Pranjal Wagh
In order to understand the Evolution of Shikharas in Indian Temple Architecture, it is first imperative to understand the concept of a Temple in the Hindu culture. Did we always have magnificent and beautifully carved wonders of architecture where their Shikaras touched the skies? Were the temples and their Shikharas always so ordained with spellbinding sculptures? Let us explore a bit!
The AshvalayanSutra (5-6th Century BCE) states, “ the ritual of Sulagava Sacrifice, is to be performed in two huts dedicated to Pasupati and Ambika and to their son Jayanta in the third hut in between the two huts ”
A sculpture of a person has been found where he is offering aahuti to the fire of the Yajna. The fire in this sculpture is shown as being preserved and kept lit inside a small Hut The Upasana of Fire which was prevalent in the Vedic times is later seen to have moved towards the Upasana or the worship of Symbols. This shift is well explained by the Stone Slab found in Ghosundi, Rajasthan Dating back to 1st Century BCE, this slab indicates that it was made to worship “Narayan” – a Vedic deity who was placed inside an enclosure.[1]
Similarly, the world-renownedGarud-Stambha at Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh which was erected by Heliodorus in front of the Vishnu Temple there dates back to 1st Century CE. The remains of the Vishnu temple have also been found in Vidisha which shows that around that time the Temple was apsidal in shape It is also called “Gaja-Prushthakaar” which means it looks an elephant’s back when seen from the top.
This time transcending journey of evolutionof temple architecture which began somewhere around 5th Century BCE underwent a complete change by the time we arrived at 12th Century CE. The worship of “Agni” or Fire which took place in a small “Dev-Griha” went on to become the worship of the Idol of a Deity inside the “Garbha-Griha” of a “Devalaya” or “Temple similar to a Palace”! This journey is tremendously enchanting!
The ancient architects of India have always drawn similarities in the Temple and the Human Body. The concept being that the Deity to be worshipped is the “Atmaa” or Soul and the Temple is the Body which holds the Soul The “Aagamaas” also mention the same. The image shown below rightly illustrates that. It also shows the various parts of the “Shikhara” or “Kalasa” of the Temple. The names of the parts clearly show the references drawn from various Human Body parts.
Skandha -Shoulder
Kapaala - Forehead
Amalaka - Mouth
Griva - Neck
Shirsha - Head
Kalasa - Hair
The “Bruhatsanhita” written by “Varahmihir” lists the different types of Temples that can be built and it also mentions in detail the materials required to build a temple. The “Bruhatsanhita” along with other Puranas call the Temple as a “Praasaad” which means a Royal Palace. It is said that the Royal Palace of a King has at least three floors and a Shikhara In Hinduism, the King is considered to be the incarnation of Vishnu himself. If the incarnation of God himself lives in a Palace, then how can the Deity live in a small hut?
“It is then natural that the deity is to be provided with the royal paraphernalia of a throne, umbrella and a fly-whisk and the worship of the Deity is attended by a regal pageantry, together with music, dance and lighting of lamps”, quotes Krishnadeva[2]
The Satvahana rule flourished in India after 3rd Century BCE However, the ruins of the Satvahana era temples are not found today but the “Gatha-Saptashati” mentions brick temples of “Gauri” The temples were also known as “Ajjaghar” or “Deool” in these Gathas. The “Gatha-Saptshati” also mentions that these temples had tapering towers known as “ShankuShikharas” [3]
If we wish to study the development in the Shikhara styles in Indian Temples, it has to be done categorically In Indian Temple Architecture, we have two 3 main styles:
[2]Deglurkar G.B., Temple Architecture and Sculptures of Maharashtra, P 19 quotes Krishna Deva (1997), Temples of North India, P 1
[3]Deglurkar G.B., Temple Architecture and Sculptures of Maharashtra, P.20 quotes Joglekar, S.A., Gatha No 172 from The Gatha Saptshati
1.Nagara Style (नागर)
2.Dravida Style ( ा वड)
3 Vesara Style (वसर)(A mixture of Nagara &Dravida Style)
Earlier it was thought that Nagara Style pertained to the North Indian Temples and the Dravid Temples belonged to the South. However, there are a lot of places in India where both Nagara & Dravid Temples exist in the same complex. For instance, The Mahakuta Temple Complex in Badami has Nagara and Dravid temples right next to each other
The figure below shows the Shikhara Styles and their sub-styles in detail.
Nagara Temples and their Shikhara Styles:
The word “Nagara” literally means "of the city".These temples are found prominently in North India but they also appear in the Deccan and the Tungabhadra River valley Since the Nagara temples are found over such a large geographical expanse, we see local influences contributing to the refinement and evolution of the Nagara Styles. Krishnadeva states that the origin of Local styles started circa 7th Century CE and by 910th Century CE these local styles evolved into Independent Shikhara Styles
Dr. G.B. Deglurkar states the following about the Nagara Shikara Style,"… it is a curvilinear spire (sikhara) constituting the most striking cognizance of the Nagara Temple It initially appeared at the beginning of the 7th century. Then it was an embrio-Sikhara as seen of the Durga Temple in Aihole in Bagalkot district of Karnataka State. All projections of the sikhara are covered with a mesh of Chaitya window design. The sikhara terminates in a griva (a neck like construction) surmounted by a large amalaka or amalasaraka (ribbed circular member) crowned by a kalasa (a pitcher – like finial)”[4]
[4]Deglurkar G.B., Temple Architecture and Sculptures of Maharashtra, P.24
The Dashavtar Deogarh temple built in 6th Century C.E. is the first known Panchayatan Vishnu Temple in India. The temple exhibits a very primitive Shikhara of the Nagara Style. The Shikhara is a multi-layered construction tapering towards the top and is currently in a dilapidated state Similarly, the Gupta era Bhitargaon temple built entirely with bricks around the end of the 5th Century C.E. exhibits a “ShankuShikhara” The Shikhara was destroyed when lighting struck the temple in 1850 but has been now restored
The famous Apsidal Durga Temple of Aihole, Karnataka also exhibits a Nagara Shikhara and was built around 7-8th Century C E In Maharashtra, the “Tri-Garbhiya” Lonad Shiva Temple is an excellent example of Nagara style of Shikhara. Today, the Shikhara of this temple does not exist but on the basis of the ruins and construction, one can easily say that the Shikhara was of Nagara Style. According to Dr.Jamkhedkar, the Shikhara must have been of the” Panchandaka Nagara” style [5]
Nagara Latina Shikhara Style:
The temples of Orissa although are of Nagara Style, however their construction style is different. In these temples, the “Mandapa” is known as “Jagamohan” and the Shikhara of the “Jagamohan” is known as “PidhaDeool” and the main Shikhara of the temple above the “Garbhagriha” is known as “Rekha Deool”. The Shikhara Style of Orissa Nagara Temples in known as “Nagara Latina” style
The 11th Century Lingaraj Temple in Orissa is an excellent example of Nagara Latina Shikhara Style The Shikhara is a 10storeyed structure and each layer is called as “Bhoomi” Each “Bhoomi” is a smaller replica of the main Shikhara and each smaller “Amalaka” represents the end of the “Bhoomi” The image shows the 10 Storeys clearly. The “Rekha Deool” or the Main Shikhara above the Garbhagirha is 60 metres in height, it has sculptures of lions and other “murtis” and the Amalaka and the Kalasha are intact.
The world-renowned Jagannath Temple of Puri also falls under the same category. The “Rekha Deool” of this temple is 65 metres in height and is the tallest in this style. The Amalaka of this temple is known as “Neel-Chakra”, is made of “Ashta-Dhatu” and is 3 5 metres in height.
The Konark Sun Temple near Puri built in 13th Century C.E. also falls under the same category. This temple was excavated by Maratha forces under Raghuji Bhosale of Nagpur while they were on their Orissa and Bengal Campaign in the 18th Century This temple has a huge Surya Chariot with ornately carved 24 stone wheels Today the Garbhagriha of the temple does not exist and most of the “Nata-Mandapa” has fallen The Jagamohan is however still standing. The “Pidha-Deool” of the Jagamohan is of the “Phamsana” style and is itself 65 metres in height This helps us imagine the height of the “Rekha-Deool” of the Garbhagriha!
an artist’s impression of the Konark Sun Temple’s Rekha Deool
When a Shikhara is composed of multiple smaller Shikharas spiralling towards the sky, it is known as “Shikhara-Shekhari” .
The famous “Kandariya Mahadev” temple of Khajuraho built by the Chandel King Vidyadhar in 1025 C.E. is a live example of this style of Shikhara style. Hence, it is also known as “Chandel Nagara” Style of temple The temple stands on a high plinth known as “Jagati”. The Shikhara is composed of 84 smaller Shikharas. Each smaller Shikhara is called as “Uru-Shringa”
Henry Cousen, Adam Hardy and Krishnadeva – all three call the Bhumija Style as the “Deccan Variety” of Nagara Style Bhuvandev in his “Aparajitapruchcha” also mentions the Bhumija Style of Architecture. Around 1946, Stella Kramrisch in her world-renowned book “The Hindu Temple” explains “Bhumija” as “Born of the Earth” i e , its Sanskrit meaning Although she mentions the Bhumija Style to be limited to Malwa region, books like “Lakshman-Samuchchaya” and “Aparajita” which were written outside Malwa also mention the Bhumija Style in detail. In Contrast to Stella Kramrisch, Krishnadeva says “Bhumi” implies “Storey” which also fits from the architectural point of view as the “Kuta-Stambha” on the Shikhara appears like the storeys of a building.
Dr Deglurkar in his book “Temple Architecture and Sculpture of Maharashtra” describes the Bhumija Shikhara Syle in detail. It is as follows:
1.The Sikhara with four latas (spines), one in each cardinal direction.
2 with the usual decoration containing rows of miniature caitya arches And
3.the grouping of miniature Sikharas (Sringa) of diminishing heights on the four guadrants between the latas, these miniature sikharas are arranged horizontally in three to five rows and vertically in five to nine rows, they are called kütastambha or Stambhakuta, technically Küta means miniature Sikhara resting on pilasters.
4 At the base in each lata is seen caitya window with a sculpted medallion This gesture is known as surasenaka. The medallion contains either a face of a donor or a purnakumbha a symbol of prosperity. The main lata, i.e., the one at the direction to which temple faces has ornate sukanāsa and the Surasenaka here is larger and more elaborate In this surasenaka one finds an image of God, representing the one in the shrine.[6]
The magnificent 10th Century Ambarnath Shiva Temple in Maharashtra is a living example of Bhumija Style. All elements mentioned in the above description can be identified here although the half of the Shikhara here has collapsed. Another temple in Maharashtra, namely Mankeshwar Temple at Zodge, constructed in 12th Century CE is also a beautiful example of Bhumija
Typically, temples with Nagara Phamsana Style Shikharas are found in Kashmir region. Similarly, in Maharashtra, the Nageshwar Temple in Khireshwar at the base of Harishchandragad also exhibits the Phamsana Shikhara Style
Dr Deglurkar says, "It is a square shrine with a porch or otherwise with a pyramidal shikhara consisting of plain, broad, flat square slabs place of one above the other forming diminishing tiers These slabs can be plain or multiple eave variety”[7]
The Phamsana style temple architecture is in existence since 9th Century C.E., according the Adam Hardy However, till the time the Shikhara does not have an Amalaka on top, it does not qualify as a Nagara Style Shikhara
In Nagara Shikhara Style i.e., in Latina/Shikhar-Shekhari/Bhumija/Phamsana styles the presence of an Amalakas extremely essential [8]
The GondeshwarPanchayatan Temple complex in Sinnar, Maharashtra was built around the 11-12th Century C.E. The four smaller temples here have Shikharas of the Nagara Style. The “Gudha-Mandapa” has a Phamsana Shikhara while the Shikhara of the Garbha-griha is of the Bhumija style In this complex, one can see 3 types of Nagara Style Shikharas. Such temples are called as “Bahudala Temples”[9]
[9]Deglurkar G.B., Temple Architecture and Sculptures of Maharashtra, P.272
Dravida Temples and their Shikhara Styles:
The Dravida temples are found mainly in the Southern part of India These temple plan typically consists of the Mukha-mandapa, Mandapa, Antarala and Garbha-griha. As per the Agamas and the Shilpa-shastra, the structure from the Adhishthana to the Stupi of the Shikhara is known as “Vimana”, However, in Dravid Style of temples, it is common to denote the Shikhara itself as the Vimana
There are some distinct differences in the Nagara and Dravid Styles of Shikhara[10]. A few significant ones are listed below:
[10]Deglurkar G.B., Temple Architecture and Sculptures of Maharashtra, P.26
1 The Shikhara has Lata and Bhumis to denote storeys
1 The Shikhara has clear and distinct storeys
2 Miniature Amalakas or Uru-Shringas help to count the Storeys of the Shikhara
2. Sculpted Kutas (square) and Shalas (rectangular) help to count the Storeys of the Shikhara
3. Amalaka is essential for the Shikhara to be called a Nagara Shikhara
3.Stupi is essential for the Shikhara to be called a Dravid Shikhara
The Virupaksha temple of Pattadakal was built around 7th Century C.E. is an excellent example of Dravid Style of architecture The temple flourished during the Vijayanagar empire reign The Gopura to the east is one of the striking features of this temple and is 9 storeys high. Moreover, the Stupi is also in good condition.
One of the unmatched examples of Dravid Style of Temple architecture is the Brihadeeshwar Temple at Thanjavur. The Shikhara here is 13 storeys high and the height is 64 metres
The Stupi on top of the Shikhara is intact and is supposedly 80 tons in weight. After defeating the Pallavas, Rajaraja Chola built this temple in 10th Century C E
Vesara Temples and their Shikhara Style:
The word “Vesara” comes from “Khechar or Khachchar” which literally means “Mule” which is born out of the union of a Male Donkey and Female Horse. The Vesara temple style as per Stella Kramrischis "an issue of heterogeneous parents". The Vesara temple plan or “Vidhana” is of Dravida Style while the architectural elements belong to Nagara Style Adam Hardy calls it the “Chalukya Style of Architecture” as these temples are mainly found in the areas ruled over by the Chalukyas.
Vesara temples found in and around Badami, Karnataka are in good shape even today The lesser known Vesara temple in Sudi village in Gadag District namely JoduKalasaGudi or the Twin Towered Temple is in good condition The Shikharas are of Dravida style as is indicated by the presence of Stupis which are intact. However, the temple architecture reflects an influence of the Nagara Style. Similarly, the KashiVishweshwara Temple which is a part of the Lakkundi Temple Complex in Gadag District of Karnataka is also built in Vesara Style The pictures below indicate the same The Rashtrakutas developed this style of architecture after the Chalukyas. The great rock-cut Kailas Temple at Ellora in Maharashtra is built in Vesara Style.
For almost 12 Centuries, Indian Temple architecture had been undergoing continuous development and evolution
With this, the Shikhara architecture also underwent changes and got refined. Nagara, Dravida and Vesara styles of architecture were born out of this evolution. Due to this, the Shikhara of the temple not only became an inseparable component of the Indian temple but the Shikhara of the temple became the identity of that respective style of architecture.
The Writer is an indologist and is writer of 16 books. He is felicitated by Acedemia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan for his research in mythology. He has received numerous awards including the Lokmat Digital Influencer Award (Heritage) Dinesh is also a speaker who has graced many occasions He is the main admin of Indian.Temples.
A 15-feet-high Buddhist stupa, four broken Buddha sculptures, several household articles, and clay utensils were unearthed during the ongoing excavation on top of the Parabhadi hill near Chandikhole in Jajpur district.
A Hanuman idol stolen from a temple in Ariyalur in 2012 was tracked to Australia and brought back to India thanks to investigations done by the idol wing CID of TamilNadu police and diplomatic efforts made by the Indian government.
A three-layered, baked ring well was discovered at the banks of Vaigai river in Tamil Nadu’s Thiruppachethi town in Sivaganga According to the state archaeology department, the excavation at the site has been going on since 2018, and several artifacts have been unearthed.
In Indian history, every art form is interconnected. The stories in Puranas started to be shared in the form of oral retelling, and gradually other art forms like literature, performance, dance and sculptures were introduced Dance researcher Dr Hima Bindu Kanoj explores the interconnection in Dance and sculptures as a medium of expression.
When it comes to dance sculptures, the Gupta period defines the perfect rules of dance iconography in terms of technique and style. The important development in this age was attaining a balance between the sensousness and symbolic representations. It was in this age that dance sculptures came to be carved according the norms of Sampoorna Purusha ( perfect man) and Padmini Stri ( perfect woman) mentioned in the Silpa Sastra and the Natya Sastra Although Buddhist themes were still prominent, it was during this period that themes from the Ramayan and Bhagavatamand other themes from the Puranas came to be seen on the temple walls Above is a sculpture from the Ellora Caves of Lord Shiva dancing for an audience of celestials He is seen in the kuncita foot ( toes touching the ground) He holds the waist in the chinna kati ( waist pushed to one side) . The middle hand on the right side is in Dola ( swaying position) and the front hand in the left side is in the udwesthita ( turned out position).
The Writer is an internationally acclaimed Kuchipudi dancer, who has performed at more than 100 dance festivals in and outside India. She has done extensive research in the topic of the dance related sculptures and the connection between dance and sculptures She has also done workshops on various topics of Indian Dance, Art and Culture at multiple universities in USA. Hima is also a part of admin team of Indian.Temples.
1. GONDESHWAR, SINNAR, DIST NASHIK
an 11th-12th century Yadava era temple It features a panchayatana plan; with a main shrine dedicated to Shiva; and four subsidiary shrines dedicated to Surya, Vishnu, Parvati, and Ganesha
2. KOPESHWAR, KHIDRAPUR, DIST KOLHAPUR
Built in the 12th century by Shilahara king Gandaraditya between 1109 and 1178 CE., the temple is full of beautiful sculptures and artistic representations. The open to sky roof structure of Mandapa is a special feature of this temple
3. AMRUTESHWAR, RATANWADI, DIST AHMEDNAGAR
An intricately carved Shiva temple, located on the banks of a lake in Ratanwadi. This beautiful temple was built by the rulers of Shilahara dynasty in 9th century CE. The shikhara over the shrine is intact and is very ornamental, while the roof of the mandapa has disappeared leaving the inner lintels of the ceiling.
4. SHIV TEMPLE, ANBARNATH, DIST THANE
The Shiv Mandir of Ambarnath is a historic 11thcentury temple, still worshipped Unusually, the sanctuary or garbhagriha is below ground. The roof over Garbhagriha is imcomplete Bhumija structure
5. TRIVIKRAM TEMPLE, TER, DIST DHARASHIV
The oldest standing structure of Maharashtra, this temple is believed to be built by Satvahana dynasty in 2nd or 3rd century This is one of the only two apsidal structure temples in India, and represents one important milestone in the temple architectures The temple is dedicated to Vamana avatar of Vishnu
6. ANANDESHWAR, LASUR, DIST AMARAVATI
One of the most interesting, and yet lesser known temples of Maharashtra Build by the Yadavas in 13th century, this temple is built using blackstone. The open to sky roof of Manadapa of this temple is a very unique feature. There are three Garbhagrihas and an open mandap in the middle The plan commonly followed by many Chalukya era temples
7. DAITYASUDANA, LONAR, DIST BULDHANA
Dedicated to Vishnu, this temple was built in 9th century by Chalukyas. The temple looks like an irregular and asymmetrical star This place of worship has beautiful carvings on its walls. The idol itself is built with an ore and looks like it is made of stone.
8. MARKANDA MAHADEV, CHAMORSHI, DIST GADCHIROLI
Markanda Mahadev Temple Complex is situated at the banks of the Wainganga River near Chamorshi town. This 8th century Rashtrakuta era temple is called as Khajuraho of Maharashtra, because of the carvings in intimate couples. This temple complex is spread over 40 acres of land and many temples are in a dilapidated condition.
9. NAGNATH, AUNDHA, DIST HINGOLI
The Shiva temple is said to have been built by the Seuna (Yadava) dynasty and dates to 13th century. The temple has many beautiful sculputues The temple was dectroyed by invadors and repaired by Ahilyadevi Holkar of Indore The temple is also one of the 12 Jyotirlinga (12 sacred shrines dedicated to Shiva).
10. BHULESHWAR, YAWAT, DIST PUNE
The Bhuleshwar Temple is 45 kilometres from Pune. The temple is situated on a hill and was built in the 8th century. The temple has many beautiful carvings and sculptures, mostly in broken state now. Among them, interesting one is an idol of Ganesha in female attire. It is popular as Ganeshwari or Lambodari or Ganeshyani
