic Provinc ial Roads (SPR) 3

Jayi Rayis

Rana Institute

Microrayani Chaharum

Kabul Orthopedic Organis ation (KOO)

Samarakind Res taurant

Embassy Of The UK (old location)

Civ il Serv ice Commission Central Regional Office

Qala-i-musa Qal 'eh Bakhtiar Baghi Bala Sinuma Aryob

PD10 HQ

European Commission Humanitarian Aid (ECHO)

Afghan Aid

Qal'eh-ye Sardar Va Bini Hes

Qala Haji Qal'eh Qabel Bay

Qal'eh-ye Musa Dih Murad Khan

GTZ Gender Mainstreaming Project WFP G uesthouse - 3

Qal 'eh-ye Bahador Khan

olice Academy

UNAMA Guesthouse

Zarghoona High School Oxfam Gb

Kuh-e Takht-e Shah

Bibi Mahru

WFP G uesthouse - 1, 4

Flower Street Cafe

International Resc ue Committee (IRC)

Tappeh-ye Bibi Mahrow

Qamruddin Khel

Gumruk

Immap Offic e, Green Village Customs House

Concern Ac tionaid

Sc hool Terre Des Hommes (TDH)

Perwan Du

Du Sad Family Rahman Mena Puli Safid

Bibi Mahrow Aqa Alishams

Aaqa-i-ali Shams

Focus Humanitarian Ass istance Merc yCorps United Methodist Committee On Relief (UMCOR)

German Agro Action (GAA)

Chahar Qal 'eh

Deh Alageh

Qala-i-musa

Qal'eh Zanabad Qala-i-hashmat Khan Qabil Boy Naw Abadi

Afghan Ngo Coordination Bureau (ANCB)

Handicap International (HI)

UN Habitat O ffic e

Qal 'eh Mohammad

Mci

Bini Hesar

District 09

Qal Eh-ye Musa

Rumi’s Res taurant

Aero

Baghi Wahed

251 Gula Khel

Qal'ehcheh-ye Sahebzadeh

Sc hool

69°8'0"E

Qal'eh-ye Hashmat Khan

69°10'0"E

Darvazeh-ye Lahori

Date created: Jan 20, 2013

Chamani Bagrami

Tapa-i-qawal Ha Qal'eh-ye Khvajeh Qalacha Police Station

69°12'0"E

Dasto Khel

INVESTIGATION

KABUL BUREAU

The Venue

Qal 'eh-ye Khater Qal'eh-ye Vaselabad

Qala-i-shukrullah

Husseinia Takiyakhana

Advanced Engineering Associates International (AEAI)

Land Titling and Registration Activ ities (LTERA)

Sc hool

Qal'eh-ye Jangalak Wasil Abad

Embassy Of Russia ANSO House

Madera WarChild

Tearfund

Qala-i-sahibzada Ha

Qala-i-mir Abbas Qal'eh Mardan

Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC)

Qal-eh-ye Khavas

Qal'eh-ye Now Koli Hashmat Khan

Qal'eh Mostari Oasem

Birishna Kot

Qal'eh-ye Shokrollah

District 04

r

District 10

Hisa-i-doyietaimani

Taymani

Dasto Khel

Qala-i-wakil Qal'eh Chowban Bashi

Ministry Of Refugee Repatriation

Qal'eh-ye Afghanha

Hisa-i-awali Taimani

Police Station

Shuhadayi Saliheen

Afghan Landmine Surv ivors ' Organization (ALSO)

Allawuddin Chahar Qal Eh-ye Vazirabad

Police Station

Qalacha

Khvajeh Ravash

Afghan Tarkanee Chamani Chahar Qala Gozargah

Danish Committee For Aid To Afghan Refugees (DACAAR)

Qala-i-wazir

Tapa-i-qawal Ha Qal'eh-ye Khvajeh

Darvazeh-ye Lahori

Qal'eh-ye Hashmat Khan Khwaja Rawash

Ministry Of Commerce & Indus try National Parliament

Wazir Abad

Qal'eh-ye Hendu

Koluleh Poshteh

Qal Eh-ye Yaknowkheyl Aub Khan Mena Chahar Qala-i-wazirabad

Afghan Commission For Human Rights (ACHR) Solidarites

Qala-i-mir Mahboob

Golkhaneh

UNAMA/UNHAS KAIA

UN Regional Office Management Scienc es For Health (MSH) Project for Support of Polic e (NORAF) Katab Univ ersity International Ass istance Mission (IAM)

Bangsidar Gul Khana

Tappeh-ye Qavalha Kuh-e Shirdarvazeh

Qal'eh Chaman

Embassy Of Yugoslavia

Qala-i-sabir

Rahman Mena

Masjide Itifaq

AL JAZEERA BUREAU APPROX LOCATION C

Save The Children Sweden-Norway (SCF-N) RC Central HQ

Hadira Sange Zoghal

AL JAZEERA BUREAU APPROX LOCATION A

250

Family

Sc hool

Embassy of Poland

Afghan Development Ass oc iation (ADA)

Badam Bagh

Kowtal-e Yek L

Qal'eh-ye Esma'il Khan

Kab Shahan Palace

Afgan Independent Human Rights Commission

Bilak Hayi Sarandoy

Siyah Sang

Sahsahid

Hindu Guzar

Iran - Afghanistan Scientific / Religious Research

Veterinary Department

Qal 'eh Chetgar

Sayed Noor Mohd Shah Mena

AL JAZEERA BUREAU APPROX LOCATION B

Khwaja Safa

PD03 HQ

Darwaza-i-lahori

Sang Tarashi

Save The Children UK

Helvetas

Dih Qabel

Babayi Khudi

Ashiqan Arifan

Baghi Qazi

Deh-mazang

Nahri Darsan

Shor Bazar

Ahangari

Naw Abadi Guzarga

Geres

Chaharaii Sarayi Shamali Unchi Baghbanan Sarayi Shamali

Karta-i-char

Chang Thai Restaurant

Sc hool

Sc hool

Baghi Wahsh

Charahi Shaheed

Agricultural School

Harbi Showunzay

Chamani Huzuri

Kah Furoshi

Russian House Of Science And Culture

Child Fund

Dih Buri

Naw Abadi Karta-i-now

Akhiri Jada

Saraji

Srah Miasht

Traffic Police

Darmalimin

Khwaja Bughra Al-Jazeera accuses US of bombing its Kabul office | Media | The Guardian http://www.theguardian.com/media/2001/nov/17/warinafghanistan2001...

Mahtab Qala

Baghi Ali Mardan

Ghazni Wall

Naw Abadi Dehmazang

Dept of Infrastruc ture

Vocational Department

Tapa-i-maranjan

Afghanistan Chamber of Commerce & Industry (ACCI)

Ayes ha-i-durani High School

Kabul Traffic Department

Jamal Mena

Harbi

Organization For Mine Clearance And Afghan Rehab (OMAR)

Murad Khani WFP

Ariana High School

Ghazi High School

Mahtab Qal'eh Showanjay

Ministry of Public Health

Bala Kuh

Ministry Of Higher Educ ation

Golkhaneh Qal 'eh-ye Malek 'ashur Qala-i-nazer

Maqbareh-ye Nader Shah

Staff College Fire Department

Afghan G erman Cooperation

Lailia Puhanton

BBC Offices

Red Hot Sizzler (bar& Restuarant)

Ministry Of Financ e

Ministry of Communications

Law School

Takhnik Sanawee

Qala-i-najar Ha

Qal 'eh Vahed

District 16

Supreme Court

Afghan Tourist Organization

Afghanistan Tec hnic al Vocational Ins titute (ATVI)

Deh Now

Dehburi

Corrections System Support Program (CSSP)

Mine Detection Centre (MDC)

Joyi Sheer

Kota-i-sangi

Sc hool

Pule Mahmudkhan

Ministry Of Defense

Sc hool

Andarabi

Hisa-i-suwumi Khair Khana

Golayee Hisa-i-awal

Ministry of Labor & Social Affairs (MoLSA)

Mili Bus

Ministry Of Martys And The Disabled

Ky ber Restaurant

Ministry Of Information & Culture Pashtane Bank

Istgahi Akhiri Pahantun Lailia Puhanton

District 03

Mary am High Sc hool

Qarya-i-dih Khuday Dad

ClearPath International (CPI)

ICMA Office

Ministry Of Mines And Power

Municipal Building

Ministry Of Jus tice

Qal-eh Akhond Zadeh

IDLG Munic ipality Office

Afghan G eodesy And Cartography Head Office (AGCHO)

De Afghanistan Bank

Kart-i-sakhi

Hisa-i-doye Khair Khana Qal Eh-ye Najjar

Alternative Development Program (ADP)

Banki Mili

UNHabitat

Qal 'eh-ye Gholamow

hti Barchi

Qal'eh-ye Sement Khaneh

Is tiqlal High Sc hool

Gov erner's Office Ministry Of Education

Deh Afghanan Qasaba

Ministry of Agriculture

Shafakhna Fransawiha

an

Presidential Palace

Argi Jumhuri Presidential Palace EDC O ffic e& GH

Wilayat French Culture

Qoli Abchakan

Shafakhana Afghan-turk

Khishti Hokhtif

Qala-i-wahid

Ec onomic Growth and Governance Initiative (EG GI)

Shash Darak

Frc rcs

National Archives Ministry Of Labor And Soc ial Affairs Ministry Of Economy

MOEW Internal Audit Dept

Niazbeyg

UNFPA

Ministry Of Foreign Affairs

Malalay High School

Qala-i-dawlat

Khvajeh Boghra

Javad

Khair Khana School

Qala-i-diwan Baiki

Independent Directorate for Local Governance (IDLG)

Embassy Of China

Vice Presedent Office Is lahate Edari

Sc hool

Microrayani Awal

Civ il Sevic e Commis ionMinistry Of Planning

Speen Kalay

Niyaz Beg

Qala-i-zaman Khan

IFES STEP

Panjsad Family Kuh-e 'aliabad

District 11

Deh Khodadad

International Medic al Corps (IMC) Embassy Of Saudi Arabia

Purozha-i-jadid

69°14'0"E

UN

Attack on Al Jazeera in Cyber Space March the 26th, 2003

From discussion, it appears that the inability to shutdown the broadcasters on a physical level, no matter the implications, lead to the shutdown of the websites.

1Timms, D, Al-Jazeera websites ‘hit by hackers’, The Guardian, viewed 2 April 2015, < http://www.theguardian.com/media/2003/mar/26/newmedia.iraq> 2 BBC News, 2003, Al-Jazeera Hacker pleads guilty, viewed 3 April 2015, <http:// news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2987342.stm> 3 Timms, 2003.

Al Jazeera, was seen as a worldwide target by the conclusion of the Iraq war in 2003 and this also affected the media outlets relations with its broadcasting alliances. For example, the US web service company, Datapipe, ended its relationship with Al Jazeera, after the web attack, seeing the outlet as ‘bad for business’, leaving Al-Jazeera in a position with no web hosting platform. Although this was resolved fairly quickly, the question that still remained was the controversy of who was behind the attack. The internet hack seemed to be too ‘high tech’ and a costly operation that could have involved much more than one person, which then raises the question that there may be a major group involved in the attack, rather than the one person who was charged. The internet, is meant to be the ultimate medium for the allowance of ‘free speech’, however, there seemed to be a high correlation between people who want Al Jazeera run off the web as well as off the streets.

253

OVERVIEW

CYBER ATTACK

252

Attacks on media not only had consequences on a physical and humanitarian level on the cities, but an effect on Al Jazeera itself through the sphere of cyber space. Al Jazeera seemed to be targeted on every level possible, and became a threat not only to individuals within cities, or groups within offices across the globe, but to internet platforms and broadcasting services. On March 26, 2003, shortly after the end of the Iraq war, the Al-Jazeera English-language and Arabic websites were forced down after a hacker directed the website and all associated searches to the media channel to a site called ‘Let Freedom Ring’, featuring pro-US messages 1 . The alleged motivation behind the attack from the hacker, of American origin, ranged from reasons such as Al-Jazeera’s decisions to display imagery of dead and captured American soldiers during the war 2. “The sites are most likely to have been hit by so-called “denial of service” attacks, when sites are deliberately taken out by unprecedented volumes of traffic. They may also have been affected by so-called “typo-squatters” who register similar domain names and either redirect traffic to a new site or rewrite news stories” 3.

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254

CYBER ATTACK

MEDIA COVERAGE

Collage, Image no.22

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257

CYBER ATTACK

INVESTIGATION

Attack on Baghdad Bureau April the 8th, 2003

On April 8, 2003, during the US-led invasion of Iraq, the Al Jazeera Baghdad bureau was destroyed by a US missile striking an electricity generator and setting fire to the office 1. Correspondent Tareq Ayoub was killed, and his cameraman severely injured. Subsequently, this had repercussions on all other media outlets, Al-Jazeera related or not. All other journalists within the area, including Abu Dhabi TV, and international correspondents from Spain and Germany at Palestine Hotel were also attacked and killed. The death of Ayoub makes the war “one of the most dangerous wars in media history, with eight press lives lost, including the attack on US army command centre, south of Baghdad”2.

1 BBC News 2003, Al-Jazeera ‘hit by missile’, viwed 5 April 2015,<http://news.bbc. co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2927527.stm’> 2 Deans, J. 2003, Al-Jazeera cameraman killed in US raid, The Guardian, viewed 5 April 2015, <http://www.theguardian.com/media/2003/apr/08/iraq.iraqandthemedia>

It is these casualties throughout the war zone that transformed the initiation of conflict, protests and propaganda during the war, and during the aftermath of the war, by locals and minority groups as reactions to the events.

As the attack on not only Al-Jazeera, but all other media outlets lead to a total black-out of all local sources of information. This black-out played a major role in spiking controversial conversations between media outlets and international government agencies at press conferences, as all internal sources were lost.

When internal sources are lost, the advantage is at the hand of the U.S military leading the press-conferences. So the only discussion left was the notion of ‘the other’, being, what the military did not decide to tell the press . It is clear then, that the physical and humanitarian repercussions that media and individual journalists have had on the city, have lead to a global belief that media will always be a target and threat to a city, and journalists are often not welcome in many cities as a result, particularly if they are from Al Jazeera.

259

OVERVIEW

BAGHDAD BUREAU

258

The rising voice of Al Jazeera was not only effective in displaying a message to viewers both internally and externally (from Middle East) but, effective in attracting particular attention to physical and verbal attacks on the media station because of the propaganda that raised as a result. The concentration of images of the US military forces as leaders of attack on the nation, were not discerned lightly by the Pentagon or the U.S. and lead to Al Jazeera being targeted physically (offices and journalists) during the war, threatening the city as a whole, and all other media related stations and surrounding civilians of the city.

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Images 1-56 from Control Room Documentary

MEDIA COVERAGE

BAGHDAD BUREAU

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Images 1-56 from Control Room Documentary

MEDIA COVERAGE

BAGHDAD BUREAU

262

US. Tanks located and fired 600M NORTH WEST of Palestine Hotel.

BAGHDAD, IRAQ APRIL 8 2003 2. PALESTINE HOTEL, 33.315085, 44.418319

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5 VICTIMS THIRD STRIKE

BAGHDAD BUREAU

1. AL JAZEERA BUREAU, 33.345690, 44.388433

WSWS.org / 09 04 2003 US military forces killed three journalists in Baghdad on April 8 including Al-Jazeera correspondent Tariq Ayoub, and seriously wounded several others.

INVESTIGATION

“The strike on Al-Jazeera’s broadcasting facilities in Baghdad was undoubtedly deliberate.”

approx. location

1 VICTIM & SEVERAL WOUNDED Fled to rival office for safety

SECOND STRIKE

Reason: The attacks came amid broadcasts showing some of the mounting slaughter being conducted by US troops throughout the Iraqi capital.

Surviving journalists and staff fled to rival satellite station Abu Dhabi TV, which then also came under US attack.

Investigative Process, the differences between the media outlets, reconstructing the event through mapping.

2. ABU DHABI TV OFFICE, 33.345690, 44.388433 25 SURROUNDED AND INJURED FIRST STRIKE

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BAGHDAD BUREAU

266

Collage, Image no.79

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BAGHDAD BUREAU

268

01 Investigative 01 Investigative Process, the differences Process The differences the media outlets, between the media outlets, between connecting connecting a wider story. a wider story

US. Tanks located and fired 600M NW of Palestine Hotel.

271

INVESTIGATION

BAGHDAD BUREAU

270

2. ABU DHABI TV OFFICE, 33.345690, 44.388433

Reconstructing the event through mapping, with more thorough detail as a result of further investigation of more media articles.

N W

1. AL JAZEERA BUREAU, 33.345690, 44.388433

PALESTINE HOTEL, 33°18’54.7N 44°25’05.9E

Image References

01-07 Noujaim.J, 2004, Control Room [video] USA. 08 BBC News 2003, Al-Jazeera ‘hit by missile’, viwed 5 April 2015,<http://news.bbc. co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2927527.stm’>

272

79.3 Jamail, D. 2013, Iraq: The deadliest war for journalists, Al Jazeera, viewed 4 April 2015, < http://www.aljazeera.com/humanrights/2013/04/2013481202781452.html>

09 Noujaim.J, 2004.

79.4 CNN, 2003, Media deaths explanation sought, viewed 3 April 2015, < http://edition.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/meast/04/09/sprj.irq.journalists/index. html?iref=mpstoryview>

10 El-Nawawy, M, Iskandar, A, Al-Jazeera: How the free arab news network scooped the world and changed the middle east, Westview Press (2002) , Colorado, p119.

79.5 Michaels, H, 2003, US bombs Al Jazeera center in Baghdad, World Socialist Web Site, viwed 3 April 2015, < http://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2003/04/jaz-a09.html>

11 Noujaim.J, 2004.

273

13-17 Noujaim.J, 2004.

18 BBC, 2003, Al-Jazeera Hacker pleads guilty, viewed 3 April 2015, < http://news. bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2987342.stm> 19 -20 Noujaim.J, 2004.

21 UCDAVIS, 2011, Afghan Agriculture: Province Maps iMMAP, viewed 7 April 2015<http://afghanag.ucdavis.edu/country-info/Province-agriculture-profiles/ province-maps-immap/kabul_province_january_2011_2.pdf> 22 [Collage] BBC News, 2003, Al-Jazeera Hacker pleads guilty, viewed 3 April 2015, <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2987342.stm> 22.1 Timms, D, Al-Jazeera websites ‘hit by hackers’, The Guardian, viewed 2 April 2015, < http://www.theguardian.com/media/2003/mar/26/newmedia.iraq> 22.2 Leyden, J, 2003, Al Jazeera hacker gets community service, The Register, viewed 3 April 2015, < http://www.theregister.co.uk/2003/11/14/al_jazeera_hacker_gets_ community> 22.3 Leyden, J, 2003, Al Jazeera hackercharged: ‘patriot’ missiled, The Register, viewed 3 April 2015, < http://www.theregister.co.uk/2003/06/12/aljazeera_cracker_charged/ > 22.4 Sydney Morning Herald, 2003, Al Jazeera hacker gets fine, community service, viewed 3 April, < http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/11/14/1068674363964. html?from=storyrhs> 22.5 Ingram, M, 2003, Al Jazeera web site under attack from pro-war hackers, World Socialist Web Site, viewed 3 April 2015, < http://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2003/04/ jaz-a01.html> 23-78 Noujaim, 2004.

79 BBC News 2003, Al-Jazeera ‘hit by missile’, viwed 5 April 2015,<http://news.bbc. co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2927527.stm’> 79.2 Deans, J. 2003, Al-Jazeera cameraman killed in US raid, The Guardian, viewed 5 April 2015, <http://www.theguardian.com/media/2003/apr/08/iraq. iraqandthemedia>

REFERENCES

BAGHDAD BUREAU

12 CNN, 2003, Media deaths explanation sought, viewed 3 April 2015, < http://edition.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/meast/04/09/sprj.irq.journalists/index. html?iref=mpstoryview>

Attack on the Press: Iraq 2004

Iraq became a “virtual no-go zone for foreign reporters” and those who dared to enter, faced the consequences2. As a result of this, the reliance on local media from Iraqi reporters for gathering news, put citizens in increasing danger and also meant that the city was framed from one perspective due to the lack of international agencies reporting from inside the war zones. Further to the rise of conflict, was a rise of insurgent groups and hostage taking campaigns and scenarios within Iraq in 2004- specifically in regards 1 Cpj.org, (2015). Attacks on the Press 2004: Iraq - Committee to Protect Journalists. [online] Available at: https://cpj.org/2005/03/attacks-on-the-press-2004-iraq. php [Accessed 31 May 2015].

2 Cpj.org, 2015.

to media and how they were covering the aftermath of the Iraq war in 2003 in Iraq, during 2004. For example, Italian freelance journalist Enzo Baldoni was one executed in August of 2004 by a group self called “Islamic Army of Iraq.” The purpose of this was so that Italy can withdraw its 3000 troops from Iraq.

The use of journalists as hostages by insurgent groups did not end there, later following Enzo’s execution, two french journalists were kidnapped and fortunately freed four months later in December. These journalists were one of few international and local sources of news gathering freelance reporters that were kidnapped and used as hostages to display messages to the public sphere from the insurgent groups internally. They were a small example of many abducted and detained during 2004, not just by insurgent groups but also by the U.S. military. Approximately 22 reporters were abducted in April, and this number rose to 60 by November, 2004, 16 of these being later killed, and these were only the ‘recorded’ journalists at the time.

It is evident then that the conceptual framework of the nation constitutes a powerful force as framed by the media. During times of conflict, this force may backfire and results in a social form of actions (from all sides) grounded with distinct perspectives towards anything media related. Thus the intersection of media and the city is seen. When media is attacked and sources are blacked out, the imaginary is produced through voids from the public eye. Voids based on the assumption of the ‘unknown’. The ‘unknown’ being that the rise of violence and conflict is the understanding of the international imaginary that has risen to dominance in the middle east, specifically in Iraq in this case.

275

OVERVIEW

IRAQ 2004

274

For the second consecutive year, Iraq was the most dangerous place to work as a journalist and evidently one of the most deadly for the media1. By mid 2004, the escalating hostile nature towards any corporation or individual, acquiring news in Iraq, specifically after the coverage of the 2003 Iraq war, became ambiguous and deadly. A series of journalist kidnappings lead to executions and soon after suicide bombings of certain bureaus. Particular news organisations were not targeted, but moreover anything media related was being targeted not only by U.S. militants, but also

by Iraqi militants, and insurgent groups. Although several warnings were sent advising journalists against entering the country, they entered at their own risk, so the internal perspective was lost either way, if they entered or if they did not enter. Predominantly, one cannot determine the evidence when the source of investigation is blacked out. The public sphere then reads the middle east differently. This leads to a broader question on the intersection of media and architecture. That is, what happens when internal sources are blacked out?

Attacks on Media: an oscillation between media and events ME / Middle East

Attacks on Media: an oscillation between media and events Bureaus Broadcasts Opening Airing controversial tapes/ Propoganda Closing

Kuh-e Kalan

34°36'0"N

Tension between governments

276

International Tension/ Conflict

Kashkaki Bala

Khwaja Musafir

January 1, 1999 Al Jazeera expands from six hours a day to 24 hours a day. Totalling to a total of over 50 million viewers at current.

Opressive Military Response / Attacks on Bureaus Qala-i-ali Jan

October 7, 2001 Al Jazeera broadcasts a statement by Osama bin Laden two hours after the US-led coalition begins military strikes in Afghanistan.

DistrictStatement 05 involves “bin laden says the US will have no rest until the ME conflict is resolved and US military bases in region are shut down.

October 3, 2001 The pentagon grants a public affairs firm, a $16.7 million contract to monitor Arab Media, including Al Jazeera.

According to the contract: “provision of detailed contract analysis of s stations daily broadcasts... potentially obtain an understanding of their allegiances...”

Zarshakh

Kushkak-e Pa'in

Qowl-e Nazarak

Qal 'eh-ye Sadeq

34°32'0"N

Kuh-e Hazareh-ye Baghal

Deh-e 'arabha

Qala-i-sayed Mahmood Khan Nawab

Char Darreh

Kamangar

Hazar Buz Ha

Khow Jajam

Kotali Chemtala

Qal 'eh Kashef

Khwaja Jam

Blaka-i-chara-i-qambar

Qala-i-wazir

Qal 'eh Nazer

Dashti Chemtala

Campani Qowl-e Deh-e Panbeh

Kowtal-e Hazare-ye Baghal

Mohammad Khel

Sorkh Kowtal

Broadcasts

November 1, 1996 Al Jazeera launched with start up grant of $140 million from the emir of Qatar.

Offering independence, room for debate and a broadcasting channel that is free from government control.

Bagh-e 'aref Khan

Qala-i-aghir Khan

Qowl-e Deh-e Panbeh

Naw Abadi Fazil Beg

Charahi Campani

Chihil Tan

Qala-i-kashif

277

Qowl-e Sowrabak Chahar Qala

District 17 Qala-i-nazer

Fazelbeyg

Qowl-e Kalan

Qala-i-akhundzada

Dasht-e Chamtaleh

Qal 'eh-ye 'abdol 'ali

Fazil Beg

IRAQ 2004

Kuh-e Chamtalah

Dodamast Siyah Bini

34°34'0"N

Dudamast

IRAQ TIMELINE ‘04

01

Panja Chinar

October 30, 2001 Muhammad Al-Alami of Al Jazeera’s Washington Bureau is questioned about the authenticity of pictures showing Afghani children as war casualties.

Unchi Baghbanan

Asya-ye Bini

Deh-e Panbeh

Kuh-e Chehel Ghazi Sibangi

Kuh-e Khvageh Vali Heydaraba

Pul-i-jar-i-surkh

Attacks on Media

Dih Arbab

District 14

Barjay Qal 'eh-ye Moheb

34°30'0"N

Qala-i-qazi Aman Qala-i-saqi

Bandi

Kuh-e Qorgheh Qala-i-barat Khan

Dughabad

Bandi Qargha

Qala-i-qazi Sangar

Qala-i-mir Qal 'eh-ye Fathollah Khan

Qala-i-naw

Kuh-e Khvajeh Razaq (afshar) Qala-i-aghir Khan Kuh-e Kalan

Kariztot Qal 'eh-ye Sarferazkhan

Kashkaki Bala Qala-i-ali Jan

Kohi Khuja Razaq Qala-i-qazi

Deh 'alaqeh Khwaja Musafir

Mohammad Khel

Qal 'eh Qazi

District 13

Kushkak-e Pa'in

Deh-e 'arabha

Kakor (murgh Geryan)

Qala-i-sarfaraz Khan Afshar-e Bala

Merastun MoE HR Training Centre

34°32'0"N

Qal 'eh-ye Sadeq Hazar Buz Ha

Kamangar

District 05

Khow Jajam

Qal 'eh Mohammad

Naw Abadi Afshar Afghan Civ il Serv ice Ins titute (ACSI)

Academy Uloome Ejtemayee

Attacks on Media: an oscillation between media and events

District 04

Perwan Seh

Nowabad-e Dehkeypak

Attacks on Media: an oscillation between media and events

Qal-eh-ye Khavas

Qal-eh-ye Khavas

Bureaus Opening

Closing

Kowtal-e Hazare-ye Baghal

Rumi’s Res taurant

Baghi Wahed

Healthnet International (HNI)

Tension between governments

L'Atmosphere

Payi Munar

German Agro Action (GAA)

Perwan Du

Zarghoona High School

International Resc ue Committee (IRC)

Koluleh Poshteh

Oxfam Gb

PD10 HQ

Hazareh-ye Baghal

Naw Abadi Afshar

Academy Uloome Ejtemayee

Afghan Civ il Serv ice Ins titute (ACSI)

Sesadu Panzda Qal 'eh 'askar

Qal 'eh Nazer

Broadcasts

Naw Abadi Fazil Beg

278

Purozha-i-jadid

Sc hool

District 11

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)

Britis h Counc il Wakhan Cafe

Baghi Zanana

Police Station, Registration Of Foreigners

International Organisation for Migration

Baharistan

Research And Dev elopment Lab/research Fac ility Sc hool

Qowayee Markaz

Prime Minister's Offic e Swedish Committee For Afghanistan (SCA)

Vice Presedent Office Is lahate Edari

Food & Agriculture Organisation/ International Labour Organisation

District 02

Police Station

Civ il Serv ice Management Department (CSMD)

Presidential Palace

Ministry Of Education

Shafakhana Afghan-turk

District 15 Ziarat Sakhi

IRAQ 2004

Deh Mazang Dashti Wazir Abad

Asma'i

Deh Mazang Dashti Wazir Abad

Ayes ha-i-durani High School

Jamal Mena

Traffic Department

Traffic Department

Ibnesina School

Al-Jazeera accuses US of bombing its Kabul office | Media | The Guardian http://www.theguardian.com/media/2001/nov/17/warinafghanistan2001...

Teac her's College

Baghi Wahsh

Charahi Shaheed

Agricultural School

Karta-i-char

Danish Demining Group (DDG)

Sayed Jamalidin Afghan Training Center US Army Corps of Engineers Afghanistan Engineer District (AED)

Saraa-e-Ghazni

Higher Education Project (HEP)

International School

Al-Jazeera accuses US of bombing its Kabul office | Media | The Guardian http://www.theguardian.com/media/2001/nov/17/warinafghanistan2001...

Deh-mazang

Nahri Darsan

Baghi Wahsh

Khwaja Safa

Save The Children UK

PD03 HQ

Embassy of Poland

Helvetas

Iran - Afghanistan Scientific / Religious Research Afghan Development Ass oc iation (ADA)

Guzargah

Save The Children Sweden-Norway (SCF-N) RC Central HQ

Hadira Sange Zoghal

USAID Support Compound

AREA Mine Clearance Planning Agency (MCPA)

Afgan Independent Human Rights Commission

AL JAZEERA BUREAU APPROX LOCATION A Sc hool

Qala-i-chaman Dasht

Baghi Babur

Karta-i-seh

Bangsidar

Gul Khana

Qal'eh-ye Shaghasi

Counter Narc otics Polic e (CNPA)

Afghan Commission For Human Rights (ACHR) Solidarites

Banksivdar

Qal'eh-ye Shaghasi

Qal Eh-ye Yaknowkheyl Aub Khan Mena Chahar Qala-i-wazirabad

Chamani Pesarane Amir Shahid

Shuhadayi Saliheen

Qala-i-wakil Qal'eh Chowban Bashi

Ministry Of Refugee Repatriation

Qal'eh-ye Afghanha

District 10

Hisa-i-doyietaimani

Qal'eh-ye Shokrollah

Qala-i-wazir Qal'eh-ye Vazir

The Venue

Aero

Baghi Wahed

Healthnet International (HNI)

Alav Od Din-e Bala

Tahiya-i-maskan Qala-i-moain Mujtaba

Qala-i-khalifa Sahib

Qal Eh Pakhchak

Belgian Embas sy

Rana Institute

Poly Technic Ins titute

PD10 HQ

Qal'eh-ye Deh Morad Khan

Microrayani Chaharum

Qal'eh Vazir

Ministry Of Border And Tribal Affairs

Swis s Cooperation O ffic e & Swiss Embassy

Supreme Court

Ql Fatehkhan Microrayani Suwum

Fat Man Butc her Shop& Restuarant Ministry Of Public Health

Qal'eh-ye Gheybi

World Health Organization

Embassy Of The Netherlands

Kuh-e Binihesar Qal'eh-ye Khundar

Qala-i-shora

Kandaki Tajamau Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD)

Qal'eh-ye-davazdah Eman

Takhnikum Kabul

Ministry Of Counternarc otics Embassy Of Kazakhstan

Britis h Counc il

Bagh-e Bala Meynah

Naderia High School Police Station, Registration Of Foreigners

Baghi Zanana

Wakhan Cafe

Gugerd Sazi Karta-i-mamurin Qala -i- Bakhtyar

Baharistan

EUPOL outer gate EUPOL Inner gate

Ministry Of Water Power And Irrigation

Qowayee Markaz

USAID

(IOM)

Gul Buta

Qal'eh-ye Feyz Mohammed Khan

Karta-i-wali

USA Embassy

Kabul International Sc hool International Organisation for Migration American University Of Afghanistan

National Press

Qal'eh-ye Rika

Wilayati

Deh Qalandar Qalal-i-hasan Khan

Sc&hool Ministry Of Transport Civil Aviation

Ghaibi Khel

Bini Hesar Qabil Boy

04

ACBAR

UK Department For International Development (DFID) United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)

District 08

Qal'eh Yakeh Tut Yakatoot

Samarakind Res taurant

Shahrara

Qal'eh-ye Sardar Va Bini Hes

Qala Haji Qal'eh Qabel Bay

Kabul Orthopedic Organis ation (KOO)

Qal'eh-ye Akhvond

Karta-i-parwan Aide Médicale Internationale (AMI)

Dawatul Jahad University

Sabz Academy Uloome Shahrak Ejtemayee

Immap Offic e, Green Village

Kuh-e Takht-e Shah

Bibi Mahru

IRD - Afghanistan Vouchers for Inc reased Produc tive Agriculture (AVIPA) IRD - Strategic Provinc ial Roads (SPR) 3

Jayi Rayis Baraki Shahrara

Tappeh-ye Bibi Mahrow

Qal'eh-ye Musa Dih Murad Khan

GTZ Gender Mainstreaming Project WFP G uesthouse - 3

Embassy Of The UK (old location)

Civ il Serv ice Commission Central Regional Office

Qala-i-musa Qal 'eh Bakhtiar Baghi Bala Sinuma Aryob

Police Academy

UNAMA Guesthouse

Zarghoona High School Oxfam Gb

European Commission Humanitarian Aid (ECHO)

Qala -i-ali Mardaan

Turquois e Mountain HQ

Afghan Aid

Puli Safid Gumruk Customs House

Aqa Alishams

Aaqa-i-ali Shams Tappeh-ye Bibi Mahrow

WFP G uesthouse - 1, 4

Flower Street Cafe

Koluleh Poshteh

Sanatoryame

Pretrial Detention Centre (Office)

Du Sad Family Rahman Mena

Qal'eh Zanabad Qala-i-hashmat Khan Qabil Boy Naw Abadi

Bibi Mahrow

Focus Humanitarian Ass istance Merc yCorps United Methodist Committee On Relief (UMCOR)

Concern Ac tionaid

Sc hool Terre Des Hommes (TDH)

International Resc ue Committee (IRC)

Qal 'eh-ye Bahador Khan Afshar-e Bala

L'Atmosphere

German Agro Action (GAA)

Perwan Du

Deh Alageh

Qala-i-musa

Afghan Ngo Coordination Bureau (ANCB)

Handicap International (HI)

Sozo International

UN Habitat O ffic e

Chahar Qal 'eh

Bagh-i-bala Palace (former)

Afghanistan Ngo Safety Office (ANSO) Shelter Now International (SNI) Medair Jen

Gula Khel

Qal'ehcheh-ye Sahebzadeh

Bini Hesar

District 09

Qal Eh-ye Musa

Mci

Rumi’s Res taurant

Land Titling and Registration Activ ities (LTERA)

Qala-i-sahibzada Ha

Qala-i-mir Abbas

Qal 'eh-ye Khater Qal'eh-ye Vaselabad

Qala-i-shukrullah

Husseinia Takiyakhana

Advanced Engineering Associates International (AEAI)

Tearfund

Qal 'eh-ye Chaman-e Dehkeypak Sc hool

Qal 'eh Mohammad

WarChild

Taymani Qal-eh-ye Khavas

Chamani Babrak

Hayat Khan

Qal'eh-ye Shokrollah

Qal'eh-ye Jangalak Wasil Abad

Embassy Of Russia ANSO House

Madera

Hisa-i-awali Taimani

District 04

Perwan Seh

District 10

Qal'eh-ye Now

Koli Hashmat Khan

Qal'eh Mostari Oasem

Birishna Kot

Jangalak

Qal'eh Mardan

Alav Od Din-e Pa'in

Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC)

Police Station

Police Station

Khwaja Rawash

Danish Committee For Aid To Afghan Refugees (DACAAR)

Allawuddin Chahar Qal Eh-ye Vazirabad

Qala-i-sabir

Qalacha

Khvajeh Ravash

Embassy of Poland

Afghan Landmine Surv ivors ' Organization (ALSO)

Golkhaneh

Tapa-i-qawal Ha

Qal'eh-ye Khvajeh

Darvazeh-ye Lahori

April 8, 2003 U.S. bombs hit Al Jazeera’s office in Baghdad killing reporter Tareq Ayyoub and wounding cameraman Zohair al-Iraqi.

Afghan Tarkanee Chamani Chahar Qala Gozargah

Char Qal 'eh-ye Vazirabad

Qal'eh-ye Hendu

Koluleh Poshteh

Qal'eh-ye Hashmat Khan

Qal Eh-ye Yaknowkheyl

Ministry Of Commerce & Indus try National Parliament

Wazir Abad

Rahman Mena

Tappeh-ye Qavalha

UNAMA/UNHAS KAIA

Sc hool

UN Regional Office Management Scienc es For Health (MSH)

Project for Support of Polic e (NORAF) Katab Univ ersity International Ass istance Mission (IAM)

Qala-i-mir Mahboob

Kuh-e Shirdarvazeh

May 2003 The CIA releases documents displaying conspiracies that Al Jazeera is infiltrated with Iraqi spies, and this is all part of their propoganda effort.

Masjide Itifaq

Qal'eh Chaman

Embassy Of Yugoslavia

Wazir Abad Qal'eh-ye Shadeh

Qal'eh-ye Esma'il Khan

Qal Eh Dasht

Guzargah USAID Support Compound

Habibia High School

Siyah Sang

Sahsahid

Hindu Guzar

Sc hool

Kharabad

Qal 'eh-ye Malek Ashur

Dih Qabel

Sayed Noor Mohd Shah Mena

Sang Tarashi

Ashiqan Arifan

Baghi Qazi

Darwaza-i-lahori

Ahangari

Babayi Khudi

March 4, 2003 The New York Stock Exchange bans Al Jazeera from its trading floor indefinitely, citing “Security concerns” as the official reason.

Kab Shahan Palace

Veterinary Department

Shor Bazar

District 01

Russian House Of Science And Culture

Deh-mazang

Sc hool

Sc hool

Naw Abadi Guzarga

Karta-i-cahar Geres

Chaharaii Sarayi Shamali Unchi Baghbanan Sarayi Shamali

Attacks on Media

Russian House Of Science And Culture

Child Fund

Dih Buri

Sc hool

Chamani Huzuri

Kah Furoshi Chindawul

Traffic Police

Vocational Department

Khwaja Bughra

Srah Miasht

Dept of Infrastruc ture

Darmalimin

Naw Abadi Karta-i-now

Akhiri Jada

Chang Thai Restaurant

Saraji

Naw Abadi Dehmazang

Ghazi High School

Harbi Showunzay

Baghi Ali Mardan

Ghazni Wall

Ariana High School

Kabul Traffic Department

Lycee Mus ic

Tapa-i-maranjan

Afghanistan Chamber of Commerce & Industry (ACCI) WFP

Bala Kuh

Ministry Of Higher Educ ation

Mahtab Qala

Murad Khani

Afghan Tourist Organization

Afghanistan Tec hnic al Vocational Ins titute (ATVI)

Harbi

Maqbareh-ye Nader Shah

Organization For Mine Clearance And Afghan Rehab (OMAR)

Ministry Of Financ e

Ministry of Communications Ministry of Public Health

Law School

Takhnik Sanawee

Qala-i-najar Ha

Kohi Khuja Razaq Kuh-e Afshar

Fire Department

Afghan G erman Cooperation

Lailia Puhanton

Mahtab Qal'eh Showanjay

Red Hot Sizzler (bar& Restuarant)

IRAQ TIMELINE ‘04

Sc hool

BBC Offices

District 16

Mine Detection Centre (MDC)

Tapa-i-salam

Maqbareh-ye Seyred Jamal Od Din

Deh Now

Golkhaneh Qal 'eh-ye Malek 'ashur Qala-i-nazer

Corrections System Support Program (CSSP)

Supreme Court Staff College

Andarabi

District 03

November 13, 2001 The U.S. launches a missile attack on Al Jazeera’s office in Kabul. Al Jazeera’s managing director at the time, Mohammed Jasim al-Ali, says “This office has been known by everybody, the American airplanes know the location of the office.” This was a claim that the attack was deliberate.

279

Pule Mahmudkhan

Ministry Of Mines And Power Ky ber Restaurant Sc hool

Joyi Sheer Kabul University

Dehburi

Ministry of Labor & Social Affairs (MoLSA)

Mili Bus

Ministry Of Defense

Banki Mili

UNHabitat

Municipal Building

Kart-i-sakhi

Kota-i-sangi

Sc hool

Qarya-i-dih Khuday Dad

ClearPath International (CPI)

ICMA Office

Ministry Of Martys And The Disabled

Afghan G eodesy And Cartography Head Office (AGCHO)

De Afghanistan Bank

Deh Afghanan Qasaba

Ministry of Agriculture

Istgahi Akhiri Pahantun Lailia Puhanton

02Hisa-i-suwumi Khair Khana

Golayee Hisa-i-awal

03

Qal'eh-ye Sement Khaneh

Is tiqlal High Sc hool

Gov erner's Office

Ministry Of Jus tice

Qal-eh Akhond Zadeh

Mary am High Sc hool

IDLG Munic ipality Office

French Culture

Qoli Abchakan

Ministry Of Information & Culture Pashtane Bank

Qal Eh-ye Najjar

Alternative Development Program (ADP)

Argi Jumhuri Presidential Palace EDC O ffic e& GH

Wilayat

Qal 'eh-ye Gholamow

Nowabad-e Dehkeypak

Qala-i-zaman Khan Microrayani Awal

Ec onomic Growth and Governance Initiative (EG GI)

Shash Darak

Frc rcs

Ministry Of Foreign Affairs

Malalay High School KFW Office Afghanistan National Disaster Management Authority (ANDMA)

District 02

Sc hool

Hisa-i-doye Khair Khana

Qala-i-jabbar Khan

UNFPA

Civ il Sevic e Commis ionMinistry Of Planning

Shafakhna Fransawiha

Badam Bagh

Independent Directorate for Local Governance (IDLG)

Embassy Of China

National Archives Ministry Of Labor And Soc ial Affairs Ministry Of Economy

Ali Abad

Qal 'eh Chetgar

Ministry Of Public Works

IFES STEP

Central Statistic s Office (CSO)

Mine Ac tion Coordination Centre (MACCA)

EU Delegation

Sc hool

Qala-i-dawlat

MOEW Internal Audit Dept

Bilak Hayi Sarandoy

Sc hool

Maslakh

International Medic al Corps (IMC) Embassy Of Saudi Arabia

Pass port Office Accelerating Sustainable Agriculture Program (ASAP)

Khvajeh Boghra

Khishti Hokhtif

Dashti Barchi

Kuh-e Khvajeh Ravash

Ministry of Mines Deep Industry Afghanistan Geologic al Survey

Justice Security Sector Support Program (J SSP)

Javad

Khair Khana School

Qal 'eh Vahed

Qal'eh-ye Rika

EUPOL outer gate EUPOL Inner gate National Press

Intelligence Headquarters

Panjsad Family

Char Rahi Panjsad Family Silo-i-markazi

Qala-i-wahid

Qal'eh-ye Feyz Mohammed Khan

Karta-i-wali

Ministry Of Transport & Civil Aviation

Torn School

Kart-i-ariana

Qala-i-jawad

Seh Bangi

April 27, 2003 During a briefing, U.S. State Department spokesman Richard Boucher says of Al Jazeera: “On Iraq they have established a a pattern of false reporting.”

USAID

(IOM)

Qowayee Markaz

Khushal Khan Mena

Niazbeyg

Qal'eh-ye-davazdah Eman Ministry Of Counternarc otics

USA Embassy

International Organisation for Migration

Kuh-e 'aliabad

Baghi Hazrat

Qala-i-diwan Baiki

Qala-i-shora

Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD)

World Health Organization

Embassy Of Kazakhstan

Naderia High School

Yakatoot

Ql Fatehkhan Microrayani Suwum

Supreme Court

Fat Man Butc her Shop& Restuarant Ministry Of Public Health

UK Department For International Development (DFID) United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)

Sc hool

Speen Kalay

Niyaz Beg

Bagh-e Bala Meynah

Flower Street Cafe

Kandaki Tajamau

Shahrara

Baraki Shahrara

Embassy Of The Netherlands

Karta-i-mamurin

Kabul Education University

Afshar-e Nanachi

Blaka-i-chara-i-qambar

Sinuma Aryob

Poly Technic Ins titute

Dawatul Jahad University

Spin Kalay

Rana Institute

Aide Médicale Internationale (AMI)

Concern

Aga Khan Foundation Guesthouse

Qal'eh Yakeh Tut

Ministry Of Border And Tribal Affairs

Swis s Cooperation O ffic e & Swiss Embassy

Karta-i-parwan

Baghi Bala

Qala Haji

Sozo International Haji M. Dad Mosque

Microrayani Chaharum

Motorola

L'Atmosphere

Qal'eh Vazir

Samarakind Res taurant

Embassy Of The UK (old location)

Civ il Serv ice Commission Central Regional Office

Police Academy

Naw Abadi Qabil Boy

IRD - Afghanistan Vouchers for Inc reased Produc tive Agriculture (AVIPA) IRD - Strategic Provinc ial Roads (SPR) 3

Kowtal-e Pay Monar

December 26, 2001 Al Jazeera releases another video of Bin Laden. “Our terrorism against the United States is worthy of praise to deter the oppressor so that America stops its support for Israel, which is killing our children,” says bin Laden.

Afshar-e Bala

MoE HR Training Centre

Zanabad

Handicap International (HI)

ACBAR

European Commission Humanitarian Aid (ECHO)

Merastun

Bibi Mahru

Kabul Orthopedic Organis ation (KOO)

GTZ Gender Mainstreaming Project WFP G uesthouse - 3

Belgian Embas sy

Turquois e Mountain HQ

November 3, 2001 Al Jazeera airs a tape of bin laden, stating that the war in Afghanistan is a religious war and that “people of afghantisan had nothing to do with this matter. The campaign however, continues to unjustly annihilate the villigers and civilians, children, women and innocent people.”

Tappeh-ye Bibi Mahrow

Opressive Military Response / Attacks on Bureaus

UNAMA Guesthouse

Terre Des Hommes (TDH)

Qal'eh Textile Mill

ernational (HNI)

Ziarat Mtr-zewaruddin (padshah Sabeb)

Mirvali Zivar Od Din

WFP G uesthouse - 1, 4

International Tension/ Conflict

Pretrial Detention Centre (Office)

Afghan Aid

Dih Yahya

Bibi Mahrow

Focus Humanitarian Ass istance Merc yCorps United Methodist Committee On Relief (UMCOR)

Concern Ac tionaid

Flower Street Cafe

UN Habitat O ffic e

Kowtal-e Khvajehboghra

Bagh-i-bala Palace (former)

Pay Monar

Qala-i-musa

Afghan Ngo Coordination Bureau (ANCB)

Handicap International (HI) Sozo International

Tahiya-i-maskan

Kohi Khuja Razaq Kuh-e Afshar

Afghanistan Ngo Safety Office (ANSO) Shelter Now International (SNI) Medair Jen

ME / Middle East

Land Titling and Registration Activ ities (LTERA)

Aero

Broadcasts Airing controversial tapes/ Propoganda

Kowtal-e Dehkeypak

District 09

The Venue

Tearfund

Chamani Babrak

Qal 'eh-ye Chaman-e Dehkeypak

Kuh-e Khvajeh Razaq (afshar)

Sc hool

Qal'eh-ye Vazir

Attacks on Media: an oscillation between media and events Motorola

UNICEF

Attacks on Media: an oscillation between media and events Mohammadia Mosque

United Methodist Committee On Relief (UMCOR)

MercyCorps

UNOPS

Independant Electoral Commission (IEC) UNAMA United Nations Volunteers (UNV)

Noor Mosque

Tappeh-ye Bibi Mahrow

UN Visitors Car Park

Concern Actionaid

Bureaus Opening

Qal'eh Qabel Bay Flower Street Cafe

WFP Guesthouse - 1, 4

Closing

Indigo Carpet Shop

Broadcasts Airing controversial tapes/ Propoganda Tarnab

Ghaibi Khel

Guesthouse

ME / Middle East

Cemetery

Customs House

Qala-i-gulbaz

34°36'0"N

Focus Humanitarian Assistance Checkpoint Gumruk

Immap Offic e, Green Village

Tension between governments

Qiami Khel

Paktia Kot

Udkheyl

Qabil Boy

International Tension/ Conflict

Opressive Military Response / Attacks on Bureaus

Qala-i-shanan

January 20, 2004 President Bush refers to Al Jazeera as a source of “hateful” propoganda” coming from the Arab world.

Deh Khodadad

Qal'eh Shanan

June 28, 2004 Al Jazeera television broadcasts a video in which Iraqi militants threaten to behead a U.S. marine, unless U.S. releases Iraqi prisoners.

Qal'eh Sharabian

Alukheyl

August 7, 2004 The Iraqi government shuts down the Baghdad office of Al Jazeera because of national sercutiy concerns.

The extensive coverage of kidnappings encouraged militants.

34°32'0"N

April 15, 2004 A reporter states that “what Al Jazeera is doing is vicious, inaccurate and inexcusable.”

Daud Khel

Broadcasts

Chamani Deh Khudai Dad

Qarya-i-dih Khuday Dad

Shinah

Naw Abadi Karta-i-now

May 5, 2004 May 5, 2004 CBS News ‘ “60 minutes II”News ‘ “60 minutes II” CBS airs graphic photographs airs graphic12 photographs District District 12 of abuse by U.S. soldiers of abuse by U.S. soldiers of Iraqi detainees at Abu of Iraqi detainees at Abu Ghraib prison.

Ghraib prison.

Dashti Shina Wa Bagrami

Sayed Noor Mohd Shah Mena

34°34'0"N

Ahmad Shah Baba Mena

Qal'eh-ye Ahmad Khan Kowtal-e Yek Lengeh

Attacks on Media

Family Hayi Nasaji Bagrami

Chamani Bagrami

Scott McWhinnie, CNN reporter attacked

Dasto Khel

Naw Abadi (zanabad)

April 6, 2004 Stephen Farrell, The Times of London Orly Halpern, Freelance Journalist, John Burns, The New York Times, all Abducted in Baghdad.

January 27, 2004 Duraid Isa Mohammed, CNN reporter killed Fabrica-i- Kheste Ukhteef

Zanabad Naw Abadi (zanabad)

Qal'eh Malek Karim

Qal'eh Sadr-e A'zam

March 28, 2004 Al Hawza newspaper, Iraqi weekly, closed for allegedly inciting violance against coalition forces.

April 7, 2004 According to the Associated Press, one of its photographers and his driver were detained in the southern city of Kut by militiamen loyal.

Checkp

Sc hool

Bagrami

Meydan-e Bozkashi

Girdi Qol

Gula Khel

Du Sad Family Rahman Mena

Qamruddin Khel

UNDP DIAG UNFPA UN Department For Safety And Security (UNDSS) UNICEF

UNOPS IRIN

Kamawal

Pashminabafi

Independant Electoral Commission (IEC) UNAMA United Nations Volunteers (UNV)

Gerd Kowl (qowl)

UN Visitors Car Park

Tarnab

Ghaibi Khel

Qiami Khel

March 19, 2004 Arab journalists walk out of a Baghdad press conference given by the US secretary of state, Colin Powell, in protest at the shooting dead of two of their colleagues by US soldiers.

Karta-i-ghulam Jan

Hoseyn Kheyl

Hoseyn Kheyl

Qala-i-gulbaz Qala-i-darbaz

Paktia Kot

Shah-e-mardan Mosque

Jeffrey Gettleman, The New York Times Lynsey Addario, Freelance Journalist Both abducted by gunmen outside Baghdad.

Qala-i-shanan

Well

Daud Khel Qal'eh Shanan Wazir Abad

Gul Buta Hazrat-mohm Mostat Mosque

Alukheyl

Checkpoint

Solidarites

Qal'eh Sharabian

Afghan Commission For Human Rights (ACHR)

34°32'0"N

Mosque

The New York Times spokeswoman, Catherine Mathis, abducted at gunpoint outside of Baghdad.

Well

School

Udkheyl

May 17, 2004 The new yorker magazine claims Donald Rumsfeld personally authorised the expansion of a special programme which ultimately led to the abuses of Abu Ghraib in prison.

34°30'0"N

September 23, 2003 The Iraqi government suspends Al Jazeera (and all otherArab-based news stations) from reporting on official government activities for two weeks for what it says was support on recent attacks on government members and U.S. forces.

Sahib Zaman Mosque

Sahib Zaman Mosque

281

IRAQ TIMELINE ‘04

IRAQ 2004

280

July 31, 2004 Al Jazeera airs a tape of a 22 year old American named Benjamin Vanderford being beheaded, but the tape turns out to be a hoax.

Qal'eh-ye Salo

Part Khel

05

06

April 11, 2004 Alexandre Jordanov, Capa Tele Michal Kubal, Czech Tele Petr Klima, Czech Tele Vit Pohanka, Czech Radio All abducted outside Baghdad

April 8, 2004 Soichiro Koriyama along with several other japanese civilians were kidnapped in Iraq by an unkown group calling instelf the Mujahedeen Squadrons

Attacks on Media: an oscillation between media and events Attacks on Media: an oscillation between media and events Bureaus Opening

Closing

ME / Middle East

Broadcasts Airing controversial tapes/ Propoganda

Tension between governments

International Tension/ Conflict

Opressive Military Response / Attacks on Bureaus

282

Broadcasts

October 22 ,2004 A video showing Margaret Hassan the kidnapped director of aid agency Care International, pleading for British troops to be withdrawn from Iraqis broaccast on Arabic television.

283

Attacks on Media

IRAQ 2004

07

April 14, 2004 Jumpei Yasuda, freelance journalist abducted outside baghdad while driving to Abu Ghraib

May 7, 2004 Waldemar Milewicz, TVP Mounir Bouamrane, TVP Milewicz, one of Poland’s most experienced war correspondents and his producer, Bouamrane, both killed by gunmen, assumed Iraqi insurgents while travelling outside the south capital of Baghdad.

April 19, 2004 Asaad Kadhim, Al-Iraqiyya TV A correspondent for the U.S. funded Al-Iraqiya TV and his driver, Hussein Saleh were killed by gunfire from U.S. forces northwest of the capital of Baghdad.

IRAQ TIMELINE ‘04

November 22, 2004 November 22, 2004 NBC Cameraman Kevin Sites, NBC Cameraman Kevin Sites, shot footage of a US marine shot footage of a US marine appearing to kill an injured, unarmed, appearing to kill an injured, unarmed, Iraqi, tells why he published thewhy he published the Iraqi, tells images. images.

“Something was not right” “Something was not right”

May14, 2004 The daily mirror admits that photographs it published of British soldiers apparently abusing Iraqi detainees are fake and says it has been the victim of a cruel hoax.

May 21, 2004 Rashid Hamid Wali, Al Jazeera camerman killed by gunfire in Karbala, Iraq.

August 12, 2004 James Brandon, Freelance Journalist abducted from his hotel in Basra.

May 27, 2004 Shinsuke Hashida, Kotaro Ogawa, Freelance journalists both killed in an attack on their car in the south of Baghdad.

Attacks on Media: an oscillation between media and events Attacks on Media: an oscillation between media and events

ME / Middle East Tension between governments

International Tension/ Conflict

Opressive Military Response / Attacks on Bureaus

285

IRAQ TIMELINE ‘04

Attacks on Media

IRAQ 2004

284

Closing

Broadcasts Airing controversial tapes/ Propoganda

Broadcasts

Bureaus Opening

August 13, 2004 Micah Garen, Freelance Journalist abducted in Nasiriyah.

August 13, 2004 James Brandon, a 23 year old British jounalist, is kidnapped by insurgents demanding the withdrawal of US forces from Najaf and then released when Moqtada al-Sadr intervenes to secure his freedom.

08

August 15, 2004 Local Iraqi authorities ordered all journalists to leave the city.

August 15, 2004 Isam al-Shumari a camerman from Sudost Media, provides footage for Germany’s N24 television disappeared in Fallujah.

August 15, 2004 Mahmoud Hamid Abbas, Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen, camermen working for German television killed on assignment in Fallujah.

August 25, 2004 Journalists from Knight Ridder BBC & Getty Photo agency, detained, threatened and harassed in the sothern city of Najaf.

Police stormed the Bahr Najaf Hotel which housed a large contigent of international media.

August 27, 2004 International press freedom organisation Reporters without Borders expresses revulsion at the ‘Barbaric’ death of Italian jounalist Enzo Baldoni.

09

Attacks on Media: an oscillation between media and events Attacks on Media: an oscillation between media and events

ME / Middle East Tension between governments

International Tension/ Conflict

Opressive Military Response / Attacks on Bureaus

287

IRAQ TIMELINE â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;04

Attacks on Media

IRAQ 2004

286

Closing

Broadcasts Airing controversial tapes/ Propoganda

Broadcasts

Bureaus Opening

September 7, 2004 Scott Taylor, Freelance journalist Zeynep Tugrul, Sabah Newspaper Abducted in northern Iraq by a group calling itself Ansar al-Islam.

September 1, 2004 Fate of two french journalists kidnapped in Iraq remains unclear last as a deadline passes with no word of their existance.

September 12, 2004 Mazen al-Tumeizi, Al Arabiya Seif Fouad, Reuters Television Ghaith Abdul Ahad, Getty Images Attacked and killed in the center of Baghdad.

October 10, 2004 Paul Taggart, Freelance Journalist from World Picture News was abducted by armed men in Baghdad October 14, 2004 Dina Mohammed Hassan, Al-Hurriya Killed in a drive by shotting in front of her Baghdad residence.

October 27, 2004 Liqaa Abdul Razzak, Al-Sharqiya TV Local TV camerman killed by gunmen in Baghdad capital.

Karam Hussein, European Pressphoto Agency killed by gunmen in front of his home in Mosul October 16, 2004 John Martinkus, SBS Television Australian journalist abducted by genmen near his Baghdad hotel.

10

11

October 30, 2004 Al Arabiya Attacked. Bomb exploded in front of Baghdad bureau, killing 20 + employees In central Baghdad, insurgents detonate a car bomb that kills 7 people and wounds 19 others outside the offices of a popular Arab news network.

Attacks on Media: an oscillation between media and events Attacks on Media: an oscillation between media and events Bureaus Opening

Broadcasts Airing controversial tapes/ Propoganda

Closing

ME / Middle East Tension between governments

International Tension/ Conflict

Opressive Military Response / Attacks on Bureaus

June 2005 Rumsfeld accuses Al Jazeera of encouraging Islamic military groups by airing beheadings of American troops in Iraq.

Broadcasts Attacks on Media

November 1, 2004 Najim, a freelance camerman, working for Reuters and The Associated Press, shot in the head while covering conflict in Ramadi, 70 miles west of Baghdad.

November 11, 2004 All media / Censored A new directive from Iraqi authorities warned that news organisations must reflect the government’s positions in their reporting or face unspecified action.

December 21, 2004 December 21, 2004 A suicide bomber kills A 24suicide people,bomber kills 24 people, including 19 U.S. soldiers, inside19 theU.S. soldiers, inside the including mess tent of a U.S. military mess tent of a U.S. military base in Mosul. base in Mosul.

Christian Chesnot andChristian Georges Chesnot and Georges Malbrunot, two FrenchMalbrunot, journalists two French journalists held hostage in Iraq since heldAugust, hostage in Iraq since August, are freed. are freed.

Abdel Kader Saadi, The Associated Press, Al-Arabiya, journalists detained by U.S. troops in Fallujah.

12

289

November 22, 2005 Daily mirror publishes story that there is a conspiracy theory that George Bush had considered bombing Al Jazeera’s Doha headquarters in April 2004

IRAQ TIMELINE ‘04

IRAQ 2004

288

July 4, 2005 Al Jazeera officially announces plans to launch new English language satellite service; Al Jazeera international

Attacks on Media: an oscillation between media and events Attacks on Media: an oscillation between media and events Bureaus Opening

Closing

Broadcasts Airing controversial tapes/ Propoganda

Attacks on Media

July 19, 2006 Al Jazeera broadcasts a bin laden tape in which he praises the leader of Al Qaeda, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, as a “lion of holy war” who was killed three weeks prior by U.S. coalition.

July 30, 2006 Following the attack in Qana, Lebanon, Al Jazeera continously plays images of the resulting damage for several hours.

291

13 IRAQ TIMELINE ‘04

IRAQ 2004

290

Broadcasts

July 11, 2006 Dima Ayyoub the widow of of the Al Jazeera reporter that was killed in the Baghdad bureau, sues the Bush administration for $30 million for the death of her husband.

Tension between governments

Attacks on Press: Iraq 2004 / A Situation Diagram

January 2004

Attacks on Press: Iraq 2004 / A Situation Diagram CAPA TELEVISION, April 11 Alexandre Jordanov and his cameraman, Ivan Cerieix, taken captive by insurgents.

CZECH TELEVISION, April 11 Michal Kubal, Petr Klima, Vit Pohanka, left their palestine hotel en route to Amman, Jordan and abducted outside of Baghdad.

April 2004

6

2

3

2

NEW YORK TIMES, April 7 Catherine Mathis, reporter, her driver, photographer and driver, abducted at gunpoint outside of Baghdad. Released unharmed. Jeffrey Gettleman and Lynsey Addario also abducted.

THE ASSOCIATED PRESS, April 7 One of the Associated Press’s photographers and driver, detained in southern city of Kut .

BAGHDAD

293

292

IRAQ 2004

ATTACKS ON PRESS

2

1

2

CNN, January 27 Duraid Isa Mohammed, CNN reporter killed.

Major cities

U.S. Military Attack

Execution

Insurgent Group Attack

Reporters Bureaus

CNN, January 26 Camermann from CNN, Scott McWhinnie and translator attacked from behind as they were heading north toward Baghdad centre.

Mohammed was a producer working for the U.S. cable news network and his driver were both killed in an ambush on the outskirts of the capital, Baghdad, CNN reported.

2 2

ASAHI WEEKLY Soichiro Koriyama, reporter along with two Japanese civilians abducted and kept captive. *Location Unkown

AL-IRAQIYYA TV, April 19 Asaad Kadhim and his driver killed by U.S. forces gunfire.

THE TIMES OF LONDON, April 6 Farrell, a reporter for The Times of London, and Halpern, an American freelancer, were abducted by gunmen near the Iraqi city of Fallujah on April 6.

1 2

FREELANCER, April 14 Jumpei Yasuda, a journalist with Tokyo Shimbun, detained with Nobutaka Watanabe while driving outside of Baghdad.

Major cities

U.S. Military Attack

Execution

Insurgent Group Attack

Abduction

Reporters

Abduction

Detainment

Bureaus

Detainment

N

N

NEW YORK TIMES, April 6 John Burns, New York Times correspondent and other Times employees from the Baghdad bureau, detained in Kufa, 160Km South of Baghdad, by AL-Sadr’s forces.

The Times reporter, Stephen Farrell and Orly Halpern, freelance journalist were both abducted by gunmen close to the Iraqi city of Falluja and then relesead on the same day. On the same day, John Burns from The New York Timeswas detained in Kufa which is 160Km South of Baghdad with several other Times employees and taken from their Baghdad bureau. The group was held for 8 hours and then released and they were held as suspected insurgent groups and agents for conspiracy groups of other countries. This is just few of the 22 ‘recorded’ reporters, photographers and media related people attacked in April in Iraq 2004.

Attacks on Press: Iraq 2004 / A Situation Diagram

3 1

AL JAZEERA, May 21 Rashid Hamid Wali was killed by gunfire in the morning in Karbala, South West of Baghdad.

May 2004

FREELANCERS, May 27 Shinsuke Hashida and Kotaro Ogawa, were killed with their translator when their car came under attack by Iraqi gunmen, 30Km South of Baghdad.

Attacks on Press: Iraq 2004 / A Situation Diagram KNIGHT RIDDER, BBC, GETTY, August 25 Detained, Threatened and Harassed

by Police at Najaf hotel.

3

1

ZDF, August 15 Mahmoud Hami Abbas, an Iraqi cameraman was killed while on assignment in Fallujah.

1

August 2004

SUDOST MEDIA, August 15 Isam al-Shumari, a cameraman disappeared in Fallujah on August 15.

1

FREELANCER, August 26 Enzo Baldoni, abducted and killed.

295

294

IRAQ 2004

ATTACKS ON PRESS

2

TVP, May 7 Waldemar Milewicz and Mounir Bouamrane from TVP both shot by gunmen, Iraqi insurgents at 9:30am in Latifiya, south of Baghdad.

2

Attacks becoming more deadly during the Month of May where many reporters were killed including freelancers, Al-Jazeera correspondants and International Polish journalists. Most of the attacks by Iraqi insurgent groups, aimed at any journalists or media groups moving around Iraq to and from Baghdad.

FRENCH JOURNALISTS, August 20 French Journalists Christian Chesnot and Georges Malbrunot Abducted for 4 months.

2

FREELANCER, August 13 Micah Garen, freelance journalist and his interpreter abducted by gunmen in Nasiriyah, both freed 9 days later.

Major cities

U.S. Military Attack

Execution

Insurgent Group Attack

Abduction

Reporters

Abduction

Detainment

Bureaus

Detainment

Major cities

U.S. Military Attack

Execution

Insurgent Group Attack

Reporters Bureaus

N

N

1

FREELANCER, August 12 Brandon, a British freelance reporter, abducted from his hotel in Basra and released the following day.

Further abductions, detainments and executions in August of 2004 in Iraq lead to censorship of multiple media channels within Iraq including Al-Jazeera to reduce attention to journalists. Warnings from Iraqi ministers were sent out to journalists so they avoid entering Baghdad/ or Iraq, however this did not stop them, and further attacks on individual journalists occured for the remainder of the year.

Attacks on Press: Iraq 2004 / A Situation Diagram

2

September 2004

Attacks on Press: Iraq 2004 / A Situation Diagram

6

REUTERS + GETTY, September 12 After a helicopter fired ont he disabled Bradley vehicle, both Seif Fouad from Reuters Television and Ghaith Abdul Ahad from Getty images were injured.

1

EUROPEAN PRESSPHOTO AGENCY, October 14 Karam Hussein, an Iraqi photographer killed by a group of gunmen in front of his home in northern city of Mosul.

1

October 2004 AL ARABIYA BUREAU BOMBING, October 30 6 staff members killed, 14 wounded.

WORLD PICTURE NEWS, October 10 Paul Taggart an American freelance photographer was abducted by men in Baghdad.

BAGHDAD Sadr City

297

296

IRAQ 2004

ATTACKS ON PRESS

3

AL ARABIYA, September 12 Mazen al-Tumeizi, a reporter for Al Arabiya television was killed after helicopter fired missiles and machine guns to destroy a disabeled American vehicle.

1

AL-SHARQIYA TV, October 27 Liqaa Abdul Razzak was killed in Baghdad capital by gunmen.

1

AL-HURRIYA, October 14 Dina Mohammed Hassan, killed in a drive-by shooting in front of her Baghdad house.

Major cities

U.S. Military Attack

Major cities

U.S. Military Attack

Execution

Insurgent Group Attack

Execution

Insurgent Group Attack

Reporters

Abduction

Reporters

Abduction

Bureaus

Detainment

Bureaus

Detainment

N

N

1

SBS TELEVISION, October 16 John Martinkus, an Australian journalist abducted near his Baghdad hotel.

Attacks on Press: Iraq 2004 / A Situation Diagram

1

November 2004

AKHBAR AL-MOSUL, November Wadallah Sarhan, editor in chief of Akhbar al-mosul, was gunned down by assailants near his home.

299

298

IRAQ 2004

ATTACKS ON PRESS

1

AL ARABIYA, THE ASSOCIATED PRESS, November 11 Abdel Kader Saadi, a freelance journalist working for both Al Arabiya and The Associated Press was detained by U.S. troops.

Major cities

U.S. Military Attack

Execution

Insurgent Group Attack

Reporters

Abduction

Bureaus

Detainment

1

N

FREELANCER, November 1 Dhia Najim, a freelance camerman who worked for Reuters and the Assosicated press was shot in the head while filming.

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Cpj.org, (2004). CPJ CALLS FOR RELEASE OF FRENCH JOURNALISTS ABDUCTED IN IRAQ - Committee to Protect Journalists. [online] Available at: https://cpj.org/2004/08/cpj-calls-for-release-of-frenchjournalists-abduct.php [Accessed 31 May 2015].

Forum, J. (2005). On the Job From All Sides. [online] Globalpolicy.org. Available at: https://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/168/36655.html [Accessed 31 May 2015].

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Fox News, (2004). Report: Italian Journalist Killed in Iraq | Fox News. [online] Available at: http://www.foxnews.com/story/2004/08/26/report-italianjournalist-killed-in-iraq.html [Accessed 31 May 2015].

Cpj.org, (2004). Karam Hussein - Journalists Killed - Committee to Protect Journalists. [online] Available at: https://cpj.org/killed/2004/karamhussein.php [Accessed 31 May 2015].

IFEX, (2004). Car bomb attack outside Baghdad offices of Al-Arabiya television station - IFEX. [online] Available at: https://www.ifex.org/ iraq/2004/11/01/car_bomb_attack_outside_baghdad/ [Accessed 31 May 2015].

Iraq, F. (2005). French Reporter Kidnapped by Iraqi Resistance For 4 Months Says Bush Brought Al Qaeda to Iraq. [online] Democracy Now!. Available at: http://www.democracynow.org/2005/6/8/french_reporter_kidnapped_by_ iraqi_resistance [Accessed 31 May 2015].

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Portal.unesco.org, (2004). UNESCO Condemns Killing of Italian Journalist Enzo Baldoni in Iraq. [online] Available at: http://portal.unesco.org/ ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=16963&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_ SECTION=201.html [Accessed 31 May 2015].

Legacy.utsandiego.com, (2004). SignOnSanDiego.com > War with Iraq -- Journalists killed or missing in Iraq. [online] Available at: http://legacy.utsandiego. com/news/world/iraq/memorial/media.html [Accessed 31 May 2015].

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SPIEGEL ONLINE, G. (2005). Abducted In Iraq: Four Months on Planet bin Laden - SPIEGEL ONLINE. [online] SPIEGEL ONLINE. Available at: http://www.spiegel.de/international/abducted-in-iraq-four-months-onplanet-bin-laden-a-337867.html [Accessed 31 May 2015].

Lynch, D. (2014). James Foley: Abducted Journalists List. [online] International Business Times. Available at: http://www.ibtimes.com/james-foleyabducted-journalists-list-1664646 [Accessed 31 May 2015].

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News.bbc.co.uk, (2004). BBC NEWS | Europe | Polish TV crew attacked in Iraq. [online] Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3693389.stm [Accessed 31 May 2015].

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Nytimes.com, (2004). The New York Times > International > Middle East > 9 Marines Die as Insurgents Mount Attacks. [online] Available at: http:// www.nytimes.com/2004/10/31/international/middleeast/31iraq.html?_ r=1& [Accessed 31 May 2015].

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301

OVERVIEW

IRAQ 2004

300

ABC News, (2004). Iraqi kidnappers kill Italian journalist: Al Jazeera. [online] Available at: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2004-08-27/iraqi-kidnapperskill-italian-journalist-al-jazeera/2033320 [Accessed 30 May 2015].

Lexicon

Israeli Defence Force The Israel Defence Forces are the state of Israel’s military force. The IDF is subordinate to the directions of the democratic civilian authorities and the laws of the state.

Their aim is to “defend the existence, territorial integrity and sovereignty of the state of Israel. To protect the inhabitants of Israel and to combat all forms of terrorism which threaten the daily life.” [http://www.idfblog.com/ about-the-idf/idf-code-of-ethics/] Israeli Settlement An Israeli Settlement is any residential area built across the Green Line, the 1949 cease-fire line between the State of Israel and its Palestinian/Arab neighbors. During the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel took control of the West Bank, East Jerusalem, the Gaza Strip and Syria’s Golan Heights. [http://thecepr.org/index.php?option=com_ content&view=article&id=115:illegal-israelisettlements&catid=6:memos&Itemid=34]

O Operation Defensive Shield Operation Defensive Shield was a large-scale military campaign conducted by the Israeli Defense Forces in April 2002, after a series of terrorist attacks launched against Israel. It is the largest operation since the 1967 Six Day War. [http://www.ynetnews.com/ articles/0,7340,L-3685678,00.html] P Pentagon The headquarters of the United States Department of Defense, as a symbol of the U.S. military. The headquarters is located in Arlington County, Virginia, United States of America.

Protest The type of protest i An organized public demonstration expressing strong objection to an official policy or course of action: a protest over planned pit closures [as modifier]: a protest march ‘The Other’ The ‘other’ being, what is understood from what is not said directly. A paradox is then formed through what is shown and broadcasted, and what is not shown.

N

R

Netanya Netanya is located in the Northern Central District of Israel. It is located 30 km (18.64 mi) north of Tel Aviv, and 56 km (34.80 mi) south of Haifa, between the ‘Poleg’ stream and Wingate Institute in the south and the ‘Avichail’ stream in the north.

Refugee “owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it.” [UNCHR 1951 Refugee Convention]

Refugee Camp A temporary settlement for those individuals forced to leave their country in order to escape persecution as outlined in the 1951 Convention and 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees[Grbac, P, 2013, Civitas, polis, and urbs: reimagining the refugee camp as the city, Refugees Study Centre, Vol 96 pp1-31] Repercussions The consequence of a certain event.

S Second Intifada Intifada refers to 2000-2003 Palestinian uprising against Israel. The uprising broke out at the end of September 2000 and is named after the Jerusalem mosque complex where the violence began. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/ middle_east/3677206.stm] Social Media Online platforms for social interactions such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and YouTube.

Special Rapporteur ii ‘Independent Experts and members of the Working Groups are appointed by the Human Rights Council and serve in their personal capacities’ .

U UNHCR Commissioner for Refugees, more commonly referred to as the UN refugee agency or (UNHCR), was created by the UN General Assembly in 1950 and began work on 1 January 1951. Its statute was drafted virtually simultaneously with the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, which became the cornerstone of refugee protection in subsequent decades.[www.unhcr. org/pages/49c3646c2.html] Universal declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)iii ‘[I]s a milestone document in the history of human rights. Drafted by representatives with different legal and cultural backgrounds from all regions of the world, the Declaration was proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in Paris on 10 December 1948….as a common standard of achievements for all peoples and all nations. It sets out, for the first time, fundamental human rights to be universally protected. ’ W West Bank Area Middle East West of Jordan River; occupied by Israel since 1967 with parts having been transferred to Palestinian administration since 1993. [http://www. merriam-webster.com/dictionary/west%20bank] 1900 1951 Refugee Convention The 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees is the key legal document in defining who is a refugee, their rights and the legal obligations of states. [www.unhcr.org/ pages/49da0e466.html] 1967 Refugee Protocol The 1967 Protocol removed geographical and temporal restrictions from the 1951 Convention. [www.unhcr.org/ pages/49da0e466.html]

303

LEXICON

URBANISM OF AL JAZEERA

302

I Imaginary The imaginary is the notion of predetermined attitudes of cities which reverberate the cultural and political influences at the time as displayed by the media. It is a consequence of the controversy between media stations, producing these images, and thus leads to the attacks on the media.

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