Paper Formatting Guidelines
Technological Developments in American, European, Chinese and Indian Architecture.
Ilayda Bolat – 5999232020
Department of Architecture, Institute of Technology Sepuluh Nopember, Indonesia | Built Environment/Engineering, Hanze University of Applied sciences, Groningen, The Netherlands.
ABSTRACT
This paper explores the technological advancements in the architecture of four major civilizations: American, European, Chinese, and Indian. Focusing on the period from 0-199 CE, it examines Roman architecture in Europe, including famous buildings like the Colosseum and the Pantheon. In the Americas, the Maya civilization is highlighted, showcasing their impressive structures such as the Pyramid of the Sun in Teotihuacan. European architecture also saw a blend of Gallic and Roman styles, exemplified by buildings like the Maison Carrée. Early Christian architecture developed between 30-200 CE, influenced by Roman and Hellenistic designs, creating new forms for Christian rituals. The study also looks at the Han Dynasty in China, noting the use of natural elements and organized layouts in buildings like the Mingtang-Biyong complexes. Finally, Indian architecture is represented by the Sun Temple at Konark, a 13th-century marvel designed as a giant chariot. This paper highlights the diverse and innovative architectural practices that shaped these ancient civilizations.
INTRODUCTION
Architecture is a testament to the technological and cultural advancements of civilizations throughout history. From monumental public buildings to intricate temples, the structures built by ancient societies reflect their technological prowess, societal organization, and cultural values. This paper delves into the technological developments in the architecture of four significant civilizations: American, European, Chinese, and Indian, with a particular focus on the period from 0-199 CE. By examining Roman, Maya, Han Dynasty, and Indian architecture, this study aims to uncover the innovations and techniques that contributed to the grandeur and durability of their constructions.
In Europe, Roman architecture stands out for its use of advanced materials and construction techniques, leading to the creation of iconic structures such as the Colosseum and the Pantheon. The integration of Gallic and Roman elements during this period also resulted in unique architectural styles. Meanwhile, the Maya civilization in the Americas developed monumental platforms and ceremonial
centers, with structures like the Pyramid of the Sun in Teotihuacan showcasing their architectural ingenuity.
The Han Dynasty in China introduced organized layouts and the strategic use of natural elements in their buildings. The Mingtang-Biyong complexes exemplify the sophisticated spatial programming and alignment with Feng Shui principles that characterized Han architecture. In India, the Sun Temple at Konark, built in the 13th century, stands as a marvel of design and engineering, symbolizing the advanced architectural practices of the time.
By examining these diverse architectural practices, this paper aims to highlight the technological creativity and cultural significance of the monumental constructions of these ancient civilizations.
THEORY/ RESEARCH METHODS
1. Technology of Walls and Columns of American and European Architecture (0CE)
1.1.Introduction
Roman Architecture (Europe) 0-199CE
In Europe, this era is marked by the construction of grand public buildings, temples, aqueducts, and roads. Iconic structures such as the Colosseum, the Baths of Titus and Domitian, and the Pantheon were realized during this period.
Maya Architecture (America) 0-199CE
In America, the Maya began constructing monumental platforms and ceremonial centers such as El Mirador and Nakbé during the Preclassic Period. In the Classic Period, major structures like the Pyramid of the Sun in Teotihuacan emerged, with later ceremonial complexes like Tikal.
Gallic-Roman Architecture (Europe) 0-199CE
This period saw the integration of Gallic and Roman elements in Gaul, with the construction of temples and amphitheaters. An example is the Maison Carrée in Nîmes, which adapted the classical Roman temple style to local tastes.
Early Christian Architecture (Europe) 0-199CE
Between 30-100 CE, early Christian architectural forms emerged, initially influenced by Roman and Hellenistic traditions. From 100-200 CE, distinctive early Christian architecture developed, with new forms designed to accommodate Christian rituals and practices.
1.2.Founding of Rome
The construction of early Roman walls utilized rudimentary materials such as timber, mud-brick, and local stones. These materials were assembled using simple tools like axes and adzes. The craftsmanship was often overseen by the Vestal Virgins, who were responsible for tending to the sacred fire of Vesta.
Types of Roman Concrete Walls
The Romans were pioneers in concrete construction, developing several types of walls that revolutionized architecture and construction. The key types include:
- Opus Incertum:
The earliest form of Roman concrete, it involved the use of irregularly shaped and uncut stones or fist-sized tufa blocks. These stones were layered in a manner that appeared worked in, providing a solid and robust structure.
Tufa, a lightweight stone, was commonly used due to its ease of manipulation and abundance (Wikipedia-bijdragers, 2024).
- Opus Reticulatum:
A more refined technique that emerged later, characterized by diamondshaped tufa bricks arranged around a cement core in a net-like pattern. This method allowed for more aesthetic and structurally sound walls (Wikipedia-bijdragers, 2024).
- Opus Testaceum:
Developed during the imperial age, this type involved concrete walls surfaced with bricks, offering both durability and a pleasing appearance (Art History By Laurence Shafe, Opus Testaceum, z.d.)
1: Opus walls
Source; https://at.pinterest.com/pin/509329039093735752/
1.3.The roman Urban Villa
Until the 2nd century BCE, Roman houses followed an old Mediterranean design, with rooms arranged around a tall, dark atrium. As prosperity increased, these private houses became more luxurious. Gardens with colonnades, inspired by Egyptian architecture, were added behind the house. Exedrae and libraries were installed, along with fountains, upper-floor dining rooms (for the views), and even private baths. Windows became larger, and walls were decorated with illusionistic paintings. In Pompeii, some families expanded their living spaces by buying out their neighbors and creating grander houses. This can be compared to Sirkap in modern-day Pakistan, founded by the Greeks around 190 BCE, where houses were densely packed but lacked significant variation in size. However, in Pompeii, after consolidation, a single villa could be as large as an entire city block in Sirkap. Owners of these houses, influenced by Etruscan traditions, valued social gatherings and feasts. Meals were elaborate, prepared by professional cooks, and served on silver plates, often accompanied by drinking. In 182 BCE, the senate passed a law to regulate the size of parties, but this had little effect. Villas grew to enormous sizes and could be found in the Campagna or along the coast.
Wealthy Romans embellished their villas with dining pavilions, towers, colonnades, fish ponds, and formal gardens. During this period, affluent families began sending their sons to Greece to learn rhetoric, leading to careers in law or politics. Greek art and architecture were also admired, although there was less interest in Greek literature, music, and science. Sundials brought from
Greek cities in Sicily required adjustment for the latitude change when moved northward.
The hearth was the spiritual center of the home, guarded by the woman of the house. Just as Rome had its eternal flame in the Temple of Vesta, the hearth's fire was to be kept burning. Sacrifices were made at the hearth to honor the gods and the spirits of ancestors. Apart from Vesta, Janus, the god of doorways and the house's chief guardian, was significant. Lares, the protective deities of ancestors, were also important, with statues placed at the family dining table during meals and their presence required at significant family events.
1.4.Republican Tombs
The emergence of an affluent merchant class, combined with the influences of Hellenistic emotionalism, led to the development of a distinctive funerary architecture. This new architecture allowed for the exploration of various architectural problems and themes in a miniature format. While Roman temples of the Republic era remained traditional and conventional, tomb design became a space for innovation and expression.
One notable example is the tomb of Marcus Vergilius Eurysaces, a wealthy Roman baker from 30 BCE. Eurysaces requested a tomb design based on a panarium, a type of bread storage container. The tomb features a façade decorated with rows of large stone tubes, suggesting a pyramid shape that has lost its top. Prominent Romans had more grand and dignified tombs that reflected their social status.
For instance, the Monument of the Julii in St.-Rémy, France, is a composed structure with three main sections: a base or foundation, a four-sided arch, and a small round temple on top.
The Tomb of Absalom in Jerusalem, standing at 20 meters, showcases a blend of construction techniques. The lower part is carved from bedrock, while the roof is made of ashlar. A cubic box supported by a base sits on top, with halfcolumns decorating its faces. Although the tomb features Ionic bases and a Doric entablature, its upper element is a simple attic without a pediment,
supporting a drum that resembles a tent. This Hellenistic design is thought to signify a military commander. Despite being traditionally linked to King David's son Absalom, the tomb is believed to date back to the 1st century CE. The tomb also bears a hole, likely made by grave robbers.
1.5.Bibracte
Bibracte was a large Gaulic city located in present-day France. It was one of the largest cities in Gaul and served as a major trade hub between Marseille and Paris. The city was strategically located on a hill and protected by multiple fortification rings. Bibracte was also equipped with artesian springs, providing a constant water supply.
The architecture of Bibracte utilized local materials and reflected the pragmatic approach typical in Celtic construction. Timber was often used for the primary framework of walls, employing techniques like post-and-beam construction. Additionally, dry stone masonry was a common method, where stones were stacked without mortar, relying on precise fitting and interlocking to create stable walls.
Defensive walls were a significant feature of Bibracte, constructed using timber, earth, and stone. Columns were less common in Celtic architecture compared to classical styles, but when used, they were typically made from wood or occasionally stone. Bibracte represents a fascinating blend of functional and strategic design, highlighting the ingenuity of ancient Celtic engineering and urban planning.
1.6.Auguston Rome
Emperor Augustus played a significant role in transforming Rome from a city of brick to a city of marble during his reign from 27 BCE to 14 CE. He made Rome much nicer by rebuilding many parts of the city, including the Roman Forum, and completing the Forum of Caesar.
Important buildings such as the Basilica Julia and the Basilica Aemilia were constructed, showcasing Rome's architectural advancements. These basilicas were similar to each other, featuring grand arches and columns that exemplified the grandeur of Roman architecture.
The map (figure 5) is highlighting significant structures in the Roman Forum, including the Temple of Venus Genetrix, the Forum of Augustus, and the Basilica Julia. There are also depictions of the Basilica Julia and the Basilica Aemilia, illustrating their architectural magnificence.
1.7.Forum of Augustus
Besides working on the old forum, Augustus decided to build a completely new forum (10-2 BCE) to the east of the Forum of Caesar and along the city wall to the west. Since it was a densely populated area, houses had to be bought and cleared. The forum was entered from the south side, aligned with the temple at the far end. Augustus couldn't buy all the land he needed, even though the area behind the forum was one of the poorer parts of town. A large wall was built behind the building to serve as a firebreak and to block the view of the squalor on the other side.
Design and Statues:
Using statues to represent great men was a unique Roman idea. The Greeks had perfected statue-making but mainly used them to depict gods and goddesses. The Romans used statues for political purposes to represent the elite class. All statues were painted to look more lifelike.
The northern portico housed a temple dedicated to Mars the Avenger (Mars Ultor) based on a vow Augustus made before the Battle of Philippi (42 BCE), where Brutus and Cassius, the assassins of Julius Caesar, were killed. The temple had eight Corinthian columns in front and along the sides. The nearly square plan measured 38 by 40 meters. By omitting two rows of columns, a spacious entrance was created. Inside the temple, five steps above the floor, stood statues of Mars, Venus, and the deified Julius Caesar. This building was more than a temple; it was an imperial statement.
Symbolism and Function:
Augustus saw himself as the son of Mars and Venus. The building aimed to emphasize this bold claim in Roman history.
Crossing the courtyard were two large arcades with statues narrating the stories of Romulus and Aeneas, Rome’s great founders. The Augustan Empire was portrayed as the peak of this history, with Augustus presiding over this gallery in the form of a bronze statue on a pedestal in the middle of the forum. Besides religious ceremonies, the forum served as the starting point for magistrates leaving for the provinces and the storage place for triumphal banners. It also hosted senate meetings when military reports were expected.
1.8.Tholoi Tombs
The Tholoi Tombs in Algeria are ancient structures that reflect old traditions. One notable example is the 'Kbour-er-Roumia', which measures 60 meters in diameter and is placed on a square base. This unique design features Ionic half-columns and a conical hill topped with a circular platform. The design of these tombs was inspired by the construction of the mausoleum of Augustus in Rome, which dates back to 28 BCE. The mausoleum itself boasts a grand circular structure with a base covered in travertine rock.
1.9. Corinthian Capitals
The Corinthian Capitals are another fascinating aspect of architectural history, with origins that trace back to Greek and Roman times. These capitals, associated with luxury, were adopted by the Romans to distinguish their temples and buildings from those of the Greeks. The design of Corinthian capitals varies, incorporating different numbers of acanthus leaf rings, volutes, and rosettes. These capitals are more than mere decorations; they symbolize purity and death, adding a deeper meaning to the architectural elements they adorn.
1.10. Post Augustan Rome
The transition in architectural styles from the classical era of Augustus to more diverse and eclectic forms marks a significant period in Roman history. PostAugustan Rome saw the introduction of new construction techniques, with walls constructed using concrete, brick, and stone. This evolution in building materials allowed for greater structural stability and aesthetic appeal.
Importance of Columns
Despite these changes, the importance of columns in Roman architecture persisted. The Corinthian order, known for its elaborate capitals and fluting, remained popular. Architects began experimenting with various styles and ornamentation, leading to a variety of column designs that enriched the architectural landscape of post-Augustan Rome.
Marble and Stone Carving
High-quality stone such as travertine and marble was commonly used for large walls. The Romans were adept at marble and stone carving, creating intricate designs and robust structures. This period also saw the use of columns made from marble or limestone, which added to the grandeur of Roman buildings.
Architectural Highlights
- Shift Towards Lavish Private Residences: The architectural focus shifted towards more opulent and luxurious private homes.
- Opulent Palaces and Architectural Ingenuity: Palaces from this era, such as the Palace of Domitian, featured elaborate designs and advanced engineering.
- Enduring Testaments to Roman Innovation: The structures built during this period stand as lasting testaments to Roman architectural prowess.
Walls and Spatial Practices
Roman spatial practices are exemplified by the clever arrangement of spaces. Buildings often featured locally symmetrical designs, grouped around regulating grids. The use of concrete and brick-faced techniques in walls provided both structural stability and aesthetic appeal.
Palace of Domitian
One of the architectural marvels of post-Augustan Rome is the Palace of Domitian. This grand structure is divided into upper and lower levels, with the emperor's private chambers located in the lower portion. The palace features marble surfaces and ornate columns, showcasing the height of Roman luxury and architectural sophistication.
1.11. The Colosseum
The Colosseum, built between 72–80 CE, stands as a testament to the bold use of concrete by ancient Roman architects. This iconic amphitheater not only offers an impressive visual spectacle but also represents a technical marvel that has withstood earthquakes, fires, and looting over centuries.
- Walls: The massive walls are constructed using concrete and brick-faced techniques, finished with travertine stone for the exterior facade. These techniques reflect the innovative construction methods used at the time.
- Columns: The Colosseum features an extensive system of columns supporting the massive structure. The arches, with their tiers of arches featuring engaged columns and decorative orders, including Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian styles, showcase the architectural finesse of the Romans.
1.12. The Imperial Forums
The Imperial Forums were a series of monumental public squares built in the heart of ancient Rome. These forums served as the center of the political, commercial, and religious life of the city.
- Walls: These squares were surrounded by walls constructed using concrete, brick, and faced with marble or other decorative stones. The walls not only served a structural function but also contributed to the aesthetic appeal of the forums.
- Columns: The forums contained numerous columns supporting colonnades and porticoes. These columns, often made from marble or granite, featured elaborately carved capitals and decorative details, highlighting the grandeur of Roman architecture.
1.13. The Ancient Maya Clay Models
The clay models found with the offerings in the shaft tombs of Teuchitlán show a clear understanding of their designs, linking community festivals to the order of the universe, the seasons, and the cycle of life and death. These models replicate the circular layout of the tombs and the way they face the cardinal directions (north, south, east, west) and intermediate directions. The central pyramid features a small mast, rising from its peak, symbolizing the connection between the heavens and the earth.
Elevations and Orientations
The shaft tombs have multiple levels and platforms. The lowest parts show that the four platforms were joined together in a ring at their base. The shaft descends about one-third of its way down and then opens into two domical chambers oriented north-south, which are accessed through narrow openings and stairs. Within these chambers, the chieftains were laid out with their heads toward the entrance, surrounded by offerings.
Multiple Stories
The site plan of the Guachimonton precinct reveals circular structures centered around a primary circular pyramid, emphasizing the multilayered and multi-storied construction that characterizes these tombs. The complexity of these tombs and their corresponding surface-level structures, such as ball courts and ceremonial platforms, demonstrate the intricate societal and religious frameworks of the Teuchitlán people.
2. The Chinese Architecture, Han Dynasty (0CE) 2.1.Introduction
The Han Dynasty, an imperial dynasty of China, played a pivotal role in shaping Chinese history. It succeeded the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BCE) and was eventually succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 CE).
The Han Dynasty's influence spanned more than four centuries, marking a golden age in Chinese history. (Jiang, 2024)
Founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, who later became Emperor Gaozu of Han, the dynasty is renowned for its stability, cultural advancements, and territorial expansion. The Han Dynasty's rule was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty (9–23 CE), led by the former regent Wang Mang. This interruption divided the Han Dynasty into two distinct periods: the Western Han (206 BCE – 9 CE) and the Eastern Han (25–220 CE). (Mark & Museum, 2022)
A map of the Han Dynasty in 100 BCE highlights the expansive reach of its territory, shaded in purple. This period saw significant developments in arts, science, and technology, contributing to the long-lasting legacy of the Han Dynasty in Chinese civilization. (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2024)
The Han Dynasty's governance, economic prosperity, and cultural achievements established a foundation that would influence China for centuries to come. Its legacy continues to be celebrated as a defining era in the history of China. (Wikipedia contributors, 2002)
2.2.Architectural elements and the spatial programming.
- Architectural Elements
During the Han Dynasty, buildings were designed with a strong emphasis on natural elements and hierarchical organization. This architectural style is clearly illustrated in the image of a multi-storied building model from the Han period. The structure demonstrates the use of multiple tiers and balanced proportions, signifying the importance of hierarchy and order in Han architecture. (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2024) (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2024a)
- Spatial Programming
The spatial programming of Han Dynasty architecture is characterized by the strategic use of zoning and hierarchy to create harmonious living and working environments.
The diagram shows the layout of the Mingtang-Biyong ritual complex near Xi’an, China, highlighting the implementation of Feng Shui principles. The layout includes:
o Orientation: Aligning structures according to cardinal directions to harness natural energies.
o Site Selection: Choosing locations that are conducive to harmony and balance.
o Layout and Spatial Arrangement: Designing spaces in a manner that promotes optimal circulation and energy flow.
o Decoration and Symbolism: Using symbolic decorations to enhance the spiritual and aesthetic quality of the space.
o Entrances: Positioning entrances to maximize positive energy flow and accessibility.
2.3.Mintang bigong ritual complex
The Mingtang Biyong Ritual Complex is a historical site that was designed to symbolize the heavens and served as a focal point for elaborate sacrificial rituals performed in ancient China. Initially used in the Qin rituals, which offered sacrifices to various deities associated with heaven, earth, natural features, and celestial bodies, the practice was expanded upon by the Han dynasty. The belief was that the emperor's power was both political and supernatural, reinforced by the rituals he conducted. As the "Son of Heaven," the emperor operated under the Mandate of Heaven (tianming/天命), which highlighted his spiritual and temporal roles within the empire and suggested that his actions were essential for maintaining cosmic order.
Figure 12: Sketch Mintang- Biyong building Source; https://www.awhouse.art/mingtang-biyong
The Mingtang-Biyong complex is strategically located near Emperor Gaozu's mausoleum, symbolizing the ruler's connection to his ancestors and cosmic duties. This complex merges political authority with sacred space, reinforcing the emperor's role as an intermediary between heaven and earth. The complex is a testament to the emperor's rule and the theological infrastructure of imperial governance.
Ritual Structures:
o Biyong (Jade Ring Moat): This circular moat encircles the Mingtang, symbolizing the heavens and reflecting ancient Chinese belief in the round heaven. It intersects the four cardinal directions, indicating a harmonious connection between human and celestial realms.
o Mingtang (Bright Hall): This bi-level sacred hall reinforces cosmological symbolism and the emperor's connection to cardinal directions. It is positioned on a round terrace within a square enclosure, with four outer chambers painted in colors associated with each direction: green (east), red (south), white (west), and black (north). The design aligns with the Chinese concept of the earth being square.
Altar of Heaven:
The Altar of Heaven in Beijing, China symbolizes Chinese imperial philosophy, representing the empire as a land surrounded by water and inhabited by barbaric peoples. The emperor, considered the Son of Heaven, ruled from the center, overseeing the regulation of the calendar and dissemination of knowledge. Built in 1420 during the Ming dynasty, the Altar of Heaven is a circular platform on three levels of marble stones. Twice a year, the emperor and his escort would conduct a highly ritualized ceremony at the altar to pray for good harvests, with the belief that any mistake during the ceremony would bring bad omens for the nation in the upcoming year.
This comprehensive and symbolically rich complex exemplifies the intertwining of political power, religious practice, and cosmological beliefs in ancient Chinese imperial culture.
2.4.Building Materials
During the Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), a variety of building materials were utilized in construction projects ranging from grand palaces to humble dwellings. These materials allowed for the construction of diverse architectural styles and structures, contributing to the rich cultural and artistic heritage of ancient China (Cartwright & Splitbrain, 2024) (Pang, 2024b)
The used materials:
- Wood:
Wood was one of the most common building materials during the Han Dynasty. Timber, especially from durable hardwoods like cedar and cypress, was used for structural elements such as beams, columns, and roof supports in palaces, temples, and residences. The flexibility and strength of wood made it ideal for various architectural designs (Pang, 2024b) (Silbergeld et al., 2009).
- Brick:
The Han Dynasty saw significant advancements in brick-making techniques. Bricks were commonly used for walls, foundations, floors, and other structural components in buildings. Fired clay bricks were durable and provided a stable building material for various construction projects (Cartwright & Splitbrain, 2024b) (Pang, 2024b). This innovation helped in the development of more permanent and robust structures.
- Roofing materials:
Various materials were used for roofing, including ceramic tiles, wooden shingles, and thatch. Ceramic roof tiles, known as dougong, were widely used in Han Dynasty architecture and provided durable protection against the elements. These tiles were often intricately designed, adding aesthetic value to the buildings (Cartwright & Splitbrain, 2024b) (Cartwright & Splitbrain, 2024).
- Stone: Stone was utilized for more prestigious buildings and monuments during the Han Dynasty. Quarried stone was used for foundations, walls, and decorative elements in imperial palaces, tombs, temples, and bridges. Carved stone was also employed for ornamental purposes, showcasing intricate designs and inscriptions that have withstood the test of time (Cartwright & Splitbrain, 2024) (Cartwright & Splitbrain, 2024b)
- Mortar and plaster: Mortar, typically made from a mixture of lime, sand, and water, was used to bind bricks and stones together in construction projects. Plaster made from lime or gypsum was applied to interior and exterior walls as a finishing material, providing a smooth and decorative surface. This practice improved the durability and appearance of buildings (Cartwright & Splitbrain, 2024) (Cartwright & Splitbrain, 2024b).
- Rammed earth:
Rammed earth construction, known as taipa in Chinese, involved compacting layers of soil mixed with gravel and clay between wooden forms to create solid walls. This technique was particularly prevalent in the construction of city walls, fortifications, and some residential structures. The use of rammed earth provided thermal insulation and was an efficient method for large-scale constructions (Cartwright & Splitbrain, 2024) (Cartwright & Splitbrain, 2024b)
2.5.Mingtang “Bright Hall”
The Mingtang was a special building in the Chinese Imperial palace during the Han Dynasty. It was used for important ceremonies and played a significant role in the cultural and political life of ancient China. The design of the Mingtang set a precedent for other important buildings and was utilized for ceremonies until the end of the Qing Dynasty in the 20th century.
Key Facts:
Built in: During Han Dynasty, c. 141 - 86 BCE
Location: Chang'an, China
Dimensions: 90 meters high, 92 meters from north to south, and 92 meters from east to west
Construction
Mingtang was situated on a circular terrace and encompassed by four walls, forming a square aligned to the cardinal directions, each featuring a centrally-located gate. Encircling this structure was the Biyong moat, accessible from one of the four cardinal points. The placement of the complex was strategically chosen to align with the tomb of Emperor Gaozu of Han, the dynasty's founder, located directly to the north.
The Mingtang itself was a two-story building with porches on all four sides at both levels, a high-peaked roof, and turret towers at the corners. Each of the four outer chambers corresponded to one of the cardinal directions, decorated with colors and designs symbolic of those directions. The central chamber was the most significant ritual space, an empty square that suggested a circle. As the Emperor walked around this space, he symbolically traversed the cardinal directions, the zodiac signs, the months and seasons of the year, and the hours of the day. In this role as the cosmic center, linking Heaven and Earth, he enacted the natural flow of the cosmic order (Mingtang - SamuraiWiki, z.d.)
- Interior:
The building had four rooms around the outside, each facing a different direction and painted in a color matching its direction. This design aligned with Chinese cosmological principles, symbolizing the emperor’s dominion over the four corners of the world (Nelson, z.d.)
- Most Important Room:
The center of the Mingtang was an empty square room meant to represent a circle. When the emperor walked around this room, he symbolically traveled through all directions, as well as through the signs of the zodiac, the months and seasons of the year, and the hours of the day. This movement symbolized his role as the link between Heaven and Earth, maintaining cosmic order (Mingtang - SamuraiWiki, z.d.).
- materials placement:
The Mingtang utilized the Dougong beam frame, a unique and complex bracket system integral to traditional Chinese wooden architecture. This system allowed for large, open interior spaces and was both functional and decorative. The use of wooden pillars and intricate beam placements was essential for the stability and durability of the structure (Nelson, z.d.).
Figure 20: Material placement Source; PPT
3. Architecture in India, Sun Temple at Konark (800-1400CE)
3.1.Introduction
India's architectural heritage is a rich and diverse tapestry reflecting centuries of cultural, spiritual, and historical evolution. Among the many remarkable structures, the Konark Sun Temple in Odisha stands out as a monumental example of ancient Indian architecture and engineering. Known as the Black Pagoda, this 13th-century temple is a part of the Golden Triangle temples of Odisha.
Konark Sun Temple: The Black Pagoda
The name "Konark" combines the Sanskrit words "Kona" (corner) and "Ark" (sun), meaning "Sun of the Corner." This temple, commissioned by King Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty, was built in 1250 CE and is dedicated to the Hindu Sun God, Surya. The temple is designed to resemble a giant chariot with twelve pairs of intricately carved wheels and seven horses, symbolizing the passage of time and the movement of the sun across the sky (Lal & Anshika, 2024) (Wikipedia contributors, 2024) (Sun Temple, Konârak, z.d.)
Symbolism
and Innovation
The Konark Sun Temple's architectural design is a blend of artistic brilliance and scientific precision. The temple's wheels, each about 9 feet in diameter, are not just decorative but also function as sundials, allowing the measurement of time to the precise minute. The placement of the temple allows the first rays of the sunrise to illuminate the main entrance, highlighting the idol of the Sun God. This meticulous alignment with the sun's movement is a testament to the advanced understanding of astronomy and architecture by the temple's builders (Josefsada, 2024) (Sun Temple, Konârak, z.d.)
Cultural and Historical Significance
The temple's walls are adorned with intricate carvings depicting various aspects of life, from deities and celestial beings to musicians, dancers, and scenes of daily life, showcasing the rich cultural fabric of 13th-century India. The architectural style of the Konark Sun Temple is a prime example of Kalinga architecture, characterized by its grandeur and detailed sculptural work. The temple was recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984, underscoring its significance as a cultural and historical landmark (Wikipedia contributors, 2024) (Konark Sun Teple Hisroy, Architecture, Mystery, Facts, Images, Timings, 2024)
The Konark Sun Temple, despite its partial ruin due to natural and human-induced damage, continues to be a symbol of India's architectural and cultural legacy. It remains a popular pilgrimage and tourist site, drawing visitors from around the world to marvel at its architectural genius and historical importance (Josefsada, 2024)
21: Sun Temple Konarak Source; https://www.savaari.com/blog/mysteriesof-the-konark-sun-temple/
3.2.Elements of Architecture
Temple’s intricate Stone Carvings
The temple is adorned with detailed and intricate stone carvings. These carvings include a plethora of themes such as:
- Mythological Stories: Depicting various tales from Hindu mythology.
- Celestial Beings: Illustrations of divine and semi-divine beings.
- Everyday Life Scenes: Portrayals of social and cultural life, including musicians, dancers, and animals. (Trails, 2023) (Sharma, 2024)
Temple Layout
The layout of the temple follows the traditional Odishan style of temple architecture, which includes:
- Main Sanctuary (Garbhagriha): The central part of the temple where the deity resides.
- Jagamohana (Assembly Hall): The hall where devotees gather.
- Natya Mandapa (Dancing Hall): A hall dedicated to dance and other cultural activities.
These elements together showcase the traditional Odishan architectural style, emphasizing symmetry, detailed ornamentation, and grandeur. (Josefsada, 2024) (Wikipedia contributors, 2024) (Trails, 2023)
3.3.Architectural style
Kalinga architecture, a distinct style of Hindu temple architecture, flourished in the ancient region of Kalinga, present-day Odisha. This architectural style is classified into three main types of temples: Rekha Deula, Pidha Deula, and Khakhara Deula. Each type serves a specific purpose and is associated with different deities. Rekha Deula and Khakhara Deula are generally dedicated to Vishnu, Surya, and Shiva, while Pidha Deula is often connected with Chamunda and Durga temples (Wikipedia contributors, 2023) (Orissan Architecture | MANAS, z.d.)
Figure 22: Built of Khondalite rocks
Source;https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/kon ark-sun-templepptx/265398212
A prime example of Kalinga architecture is the Sun Temple at Konark, also known as the Black Pagoda. This temple, built in the 13th century, depicts a 100-foot high chariot of the sun god Surya, pulled by seven horses and 24 wheels. The intricate design of the wheels symbolizes the cycle of time, with each wheel representing a month and each of the eight spokes representing a division of the day (Wikipedia contributors, 2023) (Shah, 2023)
The architectural elements of Kalinga temples are notable for their detailed iconography and historical significance. The temples are constructed primarily from sandstone and granite, materials considered auspicious according to ancient texts like the Shilpa Chandrika. The architectural plan typically includes a central sanctum (Garbhagriha), a dancing hall (Natmandir), and a hall of offerings (Orissan Architecture | MANAS, z.d.) (N.R.I.Pathi, 2024)
Kalinga architecture not only reflects the religious and cultural ethos of its time but also demonstrates advanced architectural techniques and artistic excellence. The temples are often adorned with intricate carvings depicting
deities, mythological scenes, and everyday life, offering a glimpse into the socio-cultural fabric of ancient Kalinga (Shah, 2023) (N.R.I.Pathi, 2024)
3.4.Building materials
The Konarak Sun Temple is renowned not only for its architectural grandeur but also for the diverse materials used in its construction. These materials were meticulously selected and transported over long distances, contributing to the temple's durability and intricate design. The primary materials used in the construction of the temple are Khondalite, Laterite, Chlorite, and Ashlar.
- Khondalite
Khondalite was extensively used throughout the monument for various structural and decorative purposes. This stone, although of poor quality compared to the others, was chosen for its availability and ease of carving. Khondalite's usage is evident in the vast sections of the temple, especially in the walls and pillars (Wikipedia contributors, 2024)
- Laterite
Laterite was primarily used for the temple's foundation, the core of the platform, and the staircases. This material is known for its high iron content and its ability to harden upon exposure to air, making it an ideal choice for foundational work. Laterite's reddish hue is due to its iron oxide content, and it was particularly favored for its structural strength (Wikipedia contributors, 2024).
- Chlorite
Chlorite was utilized for door lintels, frames, and select sculptures within the temple. This material was chosen for its durability and fine texture, which allowed for detailed carvings (Wikipedia contributors, 2024).
- Ashlar
Ashlar masonry refers to finely dressed stones that are cut to uniform dimensions and shapes, allowing for minimal gaps between each stone. This type of masonry is characterized by its precision, durability, and aesthetic appeal. The use of Ashlar in the Konarak Sun Temple is particularly evident in the finely crafted base platform and the detailed sculptural work that covers the temple. (Wikipedia contributors, 2024).
3.5.Construction of the temple No Use of Mortar or Cement
In the construction of these temples, traditional binding materials like mortar or cement were not used. Instead, the structure was held together by an ingenious use of magnetic forces.
Magnets in Construction
A total of 63 tons of magnets were used in the construction, with 10 tons at the bottom and 53 tons at the top. These magnets pulled together the huge iron beams on which the stones of the temple rest, ensuring the stability and integrity of the structure.
Ashlar Masonry
The temples were constructed using Ashlar Masonry, where cuboidal blocks of stones were used. These stones were smoothed so that no joints were visible and were fitted between iron dowels and beams. This method provided both durability and aesthetic appeal to the structure.
Magnetic Force
The entire structure was held together by magnetic force, a method that ensured the alignment and cohesion of the building blocks without the need for traditional binding agents. This innovative technique showcased the advanced understanding of physics and engineering possessed by the ancient builders.
Process of Construction Foundation Tools
The construction process began with the foundation of tools like the Kala Cheka and Kalagayala. The Kala Cheka, an oblique wooden prop, facilitated the transport of materials. The Kalagayala, a wooden pole with a pulley fixed to its top, was used for lifting heavy stones.
Use of Elephants
Elephants played a crucial role in the construction process. They were used to plough sand and transport heavy materials. This method not only provided the necessary strength but also demonstrated the harmonious relationship between humans and animals in ancient India.
Pulley Systems
The Jhapaka, a kind of pulley-crane with a rope basket worked by a winding wheel, was used for lowering stones into the foundations. This fitted man-made machine helped lift materials from lower to upper grounds efficiently.
Lifting Heavy Blocks
To lift the huge blocks of stone, a combination of manpower and elephants was used. The pulley method applied earlier was enhanced to accommodate the lifting of even larger stones, ensuring that the construction process was both effective and efficient.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1. Technology of Walls and Columns of American and European Architecture (0CE)
Results:
Roman Architecture:
- Walls: Utilized various forms of concrete construction, such as Opus Incertum, Opus Reticulatum, and Opus Testaceum. These techniques involved different methods of layering stones and bricks to create robust and aesthetically pleasing structures.
- Columns: Prominently featured in public buildings like the Colosseum and the Imperial Forums, using orders like Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian to enhance structural stability and visual appeal.
Maya Architecture:
- Walls: Constructed monumental platforms and ceremonial centers with techniques that emphasize the strength and durability required to support large structures like pyramids.
- Columns: Used less frequently compared to Roman architecture, focusing more on solid and massive wall structures for their monumental buildings.
Discussion:
The technological advancements in wall and column construction in both Roman and Maya architecture reflect the societies' priorities and environmental adaptations. Romans emphasized a blend of durability and aesthetics, using advanced concrete techniques. The Mayans focused on creating massive structures capable of withstanding time and environmental conditions.
2. The Chinese Architecture, Han Dynasty (0CE)
Results:
Architectural Elements:
- Wood: Primary material used for structural elements like beams, columns, and roof supports.
- Brick: Advanced brick-making techniques allowed for durable and stable walls.
- Stone: Used for foundations and decorative elements, showcasing intricate carvings and inscriptions.
- Rammed Earth: Used for city walls and fortifications, providing good insulation and strength.
Spatial Programming: Emphasized hierarchical organization and natural elements, with strategic use of zoning and orientation to harness natural energies and promote harmony.
Discussion:
The Han Dynasty's architecture reflects a deep integration of cultural, spiritual, and environmental considerations. The use of diverse materials and advanced construction techniques showcases their technological capabilities. The emphasis on spatial programming and alignment with Feng Shui principles highlights the importance of harmony and balance in their architectural practices.
3. Architecture in India, Sun Temple at Konark (800-1400CE)
Results:
Building Materials:
- Khondalite, Laterite, Chlorite, and Ashlar: These materials were meticulously selected for their structural and decorative properties, contributing to the temple's durability and intricate design.
Construction Techniques:
- No Mortar or Cement: The structure was held together by magnetic forces and precision-cut stones fitted between iron dowels and beams.
- Magnets: Helped ensure the stability of the temple.
Discussion:
The Konark Sun Temple shows advanced Indian building skills. They used innovative materials and techniques, showing their knowledge of physics and engineering. The temple's design and carvings reflect a mix of art and science, making it both a religious site and a cultural landmark.
CONCLUSIONS
Roman architecture stands out for its advanced use of concrete, such as Opus Incertum, Opus Reticulatum, and Opus Testaceum. These methods allowed the construction of strong and attractive structures like the Colosseum. The Romans’ skillful use of columns in different styles (Doric, Ionic, Corinthian) shows their mix of function and beauty. In contrast, Maya architecture focused on large platforms and ceremonial centers, using massive and solid walls to support their famous pyramids.
The Han Dynasty's architecture is known for using wood, brick, stone, and rammed earth. This shows a deep understanding of building materials and techniques. The careful planning of spaces, guided by Feng Shui principles, highlights the Chinese focus on harmony, order, and integrating natural elements. This approach met practical needs and also matched their cultural and spiritual values.
The Konark Sun Temple shows the peak of Indian architectural and engineering skills. The careful choice of materials like Khondalite, Laterite, Chlorite, and Ashlar, along with the creative use of magnetic forces and precisely cut stones, shows their advanced understanding of building techniques. The temple's detailed carvings and symbolic design reflect the strong influence of religion, art, and science, making it a cultural and technological landmark.
Overall Implications:
The architectural advancements across these civilizations highlight a shared human drive to blend functionality, durability, and beauty in buildings. Each society adapted its technologies to meet specific needs, resulting in unique architectural styles that have left a lasting impact. The Romans’ use of concrete, the Han Dynasty's spatial harmony, and the innovative techniques of the Konark Sun Temple demonstrate the diverse approaches to architectural excellence.
REFERENCES
Ching, Francis D.K. Global History of Architecture. 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2017.
Fichtl, Stephan. "Celtic Architecture: Construction Techniques and Building Materials at Bibracte." Archaeological Reports,vol. 61,2018, pp. 123140
Smith, Anthony. "The Architecture of Bibracte: Insights into Late Iron Age Celtic Construction Techniques." Journal of Celtic Archaeology, vol. 12, no. 2, 2014, pp. 87-104.
Art History by Laurence Shafe, Opus Testaceum. (z.d.).
https://www.shafe.co.uk/opus_testaceum/
Cartwright, M., & Splitbrain. (2024). Ancient Chinese architecture. World
History Encyclopedia.
https://www.worldhistory.org/Chinese_Architecture/
Jiang, F. (2024, 4 juni). Han dynasty: history, han wudi emperors, events. . . China Highlights - Since 1998!
https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/china-history/the-handynasty.htm
Josefsada, S. (2024, 23 mei). Sun Temple of Konark | Information, Description, Map, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/place/Konark-Sun-Temple
Kamal, J. (2023, 12 december). Feng Shui Interior Design Principles Sansa Interiors. Sansa Interiors.
https://www.sansainteriors.com/blog/feng-shui-principles-in-interior-
design#:~:text=Feng%20Shui%2C%20which%20translates%20to,pro mote%20harmony%20and%20well%2Dbeing.
Konark sun teple hisroy, architecture, mystery, facts, images, timings. (2024, 24 februari). Incredible Odisha. https://incredibleodisha.in/themagnificent-konark-sun-temple/
Lal, A., & Anshika. (2024). Konarak Sun Temple. World History Encyclopedia https://www.worldhistory.org/Konarak_Sun_Temple/
Mark, J. J., & Museum, B. (2022). Han Dynasty. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Han_Dynasty/ Mingtang - SamuraiWiki. (z.d.). https://samurai-archives.com/wiki/Mingtang Nelson, C. M. (z.d.). The Mingtang modular unit in Chinese Architecture. © 2008, Charles M. Nelson. https://www.chaz.org/Arch/China/Architecture/Mingtang.html
N.R.I.Pathi. (2024, 23 februari). Srikakulam: The City, its Art, & its Architecture | Andhra Cultural Portal https://andhraportal.org/srikakulam-the-city-its-art-its-architecture/ Orissan Architecture | MANAS. (z.d.). MANAS. https://southasia.ucla.edu/culture/architecture/orissan-architecture/ Pang, K. (2024, 4 juni). Ancient Chinese architecture, Ancient Chinese building styles. China Highlights - Since 1998!
Bolat: Technological Developments in American, European, Chinese and Indian Architecture.
https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/architecture/ancientarchitecture.htm
Shah, N. (2023, 11 maart). North Indian style temple / Nagara style temple. archEstudy. https://archestudy.com/nagara-north-indian-style-temple/ Sharma, S. (2024, 8 mei). Exploring the magnificent Sun temples | The Indosphere. The Indosphere https://theindosphere.com/history/exploring-the-magnificent-suntemples/ Silbergeld, J., Qiyi, L., & Sullivan, M. (2009, 4 augustus). Chinese architecture | Definition, History, Characteristics, Styles, Examples, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/art/Chinese-architecture
Sun Temple, Konârak. (z.d.). Unesco World Heritage Convention. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/246
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2024, 7 juni). Han dynasty | Definition, Map, Time Period, Achievements, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Han-dynasty Trails, T. (2023, 10 augustus). Konark Sun Temple: an architectural marvel and spiritual haven. The Traveller Trails. https://thetravellertrails.in/konark-sun-temple-odisha/
Wikipedia contributors. (2002, 9 maart). Han dynasty. Wikipedia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty
Wikipedia contributors. (2023, 5 september). Kalinga architecture.
Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalinga_architecture
Wikipedia contributors. (2024, 18 mei). Konark Sun Temple. Wikipedia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konark_Sun_Temple
Wikipedia-bijdragers. (2024, 11 maart). Opus incertum. Wikipedia.
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opus_incertum