Vol 15 no 10 september 2016 by ijlter.org

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.15 No.10

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the disChief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, edEditorial Board ucators, teachers, trainers and other practitionProf. Cecilia Junio Sabio ers on all aspects of education to publish high Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publiProf. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola Dr Jonathan Glazzard cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr Marius Costel Esi Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr Katarzyna Peoples through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr Christopher David Thompson originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr Arif Sikander readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr Jelena Zascerinska to this journal by submitting articles that illusDr Gabor Kiss trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr Trish Julie Rooney Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano and case studies that describe significant adDr Barry Chametzky vances in the fields of education, training, eDr Giorgio Poletti learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit paDr Chi Man Tsui pers to this journal through the ONLINE submisDr Alexander Franco sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak should not have been published previously or Dr Afsaneh Sharif be under consideration for publication while Dr Ronel Callaghan Dr Haim Shaked being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry Dr Gail Dianna Caruth Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez Dr Özcan Özyurt Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya

VOLUME 15

NUMBER 10

September 2016

Table of Contents Self-Evident, Excessive or Opposed: Student Teachers’ Associations with ‘Gender Equality’ .................................... 1 Maria Hedlin Impact on Teaching: Consistent Knowledge Development, Reflection and Practice .................................................. 15 Dr. Abha Singh Designing, Building and using Interactive eTextbooks according to the Organization of Discovery Learning Acts in Vietnam ............................................................................................................................................................................. 38 Thai-Lai Dao, Ngoc-Giang Nguyen and Trung Tran School Leadership and English Language Teachers’ Approaches in Teaching English Language: The Case of Selected Schools in Sidama Zone, Southern Ethiopia ...................................................................................................... 62 Eshetu Mandefro, Mebratu Mulatu, Tesfaye Abebe and Yohannes Yona Defining Teacher Effectiveness in Secondary Education: The Perceptions of Greek Students .................................. 73 Konstantina Koutrouba Teaching and Learning Strategies Adopted to Support Students Who are Blind in Botswana ................................ 92 Joseph Habulezi On-Demand Lecturers in a Medication Calculation Course in the Bachelor’s Degree in Nursing Program: A Quantitative Study .............................................................................................................................................................. 104 Kristin Hjorthaug Urstad, Bjørg Frøysland Oftedal and Brynjar Foss Efficacy of Music Therapy and Bibliotherapy as Interventions in the Treatment of Children With EBD: A Literature Review ............................................................................................................................................................... 113 Raol J. Taft, Jannah L. Hotchkiss and Daesik Lee Quality of Academic Resources and Students’ Satisfaction in Public Universities in Kenya ................................... 130 Augustine M. Kara, Edward K. Tanui and Jeremiah M. Kalai

The Understanding of Contemporary Vocal Pedagogy and the Teaching Methods of Internationally Acclaimed Vocal Coaches...................................................................................................................................................................... 147 Dr. Trish Rooney Understanding the Developing Persuasive Writing Practices of an Adolescent Emergent Bilingual through Systemic Functional Linguistics: A Case Study .............................................................................................................. 163 Dr. Joshua M. Schulze Relationship between the Principal's Leadership Style and Teacher Motivation ...................................................... 180 Wasserman, Ben-eli, Yehoshua, Gal

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 10, pp. 1-14, September 2016

Self-Evident, Excessive or Opposed: Student Teachers’ Associations with ‘Gender Equality’ Maria Hedlin Linnaeus University Kalmar, Sweden Abstract. This is a qualitative study undertaken in a Swedish teacher education setting. The aim is to obtain data that can be helpful for teacher educators planning their teaching about gender equality policy. The assumptions which the students base their pre-understandings on are in focus. The empirical material consists of 105 student teachers’ descriptions of their associations with the term ‘gender equality’ [jämställdhet]. In the material, three competing discourses are found. One discourse is the discourse of the fair gender equality. Within this discourse, gender equality seems to be quite an uncomplicated issue. Gender equality is, or should be, something natural. A second discourse is the discourse of the exaggerated gender equality, linking gender equality to conflicts, aggression and excessive demands. A third discourse is the discourse of the opposed gender equality. Within this discourse, gender equality is described as a contested issue met with resistance and hostility. Being able to identify and examine these competing discourses may work as a first step in identifying assumptions that students hold about gender equality and gender issues. Keywords: gender equality, gender issues, teacher education, student teachers, discourses

Introduction

In the present paper, I examine a group of student teachers’ pre-understandings that can be linked to gender equality. This is done through a discursive analysis of student teachers’ associations with the term gender equality. Many countries have gender equality policies in education. In European Union policy teachers are given the task of challenging gender stereotypes and traditional gender roles (Eurodice 2010). This means in turn that student teachers need to be prepared for this job, something that has not always worked so well. As Frånberg (2010) points out, it requires a lot of knowledge and skills to challenge established practices and mindset (cf. Bondestam 2010). Researchers have highlighted shortcomings in how gender and gender equality issues have been addressed in teacher education (Hedlin & Åberg 2012; Lahelma 2014). The right competence to address the issues has not always been available (Malmgren & Weiner 2001; Skelton 2007; Younger 2007). Younger and Warrington (2008) talk about a

gender invisible within teacher training in the UK. Also, gender and teacher education have long been an under researched field (Skelton 2007). This might be due both to notions concerning gender being unreflected and to a widespread belief that gender inequality no longer is a problem. Peace (2003), for instance, describes British students as associating gender inequality with past times. And Brodie (2008) argues that gender politics of the 20th century have been displaced and marginalized in contemporary Canadian politics. Instead, ‘we are all equal now’ is a stance. In British, Canadian as well as in Australian contexts, the individual is focused on in a way that implies that gender no longer is an issue (Walkerdine 2003; Ringrose 2007; Brodie 2008; Romack 2011). This is in line with a belief that women and men no longer meet gender-specific expectations. McRobbie (2010) refers to this as the claim of post-feminism. Nevertheless, student teachers at their placement schools have to deal with gendered expectations. According to Braun (2011), not being prepared for this may lead to the decision to drop out of the training. Thus there is reason to give gender issues more attention in teacher education. When it comes to gender equality, the Nordic countries are often described as prominent in the field. Brunila and Edström (2013) even call gender equality ‘a clear Nordic trademark’ (p. 309). However, the Nordic teacher trainings have been criticized in a similar manner as in other countries. Regarding the Finnish teacher education, a reluctance to address gender issues has been reported. According to Lahelma (2011), this is partly due to the view that gender issues are no longer relevant. There is a claim that gender patterns virtually no longer exist in Finnish society; gender equality is already achieved. Parallel with this view is a widespread belief that the gender patterns that still can be observed depend on biological differences that neither can nor should be challenged. Studies from Iceland show similar results. Gudbjörnsdottir (2012; 2014) found shortcomings concerning Icelandic teacher educators and the student teachers’ basic knowledge needed to challenge prevailing gender stereotypes and incorrect notions of unchangeable gender differences. Sweden was early to formulate a gender equality policy in the curriculum for its nine-year compulsory schools [for children aged 7-16]; this was done in the late 1960s. Yet, Swedish teacher education has, as well, been criticized for flaws when it comes to preparing prospective teachers in their task. The training has been criticized for not connecting to the knowledge and research in this area. Issues relating to gender and gender equality too often have been discussed in an “everyday talk” manner (Havung 2006; Erixon Arreman & Weiner 2007). Pre-understandings based on common sense are often contradictory and may include many misunderstandings. As Toohey (2002) points out, teachers would benefit from identifying their students’ prior knowledge more often before they plan their teaching. If the teacher is aware of students’ prior knowledge and the assumptions it is based on, the opportunity to pursue an education that reaches the intended target will increase. The task of the teacher should therefore be to examine the students’ pre-understandings, so that teaching can be planned accordingly.

This study

The overall aim of this study is to obtain basic data that can be of help to educators during teacher education when addressing gender equality issues. The research questions that guide the study are: • What discourses recur in Swedish student teachers’ associations with gender equality? • What assumptions do these discourses hold? The discourse concept draws on social constructionism, which emphasizes that we cannot experience and construct knowledge of the world around us in any other way than through the concepts, categories and languages we already have. Our knowledge of the world will, therefore, always depend on the time and culture in which we live. Discourses are ‘socially constructed systems of meaning that could have been different’ (Jørgensen & Phillips 2000 p. 28). Laclau and Mouffe (2001) emphasize the constituting dimension of language. Language is structured in patterns (discourses) that are both preserved and changed as we use it. The premise is that our social world is discursively constructed in a certain way, and that we need some order to orient ourselves in life; at the same time, however, society and the social world could have been constructed differently, in other ways. Some descriptions and meanings are established, while the options are neglected or not even recognized as alternatives. According to Laclau and Mouffe, there is an ongoing discursive struggle in which various social forces, such as political groups, are trying to make an impact on definitions of certain concepts. They try to spread their discourse, their special way of describing an issue or a problem. Some discourses may be relatively fixed at certain historical moments. They are considered self-evident and are therefore not questioned, even though only temporarily. There is always some kind of ambiguity or contradiction. Even well-established discourses are contrary to other discourses, which constitute reality in other ways, and therefore threaten to undermine them. The concept floating signifier is used for a concept that various discourses attempt to define in their own specific way (Laclau & Mouffe 2001; Jørgensen & Phillips 2000). The discursive struggle thus concerns the associations and meaning to be attributed to a particular floating signifier. In this study, gender equality is the floating signifier that is in focus. Not unlike Laclau and Mouffe, Bakhtin (1999) also describes language as a place where there are ongoing social conflicts. He talks about the dynamic diversity of voices that language carries. The past, present and future, as well as various ideological groups, are represented in language. According to Bakhtin, the statements that are made are filled with dialogic overtones. This means that every statement, every opinion, is connected with previous statements. The words that the speaker uses when expressing something, are not just the speaker’s own words. They are also the words of others, in the sense that they hold echoes and

reverberations of others’ utterances. New statements confirm, contradict, take off from, and require previous statements within the field. Every opinion is thus in some sense to be seen as a response to other opinions. Those who speak can thus simultaneously be considered responding. This is because the view expressed not only presupposes an existing language, but also presupposes previously stated connected utterances. A given statement can be considered as a link in a chain of other statements in the area, by building on them, going into polemics with them and so on. Bakhtin writes: ‘Any utterance is a link in a very complexly organized chain of other utterances’ (Bakhtin 1999, p. 124). In Sweden gender equality was established as a political field in the 1970s, and by now it is something that all Swedes have to relate to. It also means that anyone who discusses gender equality issues engages in a discussion that has been going on for some decades (Florin & Nilsson, 1999; Kjellberg 2013). In this study, the empirical material consists of a single-question questionnaire. An invitation to take part in the questionnaire in the spring semester of 2014 was made to 109 student teachers. It was emphasized that participation was completely voluntary, and four students declined participation. Thus, there were 105 students who took part in the study. Of these, 73 were women and 27 were men. The vast majority were born between 1990 and 1994, and thus were 20-24 years of age when the study was carried out. According to other studies, both Swedish men and women in this age group state that they are in favour of gender equality (SOU 2014:6). Nevertheless, it may be noted that in this study no comparison between women’s and men’s responses is made. The students were doing their second semester in teacher education, training to be primary school teachers. They had not had any courses addressing gender equality in their education. However, as gender equality is an often used concept as well as a recurring issue in Swedish societal discussions (Kjellberg 2013), the students were expected to be familiar with the concept. In the questionnaire, the students were given the task of freely writing down the associations that ‘gender equality’ raises. It should be emphasized that it is the discourses that can be interpreted in the students’ answers that are in focus. The analysis focusing on the discourses means that the students, their backgrounds and motives, are not within the focus of this study. By reading the material repeatedly and searching for both similarities and differences in the students’ answers, three discourses were interpreted (Jørgensen & Phillips 2000). They were the discourse of the fair gender equality, the discourse of the exaggerated gender equality and the discourse of the opposed gender equality.

Three gender equality discourses

Below, the three discourses that were interpreted in the material are presented. Both the discourse of the fair gender equality and the discourse of the

exaggerated gender equality are salient in the material. The discourse of the opposed gender equality takes a less prominent place in the data. The discourse of the fair gender equality When gender equality is studied as a floating signifier, one of the meanings recurring in the material is that gender equality is about justice and at the same time it is, or should be, something self-evident. I have called this way of looking at gender equality the discourse of the fair gender equality. Within this discourse, gender equality is described as something uncomplicated. Phrase-like definitions are prominent. Gender equality is a matter of fairness, and a person’s gender should not be of any importance. Or, as one student put it: ‘We shall all be treated equally. Focus shall be on who you are as a person and not on your gender.’ ‘Equally’ and ‘same’ are words that recur frequently. Yet another student who repeats the word ‘same’ makes the following associations with the term gender equality: ‘The same conditions regardless of gender. The same expectations regardless of gender.’ Another student writes: ‘Gender equality: that men and women are of equal worth and are treated in the same way.’ An additional example is: ‘We are all of equal worth. We all have equal influence regardless of gender.’ The quotes connect to the official Swedish definition formulated in the 1980s: that gender equality means that women and men have equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities to have a job that provides economic independence, to care for their children and their home, and to participate in political and social activities. A fourth area that was added in the 2000s is about gender-related violence. The objective is to stop men’s violence against women (Gustafsson & Kolam 2008). Of the four areas, work, family life, social life and gender-related violence, two areas are found frequently when the arguments are more concrete. The two areas are work and family life. Working life in focus Concerning working life, the salary issue is a frequent theme. Sometimes it is just stated that pay should be the same for men and women without this being further developed. For example, an informant writes: ‘Everyone, regardless of gender, within an occupation is entitled to the same pay.’ Others suggest that it is women who fall short and receive lower pay than men. A student writes that the information about women being subject to salary discrimination comes from the media. The information seems somewhat uncertain, but the student says that it has been in the newspaper, which can be interpreted as a way to support an uncertain statement: ‘Concerning gender equality, a lot has changed compared with past times. Women have more of a say now. But salaries? Women still receive lower salaries than men. This is something I read in the newspaper about a year ago.’ Whether it really is true that women and men have different conditions in the job market may also be doubted:

‘There’s often a lot of discussion concerning men having higher positions than women, as well as higher salaries than women. It need not always be so, but it’s often what I hear in discussions anyway. For it to be gender equal according to me, there must be the same requirements for men and women, which I believe that it is in most places.’ In the quote above, the student maintains hearing certain things in discussions. The wording suggests that the student does not participate actively in these arguments, but even those who do not participate have to relate to significant discussions. Bakhtin (1999) talks of dialogic overtones, meaning that utterances are products of dialogues with others. In this case, what is said in the discussions is doubted; nevertheless, the student mentions it and relates to it. Family life in focus When family life is discussed, it is stated that women and men should be equally responsible for the care of children and for household chores. Gender equality is understood as cooperation: ‘Gender equality for me is cooperation, for instance in the home. If I am preparing dinner, my boyfriend takes the laundry or the kids. The work in the household is evenly shared.’ A student clarifies that this means that chores should not be split so that women perform certain chores and men others: ‘In a family living together, the standard family with woman and man, all work in the household is shared. Nothing is called ‘women’s tasks’ or ‘men’s work’.’ If it really were the case that no chores were called women’s tasks and men’s work, this remark would be superfluous. This statement may rather be interpreted as a way of relating to an unwanted division of chores by gender. The above discourse of the fair gender equality, in which gender equality is regarded as something that is, or should be, uncontroversial, is contrasted by a different description, in which gender equality is associated with excesses and absurdities. This discourse will be discussed below. The discourse of the exaggerated gender equality Within this discourse, gender equality is associated with aggression towards men, excesses and absurdities, and demands for gender neutrality. Aggression against men Gender equality is associated with feminists, which in turn are connected to aggressiveness and conflict. In this context, a student talks of ‘ultra-feminists’. Another respondent refers to ‘militant feminists who claim that women are best.’ A third student refers to feminists who try to obtain advantages, women who have their own gain in focus when trying to get influence in society. The student writes: ‘No one should get benefits because they happen to have one gender or the other. [...] Further, my opinion is that the concept of gender equality for many is associated with feminists. Many feminists think

that women should improve their situation in society for their own benefit, instead of achieving gender equality.’ The quote above suggests that the word feminist has a particularly negative charge, which has been discussed by researchers (McRobbie 2010; Kolam 2014). A student claims that there is a kind of feminism that seeks to offend men. By highlighting this aggressive feminism and then rejecting it, the student’s own attitude appears to be reasonable even though it is not described. The student’s own vision is contrasted to ‘ninja feminism, the desire to oppress men.’ Another student talks about ‘some’ who are even more belligerent: ‘In my opinion, the focus is on the wrong matters; instead of increasing the status of women, some rather wish to chop off men at their ankles. For me, gender equality rather is that men and women have the same opportunities.’ Yet another student maintains that women in a calculating way may refer to discrimination in order to get advantages: ‘Gender equality issues may lead to misuse and fighting; women may take the opportunity to claim that there is some gender inequality just because they were discriminated against in the past.’ Here gender discrimination is described as a historical phenomenon, something that is no longer relevant. An image of Swedish society as gender equal is thus put forward (cf. McRobbie 2010). Women who improperly refer to gender discrimination are met, however, by resistance as described in the quote. Their behaviour leads to disputes. Excesses and absurdities Further, within this discourse there is a talk of ‘the torment for the same for everyone’, which is regarded as exaggerated. Those who associated gender equality with exaggerations, however, themselves use some ample exaggerations in their arguments. ‘Everyone’ is made out as talking about gender equality ‘everywhere’. One student writes: ‘Everyone says that everything should be gender equal everywhere. But it’s impossible to get everything gender equal when everyone has different makings. Why does everyone want to be gender equal?’ It is not only the talk and the wish for gender equality that is described as something that has gone too far; gender equality itself has gone too far. In one answer, it is suggested that those who are in favour of gender equality maintain that everyone should think the same. That those approving of gender equality have unreasonable expectations is thus expressed. In addition, it is argued that ‘everything’ is about gender equality: ‘The word itself has become tedious; everything is supposed to be about gender equality, but it cannot be. People in our world are too different to think the same.’ Demands for gender neutrality Gender equality is also associated with women and men not being allowed to do as they wish. According to the reasoning of one student, gender equality is

associated with gender disappearing, that ‘gender should be wiped away, everyone becomes hen’. The word ‘hen’ refers to a new Swedish word that has been actively discussed in the media. Hen is a pronoun that can be used generically, rather than saying ‘he or she’, ‘she/he’ or the formal-sounding ‘the person concerned’. Hen may also be used for someone whose gender one does not know or if gender is irrelevant. In 2012, both books and magazines where the pronoun hen was used were published. Many of those who advocated the use of hen wanted to challenge the gender norms that language holds. This questioning led in turn others to raise their voices and protest against the launched henword, which was called ridiculous. The advocates were seen as excessive gender-equality zealots. The debate was very polarized (Milles 2013). A student expresses a wording that clearly shows that the hen-word symbolizes an unwelcome attempt to challenge the gender patterns that the school’s gender equality policy in fact targets. The student seems to fear that the hen-word will lead to women and men being abolished as categories, that they will be replaced by a single gender, the hen-gender. The student writes: ‘There should be two different sexes. Women are women; men are men. There is no such thing as hen.’ In an answer from a student, it is stated that ‘our differences should be accepted;’ this in turn is associated with girls not being allowed to wear dresses. According to the student behind the wording, there is a demand for gender neutrality, which means that girls’ dresses are not accepted: ‘People can look askance if a girl always wears pink dresses. Everything should be so neutral nowadays! There is no limit anymore. Of course girls must be allowed to wear green/blue pants, but girls with dresses must also be accepted!!’ As the quote above shows, a resistance against a maintained widespread demand for gender neutrality is expressed. This opposition is also emotional; both single and double exclamation points are used. Even within this discourse, work and family are recurring areas of commentary, as presented below. Working life in focus Many students mention gender quotas in employment, something to which they are opposed. A student writes: ‘For me gender equality is associated with gender quotas at workplaces. But I think it is a bit strange. The most qualified should get the job; their gender should not be either advantage or disadvantage.’ Others associate gender quotas with ‘nagging’, and with this choice of words their negative associations are accentuated. Someone writes: ‘That nagging about quotas for women and men in different positions/situations and professions only for it to look good on paper helps no one. Put more focus on the individual.’ In this case, quotas are associated with both women and men getting precedence. One respondent expresses, however, that it is women who get priority. The association with gender equality is formulated as follows:

‘When women are the subject of gender quotas at various workplaces [it is] because there is a majority of men.’ One student associates women’s work with part-time work, a matter that has been much discussed in Sweden in recent years. For Swedish mothers, it is common to work part-time (Nyberg, 2013). The major disadvantages part-time work brings in the form of low sickness benefits, low pensions and so on, have been given considerable media attention. In the debate, part-time work has been described as a trap for women (Lomberg 2012). The student’s associations may be interpreted as a reaction and a response to this discussion (cf. Bakhtin 1999). The student writes that gender equality is associated with: ‘Women who choose to work less are getting attacked because they do not work, and use their ‘new’ freedom to the maximum.’ Family life in focus Another student gives voice to the resistance against the proposition to individualize Swedish parental leave. In the current design, the days that provide financial compensation are divided equally between the father and the mother, but with the possibility for one parent to transfer most of their days on to the partner. In practice, most fathers transfer a large part of their parental leave to the mothers (Haas & Hwang, 2008). For a long time it has been suggested that the parental leave should be individualized, and thus organized in the same way as the general social security system. The alternative for fathers to transfer their days to the mothers would thus cease, which is assumed to lead to the fathers staying home with their children to a much greater extent (Klinth 2013). The student suggests that it is desirable that both parents take parental leave, but how the division and distribution of days is to be undertaken should be up to parents to decide. The associations with gender equality are connected to the proposed individualization of the parental insurance, something that the student sees negatively. The association with gender equality is formulated as follows: ‘For parental leave to be shared and that there was an issue about it being equally divided. (Thus a bill saying it must be split. Of course it should be shared in some way, but you ought to be allowed to choose for yourself how this will be done).’ An example of how gender equality is associated with household chores is given when a student advocates that women and men share the chores, but nevertheless points out that women do not have to change half of the car tyres. The student writes: ‘Gender equality in a traditional couple (man-woman) works when both of them have the opportunity to do both female and male chores. But that does not mean that because changing tyres is a male task and the man likes to do it, the woman has to change two of the tyres for the situation to be gender equal.’ When bringing up a woman having to change two car tyres, the student describes a division of tasks that seems rather caricatured, even ridiculous, and

then rejects it. In that way one’s own posture appears as reasonable even though it is not very specifically expressed. A third discourse, which has a marginal space but can be seen in the material, is the discourse of the opposed gender equality. This discourse will be discussed below. The discourse of the opposed gender equality Within this discourse gender equality is not seen as something self-evident and uncomplicated. Neither is gender equality associated with excessive demands. Instead gender equality is described by some students as an issue they themselves are engaged in, and they have experienced a strong resistance towards it. One student says that gender equality is associated with something extreme even though it is a matter of human equality. In this way, it becomes clear that the reasoning expressed within this discourse relates to, and can be considered in response to, the discourse of the exaggerated gender equality. The student writes: ‘It has become negatively charged to be pro gender equality; they say feminists carry it too far. But this is not the case. Being a feminist and fighting for gender equality is fighting for human equality regardless of gender.’ In a similar vein, another student describes how feminists are met with negativity: ‘I work at a women’s shelter and I am a feminist. I am often told that feminists just want power, when in fact it is gender equality we strive for. [...] As a feminist, I often get unfair criticism, which I think is due to ignorance and fear.’ According to yet another student, discussing gender equality issues is demanding. Gender equality ought to be a fairly uncontroversial matter, but instead it is very emotionally charged. The student writes: ‘Asking for a gender-equal society is not really asking too much, but if you are a woman and you say such things, automatically you need to have a wide supply of arguments to defend yourself and your opinions. I believe that gender equality issues are the largest and most emotionally charged issues we have today, and that is why it is so demanding to discuss them.’

Conclusion

Three different discourses have been interpreted based on a study of gender equality as a floating signifier. The three discourses can be understood as competing ways of describing the surrounding world. Laclau and Mouffe (2001) speak of discursive struggles where different ways of describing the world are in conflict. The discursive struggles in this material are both about the degree of equality in society and whether gender equality should be associated with consensus or conflict. By highlighting the discourses and their different assumptions, they may be subject to critical examination.

It is clear that the three discourses are based on completely different assumptions regarding whether Swedish women and men live under equal conditions. The Swedish gender equality policy is directed towards the areas of working life, family, influence in society, and gender-based violence. Within these areas there are plenty of statistics and research that can be used to bring clarity as to whether Swedish society is gender unequal, gender equal or if it even has gone so far that men should feel physically threatened by women. Since 2012, the Statistics Sweden website has had gender statistics that are linked to the gender equality objectives. The statistics are extensive and updated twice annually (SCB 2014; See also the Nordic Council of Ministers 2015). The students in this study present many opinions, opinions which deserve to be highlighted and compared with the knowledge available. The second assumption which is in the centre of the discursive struggle, whether the issue of gender equality should be associated with consensus or conflict, cannot as easily be examined with the help of statistics. It can, however, be discussed and related to research in the area. Within the discourse of the fair gender equality, gender equality appears as a relatively uncomplicated objective. To a large extent, gender equality seems a conflict-free issue. A conflict dimension is, however, clear in both the discourse about the exaggerated gender equality and the discourse of the opposed gender equality. Within the discourse of the exaggerated gender equality, feminism is connected to women with excessive demands and aggression towards men (cf. Wahl et al. 2008; Kolam 2014; Kimmel 2010). This may be surprising given that feminism in Sweden can be associated with political measures and policies for which there is a broad consensus among the political parties. Since a number of party leaders in 2004 declared that they were feminists, the parties’ feminist claims are recurringly highlighted in the political debate. Leading politicians, both men and women, call themselves feminists, and most of the parties in the Swedish parliament represent themselves as feminists (Asker, 2004; Alnevall 2009). In addition, almost half the population (47%) in Sweden state that they are feminists (TT 2014). Despite this broad backing for feminism, paradoxically negative associations recur among the students. In this way, the discourse is obviously also in conflict with the discourse of the fair gender equality (cf. Bakhtin 1999). Within the discourse of the exaggerated gender equality, feminists are described as women who do not represent the right kind of femininity norms. Feminists are described as extremists, aggressive and selfish, with their own benefits in focus. Based on Bakhtin’s (1999) discussion of how contemporary debates hold ideas and notions from the past, this discourse may be interpreted as being based on traditional femininity norms saying that women should stand back for the benefit of others. Historically, women and femininity have been connected to a self-sacrificing ideal; women would primarily put others’ needs first (Johnson et al. 2005). Women who differ from this ideal too clearly can still expect to be punished socially; they risk being seen as unfeminine and self-centred (Skeggs 1997; Jackson & Tinkler 2007). Quite strong exaggerations are being used in the discourse on the exaggerated gender equality. ‘Everything’ is about gender equality, as one student maintains.

Gender equality is associated with excessive and also ridiculous claims. A caricatured picture of gender equality in a relationship is presented; the woman and the man seem to be forced to change two tyres on the car each to be regarded as gender equal. Even in this way, a situation where gender equality has gone too far is depicted; the situation has become absurd. In a study by Kjellberg (2013), similar situations are described. In that study informants say that you should not have to ‘wash every other plate’ or ‘tick’ how many times you change your children’s diapers. In that way, it is conveyed that the speakers themselves have a reasonable attitude. The couple does some sharing of household tasks and it seems good enough, even if the division of tasks might be uneven in terms of time and content. Also, in a study by Magnusson (2006), the informants highlight extreme cases and distance themselves in a similar way. By highlighting negative examples of excessive accuracy concerning the division of household chores (so-called millimetre justice), the one who strives for a more just division of chores is depicted in a negative light and presented as silly. The discourse of the opposed gender equality can be interpreted as a direct response to the discourse of the exaggerated gender equality. Within this discourse it is described how feminism is associated with excesses and egoism, which is said to be completely untrue. With this, Bakhtin’s (1999) discussion of dialogic overtones is illustrated. Users of the discourse of the opposed gender equality are forced to relate to the discourse of the exaggerated gender equality. As much as its claims are said to be untrue, it cannot be ignored. Further, the hostility directed at feminists may be interpreted as an illustration of Sara Ahmed’s (2010) feminist killjoy. Ahmed uses the concept to describe how feminists disrupt others’ good feelings of contentment by pointing out sexism that others do not want to see. In this study, the aim was to obtain data that could be helpful for teacher educators planning their teaching about gender equality policy. To be able to challenge our students’ everyday assumptions and beliefs the importance of making formative assessments in education has been emphasized (Evans 2013). This study can be considered as a formative assessment of the knowledge concerning gender equality and gender issues within a group of Swedish student teachers. To discuss the different understandings and discourses with the students may be one way to show them the complexity of the issue.

References

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 10, pp. 15-37, September 2016

Impact on Teaching: Consistent Knowledge Development, Reflection and Practice Dr. Abha Singh Western Illinois University Illinois, USA Abstract. Application of professional knowledge is developed and practiced through teacher experiences and reflection. If we want to understand the practices of teachers’ teaching gifted students, it is essential to understand the development of practices with gifted students and their professional knowledge development as active practitioners. It is imperative to know what diverse factors lead to their own professional knowledge in their unique situations. The teacher is one of the most important factors in providing high quality of education. Gifted education is no exception. Teachers of gifted students should know how to implement interventions with diverse learners and learners with unique needs. This research is a case study of two earlier career teachers in gifted education participating in professional development. We focused on how teachers’ needs combine with practicum experience result in individual unique professional knowledge. The results are as follows. The first, even though they are both beginning teachers of the gifted, their development phases as teachers of the gifted were different depending on their previous experience. The second, there different previous experience and practicum experience determined the direction and degree of the development of professional knowledge. The third, unique contexts are different from regular teacher, especially, isolation was a big barrier for their development. The last, their development was different due to their passion about teaching gifted students and continuous reflection on their practice and students reaction were strong motives for the development of their professional knowledge. Keywords: Knowledge; Practical knowledge; Experience; Interest; Reflection; Application

Introduction

The teacher is one of the most important catalysts in providing high quality of education. Much research has verified that student achievement is strongly influenced by teachers’ background in content areas and by classroom practices, both of which are related to teachers’ professional development (Missett,

Brunner, Callahan, Moon, Azano, 2014 & Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, 2010 & Field, 2013). Gifted education is no exception. Teachers of gifted students must know how to provide enriched and/or advanced academic content to a diverse population of students possessed of unique academic and socio-affective needs. Most researchers in gifted education acknowledge that teachers’ are an important catalyst in the talent development process (Rubie-Davies, 2010 & Gagné, 2003). Little research is available, however, to develop a comprehensive understanding of teachers of the gifted. The research that is available primarily focuses on characteristics of effective teachers’ from the perspective of processproduct research. It is important, however, to better understand the teachers as active practitioners whose beliefs and practical knowledge play a critical role in classroom practices (Rubie-Davies, 2010 & Jarvis & Henderson, 2015 & Johnsen et at, 2002). Professional area specific expertise content knowledge is the ‘content applicable knowledge of teachers implemented as an outcome of their experiences as teachers and their reflective practices on these experiences (Baudson, Preckel, 2013). Therefore, the role of both teacher education and professional development should be to support teachers’ learning, not only about theory, but also about theory-into-practice, or teachers’ internalization of theory and developing practical knowledge. Most programs in teacher education have adopted the practicum as an early experience in the coursework required of future educators; as well, professional development in gifted education recommends a practicum experience to prepare educators to work in the field. Facilitating an effective practicum experience in gifted education, however, is an exercise in complexity. Teachers earning an endorsement in gifted education are typically certified as general education teachers. This means that they have internalized individual beliefs and practical knowledge not only about their specializations in general education, but also about gifted students and their needs. Their beliefs and practical knowledge have developed most often through exposure to gifted students in their classrooms and through casual conversations with other educators, but without systematic exploration of the research in the field of gifted education. The practicum experience must facilitate widely varying experiences, respectfully exploring the pre-existing beliefs and practical knowledge held by professionals with established attitudes, dispositions, and previous informal and formal educational experiences. The experience must also honour the different professional needs that educators bring to practicum, depending on their prescribed roles in gifted education, school contexts, and the developmental levels in their careers. In essence, the direction and the degree of development of practical knowledge during the practicum experience must be different for each professional seeking to better understand and implement interventions that will address the needs of gifted students (Davis, Rimm & Siegle, 2011 & Jung, Barnett, Gross, McCormick ,2011)

Professional knowledge Professional content knowledge has been investigated and evaluated as both comprehension and interpretation of contextualized and complex teaching (Berman, Schultz, & Weber, 2012 & Bianco, Harris, Garrison-Wade, Leech, 2011 & Loughran, 2002). The conceptualization of application of content knowledge is addressed in research to focus on a specific kind of knowledge. It describes teachers’ application of content knowledge of specific situations and the functional quandaries they face in carrying out purposeful action in those settings. Professional content functional knowledge guides a teacher’s actions in application (Jones, Miron, Kelaher-Young, 2012). This knowledge is gradually built from personal and practical experience; is not readily articulated by the teacher; and is used in complex ways during the processes of planning for and executing teaching activities in addition to understanding the decisions that were made earlier. It consists of factual or declarative knowledge, as well as strategic or procedural knowledge and beliefs, including norms and values. Specific school context plays an important role in developing functional and realistic knowledge. (Castro, 2010 & Lynn, 2002) Teachers’ professional knowledge is not ‘formal knowledge for teachers’ that is primarily produced and disseminated by researchers but rather, ‘teachers’ knowledge’ that is generated by teachers themselves as an outcome of their occurrences while teaching as their introspection on these experiences (Davis, Rimm, Siegle, 2011). The understanding of professional knowledge includes three important implications. The first is that a teacher’s role as an active practitioner is of primary importance for generating personal practical knowledge. The second implication is that teachers’ reflections about the nature of their professional experiences determine the development of their practical knowledge. The third is that every teacher has a different level of professional knowledge and has different beliefs because of their individual reflections on varying experiences in their lives, both personal and professional. Even experienced teachers can articulate professional skills that they want to strengthen, depending on their roles, their school contexts, and the developmental levels in their careers. Research on the development of professional knowledge has explored both preservice teachers and beginning in-service teachers (Jones, Miron & KelaherYoung, 2012 & Kagan, 1992). Most pre-service teachers’ initial content knowledge about practice is theoretical and not intuitive because it is learned outside the context of personal experience and has not yet been experimented with through praxis. Such content understanding is intellectual and will not impact practical application until it is experimented with and modified through reflective practical applications Rubie-Davies, (2010). A traditional practicum and/or the practice teaching experience can give pre-service teachers authentic practice to test their conceptual knowledge and develop their own professional knowledge through teacher education. Professional development in gifted education is different. The education of inservice teachers of the gifted most often relies on professional development

experiences; those who have experience in the classroom will have different needs from pre-service teachers, who have conceptual knowledge but not experiential practical knowledge. Most of those participating in professional development experiences in gifted education are classroom teachers, although a lesser number of in-service educators with some experience teaching the gifted are also involved in professional development experiences in gifted education. Regardless of background, in-service teachers already have already internalized individual beliefs and some practical knowledge about gifted education; even those teachers in the general education classroom likely have experience working with gifted students. Another challenge in the development of professional knowledge among teachers of the gifted is their situational context as staff members within their school districts. Teachers of the gifted frequently are disconnected from classroom teachers, without a circumscribed role in either a specific grade level or a particular field of study. Siegle, et al, (2014) reported that many teachers of the gifted who participated in professional development experiences felt isolated. There are some teachers that have less understanding about gifted education and it made it challenging for them to collaborate with colleagues and administrators about giftedness. This absence of peers with whom they can reflect on their unique experiences with gifted students likely plays a negative role in developing professional knowledge among teachers of the gifted. Finally, the beliefs and professional knowledge among teachers of the gifted will vary widely, depending on their level of experience in the general education classroom, or their absence of any teaching experience before an assignment in gifted education. Their conceptualization of teaching will differ based both on their disciplinary preparation and the grade levels for which they are licensed. Importantly, educators assigned to work with gifted students often must adapt to variable professional assignments, from coordinator for gifted programs to teacher of the gifted in programmatic settings that can change from year to year; these flexible professional assignments require an equally flexible approach to internalizing practical knowledge. The development of professional knowledge among teachers of the gifted will require divergent paths. In order to better understand teachers of the gifted, it is critical to gain greater understanding of the efforts made by individual teachers as they pursue their development of practical knowledge in their unique situations. This case study elaborates on the practicum experiences of two teachers assigned to positions in gifted education in their respective districts. Both teachers were new to their assignments to gifted education, and although both participated in similar professional development experiences, each demonstrated a unique path in the development of professional knowledge. Through an examination of the teachers’ experiences, this study explores the factors affecting the development of professional knowledge in gifted education. Methodology and Participants The research study design chosen for this study can be categorized as ‘descriptive study’ (Yin, 2014 & Miriam, 1998). This qualitative approach, as

described by Mirriam (1998), states that it is “useful, though, in presenting basic information about areas of education where little research has been conducted” (p. 38). Merriam reiterates: “case study is appropriate when the objective of a program is to develop a better understanding of the dynamics of a program. When it is important to be responsive, to convey a holistic and dynamically rich account of an educational program, case study is a tailor made approach” (p. 39). The research design below demonstrates how the research was conducted. Table 1: Research Design Phase I A.Readings : A. 1.Reading Gifted child Reflections: For each educator/parent of a reading. gifted child/gifted child advocate A. 2.Development of Practicum Goal/s 10 hours of Reading

Input to Teachers of Gifted Learners

B. Readings: Selected readings on Practicum Goals/s based on individual learning need. 5 hours of Goal based selected readings C. Observing: In a class where gifted students’ are being taught in a content area the teacher is not licensed to teach. 15 hours of observing

B. 1. Reading Reflections: On Selected readings provided for practicum goal/s based on individual learning need.

C.1. Maintaining a journal log documenting 15 hours of observing in a gifted students’ class.

Output of Teachers of Gifted Learners

C.2. A final project is developed which addresses the practicum goal/s

15 hours of project development Phase II

This research study is a case study of two teachers new to gifted education. Both participated in a 16-week practicum experience; the practicum was the capstone of a 12-semester-hour endorsement program in gifted education, completed after both teachers had been assigned to work with gifted students. The research focuses on the ways in which the teachers’ needs combine with their practicum

experiences and result in individual and unique practical knowledge developed by each teacher to help each achieve greater success in their personal settings. By exploring each case, the research will suggest the factors that most affect the direction of the development of personal practical knowledge. The research participants were teachers who teach gifted learners in a Midwestern state in USA. The research begins with the participants receiving the practicum readings and reading reflection forms by mail with an introductory letter. The introductory letter describes the requirements for this project. A meeting is conducted by the Principal Investigator soon after the introductory letter and the readings have been received by the participants. All the readings and reading reflection are also posted in an online site for participants to obtain the information they need. The Principal Investigator calls or emails the participants to address any questions/s. The need to develop practicum goal/s based on a need the participants sees in an area of choice as a gifted educator, parent of a gifted child or a gifted child advocate is communicated with the participants. As soon as the Principal Investigator is informed of goal/s "other" readings for the project which support the practicum goal are located. The required readings make up 10 hours of reading and they need 5 hours of more reading to make the 15 hour need. As well, the participants need to demonstrate a log for 15 hours of observing in an area they are not licensed to teach. Also, they have 15 hours of working towards a final project which supports their practicum goal. The salient characteristic of this graduate-level practicum study is the personalized nature of each teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s experience. Teachers determine their own goals, based on their perceptions of personal, student, school, and/or district needs. Their goals and subsequent products address these perceived professional needs; as well, they impact on the development of their practical knowledge. Practicum participants react to assigned readings, as well as to individualized readings selected to help them achieve personal goals; the readings and reading reactions, including summaries and evaluations of major themes and applications of content to students and schools, also contribute to the development of practical knowledge. Finally, focused observations of classes of gifted students or hands-on work with gifted students are required. The observations enhance the participantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; understanding of gifted students, of curriculum that other professionals believe to be appropriate, and of teaching practices that peers utilize. During practicum, teachers synthesize new understandings in gifted education from the readings, reflections, goals, and observations, reframing their own practices with gifted learners. Teachers are required to observe gifted students or work directly with gifted students at the level for which they are not licensed (certified) to teach. In other words, elementary teachers need to observe or work in secondary settings and secondary teachers need to focus on the elementary school. This requirement was established by a Midwestern State, since the endorsement in gifted education is a K-12 endorsement, allowing teachers who are likely certified at one level or the other to work with gifted children of any age. The requirement is productive, as well, because it serves to broaden the educational experience

and deepen the overall understanding of gifted education. Practicum participants could explore their district’s K-12 gifted programming opportunities, or at least become more familiar with the curriculum options at levels before or after the levels with which they’re most familiar. They could gain greater awareness of the different learning needs of gifted students of varying ages, and they could develop expertise in requisite teaching strategies. Nicole is a full-time teacher of the gifted in an “Extended Learning Program” (ELP) in two elementary buildings. She is in her third year of teaching at the elementary level, with assignments to work with gifted and talented students and no prior experience teaching general education students. Camie has been a full-time classroom teacher for 17 years. When she began her practicum experience, she was teaching speech, debate, contemporary literature, drama, and sophomore literature. She had the opportunity to teach the Talented and Gifted (TAG) 10th-grade English class, serve as the TAG sponsor for various activities, and coordinate two classes allowing TAG students to complete independent projects. Through that experience, she became interested in earning her endorsement in gifted education. She had an opportunity to teach ‘Letters about Literature’ TAG elementary students in two different elementary schools as a practicum experience. Work with or observations of gifted students are essential to facilitate participants’ self-evaluation in terms of both knowledge and beliefs about gifted education and gifted students. Time focused on conscious observation provides the lens to reframe existing beliefs. Teachers who have substantial teaching experience in the general education classroom, for example, have internalized an extensive inventory of effective practical knowledge. Because they might be complacent about the feasibility of translating successful general education practice to the gifted classroom, they need to envision effective practice in a novel setting and reframe their understanding and practice. Maintaining a journal related to the practicum experience also is required. Every week, practicum participants are provided different prompts; they respond utilizing an online platform that allows asynchronous response and discussion. The prompts encompass four categories, including reflection on and evaluation of personal practice during the practicum semester; individual learning from the practicum experience; emerging understanding of best practices to support gifted learners; and perceptions of barriers to improving practice. The sharing of experiences, challenges, and unfolding understandings in gifted education facilitates teachers’ reflections and reframing of practical knowledge, as well as providing both a learning community and a sense of collegiality. Independent projects culminate the practicum experience as participants synthesize information from readings, reflections, online discussions, and observations of / hands-on work with gifted learners, and fulfil their goals for the course. These independent projects encapsulate the goals that teachers envisioned for their gifted students, for parents, for their colleagues, or school

districts. They range from new plans for units of study to well-articulated gifted programs for districts; from letters to parents detailing a program’s identification policy to PowerPoint presentations for staff in-services; from bibliographies for a new bibliotherapy curriculum to the framework to help gifted learners imagine and enact service learning in their communities; from articles articulating the concerns about gifted boys and their choices to withdraw from gifted programs to plans for panels of successful women to interact with adolescent gifted girls about dreams for the future. The most research on gifted students teachers’ functional content knowledge is existent in narrative and descriptive examination illuminating teacher’s stories, including the ways teachers’ discover usefulness of experiences and events they come across in their own teaching practice experiences (Siegle, Moore, Mann, Wilson, 2010). Teachers’ written reflections about their teaching are one of the instruments facilitating greater understanding of teachers’ evolving thinking and practice in the classroom; as well, the act of writing reflections serves as a catalyst to activate teachers’ prior understandings and help them internalize new ways of thinking (Wentzel, Battle, Russell, Looney, 2010). Staiger, Rockoff, (2010) emphasized that experience alone does not lead to learning, but rather reflection on experience is essential. Reflection about teaching experience is effective when it leads the teacher to make meaning from practice in ways that enhance understanding, enabling the teacher to assess settings and events from a variety of viewpoints. Effective reflective practice enables the teacher to frame and reframe professional activity and to comprehend his or her own ‘wisdomin-action’. In essence, effective reflective practice encourages the explicit articulation of professional knowledge (Szymanski, Thomas, 2013). Just as teachers need opportunities to reflect on their experiences in order to develop a repertoire of practical knowledge, an analysis of the teachers’ experiences can help researchers better understand the ways in which teachers internalize implicit theory and subsequently articulate practice. This research explored the ways in-service teachers reflected on their experiences during a practicum experience required for endorsement in gifted education. During the practicum, the teachers considered their practice from various points of view in gifted education. In summary, teachers are required to examine, evaluate, and reframe their beliefs, knowledge, and practice continuously through the practicum experience. Participants unpack implicit understandings and explore them through journaling. They determine their personal interests for further research in the field of gifted education, and they react to and apply new knowledge. They dedicate time to conduct focused observations of or work with gifted students, and they have an opportunity to explore the familiar in unfamiliar ways. Finally, they establish goals for themselves, and they create professional independent projects to share with practicum colleagues, as well as with authentic audiences. Time for and encouragement of reflection is the major theme throughout practicum that serves as the catalyst for the development of

practical knowledge and the reconstruction of personal understanding to develop new ways of thinking about gifted education. Data collection and analysis In this study, all components of the practicum experience were used to investigate teachers’ evolving professional knowledge. Analysing teachers’ reflections in response to journal prompts was the primary strategy utilized to trace the development of teacher’s professional knowledge. Journaling was especially critical in terms of understanding teachers’ perceptions of professional growth through the practicum experience and their evolving thinking about gifted education. Reactions to readings were used to determine beliefs and knowledge about gifted education. Reflections from the observations of classes of gifted students, work with gifted students, and the strategies used to facilitate student interaction and learning, were useful in reflecting new understandings, as well as changes in beliefs and knowledge about gifted education. Independent practicum projects were essential for understanding how practicum experiences resulted in participants’ development of practical knowledge. Personal interviews and e-mail were used to answer additional questions. Through analysis of data, we inferred four themes: The themes were developed based on the teachers’ responses in reading reflections, observations, and development of project. 1. Teachers’ beliefs about gifted education including, for example, justifications about the need for gifted education, beliefs about appropriate teaching strategies, and perspectives about gifted programs within their districts; 2. Issues in the field that interested or concerned them (including perceived needs for improving their own pedagogical practice, concerns about their roles within their schools, and their passion for supporting gifted students); 3. Perceptions about their own learning through the practicum experience (for example, greater understanding about gifted students’ learning styles, insights into effective gifted education curriculum and programs, and awareness of the development of practices in their classrooms); and 4. Barriers in working in the most effective ways with gifted students (often centered around frustrations with their roles and the pervasive lack of time, lack of support from parents and school personnel, and concerns about their own content knowledge and teaching strategies). This study investigated the ways in which these four themes evolved during the practicum experience by focusing on two practicum participants. Both of the educators are new to the field of gifted education, and both expressed great enthusiasm about their new roles in education. As well, both were dedicated to their professional development through practicum, but they illustrated very different paths in the development of practical knowledge. Their responses to practicum components have permitted an exploration of the relationships among their unique interests or concerns in gifted education, their unfolding

practicum experience itself, their perceptions about their learning, and importantly, how they developed practical knowledge in distinct ways Results Nicole is a full-time teacher of the gifted in an “Extended Learning Program” (ELP) in two elementary buildings. She describes her role as: 1. Teaching fourth- and fifth-grade cluster groups for reading/math extensions once per week; 2. Initiating first-through-third-grade whole-class activities to begin to identify high-ability students with advanced academic needs; 3. Providing curriculum resources and ideas to classroom teachers; and 4. Serving as a mentor to address the individual social/emotional needs of students identified for ELP. Nicole’s characteristics of development of practical knowledge Nicole illustrated the “survival stage” in terms of practical knowledge, and she demonstrated the prototype of beginning teachers. She expressed sincere concern about her teaching practice, especially differentiation strategies. She had to spend a great deal of time planning lessons. Nicole commented that her “biggest difficulties involve time and planning. In order to know what effective lessons involve you also need previous knowledge and understanding/application of differentiation strategies… Trying to plan with several [essential] criteria [in mind] becomes very difficult.’ Nicole continued: “For the most part, it was sink or swim in this job. There can only be so much guidance provided and then you need to jump in and start learning on your own… it was tough for me.” Nicole needed to articulate new an appropriate lesson plans in order to meet the needs of her gifted students. She believed it was essential for her to understand the scope and sequence of the general education curriculum for first through fifth grades in order to prepare relevant enrichment and extensions. In addition, she tried to incorporate into her lessons the criteria for differentiation strategies described in the professional literature. All of this was challenging for Nicole. With no prior experience in the general education classroom, she felt a lack of confidence both in knowledge and practice. Nicole wanted to apply differentiation strategies to her class, but her understanding about differentiation was at the theoretical level; she had not internalized practical knowledge about differentiation. She implicitly understood the difference, reflecting, “I went to work with third-grade whole class; we were working on logic puzzles/deductive thinking… I felt more confident with this particular lesson, because I had some background experiences with logic and resources to pull from. I think this helps when planning and developing lessons.” (Nicole had no opportunities to observe classroom differentiation, and she had to develop and implement differentiation strategies in her class by herself. Her concerns about her teaching practice did

not diminish completely during the practicum experience, and her interests or concerns in gifted education emphasized her specific role. An insightful educator, Nicole understood that “As I continue to reflect, I realize this job is challenging for me because there is no set structure. I thrive off clear set goals and structure. It’s not gifted education. It’s not about the right answer— it’s about pushing through the frustration and doing your best.” In essence, Nicole was slowly but successfully developing practical knowledge through trial and error and reflection. Her greatest difficulty with differentiation strategies was determining how to adjust lessons to meet everyone’s needs. Noting, “I am still very uneasy about identifying/integrating the strategies... I feel like it’s all product differentiation, no content or process.” At times, she felt that her lessons were too fragmented, and she recognized the difficulty she had in incorporating differentiation strategies into content. Enacting differentiation was at a level of superficial rather than practical knowledge to her. Nicole expressed satisfaction, though, with an experience that exemplified her evolving understanding. She recognized that her practice was no longer superficial, but knowledge successfully utilized in the classroom. In a small cluster group, I presented a challenge math problem. Each of the children started solving it in their own way—one child used a table, another used a diagram, and another used basic equation/computation. After reflecting on this lesson, I realized this was a way of differentiating based on process…. Part of my job is to realize how they were approaching [the problem] and guide them using their strategy. It was amazing to see how these students were putting the pieces together. I was pretty excited. Maybe I am offering more differentiation than I originally thought. As Nicole reflected on her efforts to meet the needs of her gifted learners, she became increasingly able to recognize what differentiation looks like in the classroom, and she was able to articulate what had been only conceptual understanding about differentiation, making it practical. She internalized differentiation as a component of her repertoire of practical knowledge. Through trial-and-error and reflection, she was gaining confidence in her knowledge and in her practice. The increasing confidence served as a catalyst to develop new practical knowledge: “My depth of thinking about delivery has increased. Throughout the past two years, I have picked up on different pieces, so I feel confident in my overall knowledge of talented and gifted—but now I am ready to take it to the next level-to keep questioning/modifying ideas to fit the needs of my students.” Because Nicole was certified as an elementary school teacher, she was required to complete at least one credit hour of practicum at the secondary level. Although the requirement is a logical one, since the Talented and Gifted Endorsement permits the recipient to work with children from kindergarten through the senior year, in this case, Nicole was required to focus much of her time and attention on issues at the secondary level, even while she was preoccupied with classroom differentiation for her elementary students. Reading recommended articles about differentiation allowed Andrea to reflect

on her personal practice, as well as better understand strategies about higherlevel questioning, problem solving, and problem-based learning. The learning was theoretical, however, and noting “I would like to learn more about effective units/samples being used at the elementary level… I would like to see differentiation strategies being applied in the classroom along with those mentioned in the required readings”. Nicole perceived that reading alone limited her development of practical knowledge. Through her experiences at the secondary level, Nicole learned a great deal about programming provided for gifted students in her district’s high school, as well as the characteristics of secondary gifted students. She participated in high school counsellors’ meetings, and she learned about the high school online Advanced Placement (AP) and honours classes available in her district; she checked the progress of AP students as they independently worked online, providing support for their efforts. She served as a mentor for AP students, counselling them about time management issues, and she commented that “it’s amazing how different kids can be one-on-one as opposed to with their peers. Some students discussed concerns or problems they would like to work on”. Finally, Nicole supervised a secondary class dedicated to inviting guest speakers to make presentations to the students. Her secondary practicum experience did not directly address her most pressing concerns and interests in gifted education, nor did it develop her teaching practice. Her experience, however, did make it possible for her to work directly with the high school gifted coordinator and assist with secondary gifted programming. Nicole’s practicum goal focused on looking for ways to create mentorships between gifted high school students and gifted elementary students, allowing the secondary students to share their areas of academic passion with the younger students. Nicole encouraged shared learning opportunities across the grades for high-ability learners with similar interests. In other words, although Nicole emphasized her need to enhance her own practice in terms of successfully implementing differentiation with elementary learners, in this case, her practicum experiences and goals had limited impact on her most pressing concerns/ interests in gifted education. The professional practical knowledge she internalized had more to do with understanding and coordinating administrative program components than with academic process. Factors affecting the development of practical knowledge: Nicole keenly perceived that she had too many roles to play in gifted education and limited time to plan lessons and work with directly with gifted students; both problems were barriers to the development of practical knowledge. Her assigned responsibilities included providing resource ideas to classroom teachers; modelling differentiation strategies in general education classrooms for grades one through three; creating small cluster groups of fourth- and fifthgrade gifted students; and working with the cluster groups in two different buildings in order to extend their curriculum. For her practicum experience, she endeavoured to help a secondary mentor meet the social/emotional needs of high school students identified as gifted and to assist in acceleration requests. As

a result, she had limited time to prepare for her instructional role with gifted students, especially since she was still mastering content knowledge as well as differentiated teaching strategies. Nicole was assigned to work with her gifted students for only one hour each week. She knew that understanding academic and social- emotional needs were critical in terms of providing the best opportunities for gifted students; understanding individual needs as well as evaluating students’ learning, however, requires time. Nicole questioned, “Is meeting with these students for about one hour per week truly affecting them and enhancing their education? Where and when does the true learning occur? What is a realistic expectation for this job?” Through her practicum experience, Nicole assisted with high school programming and worked with a secondary gifted coordinator. She participated in a counsellors’ meeting and developed greater understanding about her districts’ AP/honours classes, serving as a mentor for students enrolled in online AP classes. She met with secondary students and interviewed them, substantially augmenting her understanding of what gifted education encompassed at the secondary level. As well, she learned that harnessing the academic passions of students was a powerful educational tool, regardless of the age of the student. Nicole’s practicum goal to facilitate a high school mentoring program, encouraging secondary students to volunteer to share their academic passions/interests with elementary students, was successful. With the help of the secondary gifted-program coordinator, she discovered a high school student who was interested in teaching an after school Web-design class for her elementary students. That success confirmed her belief that making connections between older and younger students, enabling them to share their love of learning, would be a positive and productive experience for all of the students. Her practicum experiences, however, also limited her development of practical knowledge at the elementary level in important ways. Her first practicum experience was a passive one, as an observer at the secondary counsellors’ meeting, taking notes on high school gifted programming. Although she broadened her understanding about the characteristics and needs of gifted high school students, and she had opportunities to learn more about beginning to meet those needs through several counselling sessions with individual students, her primary concerns about her teaching practice at the elementary level were not diminished. She had no opportunity to observe gifted classes at the high school level, since students were working independently, online, or at the elementary level because she provided all programming in her small district. Her development of professional practical knowledge, traditionally understood to emphasize classroom practice, was limited, with few opportunities to strengthen the practices in which she was most interested. Nicole felt isolated in her role and in her school. It had taken two years for her to feel comfortable with the general education teachers in her district. When she visited colleagues’ classrooms to demonstrate whole-group differentiation, she

believed that the general education teachers would be enthusiastic to learn about ideas or resources available to meet the needs of students requiring more challenge. For the most part, however, the classroom teachers remained aloof from Nicole’s lessons, using the time to complete their own work. Actually she wanted more team approach and to talk about strategies with regular teachers. While Nicole hoped to plan lessons with the teachers’ whose classrooms she would be visiting, it was difficult to find either the time or colleagues invested in the process. Nicole planned the lessons, alone, especially after her mentor in the field of gifted education moved away after Nicole’s first year in the district. Even her mentor had not been able to bring the concept of differentiation to life for her; Nicole wanted to go beyond theory to observe what differentiation looked like in the elementary classroom. She believed that observations of best practices would appreciably enhance her practical knowledge of differentiation. Without these options, though, and with an expectation that she would provide general education teachers with ideas for classroom differentiation, Nicole had to rely on trial and error, as well as reflection on her own practice, to develop her understanding. During practicum, Nicole did find that “talking to others about my learning and experience is the best strategy for me”. In summary, Nicole was developing her practical knowledge about differentiation largely by herself, without guidance or support from other general education teachers or a mentor in the field of gifted education. The sense of isolation made her feel that authentic professional development was difficult. d) Making efforts and passion to development of her own practical knowledge: Continue new trial and reflection In spite of the barriers to the development of practical knowledge, Nicole was dedicated to improving her professional practice, and she made conscious efforts to implement innovative strategies with new content that her students needed. Nicole wrote “As far as my teaching practice, I have been really evaluating my materials. Are they beneficial? Is the level of thinking appropriate? Am I doing right? Is this the most effective way? Am I accomplishing what I should be”? Every time she prepared new lesson plans, she considered ways to facilitate student choice to enrich the general education content, encouraging learners to expand both in depth and breadth. She reflected that: I believe one of the most powerful practices in gifted is student choice. This semester I have found myself reflecting on the following questions – Does this connect to their personal experiences and interests? Are they excited about the topic? How can I make connections?...I am re-evaluating how to make the groups more flexible and directed toward different needs that arise-not just academically but affectively as well. She recognized that reflection was critical, noting “Part of my job is continually reflecting on my teaching and trying to find ways of improving. I think I’ve

learned the important lesson of reflecting constantly on my work/efforts/ideas. This is one way of ensuring that I am growing as a learner”. Clearly, this demonstrated that Nicole was growing as a professional. Camie She had the opportunity to teach the Talented and Gifted (TAG) 10th-grade English class, serve as the TAG sponsor for various activities, and coordinate two classes allowing TAG students to complete independent projects. Through that experience, she became interested in earning her endorsement in gifted education. She had an opportunity to teach ‘Letters about Literature’ TAG elementary students in two different elementary schools as a practicum experience. Camie’s characteristics of development of practical knowledge a) Earlier career in gifted education, but enthusiasm and growth stage over survival She was a beginning teacher in gifted education, but she was in a growth stage over survival. According to Lynn’ opinion about career cycle of teachers (2002), Teachers who are in growth stage have reached a high level of competence in their jobs but continue to progress as professionals. They love their jobs, look forward to going to school and to interacting with their students, and are constantly seeking new ways to enrich their teaching. July became teaching Letters about Literature for the first time, but she did not feel much difficulty in lesson plan and teaching TAG elementary students. And she enjoyed this challenge. “I loved this lesson plan [corresponding comment or a compliment]. It went so well. I used examples from the website and also I created some examples. Students had to decide if each example was either a corresponding comment or a compliment. It became a debate at first then it finally starting to sink in. The students are catching on to the purpose of this program…” She believed she was doing differentiation in her high school class and her confidence in teaching strategies can be showed from following comment. “I noticed that in my high school courses – I was using differentiation more. Students all read the same book, but were given different opportunities to present literary devices from it. I had re-enactments, oral presentations, visual art, original video productions, acting, and movie posters, it just allowed the kids to shine in their talented area. Plus – it reinforced the concepts much more to each student. It makes the learning for the students better.” In summary, she was teaching new subject (Letters about Literature) different students (elementary students). But she could find resource and modify them for her lesson and apply her differentiation strategy to new subject easily. b) View of gifted education was widening over her own teaching practice. Deepen and widen understanding gifted education in reality.

Even if she has confidence in her teaching practices, she had some difficulties in understanding TAG students’ learning style in elementary school. Through teaching elementary students, she realized that learning style and knowledge background between elementary students and high school students were different and she needed to organize her lesson more and pre-assessment. “The kids at the elementary school want to learn. They want to be heard. They want to try new things. … I’ve learned that elementary students need more time to have experiences. I need to remind myself that the prior knowledge may not be there.” Another problem to her was the relationship among parents. She realized some elementary students’ parents intervened in their children’s work and gave TAG teachers pressure to working with students. Before then she just teaching and coaching high school students. This opportunity gave her a chance to consider about the identity and role of teacher of the gifted. She started to think about many issues in gifted education, the relationship of Teacher and TAG parent, the problem of Underachiever and unmotivated TAG students in high school students. System problem, for example, supporting TAG teacher, Justification of gifted education, and time allowed for TAG teacher to teach gifted students. “I think some parents have the wrong impression about TAG teachers. I think some think we sit around all day and just wait for work to come our way. Parents seem to be more involved…. Shortage of money, ELP teachers are always asking for donations such as pencils, books, etc. ELP teacher seem to spend quite a bit of money out of their won packets at conferences to use things in their classroom… It amazes me how some have a pull-out program where they only meet with the child once a week… Justification of their job” As a result, this experience gave her an opportunity to reflect on her practice and students in high school, to broaden understanding about gifted education and catalyst to develop her practice. ‘I am more aware of learning style in my classroom. I am more aware of articles in educational journals on the topic. It has made me want to be a better teacher. I don’t want any student to not be challenged on a daily basis in my classroom.’ c) Practicum experiences resulted in extending to leading TAG teacher and providing resources in elementary school. July’s practicum experience teaching elementary TAG students did not resulted in just broadening understanding gifted education and developing her practical knowledge of new subject. It was a catalyst to reframe her practice in high school and a motive to develop practical knowledge from different views. “I really had fun with letters of literature. It was new to me and I just wanted to find out everything associated with it. I think, as teachers, sometimes we can get

stale in teaching the same course after a while. This made me spice up some of my other classes” Her practicum independent project was to complete a ‘Letters about Literature Handbook’. She made that goal for two reasons. One is for the ELP teachers, who wanted copies of her lesson plan format that she used that semester so that they could emulate them next year. Second is for herself. She wanted to incorporate that program in her own English classes. That means that her role in practicum experience resulted in not limiting to her development but extending to support other teachers of the gifted. Factors affecting the development of practical knowledge a) Passion in professional development and beliefs about education She had passion in her professional development. She graduated with language arts/English, theatre, psychology, speech, and sociology. She had masters in secondary education and another in mass media communications. And she became interested in getting certificated in the gifted during teaching TAG independent projects. She believed that the more she knew about teaching, the more effective she could be in the classroom. She also believed that all teachers should take classes in differentiation and/or collaboration. She thought differentiation would work for many learners and collaboration within the departments would help the student progress from one class to another. In addition, she believed that teachers would benefit by having professional growth in their subject areas. That means she did not think about just teaching gifted students but also considered diverse learners including gifted and talented students. She used differentiation strategies during her regular high school classroom for making students learn better, understanding students’ learning style and awakening students’ desire to learn in her classes and commented the following in the journal: “I try to use many strategies. They [students] present final projects on an independent reading. The projects are open- ended to fit each student’s interest and abilities. One is going to recreate a scene on video, another is going to dress up as Ray Bradbarry and impersonate him telling a childhood story, another is completing a powerpoint. etc.” “It just allowed the kids to shine in their talented area… It is harder to grade, harder to plan, but it makes the learning for the students better. It also reinforced in me the idea of the under-achiever. To not rule him or her out, but to awaken their desire to learn in my class.’ These strong beliefs about education and passion made her pursue developing her practical knowledge and make efforts to develop it and enjoy challenge. b) Abundant Teaching experience and knowledge background

As mentioned above, she was an experienced regular teacher in high school. And she majored in many areas. She believed differentiation was a best practice and she had been doing differentiation in her high school class. Even if letters about literature was a new subject to her, she had experience teaching English honor class and literature in high school. So, she had sufficient knowledge background and how to teach it. She did not have to make transformational change for this new subject. Transformational change means one way teachers adapted for individual differences. It needs numerous and significant alterations in their practice in the classroom for change of teaching strategies. Meanwhile, changes that require few alterations are described as conservational (RubieDavies, 2010). July found some resources from websites and modify them into her TAG students in elementary school. Therefore, unlike Nicole, she did not feel much difficulty in lesson plan. After all, conservative change seemed to be sufficient for her for this new subject. c) Students’ reaction and TAG teachers’ support gave her confidence in her lesson and practice. She had some difficulty in understanding learning style of TAG elementary students. But after a while, she was gaining confidence in teaching them. Especially, confidence in lesson plan and practice was strongly affected by TAG teachers’ support and students’ reaction. When she suggested ‘Author Luncheon’ to TAG teachers, all agreed with her plan. She was very impressed with students’ reaction to that event. “The Author talked about her love of books and what made her pursue writing. She gave a brief explanation of her current book and talked about how she brings characters to life with experiences that she hopes her readers can relate to. … I have never witnessed such dramatics in such young students. Some students obviously are catered to at home.” Over all, she wanted that the time she and her students was productive. So, she worked hard to prepare for each lesson. And students’ reaction was a big motive to gain her confidence in her practice and efforts. She was satisfied with her lesson and practice. “When a lesson went well- the kids grasp the concept that I was trying to teach them- made me my heart sing. I worked with the kids mainly after school. We met 9 weeks and I had no absences. I think the commitment of the kids really affected me.’ d) Not an observer or an assistant but teacher who had authority during practicum experience. Unlike Nicole, Camie had an opportunity to observe and co-teach gifted students in elementary school. When she discuss ELP elementary teachers in her community school district about her hope observation/co-teaching in gifted programs, they allowed her to observe 30 minutes in their classes and then to

teach a 30 minutes class to those students who wanted to participate in ‘Letters about Literature’ program at two schools. At first time, she was allowed to observe and co-teach with ELP elementary teachers. But after a while, ELP teachers started to support her opinion and allow freedom to teach their students. “I was supposed to observe the first 30 minutes,… I noticed this week that the ELP teacher at W school includes me in everything and co-teaches the first 30 minutes and then assists me the last 30 minutes, the TAG teacher and I played devil advocate with 13 students. We made them defend their answers‘… I think the teacher is starting to rely on me for the entire hour….” Therefore, her role in practicum experience was not a just an observer or an assistant, but a teacher who planed lesson independently and taught students as she planned. This means her lesson plan and teaching practice were admitted by ELP teachers and the authority of ELP teachers handed over to her and she was in charge of students’ learning. Through teaching gifted elementary students directly, she learned different learning style from gifted high school and experienced some conflict between parents. This teaching experience gave a chance to learn by doing and reframe her practice and became a motive to develop her practical knowledge in high school as a professional growth. Moreover, she became in progress of making resources and supporting ELP teachers.

Discussion

A metasynthesis of the in-service professional development was conducted using Dunst, Bruder, & Hamby, (2015) research as applicable on Niocle and Camie’s responses at various levels of the research study. Nicole and Camie were both in earlier career in gifted education and believed differentiation should be realized in classroom. But their development phases of teaching gifted students are different. Nicole’s concern was mostly about expectation of her role and lesson plan and teaching strategies. Jung, McCormick, & Gross, (2012) indicates that novice teachers use specific lesson objectives to form structured lesson plans that they did not adapt to meet student needs during teaching. Her concerns focused on her lesson plan for differentiation and meeting some standard about it. On reflection on her practice, she always felt some frustration from gap between her lesson plan and her practice in class. Jung, McCormick, & Gross, (2012) research about novice and experienced teachers showed that novice, student teacher or beginning teachers enter classroom with images of themselves as teachers that have been derived in part from their own experiences as learners. And initial focus of novice teachers was inward. This means many novice teachers’ teaching practices were affected by their learning experience in school. Nicole wanted to teach gifted students using differentiation, but the method she has experienced and learned about differentiation was only through books or materials. She did not have experienced even observing how differentiation is realized in a classroom. So, she had to learn to teach even without previous learning experience about

differentiation. The method she acquire the concept of differentiation in reality is only through trial and errors in her class and reflecting and accumulating her experiences by herself. She spent much time on lesson planning and did not have confidence in teaching gifted students using differentiation until then. Therefore, Nicole seemed to be still novice and at the survival stage. Unlike Nicole, Camie was in another phase. She began to teach a new subject at a different level to students for the first time. But, she did not feel difficulties in lesson planning for this new subject. This new subject was not totally different from her English class. She thought differentiation was very important and taught using differentiation in her high school. Even if she had difficulties in teaching gifted students for lack of knowledge of the learning style of gifted elementary students at first, she became gaining confidence in teaching them. Her concerns are not inward but outward. Lisa’s most concern was encouraging all teachers take classes in differentiation and collaboration. Her most struggles through her practicum experience are about parent or regular teachers’ perception about gifted education, or justification of gifted education. She realized the status of gifted education in reality. We can say that Nicole was in a new turning phase which was beyond her practice to start to think about gifted education from systematically view and support gifted students’ everyday lives. One of important factor affecting their development of professional knowledge was practicum experience. In case of Nicole, practicum experience assisting coordinator in high school could not give her a chance even to develop her practice about differentiation. Although she developed understanding about gifted education system in high school, her practicum experience could not reduce her concern about her teaching practice. Meanwhile, Camie seemed to feel more comfortable rather than Nicole about lesson planning, and teaching gifted students in elementary school. She had experience teaching Literature and English. So she might have sufficient knowledge background about her new subject ‘letters about literature’. Her practicum experience teaching gifted students in elementary school not only broaden her understanding about gifted education but also gave her a motive for her development as a teacher in high school. And practicum experience confirmed her previous beliefs about differentiation and needs of regular teacher’s professional development in gifted education. Therefore, even if teachers are beginning teachers of the gifted, their phase of development of practical knowledge might be totally different from previous experience and practicum experience. Another important factor affecting their development is passion as a learner about teaching gifted students and reflection on their practice continuously. Every time after her practice, Nicole evaluated her practice and considered organizing lesson and connection between content and student experience or interest. As she reflected on herself, she realized her teaching style liking structure and organization and she tried to be more flexible during lesson plan and teaching practice. She also felt that reflecting on her work made her growing as a learner and she had learned that good teaching requires reflection and flexibility. In case of Camie, She believed that the more she know about teaching

she could do effective in the classroom. This was a motive for learning something new and she enjoyed new challenge. During practicum experience, she made new trials. Through reflection on her practice, she became to be aware of students’ learning style in her classroom. Especially, reflection on students’ reaction on her teaching practice became a strong motive to pursue her development. Steffie and Wolfe, (2001) suggested life-cycle model for career teachers. They assumed that teachers will continue to grow and develop throughout their professional life time and they can engage in transformational processes including critical reflection on practice, redefinition of assumptions and beliefs, and enhanced self-worth. Jones et al, insisted that the critical factor that enables teachers to propel themselves through the career life is the reflection-renewalgrowth cycle. Andrea and Lisa both reflected their practice and themselves continuously. They evaluated their beliefs and themselves as a gifted educator and found their weakness and new learning from them. Those were stimulus for them to make efforts to improve their practical knowledge and resulted in their development as a teacher. Meanwhile, isolation was barrier to development of these teachers’ practical knowledge. As to Castro (2010), one of most important contextual factor may be the personal relationship that develops between a novice and his or her cooperating teacher. Baudson & Preckel (2013) elicited four ways of professional learning, reading in order to collect new knowledge and information or data, Doing as well as experimenting, reflection, collaboration. Baudson and Preckel insisted that collaboration is the most important to professional development as it not only provides necessary support for learning but also provides teacher with feedback and bring about new ideas and challenge. In case of Nicole, she wanted to develop her practice continuously and want to share her experience with other teachers. She felt talking to others about her learning and experiences were the best strategy for her development through practicum course. She wanted evaluation tools for teachers themselves. But in her school, she did not have collaborator who help her development of teaching practice or develop lesson plan cooperatively. Meanwhile, she was in a situation which provides regular teacher resources ideas for differentiation. This means although she wanted better practice, no one could support and give her feedback for her development. Many beginning teachers feel isolation, too. But their role or job is not threatened by other colleagues and parents in their school. Meanwhile, teachers of gifted students have to justify their job to regular teachers or parents or even administrator who do not understand the needs of gifted education even in their school. It took some years for Nicole to feel comfortable with other regular teachers at her school and earn admission of ideas/resources for gifted students’ needs from them. She had a mentor for first two years. But her mentor might not support her much about what she wanted to learn to teach, because she still wanted to observe the class using differentiation in elementary level even after mentoring leaving. Only the way she develop her practical knowledge about

differentiation was doing by herself in her class. So, contrary to her hope of collaborating, this situation prohibited her professional development. Isolation feeling was the same to Camie. Even if she was most supported about lesson plan and her practice by gifted teachers in elementary school, she sometimes felt some difficulties in collaborating with them in class, especially, about understanding students and sharing task. Conclusion Practical knowledge is challenge for beginning teachers. Berman, Schultz, & Weber, (2012) argue that ‘new teachers have two jobs- they have to teach and they have to learn to teach. No matter how good a pre-service program maybe, there are some things that can only be learned on the job’. As Nicole said ‘There can only be so much guidance provided and then you need to jump in and start learning on your own…, it is very hard for teachers to obtain practical knowledge through only direction and materials without their practices and reflection on them. But teachers need guide for effective practitioner. We could not expect only teachers’ passion about their job for their development. As mentioned above, previous experience, practicum experience, and reflection play an important role in these two teachers’ development. So we need to organize teachers’ of gifted learner’s practicum experience to reflect on their practice and establish collaboration among beginning and experienced teachers of the gifted to support their development.

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Jarvis J. M., Henderson L. (2015). Current practices in the education of gifted and advanced learners in South Australian schools. Australasian Journal of Gifted Education, 21, 5-22. Johnsen, S. K., Haensly, P. A., Ryser, G. R., & Ford, R. F. (2002). Changing general education classroom practices to adapt for gifted students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 46(1), 45-63. Jones J. N., Miron G., Kelaher-Young A. J. (2012). The Kalamazoo promise and perceived changes in teacher beliefs, expectations, and behaviors. Journal of Educational Research 105, 36-51. Jung J. Y., Barnett K., Gross M. U. M., McCormick J. (2011). Levels of intellectual giftedness, culture, and the forced-choice dilemma. Roeper Review, 33, 182-197 Jung J. Y., McCormick J., Gross M. U. M. (2012). The forced choice dilemma: A model incorporating idiocentric/allocentric cultural orientation. Gifted Child Quarterly, 56, 15-24. Kagan, D. M. (1992). Professional growth among preservice and beginning teachers. Review of Educational Research, 62, 129-169. Loughran, J. J., (2002) Effective reflective practice: In search of meaning in learning about teaching, Journal of teacher Education, Vol. 53(1), 2002, 33-43 Lynn, Susan K. (2002). The winding path: Understanding the career cycle of teachers. The Clearing House, March/April, 179-182. Merriam,S.B. (1998) Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Missett T. C., Brunner M. M., Callahan C. M., Moon T. R., Price Azano A. (2014). Exploring teacher beliefs and use of acceleration, ability grouping, and formative assessment. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 37, 245-268. Rubie-Davies C. M. (2010). Teacher expectations and perceptions of student attributes: Is there a relationship? British Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 121-135 Siegle D., DaVia Rubinstein L., Mitchell M. S. (2014). Honors’ students’ perceptions of their high school experiences: The influence of teachers on student motivation. Gifted Child Quarterly, 58, 35-50. 10. Siegle D., Moore M., Mann R. L., Wilson H. E. (2010). Factors that influence in-service and preservice teachers’ nominations of students for gifted and talented programs. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 33, 337-360 Staiger D., Rockoff J. (2010). Searching for effective teachers with imperfect information. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 24, 97-118. Steffy, B. E., Wolfe, M. P, A. 2001, Life-cycle model for career teachers, Kappa Delta Pi Record, 16-19. Szymanski, Toni and Shaff, Thomas (2013) "Teacher Perspectives Regarding Gifted Diverse Students," Gifted Children:Vol. 6: Iss. 1, Article 1. Wentzel K. R., Battle A., Russell S. L., Looney L. B. (2010). Social supports from teachers and peers as predictors of academic and social motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 35, 193-202 Yin, R. K. (2014). Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 10, pp. 38-61, September 2016

Designing, Building and using Interactive eTextbooks according to the Organization of Discovery Learning Acts in Vietnam Thai-Lai Dao and Ngoc-Giang Nguyen The Vietnam Institute of Educational Sciences, 101 Tran Hung Dao, Hanoi, Vietnam Trung Tran The Committee for Ethnic Minorities, 80 Phan Dinh Phung, Ha Noi, Vietnam

Abstract. When the educational target changes then the factors of education such as the learning content, the forms of learning organization, the check, the assessment and the learning equipment will change. Conversely, if an above factor such as learning equipment changes then the educational target also changes. ICT and media act not only on the educational target but also on itself in order to create new learning equipment. One of the new equipment now is e-textbooks. The article refers to designing, building and using e-textbooks according to the organization of discovery learning acts in Vietnam. Keywords: e-textbooks, discovery learning, plane geometry.

1. Introduction Teacher needs to prove the activity, the independency, the creativity and needs to be against the passivity of students in order to innovate teaching and learning. There are many different methods in order to prove the activity, the self-learning competence of learners. One of the usual methods is discovery learning. However, the traditional discovery learning has a very large weak point. Discovery learning is restricted because it desires a lot of efforts of teacher. Teacher spends a lot of time for writing lesson according to discovery learning. The traditional discovery learning cannot simulate the processes, phenomena of nature, social and human. The record of document and traces of acts of students is usually cumbersome in traditional discovery learning. Especially, the environment of interaction with students, friends and other objects is restricted in the traditional space of classroom. Applying ICT & media in teaching and learning is one of the best choices in order to remedy these restrictions. Basing on the needs of learning of students, ICT and media make learning flexible. Students are active and they choose effective learning methods suitable with their competence. ICT and media make students themselves independent and

better in learning process as well as create the advantageous environment for self-learning and self-discovery. E-textbooks are a concretization of applying ICT and media in teaching and learning. E-textbooks have strong points that paper textbooks do not have such as: their contents are formatted in order to see on the screen, they can be packaged and transported easily; their images are eye-catching, we can zoom in and out text size; we can interact and get feedback; there are live videos, images and sound. E-textbooks protect the digital technology right, do not allow copy and print (if users do not permit) and their content updates are usually downloaded from the Internet. Especially, E-textbooks are a tool to help discovery learning become the most effective tool compared to the other teaching forms using ICT and media. In addition, e-textbooks also create a new using form in teaching and learning. E-textbooks have high interactive ability, do not restrict the number of students, do not distinguish between geographical places, skin colors and nationalities. In addition, e-textbooks will create an advantageous environment when users do with geometric objects.

2. Content research 2.1. Discovery learning Discovery learning is attributed by Dewey, Piaget and Vygotsky. (wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism) After these psychologists, there are some people who continue to develop point of views of these psychologists. Joolingen said that: Discovery learning is a type of learning where learners construct their own knowledge by experimenting with a domain, and inferring rules from the results of these experiments. They actually construct their knowledge by themselves. Because of these constructive activities, they will understand the domain at a higher level (edutechwiki.unige.ch) Borthick & Jones supposed that: In discovery learning, students learn to recognize a problem, search for relevant information, develop the solution of problem. (edutechwiki.unige.ch) Discovery learning is an approach to instruction through which students interact with their environment-by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing experiments. Discovery learning makes students remember concepts long and students discover on their own. Discovery learning is most successful when students have basic knowledge and experiences. (edutechwiki.unige.ch)

2.2. The strong points and weak points of discovery learning Discovery learning has advantages and disadvantages as follows: Strong points: - To support the activities of students in their learning process. - To foster studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; curiosities. - To enable the development of learning skills on the life. - To personalize the learning experience - To motivate students highly and allow them to experiment and discover something by themselves. - To base knowledge on the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; understanding.

- To develop the sense of independence and autonomy of student. - To make students responsible for their own mistakes and results - To develop solving problems and creative skills (Kristenlockwood13.tripod.com) Weak points: - To make student confusing if he has not basic knowledge. To create misconceptions ("knowing less after instruction") (Kristenlockwood13.tripod.com) In traditional classroom (do not use ICT and media), the organization of discovery learning also gets some restrictions as follows: - Discovery learning in traditional classroom only adapts to a small number of students, students who live in different places do not interact together. The interaction of discovery learning in traditional classroom is restricted. - If there are a large number of students in traditional discovery learning then there are not enough educational experts for helping these students immediately. If students choose incorrect choices then they do not get instructions immediately. - There must be teacher then traditional discovery learning just happens. Students discover according to the acts and requires of teacher. Using ICT and media will help traditional discovery learning to prove strong points and to minimize weak points. We concentrate on the researching, designing and using e-textbooks (A concretization of ICT and media) according to discovery orientation in learning mathematics of students.

3. Some problems on e-textbooks 3.1. The concepts on textbook A textbook is a book which students learn school subject. Students use textbook to learn facts and methods. Textbooks sometimes have some questions to test the knowledge and understanding of students. (Simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textbook) Textbooks in Vietnam now are understood according to the whole program of secondary school education as follows: Textbooks are main documents for teaching and learning in schools, adapt to all of criteria due to regulations imposed by the State of Vietnam, instruct the acts of teaching and learning that focus on the contents and methods of teaching and learning. (Pham., T., T.) In our opinion, textbooks are learning document for students. Textbooks must cover over the whole program from their targets to their contents, ensure the requests on the standard of knowledge and skills, orient to the methods as well as help to assess and assess themselves according to the minds of competent development of students.

3.2. The concepts on e-textbooks According to Le, C., T., e-textbooks are textbook documents, in which their knowledge is displayed under many different informational channels such as texts, graphics, animated figures, static figures, sounds, ect. The important characteristic of e-textbooks is knowledge displayed at the same time in many different ways: the focus, simplification, detail, ect. These are advantageous for

learners to look up and find information fast. E-textbooks now allow users to connect and update more information from websites that their addresses are given by e-textbooks. (violet.vn) According to the research of given e-textbooks as well as designed and built a concrete e-textbook at the address: http://e-edvietnam.edu.vn, our opinions are as follows: E-textbooks are the software of textbooks ensuring the requests of paper textbooks, however, e-textbooks can exist independently and their content cover whole program. E-textbooks must have electronic features, interactive features and feedback. (i) Electronic features are as follows: E-textbooks can act on the Internet or without the Internet. We can see the contents of e-textbooks on personal computers (PCs, laptops), e-readers (Kindle, Nook, Sony, Reader, etc.), tablet computers (Multiform: iPad, Android Tablets (Galaxy Tab, Kindle Fire, etc.), Surface; Specialized: Kno, Class-book) or smart-phones. E-textbooks can integrate many kinds of the advanced and modern technology of informatics and media in order to serve information transmitting, learning, and studying best. (ii) Interactive feature and feedback are as follows: e-textbooks ensure the converse relations, have dialogues or have impacts between e-textbooks and users. For example, when a student choose a wrong option on computer then he intermediately gets a message from e-textbooks on what his errors, knowledge and skills are and the instruction of next learning act for him in aiding discovery learning.

3.3. The structure of an e-textbook according to the discovery learning of students E-textbook is a textbook software ensuring the requests for (paper) textbook, however e-textbook can exist independently and their contents cover the whole program. E-textbook must have electronic features, interactive features and feedback. Thatâ&#x20AC;&#x;s reason why we can say that, e-textbook is the textbook software digitized according to a concrete structure, format and script. According to Nguyen, M., T., and the authors adding the title and contents of e-textbook, the structure of e-textbook is the same e-document including four main parts: The title of e-textbook, the contents of e-textbook, the connections and the interactive and communicative environment. (Nguyen, M., T) - The title of e-textbook. This is the name oriented for whole contents of data, connections and the interactive and communicative environment. They must conform to and concentrate on the correct description of chosen title. - The contents of e-textbook. The contents of e-textbook include sections, slides, data tables, sound files using the illustration or explanation of knowledge, files of knowledgeable simulations, Flash files (or similar formats), video files, ect. In addition, the contents include concrete lesson plans of each lesson or each chapter due to the compilations of the authors of e-textbook, due to the reference documents relating to the help of leaning, researching and exploiting of users on e-textbook such as the document on knowledge based system, artificial, etc. Etextbook also contains the bank of test questions and the assessments of students.

- The hyperlinks and hypertexts. Hyperlinks connect between the interfaces of users and the knowledge based system of e-textbook. These hyperlinks include the created orientations, feedback and instructions to help users find, access, interact and activate the functions of e-textbook and data that need to use and exploit. Hyperlinks allow users to note text paragraphs, emphasize focused knowledge. - The interactive and communicative environment. It will be a created space for users to approach data, display desired information and get feedback when users interact with e-textbook. The interactive and communicative environment of etextbook is often designed under a software or a website.

3.4. The process of designing e-textbook Through the researching, designing and building an e-textbook at the address http://e-edvietnam.edu.vn, we propose the process of designing e-textbook according to the orientation of discovery learning as follows: Step 1. Researching program - Find out about the contents of e-textbook. - Find out about e-textbook according to the orientation of discovery learning. Step 2. Designing e-textbook according to the organization of discovery learning acts - Design necessary features and data according to discovery learning. - Carry out programming, design e-textbook according to the orientation of discovery learning. Step 3. Building e-textbook - Synthesize information and build the whole features according to the requests of e-textbook according to the orientation of discovery learning; - Build sample data and required data according to discovery learning Step 4. Testing e-textbook - Input all of data and carry out test run; - Fine-tune other factors and complete all of features according to the orientation of discovery learning. Step 5. Checking and completing - Carry out the checking of all features and completing e-textbook.

4. The use of e-textbook to help teaching and learning plane geometry according to the organization of discovery learning acts 4.1. The process of teaching and learning a lesson on e-textbook according to the organization of discovery learning acts E-textbook is designed to help the self-learning and the self-discovery of students. E-textbook helps students to learn according to their needs and velocities by themselves, helps students to predict, find out, confirm and generalize the results of problems. However, teacher will correct, assert all main knowledge that needs to be learned, check the solutions of theorems, properties, problems when students have needs. That â&#x20AC;&#x17E;s reason why, if we use e-textbook according to the organization of discovery learning acts then the best form is blended learning. According to Michael, H., blended learning is the integrating of online learning and traditional learning with time, process and progress under control. (Michael, H) The process of learning a lesson on e-textbook according to the organization of discovery learning acts includes the following stages:

- Teacher gives home tasks to students (in the previous lesson in class) - Student learns with e-textbook by himself - Students learn in class (after students have learned the lesson in the e-textbook) - Teacher gives home tasks to students (in the next learning period)

4.1.1. Teacher gives home tasks to students (in the previous lesson in class) Teacher gives home tasks to students in the previous lesson in class; Students access the given website and do according to the requests of teacher at home. If students do not understand and have any questions then students note them on paper and ask teacher in the next lesson in class, teacher will explain and answer these questions. Concretely, students received home tasks according discovery learning on the etextbook in the previous lesson. The example is illustrated by teaching and learning the lesson “The reflectional symmetry” on e-textbook. The previous lesson in class is “The translation and transformations”, teacher gives home tasks to students before finishing the lesson: You learn the relectional symmetry, the symmetric axis of a figure, read illustrated examples and do the ramified problem of §3. The reflectional symmetry on e-textbook by yourselves. After you finish learning “the reflectional symmetry” with the help of e-textbook, you will fill in the following notes: - What is the reflectional symmetry? - Do you give an example on the axis of a figure in the real life? Students write their answers on the notes and submit them to teacher in the next lesson in class.

4.1.2. Student learns with e-textbook by himself Student enters the Registration and Login procedures of website. Student interacts with the objects and symbols on the screen. After that, student accesses the contents of website, observes the examples, does the tasks and answers the questions of teacher, receives feedback from the computer to form his knowledge by himself. From that, student not only obtains knowledge but also practices the skills of observation, analysis, comparison, generalization in order to find the rules for objects and relations as well as the way of finding out and solving problem. After student has finished the lesson on the website then student will answer the questions that teacher gives to student in class. Concretely, student learns the lesson on e-textbook by himself according the organization of discovery learning acts. He does the questions suitable with his competence. E-textbook has ramified problems to check the knowledge fast, especially, it is suitable with average and weak students. If student chooses the incorrect answer then he has just get feedback from the e-textbook: What are the incorrect knowledge and mathematical skills? After student finishes the lesson at home, student will have any questions on the needs of finding knowledge and solving problem that e-textbook does not adapt to him then student will note these questions in order to ask teacher or his friends in class. The type of discovery learning which student does at home is free discovery one.

The illustrated example of learning the lesson “The reflectional symmetry” according to the organization of discovery learning acts is as follows: Student enters the browser Firefox:

accesses the Internet address of e-textbook to do his self-learning: http://www.e-edvietnam.edu.vn. E-textbook has a common account for empty user (name: luanan, password: 123456). If a certain user wants to create new account for himself then he enters the square Đăng ký on the left side:

Student enters the square on the left side Tôi đồng ý các quy định của Website as the below figure and continue to enter the square Tiếp tục

Student fills in the squares marked by * and fills in his password according to the requests e-textbook:

Student clicks on the square Đăng ký and finishes the process of registration of e-textbook. After that, when student accesses e-textbook, student will enter the above name and password in the left square:

Student sends the address of his username to teacher by email; teacher saves the username in the account of e-textbook. After teacher saves the username, teacher will follow the traces of acts of student on e-textbook.

The way of doing with e-textbook: - When students read a question of a certain page of e-textbook, they themselves answer it before clicking on the next page in order to receive its answer (if yes), after that students compare with their choices. - Students need to install the supplemental software such as Adobe Flash, Java script in order to do with e-textbook After students read the instructions of e-textbook, students will carry out the self-learning of transformations in the plane according to discovery learning on e-textbook: - Students click on the function E-notebook  Vietnamese advanced geometric text book 11th  Chapter 1  §3. The reflectional symmetry  A. Theory  1. Definition of the reflectional symmetry  page 1 then the screen of e-textbook displays two sliding doors as follows:

Students observe the sliding door and answer the question of e-textbook: Example 1 (The move of a reflectional symmetry across the axis) Observe the two entrance doors of a supermarket, and give remarks on two positional points M, M' compared with the midline of the entrance.

- When students observe the two entrance doors of a supermarket on the screen, all of good, rather good, average and bad students answer the question of etextbook correctly. - Students click on the next page 2 to see the answer of the question: (Two points M, M' are symmetric with respect to the midline of entrance door.)

- Students will continue to discover the reflectional symmetry when they click on the page 3, read and answer the example 2 of e-textbook. Example 2 Given a pine tree. Observe the axis of this pine tree. We call the left pine tree being the figure ( H ). Let ( H ' ) be the figure symmetric to the axis (Click on the right arrow of the figure (in the next page)). With each of points M on ( H ) , observe point M ' symmetric to point M with respect to a. When M moves on ( H ), give remarks on the positional points M' . See the figure and answer of the question at the next page.

- When students observe the pine tree on the screen, all of good, rather good, average and bad students answer the question correctly: Point M is symmetric to point M ' with respect to the axis of the pine tree. - Students click on the next page 4 then e-textbook displays the following figure:

After click on the right arrow then the figure will move to become the pine tree:

Students interact with the table of choices of the page 4 of e-textbook in order to confirm the answer for e-textbook:

When students interact with the table of choices, all of good, rather good and average students choose the correct answer A. Bad students still do not master knowledge through the visual symbols, so they choose the answer that is not A. E-textbook automatically gives the announcement and feedback on the incorrect choice of bad students as follows:

When students click on the page 5, they will continue to discover the reflectional symmetry, read and answer the question of the below figure of e-textbook: Two given lines a and d satisfying that they intersect at A . With each of points M on d , draw point M' symmetric to the point M with respect to a . When M moves on d , give remarks on the positional points M' . The discovery question: When M moves on d , give remarks on the positional points M' .

Good Students answer the given question of e-textbook correctly. The other students need more instructions by clicking on the page 6 of etextbook. When M moves on d , give remarks on the positional points M' .

Rather good students answer the given question of e-textbook correctly. The other students need more complement instruction by clicking on the page 7 of e-textbook. When M moves on d , give remarks on the positional points M' .

Average students answer the given question of e-textbook correctly. The other students need more complement instruction by clicking on the interactive (tương tác) symbol of the page 7:

E-textbook displays the interactive square, Students interact with e-textbook by clicking points on the line d and obtain the following figure:

Students continue to click on the page 8 in order to see the remarks and answer: (Remarks: M' moves on d through A such that d' and d take a as a bisector line of a pair of vertically opposite angles formed by d' and d .)

Students will continue to discover the reflectional symmetry when they click on the next page 9, read and answer the below question of e-textbook: Example 3 Given line a and circle ( O ). With each of points M on ( O ), draw point M' symmetric to point M with respect to a . When M moves on ( O ), give remarks on the positional points M' .

Good Students answer the given question of e-textbook correctly. The other students need more complement instruction by clicking on the page 10 of e-textbook.

Rather good students answer the given question of e-textbook correctly. The other students need more complement instruction by clicking on the page 11 of e-textbook:

Average students answer the given question of e-textbook correctly. The other students need more complement instruction by clicking on the interactive (tương tác) symbol of the page 11:

E-textbook displays the interactive square, Students interact with e-textbook by clicking points on the circle ( O ) and obtain the following figure:

Students continue to click on the page 12 to see the remarks and answer: (Remarks: M ' moves on the circle (O ') equal to the circle (O ) )

Students click on the pages 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 of E-notebook  Vietnamese advanced geometric text book 11th  Chapter 1  §3. The reflectional symmetry  A.

Theory  1. Definition of the reflectional symmetry in order to see the remarks and definition of reflectional symmetry: Observing all of the above figures, we see that they have a common detail: Given a line a , with each of points M , we only definite a point M' symmetric to point M with respect to a . From this, we have the definition of reflectional symmetry as follows: The symmetry with axis a , called Sa , is a transformation that maps each of points M onto point M' as follow : If M Î a then M' º M ; if M Î a then M' is symmetric to the point M with respect to a . Line a is called the axis of symmetry or symmetric axis.

4.1.3. Students learn in class (after students have learned the lesson in the e-textbook) Teacher asks students to answer the given questions at the previous lesson. All of students discuss these questions, teacher answer these ones of students. There are a lot of different methods in order to organize the acts in class. Teacher can organize the common learning acts for all of students or for groups or each of individuals. The acts of teacher in class are: - To stabilize the class. - Act 1: Receive the replies of students, answer students‟ questions and organize the common acts for class by the questions of checking students‟ knowledge fast. - Act 2: Organize the acts for groups of students. - Act 3: Send private notes to students. - Act 4: Assert the main knowledge that needs to be learned. - Act 5: Teacher give home tasks to students (in the next learning period) (The type of discovery learning in class is the guided one.)

4.1.4. Teacher gives home tasks to students (in the next learning period) Teacher gives the same home tasks to students (in the next learning period) as the home tasks to students (in the previous learning period). Concretely, teacher gives home tasks to students in the next learning period in class; students do the exercises of textbook, find out more different solutions and generalized problems. Students access the address given by teacher at home and do according to teacher‟s requests. When students learn with e-textbook by themselves, students do not understand or have any questions, then students will ask teacher in the next learning period, teacher will explain and answer the questions. Teacher gives home tasks to students; students consolidate knowledge, do problems of developing thought. Students learn the next learning period on etextbook by themselves. The illustrated example that teacher gives home task to students (at the next learning period of lesson “the reflectional symmetry (period 2)” is as follows - Homework: Exercises 7, 8 (page 13 –E-textbook). - Teacher consolidates, broadens knowledge and gives the advanced and development problems of creative thought to students. For example, these are the problems of reflectional symmetry having many solutions, similar and generalized problems of the origin one. - Teacher gives home tasks to students on the remaining lesson of the

reflectional symmetry on e-textbook. After students themselves finish the period 2 of the lesson “the reflectional symmetry” at home, students will answer two following questions of teacher: - Is the reflectional symmetry an isometry? - Give your statements on the coordinate expression of a reflectional symmetry across Ox -axis? Students note on paper and give their answers to teacher in the next learning period.

4.2. The process of learning a lesson on e-textbook according to the organization of discovery acts without the learning step in class Because of some private reasons that a student can not learn the lesson in class, for example, he is ill then e-textbook helps him to finish learning knowledge by himself adapting to the standard of knowledge and skills. The type of discovery learning is free one. The process of learning a lesson on e-textbook according to the organization of discovery acts without the learning step in class include the following steps a) Using e-textbook to help discovery acts b) Using e-textbook to help students learn by themselves c) Using e-textbook to help corporate acts d) The method of learning with e-textbook e) The method of interaction with e-textbook f) The results of doing tests of students Because of some private reasons that a student misses a certain lesson, the effectiveness of self-learning is not good as the blended learning; however, student can understand and apply basic knowledge. From that, e-textbook helps student continue to master the new knowledge more easily, more efficiently.

5. Results and discussion 5.1. Delivering survey forms We delivered survey forms to 113 teachers of senior high schools in Hanoi city, Viet Nam in order to test the application of interactive e-textbook in learning mathematics. The result shows that 63 teachers (55.75%) think that it is very necessary; 40 teachers (35.40%) think that it is necessary; 10 teachers (8.85%) think that it is not necessary yet; nobody thinks that it is not necessary. It shows that teachers are interested in using interactive e-book in teaching.

The chart 1. The attitude of teacher towards the application of the interactive e-book in teaching The ideas of teachers on e-textbook

8.85

0 Very necessary Necessary

35.4

55.75

Not necessary yet Not necessary

We also delivered survey forms to 253 students of senior high schools in Hanoi city, Viet Nam in order to test the application of interactive e-textbook in learning mathematics. The result is as below: Chart 2. The ideas of students on using e-textbook The ideas of students on using e-textbook 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

Frequently Sometime Never

Like teachers Like teachers Like to explore Like to use eto use eto use divided e-textbook rough textbook in branch themselves notebook teaching module concept, theorem, solving problem according to

Chart 2 shows that students very like teachers to use e-textbook in learning concepts, theorems as well as properties according to discovery learning. Students are interested in techer using the feature of divided learning as well as discover e-textbook by themselves. Students very like rough e-notebook in doing with plane geometric objects.

5.2. The following of the progression for a group of students (case study) 5.2.1. The model choice The point of view of model choice: The choices of studentâ&#x20AC;&#x;s presenters must be different levels from bad and average students to good students. The presenters are all of male students. The choices of objects are to follow the progressions and interactive acts with e-textbook of students on the transformations in the plane of grade 11th with the help of teacher and the other friends. The following of the

learning process as well as the exploitable acts of some applications of etextbook in learning the transformations of students bases on the below criteria: - The levels of the need, target and motivation of learning. - The levels of the building and performing of learning plan on the transformations in the plane according to discovery learning. - The real abilities of the interaction with e-textbook. - The levels of the reading and comprehension of contents in e-textbook. - The levels of the checking and assessment of learning the transformations in the plane according to discovery learning. - The levels of finishing learning target and tasks. - The applicative levels of learning knowledge for new lesson and the reality, ect. For each of criteria, we base on the reality and theory of learning transformations in the plane according to discovery learning concretely. We carry out communicate with mathematical teachers, observe the altitudes, acts and learning results of students in order to get information. We choose objects based on the result of the processing of the above information. The result of model choice: For the above approach, we choose 04 students to observe, collect and process information in order to give the opinions on the process of learning the transformations in the plane according to discovery learning. Each of students has different level of learning ability. Concretely: (1) Vu Vuong An (username: vuongan) is a student of grade 11A1 of Samson high school, Thanh Hoa province. Vu Vuong An is good at learning. He is good at mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, ect, and is bad at literature. He is talented at physics. Vuong An is nearsighted. He does not talk in class, he likes to join in class acts. The skills of mathematics such as geometric skill, solving problem skill, computational skill and using mathematical tool skill are good. The self-learning ability of Vuong An on e-textbook is good. The time of finishing the given requires of e-texbook of Vuong An is always at the top. After he finishes the self-learning, Vuong An will be quite good for catching the self-learning knowledge. Vuong An also helps the other friends, he often accesses the forum feature to help bad students. He usually asks teacher about difficult problems concerned with the selflearning on e-textbook. (2) Le Quoc Hung (username: quochung) is a student of grade 11A1 of Samson high school, Thanh Hoa province. Le Quoc Hung is quite good at learning. He is quite good at mathematics, is bad at literature and he is especially talented at chemistry. Hung is nearsighted. He does not talk in class, he likes to join in class acts. The skills of mathematics such as geometric skill, solving problem skill, computational skill and using mathematical tool skill are quite good. The self-learning ability of Quoc Hung on e-textbook is also good. The time of finishing the given requires of e-textbook of Quoc Hung is always at the top. The time that Quoc Hung finishes his selflearning is little longer than Vuong An. After Quoc Hung finishes the selflearning, Quoc Hung will be quite good for catching the self-learning knowledge. Quoc Hung also helps the other friends, he often access the forum feature to help bad students. He also asks teacher about difficult problems concerned with the self-learning on e-textbook.

(3) Le Van Tien Dzung (username: tiendung) is a student of grade 11A1 of Samson high school, Thanh Hoa province. Le Van Tien Dzung is average at learning. He is not self-aware in learning, he only learn when teacher gives learning tasks to him. He does not talk in class, he likes to join in class acts. Dzung is quite good at chemistry, he is bad at literature and he is not talented. He is nearsighted. The skills of mathematics such as geometric skill, computational skill, compared skill is quite good and the skill of using ICT is good. (4) Tran Tri Ngoc (username: tringoc) is a student of grade 11A1 of Samson high school, Thanh Hoa province. Ngoc is bad at learning. Teacher even gives clear task to him, he is not self-aware in learning. He is especially bad at mathematics and he is not talented. He is not handicap. Ngoc is a special student. We ask teacher to help him learn and review lessons on our e-textbook. We also ask some rather good and good students to answer his questions on online. These things make him better. The self-learning ability of Ngoc of two first periods is bad. He usually chooses incorrect answers of ramified problems. The time that he finishes the given requests of e-textbook is the longest. The path of choosing answers in ramified problems is usually a zigzag. The time that Ngoc finishes the self-learning is less than An and Hung about 6 minutes.

5.2.2. The analysis of results c) The concrete results on the exploitation of some applications of e-textbook in the learning process of the transformations in the plane according to discovery learning . - Qualitative assessment : (1) Vu Vuong An At the first period “The beginning of transformations” and “The translations and transformations”, Vuong An finishes the self-learning quite long. At the next periods such as “The translations and transformations” (period 2), “The reflectional symmetry” (period 3, period 4), Vuong An finishes the self-learning fast. For ramified problems, Vuong An finishes choices fast, correctly and he is better through each of periods. For example, the problem 2 of “The reflectional symmetry”: Given a triangle ABC ( ABC is inscribed in a circle with center O ). B , C are fixed while A moves on the circle. Use the reflectional symmetry to prove that the orthocenter H of triangle ABC lies on a fixed circle then the chart of the learning process on e-textbook of Vuong An is as follows:

Vuong An likes high challenging problems, asks teacher about difficult questions in class. For example, when Vuong An learns lesson “The refectional symmetry”, he asks teacher the following difficult problem “Given two circles ( A; R1 ) and ( B; R2 ) lying on the same side of line d. Find point C on ( A) , point D on ( B) and point M on line d such that MC  MB is the shortest. Vuong An is fluent and active in group acts and common acts in class. Vuong An finishes learning notes for rather good and good students quite fast. (2) Le Quoc Hung At the first period “The beginning of transformations” and “the translations and transformations”, The time that Quoc Hung finishes the self-learning is longer than Vuong An. At the next periods such as “The translations and transformations” (period 2), “The reflectional symmetry” (period 3, period 4), Quoc Hung finishes the self-learning fast. For ramified problems, Quoc Hung finishes choices fast, correctly and he is better through each of periods. The time that Quoc Hung finishes the selflearning is longer than Vuong An. For example, the problem 2 of “The reflectional symmetry”: Given a triangle ABC ( ABC is inscribed in a circle with center O ). B , C are fixed while A moves on the circle. Use the reflectional symmetry to prove that the orthocenter H of triangle ABC lies on a fixed circle then the time that Quoc Hung finishes the problem is longer than Vuong An about 1 minute. The chart of the learning process on e-textbook of Quoc Hung is as follows:

Quoc Hung also likes to ask teacher about difficult problems like Vuong An in class. For example, when Quoc Hung learns lesson “The refectional symmetry”, he asks teacher the following difficult problem “Given circle ( A; R1 ) and point B lying on the same side of line d. Find point C on ( A) , point M on line d such that MC  MB is the shortest. Quoc Hung is fluent and active in group acts, common acts in class. Quoc Hung finishes the learning notes of rather good and good students quite fast. The time that he finishes the learning notes is only longer than Vuong An. (3) Le Van Tien Dzung At the first period “The beginning of transformations” and “the translations and transformations”, The time that Tien Dzung finishes the self-learning is longer than Quoc Hung and Vuong An about 4 minutes. At the next periods such as “The translations and transformations” (period 2), “The reflectional symmetry”

(period 3, period 4), Tien Dzung finishes the self-learning quite fast. The selflearning ability of Dzung is average. For the ramified problem (problem 1 of lesson ““The beginning of transformations”), Tien Dzung chooses an incorrect choice. The chart of the learning process of ramified problem (problem 1) on e-textbook of Tien Dzung is as follows:

At the next periods, Tien Dzung do ramified problems for a long time but he does not choose any incorrect choice. For example, the problem 2 of “The reflectional symmetry”: Given a triangle ABC ( ABC is inscribed in a circle with center O ). B , C are fixed while A moves on the circle. Use the reflectional symmetry to prove that the orthocenter H of triangle ABC lies on a fixed circle then Tien Dzung chooses all of correct choices. The chart of the learning process of Tien Dzung on e-textbook is as follows:

Tien Dzung does not ask teacher about knowledge concerned with his selflearning in class. Teacher must give more exercises to consolidate his knowledge. Tien Dzung is fluent and active in learning with simple problems but he is passive in learning with advanced problems in class. Tien Dzung also finishes private notes of teacher well. (3) Tran Tri Ngoc At the first period “The beginning of transformations” and “the translations and transformations”, Tri Ngoc does not master the self-learning knowledge. When he learn by himself, he does not know to communicate with his friends and teacher in order to get their help. Tri Ngoc chooses incorrect choices and need instructions. The chart of the learning process of ramified problem (problem 1) on e-textbook of Tri Ngoc is as follows:

At the next period “The translations and transformations” (period 2), Tri Ngoc can communicate with his friends about lesson. Tri Ngoc also chooses incorrect choices however the time of his incorrect choices is shorter than before. The chart of the learning process of ramified problem (problem 2) of Tri Ngoc on etextbook is as follows:

At the next periods “The reflectional symmetry” (period 3, period 4), Tri Ngoc chooses all of correct choices of ramified problems however the time of his correct choices is quite long. Tri Ngoc is better through every period. The chart of the learning process of ramified problem (problem 2) on e-textbook of Tri Ngoc is as follows:

Tri Ngoc does not ask teacher about knowledge concerned with his self-learning in class. Teacher must give more exercises to consolidate his knowledge. In class, Tri Ngoc is passive in two fist periods. At the two next periods, Tri Ngoc is also active in solving simple exercises however the time of doing exercises is quite long. Tri Ngoc also finishes private notes of teacher well.

- Quantitative assessment: We follow the learning of 04 students by e-textbook, from the traces of the students on e-textbook, we realize that, students usually enter their login to learn knowledge, do exercises and tests, the following results of 04 students in a month are as follows: TT Full name Score 1 Score 2 Score 3 Score 4 1 Vương An 7.5 8.5 8.5 9.0 2 Quoc Hung 7.0 7.5 7.5 8.0 3 Tien Dzung 6.0 7.0 7.5 7.5 4 Tri Ngoc 4.5 5.0 5.0 6.0 Observing the scores of 04 students, we realize that they are better on the activeness, self-awareness and creation. Thus, the experimental results show that e-textbook helps student to learn mathematics and to improve their active and creative abilities.

6. Conclusion Interactive e-textbooks have many strong points such as to help students to discover knowledge conveniently; to transmit images, sound, MP3, MP4 files. E-textbooks allow us to educate an infinite number of students. Students can interact together by e-textbooks easily. E-textbooks will create an advantageous environment when users do with geometric objects.

References

Doan, Q., Van, N. C., Pham, K., B., Ta, M. (2016), Advanced geometry 11th, The Vietnam Educational Publishing House. Joi, L. M., Camille, D., D., Krista, G., (2011), e-learning, online learning, and distance learning environments : Are they the same? Internet and Higher Education, Vol. 14, 129-135. Joolingen, W., V (1999), Cognitive tools for discovery learning, International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, Vol 10, 385-397 Michael, H. (2015), Workshop application of information technology in blended teaching meeting the new school curriculum’s demand, Ministry of Education and Training of Vietnam. Mogens, N. (2003), Mathematical competencies and the learning of mathematics: The danish KOM project. In Gagatsis, A., & Papastarvridis, S. (eds.), 3rd Mediterranean Conference on Mathematical Education (pp. 115 – 124). Athens, Greece: Hellenic Mathematical Society and Cyprus Mathematical Society. Nguyen, T., D. (2014), The research of the lessons of teacher concentrated on the mathematical discovery of students in teaching and learning mathematics at upper secondary school. A Dissertation for the Degree of Doctor of Education, Hanoi National University of Education (Dissertation written in Vietnamese). Nguyen, V., H. (2007). Applying guided discovery teaching in the process of teaching mathematics at upper secondary school. Journal of Vietnamese Educational Science, 28-29. Nguyen, M., H., Khu, Q., A., Nguyen, H., T. (2016), Basic geometric exercises 11th, The Vietnam Educational Publishing House. Nguyen, M., T. (2012), The e-document of teaching and learning – A model of blended learning software, Journal of Vietnamese Education, number 280 (2/2012), p.51–53. Nguyen, T., T., Nguyen, H., C., Quach, T., C., Nguyen, T., H., Doan, T., P., Pham, D., Q., Nguyen, T., Q., S. (2006), The instructions of performing the standard of knowledge and skills of mathematical subject 11th, The Vietnam Educational Publishing House.

Pham, T., T., Dang, T., T., H., Do, D., L., Pham, D., T., Dao, T., L. (2015), The research on mathematical textbooks of some countries, the proposal of applications to write Vietnamese mathematical textbook adapting to the requires of secondary school educational program after 2015, The report of the summarization of the science and technology topic of the Vietnam Institute of Educational Sciences, Hanoi. Roger, S. (1989), The elaboration of school textbooks methodological guide, Division of Educational Sciences, Contents and Methods of Education UNESCO. Tran, T. (2011), Applying ICT to teaching and learning mathematics at secondary school, The Vietnam Educational Publishing House. Tran V., H., Nguyen, M., H., Khu, Q., A., Nguyen, H., T., Phan, V., V. (2016), Basic geometry 11th, The Vietnam Educational Publishing House. Van, N., C., Pham, K. B., Ta, M. (2016), Advanced geometric exercises 11th, The Vietnam Educational Publishing House. Edutechwiki.unige.ch. Retrieved from http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Discovery_learning En.wikipedia.org. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-book. Violet. Retrieved from http://violet.vn/atomic281/present/showprint/entry_id/797183 En.wikipedia. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(philosophy_of_education) Kristenlockwood13. Retrieved from http://kristenlockwood13.tripod.com/id22.htm Simple.wikipedia.org. Retrieved from https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textbook

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 10, pp. 62-72, September 2016

School Leadership and English Language Teachers’ Approaches in Teaching English Language: The Case of Selected Schools in Sidama Zone, Southern Ethiopia *Eshetu Mandefro and Mebratu Mulatu College of Social sciences and Humanities, Hawassa University Hawassa, Ethiopia Tesfaye Abebe and Yohannes Yona College of Agriculture, Hawassa University Hawassa, Ethiopia Abstract The study was conducted to assess the strategies and approaches used by school leadership and English language teachers in handling English language teaching in primary and secondary schools of Sidama administrative zone, Southern Ethiopia. The study was a descriptive survey which comprised a total of 40 English language teachers, 6 English language department heads, 4 School principals and 257 students drawn from randomly selected 11 primary and secondary school students. The data were collected through questionnaires, interviews and document analysis. The results disclosed that all the schools didn’t have functional English Language Improvement Centers (ELIC) and School Based English Language Mentors (SBELM). Moreover, the school leadership allocated only limited resources for English language improvement activities. The findings also revealed that English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers act poorly as role models in using English and in letting the students use English language in different contexts. Therefore, it is recommended that school leadership should be committed not only to establish but also to follow up English Language improvement Centers (ELICs) and School Based English Language Mentors (SBELM) providing the basic facilities to the practical activities. In addition, they should encourage EFL teachers to carry out their responsibility in helping students improve their English language ability which is the ideal activity to ensure quality education in the Ethiopian EFL context. Keywords: Educational leadership; performance; English Language Improvement; English Language Mentors

Introduction At present, ‘English’ is an international language which is used for communication with many people in different nations across the worldwide. In the education sector in particular, students in various universities use English to search for information and gain knowledge. The teaching and learning of the English language is also closely associate social and political roles around the world (Ronald & David, 2001). Evidently, most universities throughout the world need to include English language as one of their educational tool requirements (Khader & Mohammad, 2010). Likewise, the widespread of the English language has rapidly increased the need to attain better communication English throughout the world. Thus, the aptitude to use English is very much needed for further studies, journeys in other countries as well as for social and professional global contacts (Susanna, 2007) Obviously, people’s demand towards English language in many countries in the world is making it a global language that spreads rapidly (Carlo, 2012). Ethiopia is a country where English language has been taught as a second or foreign language starting from primary schools up to higher educational institutions all over the country. The government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia has been attributing a top primacy and increasingly allocating huge capital for the expansion of equitable, relevant and quality education at all levels and quantitative progress has been made in this respect (MoE, 2008). Over the last two decades, the country has made significant progress in providing access to education at all levels of the education system. This has led to a sharp increase in the demand of teaching facilities (MoE, 2010). However, the achievements in the access of education have not been facilitated with adequate enhancements in quality aspect. Recognizing this fact, the Ministry of Education of Ethiopia launched the ‘General Education Quality Improvement Package (GEQIP)’ (MoE, 2008) which consists of different programs among which the ‘English Language Improvement Program (ELIP)’ is one (MOE, 2010). ELIP aims at improving the quality of education and competencies of teachers and students in primary and secondary schools all over the nation. The program has focused on providing in-service training for English language teachers in primary and secondary schools for relatively longer period of time. Besides, the 1994 education and training policy stated that English will be taught as an independent subject starting from early grade (grade one) and it will also be used as a medium of instruction in secondary and higher levels. Mother tongue based teaching in primary education is highly promoted by the educational policy. And then English language will be introduced as a subject in grade 1 and as the medium of instruction in secondary level. English is also a medium of instruction starting from grade 5 and this extends up to higher educational levels.

Statement of the problem As English is the medium of instruction in Ethiopian context, students learn the language to know how uses different forms, and develop ability to understand when people are using the expressions in different contexts including the

academic world (VCE, 2015). One of the major areas of interventions made to improve the quality of education in Ethiopia has been to provide English language; skill based training for EFL and other subject teachers, and set schoolbased English mentors who will assist all teachers that use English as a tool for classroom teaching and learning (MoE, 2010). The initiative also aims at strengthening English Language Quality Improvement Program (ELQIP) all over the country, through continued improvement of quality teaching and learning (MoE, 2010). But, the concern is that the mamagment of the training and the extent of classroom application haven’t been studied well. In line with this, Eshetu (2016)stated that the school level management of English language instruction is not uniform across the schools. When we focus at the regional context, a study conducted on the learning achievement of schools in the Region (Southern, Nations, Nationalities and Peoples’ Regional state, SNNPRS) indicated deterioration of the students’ achievement in English language proficiency and overall performance at each level. The study which was conducted on English language proficiency of Grade 4 and Grade 8 students drawn from 213 schools showed that only 23.1% of the students from grade 8, and 16.4% from grade 4 passed the examination (SNNPR Education Bureau, 2014). The Annual Report of SNNPR Education Bureau (2013) also indicated that only 12.9% of the students from Sidama zone and 20.5% from Hawassa city scored 50% and above for English subject, and the performance of grade 8 students in the Regional examination and grade 10 students in the National examination was below average. According to the same report, the degree of failure of students was extremely high in English, Mathematics and Science subjects. Although these studies show the poor achievement of students in English and other subjects, the root causes of the problem and the approaches used by teachers and school leaders in teaching English language are not clearly known. The present study was therefore conducted to assess the strategies and methods used by English language teachers and school leaders in teaching the English language.

Objectives of the Study The purpose of this study was to assess the strategies and approaches used in the teaching of English in selected primary and secondary schools in Sidama administrative zone of Southern Ethiopia, and to identify the major pedagogical and organizational problems that affect students’ performance in the English language. The specific objectives of this study were: • To assess the strategies and approaches used by school leadership in handling English language teaching in primary and secondary schools. • To identify the kinds of teaching methods/approaches used by teachers when teaching English in the classroom.

Materials and Methods Research Design

The method used in the study was descriptive survey because the study was directed towards people, their opinions, attitude and behaviors. According to Best and Khan (2006), descriptive research attempts to describe scientifically a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or program, or provides information or describes attitudes towards an issue. This method was therefore selected because the nature of the problems needs wider description and detailed analysis of existing phenomenon.

Population of the Study and Sampling Techniques

The target groups of this study were English language teachers and Grade 7-12 students in schools randomly selected from six districts of Sidama administrative zone, SNNPRS. Both purposive and random sampling techniques were used to obtain fair representation of the population. Accordingly, eleven (11) schools were selected randomly from public primary and secondary schools in the districts. In the second stage, the targets were purposefully grouped into four categories and respondents were selected randomly using the proportional sampling method. The groups were School principals, Department heads, English language teachers and students. From each school, a total of 50 English language teachers and department heads were selected through the random sampling technique. Similarly, 257 primary and secondary school students were selected randomly from the eleven schools.

Data Collection Instruments Data for the study were collected through questionnaires, interviews and document analysis. The data collected through questionnaire were used for the quantitative analysis, while those collected through interviews and document analysis were used to describe the findings.

The Questionnaire

To achieve the objectives of the study, a quantitative methodology involving a close-ended questionnaire was used as the measuring instrument. The questionnaire was used to obtain quantitative information from teachers and students on issues related to English language teaching. A total of 307 questionnaires were distributed to students (257) and teachers (50) drawn from the eleven primary and secondary schools. In order to have fair representation of gender, the respondents (students and teachers) were grouped into males and females, and then a random sample was taken from each group based on their proportions. All of the questionnaires were appropriately filled and returned.

The Interviews Interviews were conducted to get additional information that will substantiate the information obtained through questionnaires and to get supplementary information. In the interviews, semi-structured interview questions were used to

collect information from 5 randomly selected school principals, 3 English language department heads and 3 English language teachers. The interviews focused on investigating the level of English language proficiency of students.

Document analysis

The researchers also analyzed different documents such as students’ profiles, mark lists, students’ academic records (rosters), and records of regional and national certificate examination results in order to cross-check the findings with the existing facts on the ground.

Methods of data Analysis

The method of data analysis was based on the nature of the data as there were two kinds of data: quantitative and qualitative. In analyzing the quantitative data, all the structured items of the questionnaires were keyed into a computer and analyzed using the computer program of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 17.0.To analyse the descriptive data. Scores of respondents of all items were entered into SPSS software and descriptive statistics were computed. In this study, single sample t-test was used to compute means, standard deviations, and t-value. Frequency analysis and percentage were also computed to determine the number of respondents who choose each alternative response to each question. Thus, means and percentages were used to report statistical values obtained from the respondents. The statistical significance was set at p< 0.05. The five point Likert scale questionnaire items were analyzed in terms of their mean range. The mean scores from 0.01 to 2.99 indicated a negative response and disagreement of the respondents on the statements forwarded to them; the mean value 3.00 indicates a neutral response of respondents, and the mean value “3.01-5.00” indicates a positive response and agreement of respondents on the issue raised in the items (Johns, 2010). The qualitative data collected through interviews and document analysis were analyzed textually by grouping the information thematically from the responses of the respondents.

Results and Discussion School leadership roles in handling English language teaching School Leadership Strategies The respondents were asked to answer leading questions that relate to strategies applied by the school leadership in improving English language proficiency of students. They were requested to indicate the extent of their agreement. The questions included presence of functional English language improvement Club (ELIC), School-based English Language Mentors (SBELM) and use of Communicative approach of English language teaching strategies in the schools. The responses of students as well as teachers to these questions were negative (Table 1). This indicates that functional English Language Improvement Club (ELIC) in the schools is poor or totally absent. Moreover, there is no School Based English Language Mentors (SBEM) in the schools. This shows that one of the strategies designed by the Ministry of Education in 2010 to improve English

language skills of teachers through in-service training by establishing School Based English Language Mentors has not been implemented. The study also indicated that the schools do not encourage communicative approach of English language teaching strategies. Table 1: Strategies used by schools leadership to facilitate English language teaching Respondents’ views No

1 2 3 4

Leadership Strategies

Presence of functional English language improvement club (ELIC) in the school Presence of well- organized School Based English Language Mentors (SBELM) program. Functionality of School based English language mentors (SBEM). Use of communicative approach of English language teaching strategies in the school

Students (N=257, Df.= 256) Std. Sig.2Mean Dv. tailed)

Teachers (N= 50, Df.= 49) Mean Std. Sig.2Dv tailed)

2.28

1.44

.001

1.42

0.75

0.00

1.56

0.70

.000

1.61

0.71

0.00

1.48

0.61

.000

1.62

0.71

0.00

2.10

0.86

.000

1.69

0.79

0.00

N.B (α = 0.05 at 95% confidence interval of the difference). The results on Leadership strategies show that the school leaderships do not properly implement the approaches and strategies that are believed to improve English language proficiency of students. Allocation of resources to improve English language teaching The respondents were asked to rate their schools in terms of the provision of supplementary materials to students to help them to improve their English language proficiency. Accordingly, the mean scores rated by both students and teachers were 2.24 and 2.17, respectively (Table 2) indicating poor performance in provision of supplementary resources that help improve English language proficiency of students. The value of sign.2 tailed test in both groups confirms that there were no variations between the teachers’ and students’ responses as the values is less than 0.05 in both groups. Moreover, from the interviews conducted with the school principals and English language teachers, it was found out that the provision of supplementary materials to students was inadequate.

Table 2. Availability of Resources and Training

2. 3. 4.

Resources to improve English language teaching in the schools

Adequacy of supplementary materials to students to help them improve English language skill. Suitability of the classrooms to implement student centered teaching approach. Allocation of adequate financial resources to support ELIC. Provision of different training programs for teachers inthe areas of teaching methods.

Respondent’s view on Availability of Resources Students (N= 257, Df.= 256) Std. Sig.2Mean d tailed)

Teachers (N= 50, Df.= 49) Std. Sig.2Mean d tailed)

2.24

1.28

.000

2.17

1.30

0.00

2.20

0.98

.000

2.02

1.36

0.00

1.72

1.10

.000

1.84

0.73

0.00

1.84

0.93

.000

1.74

1.07

0.00

The respondents were asked to evaluate the suitability of their classrooms to implement a student centered teaching-learning approach, as per the standards set for each level of schooling. The responses to this question had average mean value of 2.20 and 2.02 for students and teachers, respectively, implying that the size of classroom was not suitable to implement student centered teachinglearning approach. Besides this, interviews conducted with school principals, and English language teachers indicated that the number of students in the class exceeds the standard class size recommended for English language teaching. According to them, this resulted from shortage of qualified English language teachers, and/or lack of finance to construct additional classrooms. Regarding the schools’ allocation of financial resources to support English language improvement program and provision of different training programs for teachers in the areas of teaching methods, the mean scores showed the schools neither allocate finance to support English language clubs nor provide capacity building training for English language teachers to improve their teaching methods (Table 2). Likewise, the interviews conducted with school principals and English language teachers indicated that the schools’ allocation of finance to ELIC clubs and provision of capacity building training for English language teachers were poor. For example One English teacher said, “I’m interested to strengthen the ELIC club, but the school administration doesn’t provide any resource to the center.” Likewise, Alemu (2016) disclosed that English Language Improvement Centers are not working properly in school level due to various factors related to teachers’ motivation, resource limitations and poor follow up and support activities.

Teaching approaches used by English Language Teachers The respondents were requested to rate English language teachers’ commitment as reflective practitioners who are dedicated to improve English language proficiency of students. The average score of students to the question was 2.90 while that of teachers’ was 2.35 (Table 3). This result indicated that the commitment and activities of teachers to raise interest of their students to improve their English language proficiency was not satisfactory. This was supported by the interview conducted with school principals who revealed that the teachers’ commitment to help students in the schools was generally low. This could have resulted from inadequacy of supervision and follow-up by the school management, and other factors related to job satisfaction and living conditions of the teachers. Table 3: Distribution of respondents about the strategies used Responses towards teaching techniques English Language Teachers’ No

1 2 3 4 5

motivation and teaching approaches

English language teachers are reflective practitioner, and they influence interest of their students. English language teachers in my school use student centered teaching methods. English language teachers in my school are well equipped with required skills of English language. English language teacher uses other language (mother tongue, Amharic) when teaching in the class. English language teachers motivate their students to apply task based interactive activities in classroom.

Students (N= 257, Df.= 256) Std. Sig.2Mean d tailed)

Teachers (N= 50, Df.= 49) Mean Std Sig.2.d tailed)

2.90

1.09

.521

2.35

2.74

1.06

.091

3.11

3.28

0.78

.000

3.11

4.12

0.91

.000

3.76

1.05

.500

2.31

2.10

1.4 8 1.3 0 1.3 5 1.3 9 1.3 6

0.00 0.16 0.17 0.00

0.00

N.B ( α = 0.05 at 95% confidence interval of the difference). Regarding using student centered teaching methods by English language teachers, the opinions of students and teachers were different: The students’ rating was negative (mean score 2.74) while that of teachers’ was positive (mean score 3.11). The students’ responded that their teachers do not apply studentcentered teaching methods, while the teachers claim to apply student-centered teaching methods in the class. However, two of the three interviewees (teachers) confirmed that they don’t apply the method due to various challenges. This shows that a student centered teaching method is not practical in EFL classes in the Ethiopian context.

The respondents were asked to point out whether the English language teachers are well equipped with the required skills of English language. The average mean score given by students was 3.28 while that of teachers was 3.11. The average mean score of both groups indicate that the English language teachers are moderately equipped with the required skills of English language, but not sufficient. In response to the question of whether the English language teachers use other languages such as the mother tongue, or the working language (Amharic) when teaching English in the classroom, the average score by students and teachers were 4.12 and 3.76 respectively. This result showed wider use of mother tongue and Amharic by teachers when teaching in the class. Furthermore, interviews conducted with English language teachers disclosed that they widely use other languages, claiming that the students do not understand what the teacher teaches. Obviously, the use of other languages by English language teachers to compensate for poor understanding of subjects by the students, further contributes towards deterioration of English language skills. In line with this, Sambo (2015) underscores the dominance of mother tongue in English classroom contributed more to the poor performance of students in English language. The respondents were asked to rate their English language teachers' in terms of their performances to motivate the students to apply task based interactive activities in classroom. The average mean score of both groups of respondents was 2.10 and 2.31 for students and teachers respectively (Table 3). Both groups of respondents confirmed that English language teachers do not influence and motivate their students to apply task-based interactive activities in the classroom. Similarly, the interviews conducted with school principals indicated that English language teachers do not adequately motivate their students to perform and apply any task-based interactive activities in the classroom, such as English language clubs, or social media of the school, to motivate the students to improve their English language skills. This agrees with the result of Belamo (2015) which confirmed that students are not provided with interactive activities though the text book encourages doing so.

Conclusions

English is the medium of instruction in secondary and tertiary education systems in Ethiopia, and it is a vital key to understand all other subjects taught in English. However, recent studies indicate that the proficiency of students in the English language in generally low. This study was, therefore, conducted to assess the ways in which English language teaching is handled in Primary and Secondary schools in Sidama administrative zone in Southern Ethiopia. In particular, the study attempted to evaluate the methods applied and the resources used in English language teaching. As regards to the teaching methods used in teaching English, the study revealed that, a) English language teachers in the schools do not generally apply studentcentered teaching methods, b) English language teachers do not motivate their students to apply task based interactive activities in the classroom, c) The majority of English language teachers use other languages (mother tongue

and/or Amharic) when teaching English, and they hardly communicate to each other in English, and d) English language teachers were not reflective practitioners, and as professional teachers, they do not influence their students to improve their English language proficiency Regarding the resources and facilities used in the teaching of English, the study revealed that: a) there were no well-organized school-based English language mentors, b) the supplementary materials like audio and visual aids provided by the schools were not satisfactory, c) English language improvement clubs (ELIC) are either non-functional or poorly performing, d) the schools never provided training opportunities for teachers on English language teaching methods, and e) the school management did not encourage communicative approach of English language teaching strategies in the schools. The following recommendations are drawn based on the findings: •

•

School principals should play front-line leadership roles in establishing English language improvement clubs (ELIC) with target groups of English language teachers, ELIC’s should be supplied with the necessary resources such as computers, internet access, different audio-visual materials, supplementary books, magazines, newsletters etc. that support the overall activities of the club, School principals should establish school-based English language mentors (SBEM) from experienced English language teachers who will provide and organize training for teachers of English and support all teachers using English as a medium of instruction, School principals should provide different supplementary materials to students to help them to improve their English language proficiency. Also, budget should be allocated to provide the necessary materials, School leaders should also inspire teachers to apply a more communicative approach of English language teaching. They should also conduct constant supervision through continuous and formal classroom observations and visits. English language teachers should act as role models to their students by communicating in English with their students when teaching in the class, and also communicate with each other by using English, English language teachers should also motivate their students to apply task based interactive activities in classrooms, etc. so as to inspire students to use their potential to use English in and outside the class.

References Alemu, B. (2016). School Based Activities to Improve the Teaching and Learning of English ( MA Thesis from Addis Ababa University). Addis Ababa: AAU press. Best, J.W., & Kahn, J.V. ( 2006). Research in Education. Prentice Hall of India. New Delhi. Carlo, M. (2012).Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. TESOL Journal, 6(2),112-119. Belamo, U. (2015). The Practice of Students Interaction in English Language Lesson. IJSSHE 2(6): 39-44 Eshetu, M. (2016). Challenges in Teaching English in Ethiopia (MA TEFL Thesis from AAU). Adiss Ababa: Unpublished MA Thesis. John, L., & Ehow, C. (2011).Factors Affecting quality of English language Teaching and Learning. Retrieved fromhttp://www.ehow.com/info_8040040_factors-englishlanguage-teaching-learning.html Johns, R. (2010). SQB Methods Fact Sheet: Likert Items and Scales. Massay: PT press L.td. Khader, K. T., & Mohammad, S. (2010). Reasons behind non-English major University Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; achievement gap in the English language in Gaza strip from students' perspectives. Retrieved from http://www.qou.edu/english/conferences/firstNationalConference/pdfFiles/kha derKhader.pdf Ministry of Education (MOE) (2010).School Improvement Program Guidelines: improving the quality of education and Students results for all children at primary and secondary schools. A.A:GT press Ministry of Education (MOE) (2008). General Education Quality Improvement Package. Addis Ababa: GT press Murray, D. E., & Christison, M. A. (2010). What English Language Teachers Need to Know: Understanding Learning. Taylor & Francis. Simbo, K. (2015). The Status of English in Ethiopia. Journal of Education: 12 (4): 67-69. Ronald, C., & David, N. (2001).The Cambridge guide to teaching English to speakers of other languages. New York: Cambridge University Press. Susanna, A. (2007). The weak language learner: a study of ways of taking weak language learners into consideration in class. Sweden: Vaxjo University, School of Humanities English, GIX115. VCE (2015). English Language. Melbourne: Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 10, pp. 73-91, September 2016

Defining Teacher Effectiveness in Secondary Education: The Perceptions of Greek Students Konstantina Koutrouba Harokopio University Athens, Greece Abstract. The present research was conducted in 2014-2015 in 30 schools across Greece and examines, through a specifically designed questionnaire, the views of 879 Greek secondary education students on teaching practices, teacher traits and behaviours which are associated by students with teacher effectiveness. According to the results, Greek students (a) relate teacher effectiveness to scientifically accepted teaching practices implemented and procedures developed in the classroom (e.g. during cooperative learning or individualized/ adapted teaching, during knowledge scaffolding, clarification of objectives, and feedback provision) and (b) attribute the feature ‘effective’ to teachers who develop specific behavioural attitudes during interpersonal communication, such as empathy, friendliness, supportiveness, trustworthiness and humour. Keywords: Effective teacher; secondary education; students’ views; Greece

Introduction

Teacher effectiveness has been reported to be closely linked, firstly, to a teacher’s professional background and qualifications, secondly, to local/national community values, expectations and material resources and infrastructure at the teacher’s disposal, and, thirdly, to learning processes developed within school settings and carried out through constructive interactions between teacher-tostudent, teacher-to-parent, teacher-to-teacher, student-to-student (Garrett & Steinberg, 2015; Goe, Bell, & Little 2008; Kyriakides, Demetriou, & Charalambous, 2006; Ross et al., 2003). Such factors, features and interactions are likely to lead to high academic, affective, and social/attitudinal achievements not only by students but also by teachers which can be standardised, measured, and evaluated through a variety of modern scientifically designed assessment procedures (Heneman et al., 2006; Junker et al., 2006; Murphy, 2016; Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2005; Schleicher, 2016). Although numerous aspects of effective teaching have been recorded and examined after a huge amount of research conducted over the last few decades, the majority of the researchers seem to agree that effective teachers are mainly expected to (i) help all students meet not only social and educational requirements and commitments but also a student’s personal expectations and aspirations (ii) diversify teaching/learning process through the utilisation of a

variety of educational strategies and individualise provision of learning material and support according to the special needs of every student in the classroom, and (iii) collaborate concordantly with colleagues, families, administration, and supportive scientific services and institutions in order to share and improve experience, feedback, and outcomes (Arnon & Reichel, 2007; Bakx et al., 2015; Devine, Fahie, & McGillicuddy, 2013; Norman, 2010; OECD, 2013; Quigley, 2016; Teddlie et al., 2006). It is rather apparent that this particularly broad range of educational aspects, that teacher effectiveness is linked to and, in fact, depends on, renders efforts to monitor, assess or even describe it in an integrated and widely accepted way quite challenging, albeit feasible as Campbell and colleagues (2003), Goe, Bell, and Little (2008), Hakel, Koening, and Elliott (2008) and Muijs (2006) have shown. In fact, one could justifiably say that if a teacher has to be actually ‘effective’, s/he must act, behave, and develop far beyond the potentials and opportunities provided to him/her in the real world – a view apparently unfair and discouraging for educators. It is, thus, more realistic for researchers to examine specifically targeted aspects of effective teaching as they are demonstrated within more controllable and monitorable educational settings, in order to determine factors facilitating several aspects of effective teaching and suggest ways to strengthen, improve and advance the teaching/learning process (Borich, 2016; Greany & Rodd, 2003; Mayer & Alexander, 2011; Meng, Muñoz, & Wu, 2015; Slavin, 2014). Modern research has provided us with relevant information; Lutz, Guthrie, and Davis (2006) have highlighted the major positive impact which scaffolding content and establishing steps in learning activities within the classroom may have on the educational process, while Tucker and Stronge (2005) have linked successful scaffolding to teacher ability to predetermine and clearly display and explain to the students the specific academic and socioemotional objectives of every step of the learning procedure. Moreover, Matsumura and Pascal (2003) have shown that effective teachers are able to simplify knowledge and clarify appointed tasks by using comprehensible language adapted to the students’ comprehension ability, while Smylie and Wenzel (2006) have reported that adaptations of learning material in a way that can meet diversified needs of students can produce major positive outcomes, especially in cases where children with special educational needs are included in the classroom. Effective teachers are expected to provide individualized assistance to students of different learning backgrounds, emotional profile, or ethnic origin; such adaptations and diversifications have been considered to be cornerstones of effective teaching, as Cohen and Hill (2000), Blank, Porter, and Smithson (2001) and Berry (2004) have shown. Moreover, for effective teachers, adaptations seem also to be linked to their ability to update learning content and utilize highly diversified teaching methods and techniques within their classrooms; they are reported to engage their students in stimulating, thought-provoking real-life learning tasks, breaking thus the conventionalities and routines of the traditional frontal teaching process (Gottlieb, 2015; Opdenakker & Van Damme, 2006; PozoMuñoz, Rebolloso-Pacheco, & Fernández-Ramírez, 2000). They are, also, reported to evolve their teaching practices in ways that overcome obstacles

related to the socio-financial settings of the school, the infrastructure provided, or the heterogeneity of the student population (Schacter & Thum, 2004; Sharan, 2010). In addition, a teacher’s personal traits and features related to teacherstudent communication have been reported to contribute to effective teaching; Rice (2003), Hamre and Pianta (2005), Schacter, Thum, and Zifkin (2006) and Perry, Donohue, and Weinstein (2007) have reported that teachers investing in the establishment of sound interpersonal relationships with their students motivate students’ accountability, cooperativeness, and commitment, while developing feelings of security and emotional stability. Despite the fact that the quality of teacher-student communication seems to considerably depend on factors which the teacher does not always control (Cohen, Brody, & SaponShevin, 2004), it has been confirmed that effective teachers tend to develop friendly relationships with their students based though more on teacher professional authority, awareness and a profound knowledge of pedagogical principles than on personal kindness and approachability (Ferreira & Bosworth, 2001; Sharan, 2015; Van Gog & Paas, 2008). The establishment of such sound teacher-student relationships has, also, been reported to be consolidated when students are prompted to work in various collaborative ways, especially in cases where the teachers provide their students with integrated knowledge on the principles and the outcomes of cooperative learning and help them then develop rules for cooperation, interpersonal communication, task allocation, and peer assistance (Corner, 2012; Davis, 2013; Hargreaves, 2000). Furthermore, effective teachers have been reported to provide their students with sufficient feedback about their socio-affective and academic achievements while implementing flexible assessment techniques in order to ensure student metacognitive awareness and performance improvement (Harlen, 2006; Heneman et al., 2006; Mayer & Alexander, 2011). In a similar way, effective teachers are not afraid of being evaluated by their own students; students’ remarks and recommendations, when developed on the basis of mutual respect and acceptance, have been reported to improve both teachers’ professional profile and students’ ability to construct and express sufficiently justified judgments (Gardner, 2006; Stiggins, 2001). As regards Greece, relevant information about teacher effectiveness is rather scarce. The educational system in Greece, despite minor reforms that have taken place over the last five years (Georgiadis, 2007; Traianou, 2009), remains highly bureaucratic; namely it serves quantity rather than quality objectives, in particular as regards secondary education (i.e., Junior and Senior High School, with 13-18 year-old students); there is a plethora of learning subjects, not always adequately adapted to the students’ comprehension level, quick-pace content transmission through frontal lecturing seems to prevail over cooperative or experiential learning, while continual assessment procedures seem to oblige teachers, students, and parents to follow almost asthmatically this rapidly evolving learning process (Alahiotis & Karatzia, 2006; Ifanti, 2007; Koulaidis et al., 2006; Koustourakis, 2007; OECD, 2011). In addition, the inflexibility of these content-oriented Curricula dissuades teachers from making adaptations and, consequently, from individualized teaching, although the often unplanned inclusion of immigrants and students with special educational needs in

mainstream classes renders adaptation and individualization pressingly urgent (OECD, 2015; Poulou, 2007; Vouyoukas, 2007; Zounhia et al., 2002). This research, which took place in 2014-2015, examines Greek secondary education students’ views on the features and behaviours of effective teachers and follows 2011-2012 research on the effective teacher from the point of view of the teachers themselves (Koutrouba, 2012). More specifically, it examines students’ views about (a) teaching practices implemented and procedures developed in the classroom by teachers who are considered to be effective and (b) personality features and behavioural attitudes which are considered to be related to teacher effectiveness.

Methodology

The present research took place in 2014-2015 with the contribution of 10 undergraduate University students who, being provided with systematic relevant information and having the permission of the Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs of Greece, assisted students from 30 secondary education schools throughout Greece ((located in equal number in urban/semi-urban and in rural/peripheral areas, where the teacher-to-student and teacher-to- school ratios represent the national ratios of 1:8.5 and 21.1:1 respectively, OECD, 2011) in understanding and filling in a questionnaire with 43 close-ended questions. In this way, 1,000 questionnaires were distributed (and 879 of them were finally returned and used for the present study – response rate: 87.9 per cent) in order to ensure that, in this research, as many students as possible had experienced teachers of different professional profiles and teachers who had been involved in a large number of possible different educational situations in which students could be expected to realize, define and indicate effectiveness more easily. Of the 43 questions 3 examined students’ personal profile (gender, class attended-age, nationality), while 40 five-point Likert-type special questions (that can be seen in table 1) referred to students’ perceptions about teacher effectiveness. To maximize the respondents’ awareness and internal consistency in answers during questionnaire completion, specific questions were not arranged on the basis of their relation with the ones preceding or following them. Nevertheless, question relevance was a criterion for question grouping. Given the fact that the international literature could not provide the researcher with an instrument which would allow her to examine all variables necessary for the present research, the questionnaire was self-administered, while, for its synthesis, valuable findings of Arnon and Reichel (2007), Cohen, Brody, and Sapon-Shevin (2004), Davis (2013), Devine, Fahie, and McGillicuddy (2013), Greany and Rodd (2003), Hakel, Koenig, and Elliott (2008), Kyriakides, Demetriou, and Charalmbous (2006), Matsumura and Pascal (2003), and PozoMuñoz, Rebolloso-Pacheco, and Fernández-Ramírez (2000) were used. Predictive Analytics Software Statistics 21 was used for the elaboration of the research data, the statistical and the factor analysis, which used Principal Component Analysis with the method of Varimax rotation extraction to identify the factors that affect the participants’ perceptions about teacher effectiveness. s

Analysis of results

Participants’ profile In the present research, the majority of the participants (52.8%) were girls, while the rest of the students (47.2%) were boys. A percentage of 50.4% of the respondents were Junior High School students (13-15 years old), while the rest 48.6% were Upper High School students (16-18 years old). Finally, a percentage of 11.9% of the participants were of nationality other than Greek. Special questions Table 1 presents students’ responses to the questions about their views on teachers’ tactics, traits and behaviours that are related to teaching effectiveness in the classroom. Variables 1-3 portray a teacher who is considered ‘much’ to ‘very much’ to be effective when s/he, firstly, has a profound knowledge of the subject s/he teaches, secondly, provides students with detailed information on Curriculum objectives and clarifies the expected outcomes, the learning procedures and tasks, and, thirdly, ensures student knowledge scaffolding and assimilation by checking prior knowledge before providing new information. Moreover, for the majority of the participants an effective teacher ‘much’ to ‘very much’ ensures comprehensibility by using simple and intelligible language during the lesson, and adapts lesson requirements to the average student’s understanding ability to prevent misunderstanding and unresponsiveness (variables 4 and 5). Students also reported that an effective teacher ‘much’ to ‘very much’ simplifies obscure notions, reducing, thus, learning effort by providing examples and paradigms (variable 6). In addition, s/he makes many revisions and breaks down long units into smaller ones, obviously to help students assimilate extensive content; s/he could be probably described as methodical, systematic, and focused on the quality of the students’ learning (variable 7). Moreover, an effective teacher uses various visual aids and IT to stimulate student interest, and modernises knowledge acquisition by providing students with supplementary updated learning material (e.g. s/he teaches/informs students about things shown on TV, found on the internet, about the news, about books and newspapers, about political, economical, social, ecological issues circulating in the local community or in the world) (variables 8 and 9). The majority of the respondents, also, described as effective a teacher who ‘much’ to ‘very much’ provides enough time for the students to answer, who ‘moderately’ to ‘much’ does not hesitate to deviate from Curriculum and schoolbooks to meet student learning needs and interests, while ‘much’ to ‘very much’ utilises opportunities to teach students out of the classroom (e.g. in the library/the lab, in the museum, in places of work, in schoolyard, during excursions etc.) (variables 10-12). In addition, for the respondents, an effective teacher ‘much’ to ‘very much’ has to ensure solidarity/cohesion and a caring environment by providing students who present learning difficulties with individualized learning material/ support and by asking them simpler questions (variable 13). S/he also ‘much’ to ‘very much’ has to encourage low-achievers and diffident students, but ‘moderately’ to ‘much’ has to develop student cooperativeness, openness and friendliness by encouraging group work, and, in some cases, to utilise peer

learning to encourage cohesion, shared responsibility, and team spirit (variables 14-16). Effective teachers are, also, expected to stop teaching procedure to discuss with students when a problem hinders their participation, and to put students’ views under serious consideration before taking decisions about issues regarding them (variables 17 and 18). However, when students seem to stray from the subject and become distracted, an effective teacher is ‘not at all’ to ‘slightly’ expected to turn immediately to teacher-centred methods like lecture (variable 19). Effective teachers are, also, reported to make students feel safe and secure, by helping them accomplish, within the school, homework assignments (variable 20). Moreover, they avoid circumstantial judgments by assessing a student’s overall learning effort and development (variable 21). Such teachers are ‘much’ to ‘very much’ expected to encourage improvement incentives, by providing students with feedback and information about their learning performance, and by ‘moderately’ to ‘much’ providing opportunities for students’ self-assessment in order to strengthen meta-cognitive awareness and self-understanding (variables 22 and 23). They are, also, ‘much’ to ‘very much’ expected to encourage students by highlighting positive achievements before indicating weaknesses, mistakes and intervention measures (variable 24). In addition, the majority of the respondents consider as effective the teachers who ‘much’ to ‘very much’ are kind and open in communication with students, frank and affable when looking a student in the face, and spontaneous and warm during discreet physical touch (e.g. friendly thump on the back, pat on the cheek, handshake) (variables 25-27). Students, also, seem to consider as effective the teacher who admits ignorance about several issues, accepts that s/he has made a mistake, and is, in general, humorous, jocular and pleasant, albeit strict with disobedient students to whom s/he imposes exemplary punishments (variables 28 and 29). In addition, effective teachers are expected to display empathy, to be friendly, soothing and familiar while being on first name terms with students, and, moreover, to be encouraging and supportive when prompting students to be active during the learning process (variables 30-32). The majority of the respondents ‘much’ to ‘very much’ believe that effective teachers are patient, eager to repeat explanations to weak students and encourage shy ones, while being respectful to students’ personal objections and different opinions (variables 33 and 34). For the majority of the students, as well, an effective teacher is secretive and trustworthy when heartening students to talk about their personal matters (variable 35). S/he is, also, democratic when permitting students to express comments about his/her teaching techniques, classroom management, and behaviour, and unprejudiced as regards the students’ academic achievements, probably in order to avoid discrimination that may lead to a self fulfilling prophecy (variables 36 and 37). Finally, an effective teacher is ‘much’ to ‘very much’ expected to be impartial as regards student behaviour, respectful of student dignity and shyness to avoid hurting their feelings, and consistent as regards words and deeds, namely as regards demands from one’s self and from the others (variables 38-40).

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12.

13. 14. 15.

Very much

Much

Moderately

Slightly

I would describe a teacher as effective as long as s/he:

Not at all

Table 1: Responses of students (in percentages) to the questions about effective teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s practices, features and behavioural attitudes

Knows perfectly what s/he teaches, looks confident about what s/he knows Tells us before the lesson why we are doing it, what s/he expects me to learn and to do, and how to do it Checks before the lesson what I already know and urges me during teaching to remember things I have already learnt I can understand him/her when s/he speaks, I know the words s/he uses I think that all students learn, s/he repeats, explains and urges everybody to participate S/he gives many examples, explains difficult words, underlines sentences, writes text using bullets S/he makes many revisions and divides long units into smaller ones Uses pictures/graphs/maps/films/power point/computers Teaches us about things shown on TV, found on the internet, about the news, about books and newspapers, about things happening in the town or in the world Gives me time to answer at ease, s/he regularly tells me to take my time When we are very interested in something, s/he leaves the books aside Teaches me everywhere, in many occasions, even out of the classroom (in the library/the lab, in the museum, in places of work, in schoolyard, during excursions etc.) Makes easier questions to weak students, teaches them in the break time, gives them easier work to do Regularly congratulates weak and shy students Lets us work in groups

1.3

4.1

8.9

26.4

59.3

3.1

14.2

28.7

36.7

17.3

0.9

3.2

14.8

36.2

44.9

1.7

3.4

39.9

2.7

10.8

36.7

22.8

0.9

1.9

8.4

24.5

64.3

8.6

22.6

38.9

27.9

3.6

6.1

17.3

35.1

37.9

3.1

9.3

25.6

37.8

24.2

1.4

6.4

18.8

35.3

38.1

14.4

32.1

17.5

4.2

5.5

32.9

41.4

3.5

5.3

19.1

37.1

1.4

3.9

12.1

30.3

52.3

7.1

16.3

27.8

30.8

16. Sometimes s/he puts a good student to help a weak one 17. When we have a problem, s/he stops the lesson to discuss it and s/he won’t go on before we solve it 18. Listens carefully to our proposals when we have a problem 19. When we get distracted, s/he starts lecturing 20. Helps me at school do/prepare my homework, helps me when something is difficult 21. Doesn’t only tell me what marks I’ve got in exams, but also if I try enough, if I improve, if I behave well 22. Explains to me my mistakes, what to do the next time to improve, what my strong points are 23. Lets us find our own mistakes, mark and grade our own works and performance, check our own behaviour 24. First tells me the positive things I have done, and then the negative ones 25. Is friendly and smiling when s/he talk to me 26. Is kind, sincere, simple, looks at me in my eyes 27. Often gives me a friendly thump on the back, pat on the cheek, handshake etc. 28. Sometimes s/he says ‘Well, I didn’t know that’ or ‘Sorry, that’s my fault’ 29. Is humorous but becomes strict when someone doesn’t behave well 30. I think s/he easily places him/herself in my shoes 31. Calls me with my first name, tells me often ‘it’s OK-don’t worry’ 32. Tells me often ‘go on, don’t be afraid, I’ll help you’ 33. Is never tired of explaining again and again, especially to kids who don’t understand something or are shy 34. Respects our views and objections 35. Would never tell a secret I’ve told him/her; I would confide a secret or a personal issue to him/her 36. Lets us judge him and his/her lesson without getting angry

13.5

15.1

27.5

27.3

16.6

1.7

3.8

11.4

32.6

50.5

1.5

3.2

11.5

35.7

48.1

50.5

21.8

7.4

5.3

1.5

4.4

19.3

40.3

34.5

6.4

12.6

26.7

48.3

8.1

8.5

19.6

33.7

30.1

9.8

20.7

25.8

11.7

2.8

33.3

44.9

2.6

3.8

15.8

31.6

46.2

6.8

30.3

29.9

7.5

13.7

24.9

23.7

30.4

1.6

4.2

13.5

42.3

38.4

1.9

2.3

12.6

36.5

46.7

3.1

4.7

13.8

28.9

49.5

4.2

5.3

17.3

31.4

41.8

1.6

3.7

31.3

48.4

3.2

9.2

31.2

55.4

1 1.1

5.2 2.4

15.6 8.2

33.9 28.6

44.3 59.7

5.8

34.6

37.6

37. Tries to help all students learn, not only the good ones 38. Is just and fair when imposing punishments 39. Calls me out of the classroom to discuss privately something I have done or said, or something I must do 40. Won’t do what s/he tells us not to do (play with mobile phone, chew gum, come late in the classroom)

11.9

19.9

58.2

2.2

4.4

13.1

32.2

48.1

3.9

6.9

16.7

30.3

42.2

4.7

4.8

10.5

18.3

61.7

Factor analysis Thirty two of the earlier-mentioned variables were selected, related in level of significance α = 1% to the perceptions of the 879 secondary education students about effective teaching. The thirty two variables were as follows: I would describe a teacher as effective as long as s/he: (1) Knows perfectly what s/he teaches, looks confident about what s/he knows (2) Tells us before the lesson why we are doing it, what s/he expects me to learn and to do, and how to do it (3) Checks before the lesson what I already know and urges me during teaching to remember things I have already learnt (4) I can understand him/her when s/he speaks, I know the words s/he uses (5) I think that all students learn, s/he repeats, explains and urges everybody to participate (6) S/he gives many examples, explains difficult words, underlines sentences, writes text using bullets (7) Uses pictures/graphs/maps/films/power point/computers (8) Teaches us about things shown on TV, found on the internet, about the news, about books and newspapers, about things happening in the town or in the world (9) Gives me time to answer at ease, s/he regularly tells me to take my time (10) When we are very interested in something, s/he leaves the books aside (11) Teaches me everywhere, in many occasions, even out of the classroom (in the library/the lab, in the museum, in places of work, in schoolyard, during excursions etc.) (12) Makes easier questions to weak students, teaches them in the break time, gives them easier work to do (13) Regularly congratulates weak and shy students (14) Lets us work in groups (15) When we have a problem, s/he stops the lesson to discuss it and s/he won’t go on before we solve it (16) Listens carefully to our proposals when we have a problem

(17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) (31) (32)

Helps me at school do/prepare my homework, helps me when something is difficult Doesn’t only tell me what marks I’ve got in exams, but also if I try enough, if I improve, if I behave well Explains to me my mistakes, what to do the next time to improve, what my strong points are First tells me the positive things I have done, and then the negative ones Is friendly and smiling when s/he talks to me Is kind, sincere, simple, looks at me in my eyes Often gives me a friendly thump on the back, pat on the cheek, handshake etc. Sometimes s/he says ‘Well, I didn’t know that’ or ‘Sorry, that’s my fault’ Is humorous but becomes strict when someone doesn’t behave well I think s/he easily places him/herself in my shoes Calls me with my first name, tells me often ‘it’s OK-don’t worry’ Tells me often ‘go on, don’t be afraid, I’ll help you’ Is never tired of explaining again and again, especially to kids who don’t understand something or are shy Respects our views and objections Would never tell a secret I’ve told him/her; I would confide a secret or a personal issue to him/her Lets us judge him and his/her lesson without getting angry

We applied factor analysis (Howitt & Cramer, 2014) to these variables in order to determine the factors that influence students’ beliefs about effective teaching, given the fact that this technique for data analysis is acceptable and adequate, as verified firstly by the value 0.916 of the KMO measure for sampling adequacy and secondly by Bartlett’s test of sphericity (table 2) which revealed high statistical significance of the statistic χ2 (zero p-value). Table 2: KMO and Bartlett's Test of sphericity

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy Bartlett's Test of Sphericity

Approx. Chi-Square df Sig.

0.916 8216.329 496 0.000

Since performance of PCA from the first eight components, which had eigenvalues greater than 1, explained 55.774% of the total variance, PCA was used with Varimax rotation extraction method in eight components (table 3). Scree plot (Figure 1) shows where the most variance was explained.

Table 3: Factor analysis results

Rotated Component Matrix Variables

Component 1

Communalities

0.723 0.084 0.078 0.150

0.079

-0.057 0.203

-0.027

0.610

0.295 -0.019 0.138 0.056

0.282

-0.135 0.656

-0.112

0.651

0.651 0.129 0.226 0.117

0.065

0.080 0.029

0.102

0.527

0.339 0.634 0.190 0.136

-0.020

0.027 0.108

0.038

0.586

0.032 0.204 0.036 0.149

-0.068

0.234 0.654

0.092

0.562

0.721 0.228 0.097 0.074

0.013

0.119 0.065

0.049

0.607

0.317 0.193 0.127 0.235

0.520

0.292 -0.036

-0.016

0.567

0.139 0.065 0.161 0.072

0.153

0.759 0.136

0.068

0.677

0.026 0.560 0.231 -0.070

0.266

-0.038 0.147

-0.087

0.475

0.104 0.098 0.152 0.009

0.194

0.749 0.067

-0.035

0.648

0.295 0.243 0.103 0.081

0.637

0.112 -0.107

0.009

0.592

0.092 0.116 0.655 0.073

0.119

0.021 0.193

-0.106

0.519

0.461 0.202 0.037 0.023

0.146

0.153 0.351

0.208

0.466

0.008 0.036 0.048 0.084

0.618

0.234 0.283

0.086

0.535

0.505 0.160 0.140 0.075

0.133

0.178 0.172

0.230

0.438

0.187 0.247 0.558 0.120

0.060

0.036 -0.032

0.278

0.506

0.178 0.380 0.082 0.144

-0.011

0.229 0.478

0.203

0.525

0.051 0.044 0.158 0.106

0.207

-0.129 0.109

0.692

0.591

0.278 0.125 0.130 0.178

-0.143

0.216 -0.018

0.653

0.635

0.675 0.204 0.212 0.091

0.180

0.073 -0.059

0.080

0.598

0.061 0.103 0.681 0.099

0.164

0.145 -0.088

0.053

0.547

0.154 0.020 0.209 0.607

0.026

0.035 0.109

-0.064

0.454

-0.031 -0.016 0.082 0.690

0.252

-0.052 0.134

0.126

0.584

0.181 0.702 0.118 0.150

0.115

0.049 0.024

0.063

0.582

0.140 0.032 0.519 0.205

-0.165

0.025 0.271

0.247

0.494

0.207 0.165 0.222 0.678

-0.014

0.059 0.083

0.215

0.636

0.129 0.195 0.131 0.752

-0.011

0.100 -0.028

0.084

0.655

0.185 0.171 0.678 0.177

-0.046

0.109 -0.034

0.091

0.578

0.145 0.574 0.121 0.141

-0.171

0.227 0.244

-0.084

0.532

0.226 0.626 0.053 0.107

0.214

0.075 0.000

0.256

0.575

0.199 0.092 0.514 0.222

0.137

0.165 0.128

0.107

0.435

0.155 0.466 0.141 -0.049

0.394

0.036 0.014

0.206

0.462

10.234 8.860 8.545 7.254

5.692

5.331 5.265

4.592

Percentage Rotation of total sums of variance squared explained loadings

Note: Communality or common factor variance: total variance of each variable explained by common factors

Figure 1. Scree plot

Comments on the factor analysis results According to the factor analysis results, the eight main factors were as follows: •

Factor 1: Expert teacher orientation towards simplified knowledge scaffolding, addressing learning problems and boosting the students’ confidence. Variables with Significant Positive Influence [VSPI] between them and with the Highest Factor Loadings [HFL]: [1], [3], [6], [13], [15] and [20]. The students reported that they expect from effective teachers not only to be experts as regards subject knowledge, but also to be able to provide students with simplified but soundly constructed integrated knowledge, to address quickly and successfully students’ learning problems regarding understanding and assimilation, and, finally, to boost weak students’ and hard-workers’ confidence.

•

Factor 2: Teachers’ features regarding comprehensibility, patience, openness, and respect. [VSPI and HFL]: [4], [9], [24], [29], [30] and [32]. The students participating in the study believe that effective teachers are modest and open to criticism and a diversity of views, teach simply and understandably, while, at the same time, are patient with slowapprehension students. Factor 3: Teachers’ features regarding good-listening, supportiveness, trustworthiness, and humour. [VSPI and HFL]: [12], [16], [21], [25], [28] and 31. The participants consider that effective teachers should listen carefully to the students’ problems, complaints and views, be approachable and serious at the same time, and supportive as regards students’ individual learning needs, hesitations and inner sensitivity. Factor 4: Teachers’ friendliness and empathy. [VSPI and HFL]: [22], [23], [26] and [27]. Effective teachers tend to display affability and friendliness towards their students, with discreet physical touch, friendly direct eye contact, using the student’s first name and, finally, by demonstrating empathy and sharing students’ thoughts and problems. Factor 5: Learning in groups, with visual aids, and out of the classroom. [VSPI and HFL]: [7], [11] and [14]. Effective teachers should prefer cooperative learning as a teaching/learning strategy which can be further strengthened through the utilisation of multiple visual aids and IT, while experiential teaching out of the classroom remains highly preferable as an alternative teaching technique. Factor 6: Breaking Curriculum restrictions and updating learning content. [VSPI and HFL]: [8] and [10]. The participants expect from effective teachers to update the content of the subjects they teach using various modern sources of information even if they have to deviate from the teaching routines and restrictions set by official Curricula. Factor 7: Clarifying objectives, adapting teaching, and assisting with homework. [VSPI and HFL]: [2], [5] and [17]. Effective teachers tend to clarify the objectives of the school subject, the expected outcomes and the tasks assigned to students, while at the same time they adapt teaching techniques and expectations and provide individualised help to students who present learning difficulties. Factor 8: Providing feedback and integrated assessment. [VSPI and HFL]: [18] and [19]. Effective teachers should provide students with detailed feedback regarding their overall performance, while constructively suggesting ways for further improvement and development.

Conclusions and discussion

This study examines Greek secondary education students’ views on teacher effectiveness. Its results show that Greek students (a) relate teacher effectiveness to scientifically accepted teaching practices implemented and procedures developed in the classroom, and (b) attribute the feature ‘effective’ to teachers who develop specific behavioural attitudes during interpersonal communication. As regards teaching practices and procedures, Greek students, similarly to their international counterparts (Opdenakker & Van Damme, 2006; Bakx et al.,

2015; Borich, 2016), seem to believe than only teachers who possess profound knowledge of their discipline should be described as effective. However, professional traits implied in factor 1 focus not only on teacher expertise as regards content-knowledge but also on a teacher’s ability to link newly-provided knowledge to prior cognitive background of the student, evidently in order to ‘bridge’ the teaching/learning gaps which segregated or piecemeal provision of knowledge often results in (Lutz, Guthrie, & Davis, 2006). Students, also, report that they feel more confident when their teachers help them build such consolidated cognitive structures, probably because, as international reports show (Rice, 2003; Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2005), these structures are considered by the students to be more easily accessible and manageable. Student demand for more simplified knowledge, adapted to their personal learning ability, is also demonstrated through factor 7. Effective teachers are expected, as Ross and colleagues (2003) and Slavin (2014) have already shown, to provide their students firstly with information about what they have to do, and how and why they have to do it, and secondly with individualized assistance in order to accomplish tasks assigned to them (Matsumura & Pascal, 2003). It is rather evident that, as factor 8 implies and Mayer and Alexander (2011) and Smylie and Wenzel (2006) have also reported, students feel more secure and willing to be assessed by a teacher who has consciously and actively been involved in their personal, individualized struggle for learning, and who has provided them with ample feedback information and support for improvement. However, a teacher’s ability to individualize knowledge and support, as already shown by Sharan (2010) and Van Gog and Paas (2008), is highly dependent on room for manoeuvre provided by official Curricula; factor 6 jointly to factor 5 portray a teacher who, according to Greek students and their international counterparts (Garrett & Steinberg, 2015; Goe, Bell, & Little, 2008; Gottlieb, 2015; Greany & Rodd, 2003), is effective when s/he is able (i) to adapt Curricula demands and restrictions to his/her students’ interests, needs, and abilities, and (ii) to update learning material and learning procedures through the use of varied teaching strategies. However, variables 11 and 15 of table 1 and relevant participants’ responses show that the majority of Greek students are ‘moderately’ and ‘much’ but not ‘very much’ sure that effective teachers should stray from official Curricula guidelines or implement group work as an alternative teaching strategy – a finding also reported by Greek and international researchers (Alahiotis & Karatzia, 2006; Berry, 2004; Ifanti, 2007; Koulaidis et al., 2006). To explain this hesitation of a significant percentage of the respondents, one should take into account that for Greek students, parents, and teachers as well, secondary education traditionally constitutes a stage of the student’s preparation for advancement in tertiary education (Koutrouba, 2012; OECD, 2013). For the average Greek, university studies are highly considered firstly to facilitate professional development and survival in an extremely challenging job market, and secondly to avert a return of young people to rural economics restrictions of the past. As a result, a bureaucratic educational system, as expressed through inflexible over-demanding Curricula, has provided in the course of time students with more opportunities for broader content-knowledge and fewer opportunities for integrated attainment of social or affective objectives in education (Georgiadis, 2007; Koustourakis, 2007; OECD, 2011). In addition,

many students and teachers as well have been reported to believe that frontal whole-class teaching, though not pleasant as variable 19 in table 1 implies, produces higher academic achievements in shorter periods of time than cooperative procedures or alternative teaching strategies can do (Opdenakker & Van Damme, 2006; Rice, 2003; Sharan, 2010). The combination of student social advancement expectations with teachers’ efforts to disseminate rapidly large quantities of knowledge seem to undermine constructive adaptations to the Curriculum, individualized or cooperative learning, and, finally student and teacher perceptions about what real education should be. Therefore, if a shift in educational values and practices should occur, as Cairns, Lawton, and Gardner (2001) have already noticed, education policy-planners should reduce content overload and a subsequent fast pace, in order to facilitate smooth content assimilation and effective knowledge consolidation, as Opdenakker and Van Damme (2006) and Perry, Donohue, and Weinstein (2007) have confirmed. In addition, they should give teachers a free hand to implement cooperative learning in their classroom, so as to enhance teaching routines and turn traditional learning into a lively experiential procedure (Traianou, 2009). As a result, teachers would also be able to provide their students with more individualized assistance, facilitating, thus, more fair and meaningful assessment, as Ross and colleagues (2003), Sharan (2010), and Teddlie and colleagues (2006) have shown. Furthermore, as regards teacher behavioural attitudes during interpersonal communication, factors 2 and 4 provide the picture of an effective teacher who respects the students’ special features and sensitivities and displays empathy and friendliness (Rice, 2003; Slavin, 2014). As already mentioned in factor 8, these two features seem to be attributed to a teacher who actively supports and participates in the efforts of the student. Moreover, according to factor 3, effective teachers are expected to be good-listeners and trustworthy as well. It is rather understandable that teenage students learn better when friendliness is present in every learning procedure (Hamre & Pianta, 2005; Noyes, 2005; Schacter, Thum, & Zifkin, 2006). Of course, it is a teacher’s duty to define the limits of friendly relationships with the students, in order to help them feel accepted, encouraged and safe (Hargreaves, 2000; Harjunen, 2011). Curricula-planners should, however, promote learning procedures that facilitate the construction of relations where respectfulness coexists with friendliness. The organization of well-defined collaborative learning activities, cultural events, and school’s experiential connections with social environments, could be rather easily introduced in real school life through more innovative flexible Curricula which serve equally cognitive, affective, and social objectives (OECD, 2013; Rice, 2003). Finally, teachers’ training in adolescent psychology would provide them with the professional skills required for meaningful, effective teaching (Rice, 2003; Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2005; Smylie & Wenzel, 2006; Tucker & Stronge, 2005). The present study shows that, according to the students, effective teaching may sound unrealistically ideal when examined on a theoretical basis. On the other hand, students clearly know what they expect from their teachers because they have already seen it happening (Sharan, 2015). It may not be sure that one teacher could be ever likely to have all the expected positive attributes, but, at

least, educators would admit that improving professional features and communication skills and taking into account the views, expectations, visions of their students may drive them more close to what is scientifically described as ‘teacher effectiveness’.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 10, pp. 92-103, September 2016

Teaching and Learning Strategies Adopted to Support Students Who are Blind in Botswana Joseph Habulezi University of Botswana Department of Educational Foundations

Abstract. The study is based on the teaching and learning strategies Molefi Senior Secondary School in Botswana adopts to support students who are blind. The objectives of the study were to describe and explicate the teaching and learning strategies the school adopts to support students who are blind and project ways for improving the practices. The study made use of the school community and stakeholders as its respondents. The interviews, documents and observations were used to collect data. The data was broadly analysed using descriptions. The research study established that there are a variety of pedagogical practices used to support students in the teaching and learning processes to accommodate students who are blind. It is recommended that the school casts its net even wider to embrace more key stakeholders like parents. The school should further consider more participatory and exploratory teaching and learning styles. The use of access technology could cultivate self-confidence, self-esteem and promote more interactive and independent student learning. This could further make students even more proactive in the teaching and learning processes. Keywords: Botswana; impairment

teaching

and

learning

strategies;

visual

Introduction Blindness is strictly defined as the state of being totally sightless in both eyes although the word is commonly used to signify visual impairment, or low vision, meaning that even with eyeglasses, contact lenses, medicine or surgery, a person does not see well(Dalh, 2016). Kirk, Gallagher, Coleman and Anastasiow (2015) define visual impairment as any form of visual loss which may include very moderate or complete loss of vision. It also means the absence of capacity to see after correction, which may result in reduced performance in most aspects of life. The impairment has a lot of implications that range from increased dependence, isolation from the social mainstream, reduced benefits and opportunities available and increased time of completion of assigned tasks (Thurston, 2010, Thurston, Thurston & McLeod, 2010). In November 2008 the 48th session of the International Conference on Education, (UNESCO, 2008), entitled â&#x20AC;&#x17E;Inclusive Education: The way of the future,â&#x20AC;&#x; took

place in Geneva. One hundred and fifteen (115) countries resolved to advance guidelines on the provision of educational support intended for students from diverse backgrounds, including those with blindness, to promote equal, fair and equitable educational opportunities for all in public schools. The Botswana Government considered it appropriate the ratification of some of the international conventions related to inclusion because it views Inclusive Education as a means of improving the quality of education for all children (Habulezi & Phasha, 2012). Quality education is not just the rote learning of subjects in an inflexible curriculum, good quality education is concerned with the education of the whole individual in terms of developing understanding, interests, self-knowledge, emotions, personality and making accommodations, to mention but a few. The process encompasses, among others, expanding the application of access to include access to the curriculum and to the wider educational processes. In its quest for excellence in education, the Government of Botswana set seven pillars to be achieved. Botswana aims to be an educated, informed, compassionate, just, caring and prosperous nation (Government of Botswana, 1997, 2013). To achieve this, Abosi (2000) states that the Government of Botswana assigned stakeholders distinctive tasks to perform. To this effect, a desk has been set up under the Office of the President to preside over, among other issues related to disabilities, inclusive education matters. Further, the Ministry of Education and Skills Development (2006) guides that for special education teachers who also have a teaching subject, consideration should be made to reduce their teaching loads in order to allow them time to assist other subject teachers as well as to give support to students with special needs. In Botswana, a student with blindness is equated to 4 students in a general education classroom. In light of this situation, there should be reduction of students in classes the students with blindness are placed. The teaching and learning processes should therefore be all embracing, employing all the instructional activities that can produce the best in a student with blindness. Mastropieri and Scruggs (2015) add that concrete materials or physical objects that learning support staff use to engage students in the hands on learning of various subjects are important because they assist students in learning numerous concepts easily. In order to effectively achieve the set goals in teaching students with blindness, contact during instruction, especially when manipulatives or concrete objects are involved, should sometimes be one-to-one, equal-status, and cooperative (Silverman, 2015). Brawand and Johnson (2016) advise that stakeholders involved in the education of students who are blind need to collaborate in order for the students to fully benefit from all instructions in the classrooms. The foregoing practices are expected to yield the desired results and provide equal and equitable education opportunities for all. The study on teaching and learning strategies adopted at the school that caters for students with vision impairment aimed to explore the teaching and learning strategies the school employs to meet the needs of the nation and the students in particular.

Methodology Since the purpose of the study is to describe and examine the teaching and learning strategies the school adopts to support students with vision impairment, a qualitative design was adopted. The design was used because of its responsivity to native sites, environments, and participantsâ&#x20AC;&#x; needs. The design also helps in the identification of circumstantial and setting factors as they relate to the phenomenon under study. In addition, the design engages a variety of approaches mainly to prevent inconsistencies (Yin, 2009, Mouton, 2005). The setting for the design is, among others, an actual classroom or school ideal for the study (McMillan & Schumacher, 2014). The target population in the study was the school community and its stakeholders. The table below shows the participants in the study. Table 1. Study participants

Category of participants Special education teachers students with vision impairment General education teachers Parents Management team CRC member Public library member Braillist Development trust staff Learning support worker Past students

total participated 5 8 3 3 2 1 1 1 2 1 4

females males 5 0 3 5 2 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 2

1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 2

Participants were selected for different reasons. These include length of service in the special education profession, interest in participating in the research and positions held at the institution. Mundane selection of participants in a research in which participants are scanty or not knowledgeable about the subject is difficult (Bailey, 2007). When the study was conducted, Molefi Senior Secondary School had 7 special education teachers specialised in teaching students who are blind. The 42 stream school had 1637 students, 29 of whom were students who were blind. The circumstances and characteristics of the target population demanded that judgemental, chain-referral and self-selected sampling methods be used to select a sample. Judgemental sampling was used on participants who were deemed information rich. These included specialist teachers, general education teachers, Central

Resource Centre staff, Rehabilitation and Development Trust staff and staff from the library for people with visual impairment. On the other hand chain-referral sampling was used on past students because those best able to access members of hidden populations are their own peers (Keltner, 2016). Data was collected on a member who in turn provided information on where to find another one. In contrast, self-selected sampling, in which a participant offers to take part in the study because of their interest and familiarity with the subject, was used on the learning support worker and the members of the senior management team. Triangulation was employed in the collection of data through the use of documents, interviews and observation. This was done to ensure rigour, relevance and to corroborate the data. Observations were done at the school for one academic term from the beginning to the end of the school term. I observed, as a participant observer, how the school prepares for the students, receives the students at the beginning of the term until the school closed. There were 16 observations lasting between 1 to 2 teaching periods (40 to 80 minutes) in all that were done observing how the school teaching and learning take place in a real setting. Some traits of concern were not openly witnessed during observations, for example, participants‟ views, attitudes and understanding of instructional strategies for students who are blind. In view of that, interviews enabled the gathering of such form of data. Unobtrusive, favourable and appropriate places for the meetings were identified. Open-ended interviews which lasted 20 minutes each on average were either audio or videotaped with participants‟ permission. Documented sources offer rich secondary information (De Vos et al, 2011). The significance of these sources for present-day studies should not be undervalued. Significantly, the document study was utilised for being cheap, non-reactivity and unreachable participants in the case of past students who were difficult to find. Therefore, policy documents, non-personal and mass media were utilised in this study. Data was qualitatively analysed with the help of Rubin and Rubin‟s (2005) approach which states that “Data analysis begins while the interview is still under way. This preliminary analysis tells you how to redesign your questions to focus in on central themes as you continue interviewing….” Careful steps were taken to abide by ethical issues. Permission was obtained from the school, relevant bodies, learners and parents.

Results Molefi Senior Secondary School employs varied and valuable instructional strategies in teaching students who are blind under the circumstances and prevailing conditions. A summary of the instructional strategies used are presented further down as obtained through the data gathering tools used. In interviews with management committee members and the senior teacher special education, it emerged that the school makes sure students with vision impairment are assessed to know how best to support each one of them. The senior teacher was recorded saying:

First and foremost, we make sure we have student profiles and then carry out routine informal functional vision assessment that includes assessment on learning media, access technology, Orientation and Mobility. This is followed by medical assessment at Deborah Retief Memorial Hospital or eye clinic in Gaborone then we take these reports to the Central Resource Centre for Special Education for specialised educational assessment to help prepare an individualised education program for each student. Correspondence among the documents analysed showed that the school is well networked with stakeholders like the Department of Evaluation and Curriculum Development. In the process of curricular development, the Department of Evaluation and Curriculum Development works with specialist special education teachers to accommodate issues related to students with special educational needs. The proposed syllabi are further sent to schools for more consultation. Special education specialist teachers consult subject specialist teachers and make suggestions that are sent back to the Department of Evaluation and Curriculum Development for consideration and possible integration. At implementation stage, four out of the five special education teachers interviewed revealed that specialist teachers make further modifications to suit individual students‟ needs. These modifications are based on the teachers‟ informal assessments and the formal assessment recommendations from the Central Resource Centre for Special Education. Three general education teachers interviewed all indicated that modifications are done but expressed concern on the modifications on the teaching and learning materials for students with vision impairment as shown in the excerpt below: The changes that these special education teachers make or suggest water down the standards and make us, you know, change our objectives in a way. Someone can just say, “modify this question, our students cannot draw or it is too congested, … this is not necessary to answer the question, remove it,”…. Besides, special education department delays everything, …. “we cannot write this paper this afternoon because the paper is not yet brailled for students from special education”… They do some good work for students at our expense. One interviewee lamented that he was always bothered to come and describe the pictures in the sources for History because the special education personnel insisted that the subject teacher was better placed to do that and knows the appropriate terminology for each source. He complained that sometimes he felt the descriptions were advantaging the special education students. Adaptations were also observed in which learning media was adapted to braille, large print or recorded. The Department of Special Support Services through the special education wing organises workshops for special education teachers to share knowledge on how to modify and adapt teaching and learning materials for students who have vision impairments. Further, the special education personnel informed the researcher that the special education department in the school inducts new

teachers on the teaching and learning methodology for students who have vision impairment. To augment the efforts above, a schedule on the notice board carried names of specialist special education teachers and the departments they were attached to for the purposes of consultations and advice. To be in concordance with the final examination standards, the senior teacher for special education informed the researcher that the school works hand in hand with Botswana Examinations Council to make sure the modifications at the school and those done at Botswana Examinations Council are of the same quality and standards more so that final Form 5 examinations are brailled in the United Kingdom. When students with vision impairment are admitted to the school, they are strategically allocated classes basing on their junior secondary school performance and the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x;s subject preference as one interviewee stated: We guide students in choosing classes with the help of their results from junior secondary school leaving examinations. We particularly consider how they performed in Mathematics and Science. After the stream is decided, we, in a way, consider the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s subject preference in the optional subjects. Classes students who have special education needs are allocated to have the number of students reduced. While in classrooms, students sit in positions they are comfortable with depending on their impairments or preferences. In practical subjects like Art, learning support workers work with subject teachers in helping the students grasp the subject matter. Art was the only subject though where a learning support worker was observed working with the teacher. Where the students with vision impairment are lagging behind, the subject teachers were seldom observed conducting remedial lessons either before or after the lesson. This was common practice though for expatriate special education teachers. On individual bases, expatriate special education teachers and learning support workers were observed tactile orientating students with vision impairments even in subjects they do not teach. The diagrams used were from previous examinations. Two of the management committee members interviewed stated that: You know we are at pains sometimes to explain to authorities why over time is paid to special education members of staff. In the afternoon, they request that their students read from the special education department for ease access. But they still want to work with students after hours say in Orientation and Mobility because it is too hot to work during normal working hours and that students would be doing the other academic work. Upon interview, the teacher in-charge of Orientation and Mobility explained: Yes, we have Orientation and Mobility sessions both during afternoon study and after hours when it is cool because it is very hot to practice between 1300 hours and 1630 hours. Besides, certain techniques have to be demonstrated in areas

which are quiet and have few people distracting the clients. We also have to be flexible because the subject is a life skill and it is not examinable. So students shun it and give priority to examinable subjects. When they suggest weekend or evening it is fine. During examinations or end of month tests, students with vision impairment were observed having their assessment activities in four different rooms when a core subject was being written. A member in the examinations committee explained: Room 1 is used by braille users, the students’ study room is used by low vision students using large print and these students do not use braille. On the other side we have a student in each room with a scribe or amanuensis. The students in those rooms do not know braille, for the student in the office, the examination is recorded while for another student in the guidance and counselling room an amanuensis reads the questions for the student, writes down the responses and the second person records the proceedings with a digital voice recorder at the same time. When students with vision impairments were writing assessment items, they were given extra time depending on the prescription the low vision assessment officer at the Central Resource Centre for Special Education made. Generally, the records showed that the majority of the students had 25% extra time of the paper‟s time. Other students had 30% extra time of the time for the paper. One student was observed taking rest breaks due to fatigue and perpetual head arch. Time taken to rest was being recorded and adjustments made accordingly. The special education senior teacher revealed that although the school has a shortage of learning support staff like braillists, an arrangement is put in place to make sure students‟ work is brailled in advance and transcription is done within the set time frame. There was, however, notable shortage of brailled and recorded books as well as production materials like zytex paper. To compensate for the shortage of text books, one student reported that: We sometimes go to the library for people living with vision impairment where we borrow recorded and brailled books. When we have no transport, the library personnel bring the books for us. Data gathered indicated that government is very committed to the education of students who are blind. This was evidenced from the amount of money the government is spending on acquiring access technology the staff and students use. On stakeholder participation, interview results, observations and records showed that there was neither serious involvement of the surrounding community nor the parents of students with vision impairment.

Discussion The purpose of this study was to investigate teaching and learning strategies the only senior secondary school in Botswana that caters for students who are blind adopts in the process of teaching and learning. The results showed a holistic and concerted effort from the school and relevant government wings.

The school collaborates with health facilities, Botswana Examinations Council, Department of Evaluation and Curriculum Development, the Central Resource Centre for Special Education and the Library for people living with vision impairment among others. This is a necessary approach because in the teaching and learning processes involving students with special educational needs, a multifaceted approach is recommended (Government of Botswana, 1994, UNESCO, 2008, Hamilton-Jones & Vail, 2014, McBride, 2009). The needs of the students are numerous, and since a school cannot offer all the necessary services, it is health and prudent that facilities that are specialising in the areas have an input. Further collaboration was observed among school personnel. Some general education classroom teachers strategise for their lessons with special education teachers to accommodate aspects on how to be inclusive in their classroom activities. In addition, special education teachers and learning support workers support students and teachers in classrooms and at the special education workroom. This practice is synonymous with the recommendations of UNESCO (2009) and Government of Botswana‟s (2007) guidance that collaboration and the participation of all stakeholders is key to meeting the full potential of all students. More encouraging is the fact that special education teachers are linked to various subject departments for more individualized support. Despite this positive observation, there were mainstream teachers who felt bothered when asked to offer their expertise to help modify or adapt teaching and learning materials for students with visual impairment. The school, though, can still improve its operations through the involvement of the surrounding community and the parents of the students with vision impairment more. Students do not live in isolation and some of the things learnt are not taught but observed and learnt in various spheres of life including in the communities. Besides, community members have different professions and talents that can be of help in the education of the students. Parents especially, know a lot about their children and their input is invaluable. If continuity of some of the teaching and learning programs is expected at home, parents must be brought on board (Malekpour, Aghababaei, Hadi, 2014, Hebel, 2014). The curriculum the institution presents is flexible and comprehensive. At curriculum design level, stakeholders are consulted to take care of the interests of students with blindness. In the school, students with vision impairment share subjects with all other students in the school. Although not all stakeholders agree with the practice, the school makes the curriculum accessible through adaptation and modification of different syllabi contents. This is in agreement with UNESCO‟s (2009) and Government of Botswana‟s (2006 & 2013) recommendations on changing the systems obtained to suit the students. The practice also agrees with Farrell (2002) and Fraser (2015) who assert that all students should have access to the same level as the others by adapting the resources, assessment methods, classroom organisation and teaching methods so that they can take part as fully as possible. The school needs to intensify public

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awareness to bring on board some stakeholders who are of the view that modifications made to make the curricula accessible by all water down the standards. In the initial stages the school scrutinises the students who are blind when they arrive in the school, guides them in choosing subjects and classes. It further conducts informal and formal educational assessments including the medical one. This is a necessary procedure, because the appropriateness of the learning support is heavily dependent on the educational recommendations in the assessment report (Bell, Ewell & Mino, 2013). The assessment, in fact, is of paramount importance because it benefits the students. During lessons, in classes with reduced number, students with blindness sit in preferred positions to enable them utilise their residual sight or listen with less distraction nearer to teachers. This also assists students who are either myopic or hyperopic. To accommodate the extra time awarded to students with special educational needs and to reduce on disturbances, the students with blindness write assessment items in separate rooms, braille users, large print users and those who are amanuensed; all in different rooms. The practice observed agrees with the views of Piljl and Van den Bos (2001) and Eloff and Kgwete (2005) who classify the characteristics of the exercise as additional features of the practice that are most important in eliminating the obstacles to the participation and learning of children with vision impairment. It is also important to take cognisance of the staff professional development the school and the wing spearheading special education organise for special education teachers. These help in advancing teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x; knowledge and instructional strategies for students with special educational needs. Such a gesture would also be helpful to the larger community who are also important stakeholders. In subjects that have manipulatives or objects for tactile observation, both general classroom and special education teachers remediate students who are blind either before or after the lessons. Teachers tactile orientate the students to clearly see the embossed tactile graphics. This helps to augment on the areas students may miss during lessons. In line with the foregoing, Jaquiss (2010) states that this is essential because the tactilist should interact with braille readers to ensure that the tactile graphics can be understood especially that blind readers vary in their abilities to evaluate, understand and employ tactile materials. It should be noted here that tactile observations were done in some subjects by personnel not qualified in the subjects, if specialists can do the tasks students may benefit more. Additionally, the past examination diagrams that are mostly used in the exercise may not be tailored to the material being delivered, it may be more helpful to emboss diagrams tailored to the content being delivered. To promote independent movement among students, the school has an Orientation and Mobility programme carried out at convenient times because of the flexibility exercised all for the students to move independently, efficiently

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and safely. This is made possible by paying the teachers incentives for the extra mile they take to equip the students with the noble and all important life skills among others. Instead of leaving it to the teacher in-charge of Orientation and Mobility to decide on when to conduct the sessions for life skills, it may be more helpful to time table the subject like any other.

Conclusion and recommendations With the support of various government wings and other stakeholders, the school employs numerous pedagogical practices in an effort to meet the diverse needs of all students. Collaborations, modifications, accommodations, use of various learning media (braille, audio, large and normal prints) all augment in the delivery of service to all students with a view to providing access to equal educational opportunities to all. There is always need to evaluate practices for accountability and performance improvement. It is, therefore, recommended that the school explores on more technology orientated student support and learning activities that could improve the image and participation of the students. More parental involvement could add impetus to practices as parents have a wealth of knowledge about their children. The shortages of human and material resources are better addressed to further improve service provision. There is always new knowledge being generated and the continuous workshops would be helpful and possibly touch even those not very clear on the reason and need for modifications.

References Abosi, O.C. (2000). Trends and issues in special education in Botswana. The Journal of Special Education, 34(1): 46-53. Bell, C., E., Ewell, J., E. & Mino, N., M. (2013). National reading media assessment for youths with visual impairments: Research report. Journal of Blindness Innovation and Research. 3 (2). Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5241/2F3-37 Bailey, C., A. (2007). A guide to qualitative field research. Thousand Oak: Pine Forge. Curriculum Development and Evaluation, Ministry of Education, Botswana (2002). Curriculum blue print: The ten year basic education programme. Gaborone: Government Printers Brawand, A. & Johnson, N. (2016). Effective methods for delivering mathematics instruction to students with visual impairments. Journal of Blindness Innovation and Research. 6 (1). Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5241/6-86 Dalh, A., A. Blindness. Available: http://www.medicinenet.com/blindness/article.htm De Vos, A., S. Strydom, H., Fouché, C., B., Delport, C., S., L. (2011). Research at grass roots - for the social sciences and human service professions. Pretoria: Van Schaik Eloff, I. & Kgwete L., K. (2007). South Africa teachers’ voices on support in inclusive education. Available: www.thefreelibrary.com/-/search/search. Farrell P. (2002). The management, role and training of learning assistants. DfEE. Research Report No. 152. Norwich: Crown. Fraser, K. (2015). Accessible Science: Making life sciences accessible to students with visual impairments. New York: Perkins School for the Blind. Government of Botswana, (2011). Policy on Inclusive Education. Gaborone: Government Printers. Government of Botswana, (2007). Education Public Expenditure Review. Support to the Education and Training Sector. Gaborone: Government Printers. Government of Botswana, (1997). Vision 2016 towards prosperity for all. Gaborone: Government Printers.

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Government of Botswana, (1994). Revised National Policy on Education. Gaborone: Government Printers. Habulezi, J. & Phasha, T. N. (2012). Provision of Learning Support to Learners with Visual Impairment in Botswana: A Case Study. Procedia - Social and Behavioural Sciences, 69, 1555-1561 Hamilton-Jones, B. M & Vail, C, O. (2014). Preparing special educators for collaboration in the classroom: Pre-service teachers„ beliefs and perspectives. International Journal of Special Education, 29, (1) 76-86 Hebel, O. (2014). Parental involvement in the individual educational program for Israeli students with disabilities. International Journal of Special Education, 9(3) 57-65. Keltner, D. (2016). The Power Paradox: How we gain and lose influence. New York: Penguin Publishing Group. Kirk, S., Gallagher, J. J., Coleman, M. R., Anastasiow, N. (2015). Educating Exceptional Children. (13th ed). Belmont: Wadswort Jaquiss, R. S. (2010). An introduction to tactile graphics. Journal of Blindness Innovation and Research 1, (2) Available: https://nfb.org/images/nfb/publications/jbir/jbir11/jbir010205.html Malekpour, M., Aghababaei, S. Hadi, S. (2014). Effectiveness of family, child, and familychild based intervention on ADHD symptoms of students with disabilities. International Journal of Special Education, 29, (2) 27-34. Mastropieri, M., A. & Scruggs, T., E. (2015). The Inclusive classroom. Strategies for effective differentiated instruction. 5th Edition. Upper Saddle River: New Jersey. Maxwell, J., A. (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach. 3rd Edition. London: Sage publishers McBride, R. (2009). Draft policy for the introduction of inclusive education to improve the quality of education in Botswana. Unpublished Manuscript. McMillan, J. H. & Schumacher S. (2014). Research in Education. A conceptual introduction. 7th Edition. Cape Town: Longman. Ministry of Education, Botswana, (2006). Establishment register for secondary schools: Directorate of Teaching Service Management. Gaborone: Government Printers. Mouton, J. (2009). How to succeed in your Masters and Doctoral Studies: A South African guide and resource book. Pretoria: Van Schaik. O‟Day, A. R. (2014). Proofreading the tactile graphic: The important last step. Journal of Blindness Innovation and Research, 4(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.5241/4-59 Piljl S. & Van den Bos K. (2001). Redesigning regular education support in Netherlands. European Journal of Special Education. 16 (2) 111-1 Rubin H. J. & Rubin I. S. (2005). Qualitative interviewing: The Art of hearing data. London: Sage. Silverman, A. M. (2015). The perils of playing blind: problems with blindness simulation and a better way to teach about blindness. Journal of Blindness Innovation and Research, 5(2), Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5241/5-81 Stake, R. E. (2006). Multiple case studies analysis. New York: Guilford. Thurston, M. (2010). An inquiry into the emotional impact of sight loss and the counselling experiences and needs of blind and partially sighted people. Counselling & Psychotherapy Research: Linking Research with Practice, 10 3–12. Thurston, M., Thurston, A., & McLeod, J. (2010). Socio-emotional effects of the transition from sight to blindness. British Journal of Visual Impairment, 28, 90–112. UNESCO (2009). Inclusion of children and disabilities: the early childhood imperative. UNESCO Policy Brief on Early Childhood. Available: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001831/183156e.pdf UNESCO, (2008) Towards inclusion. Available: www.portal.unesco.org/education UNESCO, (2001). Open file on inclusive education support materials for managers and administrators. Paris: UNESCO.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 10, pp. 104-112, September 2016

On-Demand Lecturers in a Medication Calculation Course in the Bachelor’s Degree in Nursing Program: A Quantitative Study Kristin Hjorthaug Urstad, Bjørg Frøysland Oftedal and Brynjar Foss Department of Health Studies, University of Stavanger, Norway Abstract. On-demand lectures are a common learning tool at institutions around the world and are highly valued by students. However, less is known about how this digital resource is implemented in students’ strategies of learning. Exploring the students’ user log data for ondemand lectures would be a valuable contribution to the research in this area. Aim: The aim of this study is to identify nursing students’ use of ondemand lectures in a medication calculation course by exploring the students’ user logs. Design: The study has a descriptive, quantitative design. All data were collected from a Mediasite server log. The 22 ondemand lectures covered all relevant medication calculation topics and lasted an average of 7.5 minutes. The on-demand lectures were presented as supplemental tools to traditional learning methods. A total of 48 students used the on-demand lectures and were included in the study. Results: The average watching time for each lesson was 2 minutes and 18 seconds less than the full length of the lecture. The average number of views per lecture was 24.6, ranging from 2 to 53. The average number of students watching each lecture was 15, ranging from 2 to 29. The active user group (students using the on-demand lectures more than once, n=27) spent on average 1 hour and 38 minutes on the lectures spread over 4.1 days. Discussion/Conclusion: The results show that most of the students spent a significant amount of time using the on-demand lectures. The diversity in use of the on-demand lectures suggests that students select topics based on their individual needs. This option of tailoring content to individual needs is clearly one of the benefits of ondemand lectures. Based on the students’ selective use of the on-demand lectures, we assume that these lectures do not replace, but rather supplement, traditional lectures. Keywords: On-demand lectures; nursing students; quantitative design; medication calculation; e -learning.

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Introduction The traditional lecture on campus is the most frequently used pedagogical tool in higher education. This might be explained by its benefits, such as its potential to convey complex information to large student groups, to set topics in appropriate contexts and to provoke and engage the students (Brown & Mangoue, 2001; Exley & Dennick, 2011). However, an increasing focus on digital learning has welcomed a wide range of new learning tools and provided the traditional lecture with new possibilities, such as the on-demand lecture. An ondemand lecture is a recorded lecture or sets of lectures that can be created in an educational setting with an audience or in a studio. Viewers are able to access remotely the lecture in real time or later on. Most often, on-demand lectures are used in addition to traditional on-campus lectures (Karnad, 2013). The use of on-demand lectures in higher education is a common practice around the world, and the lectures are highly appreciated of on-campus students as well as distance learners (Hanegahn, 2016, Woo et al., 2008; Brittain et al., 2006; Veeramani & Bradley, 2008; Gosper et al., 2008). On-demand lectures offer a learner-centred approach, as they provide increased control for students who may view lectures at their own pace, time and place (Baecker, Moore, & Zijdemans, 2003; Traphagan, Kuscera, & Kishi, 2010). Students report that ondemand lectures have a positive influence on their learning and exam results, causing them to feel less anxious about the course (Traphagan et al., 2010; Williams & Fardon, 2007; Gosper et al., 2008) and providing them with greater flexibility (Phillips et al., 2010; Cooner, 2010). Students report using the ondemand lectures for varies of purposes, including as a substitute for live lectures, for exam preparation and for repetition of difficult material (Gorissen et al., 2012). Students with physical or learning disabilities may find on-demand lectures especially useful as a way to manage the pressure of note taking in class, or as a way to manage difficulties in attending class due to disabilities (Williams, 2006). Although educators seem to be in agreement that on-demand lectures are a valuable learning tool, less is known about how students use this tool in their learning processes. More insight in relation to the use of e-learning tools in higher education is needed (Pani et al., 2015). Previous research regarding ondemand lectures has mainly focused on students’ opinions; this research indicates that more objective data is needed in this field (Gorissen et al., 2012). Examining students’ user log data for on-demand lectures could provide valuable information to help educators develop digital programs with optimal pedagogical outcomes. Hence, the aim of this study is to identify nursing students’ use of on-demand lectures in a medication calculation course by exploring the students’ user logs.

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Methods Design and sample The current study has a descriptive, quantitative design. All students in their first semester of pursuing a bachelorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degree in nursing at a Norwegian university were invited to participate in the study. Of the 172 students enrolled in the medication calculation course, 72 agreed to participate. Of these, 48 students used the on-demand lectures and were included in the study. All data were collected from the Mediasite server log. The medication calculation course The traditional medication calculation course consisted of five classroom lectures (given in two sessions of 45 minutes), five supervised case case-based sessions (two hours for each session) and a textbook used with the syllabus for the course. The on-demand lectures were presented as supplemental tools to traditional learning methods. The 22 on-demand lectures covered all relevant medication calculation topics (Table 1) and lasted an average of 7.5 minutes each. The ondemand lectures did not contain any student feedback; no communication platforms and no instructions for use were provided. The on-demand lectures were made available to the students from the start of the course until the day of the final exam, a period of 6 weeks. Table 1. An overview of the on-demand lectures. On-demand lectures (n=22) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

The medication calculation topics (n=14) Intro, fraction and percent Mass and volume Mol and IE Time Rounding Medication dosages calculation Tablets Oral suspension Injections Medication patch Infusions (simple) part 1 part 2 part 3 part 4 Infusions (complex) part 1 part 2 Dilutions part 1 part 2 part 3 Double-checking calculations part 1 part 2 part 3

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Results The results show that the students did not see all lectures in their full length. Each lecture was watched for an average of 5 minutes and 18 seconds (average time of lectures was 7 minutes and 30 seconds). Figure 1 shows the duration of each lecture and the average time the students watched. Figure 1. Duration of lectures and average time each lecture was watched.

Further, the results reveal a variation in the choice of lectures. The largest number of students who watched the same lecture was 29, and the smallest number was two (Figure 2). By calculating the average number of students watching the same lecture, we found that 15 students (31%) watched the same lecture (Figure 2). The average number of total views per lecture was 24.6, ranging from 2 to 53. The lectures about fraction and percent (lecture 1), time (lecture 4) and dilution, part one (lecture 11), were watched by the most students, whereas the lectures about double-checking calculations (lecture 14, parts 1â&#x20AC;&#x201C;3) were watched the least (Figure 2).

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Figure 2. Number of students watching each lecture. 35

Number of students 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

The average time students spent watching on-demand lectures was 1 hour and 3 minutes over 2.8 days. When excluding students who logged in once only, we found that 27 students (56%) used the on-demand lectures more thoroughly (more than once). This group was characterized as active users. This active user group of students spent, on average, 1 hour and 38 minutes on the lectures spread over 4.1 days.

Discussion The aim of this study was to identify the students’ use of on-demand lectures in the context of a medication calculation course for nursing students. To be able to develop educational programs with optimal pedagogical outcomes, it is essential to understand how this e-learning tool is implemented in students’ processes of learning. Previous research within this area is scarce and has mainly focused on students’ overall opinions of on-demand lectures (Williams & Fardon, 2007; Gosper et al., 2008; Gorissen et al., 2012 Phillips et al., 2010; Cooner, 2010). Additional insight can be gained by examining the actual use as recorded in students’ logs. An important observation in this study is the students’ diverse use of the ondemand lectures. The results showed a significant variation in choice of lectures, wherein an average of 15 out of 48 students watched the same lecture (31%). The largest number of students watching the same lecture was 29 (60%). However, these 29 watched the first lesson, which also contained introductory material. The diverse use may indicate that students selected medication calculation topics based on their individual needs. The perception of what appears difficult will vary among students, and in live lectures for large student groups, the possibility of meeting individual needs is limited.

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Our findings indicate that one benefit of on-demand lectures is that students can choose topics based on their needs and thereby tailor their study efforts to fit their strengths and weaknesses. For many reasons, increased focus on tailoring in teaching will benefit students. Health research has shown that tailored education programs provide successful outcomes, including increased information recall, perceived relevance of teaching material and change of behaviour (Noar et al., 2007; van der Meulen et al., 2008; Rimer et al., 1999). Also, in a recent study of students in higher education, the use of computer-tailored student support was associated with better grades in physics (Huberth et al., 2015). To identify how much time students spent with on-demand lectures, we separated low users (n=21) from active users (n=27). We assumed that some students might just be curious and log into the Mediasite platform without actively using the learning material. When excluding students that used the ondemand lectures only once, we found that active users spent 1 hour and 38 minutes on the lectures spread over 4.1 days. Determining whether this is a significant amount of time is not straightforward, as this study did not measure how much time students spent on other learning activities in this course. However, based on the fact that no instruction for use was given and that the ondemand lectures included no student feedback, one could argue that the students spent quite a lot of time using this learning tool. We must also bear in mind that the students were in an early phase of their studies and did not have access to such learning tools previously in their nursing studies. It is possible that the students’ use patterns could change in later stages of their studies. Studies concerning changes in the use of digital learning tools among students could be an interesting topic for further research. We found that students did not see all of the lessons in their full lengths, but watched parts of them. Average watching time for each lesson was 2 minutes and 18 seconds less than the full length of the lecture (the average length of lectures was 7 minutes and 30 seconds). This suggests that students search for specific materials in parts of the lecture. Previous research into students’ use of on-demand lectures reveals that students consider watching full-length lectures as time-consuming; therefore, they adopt a more strategic learning approach focusing on the concepts they experience as difficult (van Zanten et al., 2012). The ability to search for and review only relevant parts and the ability to repeat difficult material is an important benefit of on-demand lectures (Gorissen et al., 2012). For the medication calculation course explored in this study, where casebased exercises and calculations are an important part of student self-studies, this flexibility is clearly a benefit. Although the on-demand lectures in this study were provided as a whole course, the students seemed not to use it this way. Based on the students’ selective use of the on-demand lectures, and despite the lack of measurements of attendance to the on-campus lectures, we assume that on-demand lectures do not replace but rather supplement traditional on-campus lectures. This is in line with previous research in which students’ preferred live on-campus lectures over recorded on-demand lectures (Schreiber et al., 2010). Students found

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recorded lectures to be ‘less engaging’ and ‘easy to put off’ (Schreiber et al., 2010). Instead of using on-demand lectures as a replacement for live lectures, students view the two as complementary; preferring a blended format consisting of on-demand lectures, live lectures and course materials (Yeung et al, 2016, Karnad, 2013). Limitations This study aimed to identify students’ use of on-demand lectures in the context of a medication calculation course for student nurses. Many student nurses struggle with math calculation and problem-solving skills, and failure rates are especially high for this topic (McMullan et al., 2010, Jukes & Gilchrist, 2006; Brown, 2002; Keers et al., 2013). This might impact the use of the on-demand lectures, as students might spend much effort on this course. Future research should include on-demand lectures on different topics in nursing education and include a larger sample of students. Further, including qualitative data in the form of interviews with students could provide more depth to our results. Conclusion and implication The results in this study show that most of the students spent a significant amount of time using the on-demand lectures. The diversity in the nature of their use indicates that students selected topics based on their individual needs. This option of tailoring content to individual needs is clearly one of the benefits of on-demand lectures. Based on the students’ selective use of the on-demand lectures, we assume that these lectures did not replace, but were used to supplement, traditional lectures. This study adds a valuable contribution to the understanding of how digital tools are implemented in students’ learning strategies. This insight might be useful when designing educational programs with optimal pedagogical outcomes.

References Brittain, S., Glowacki, P., Ittersum, J. V., & Johnson, L. (2006). Podcasting lectures. Educause Quarterly, 3, 24. http://er.educause.edu/~/media/files/articledownloads/eqm0634.pdf Brown, D. L. (2002). Does 1 + 1 still equal 2? A study of the mathematic competencies of associate degree nursing students. Nurse Educator, 27(3), 132–135. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12023648 Brown, G., & Manogue, M. (2001). AMEE Medical Education Guide No. 22. Refreshing lecturing: A guide for lecturers. Medical Teacher, 23(3), 231–244. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12098394 Burton, J. H., Marshall, J. M., Munro, P., Moule, W., Snell, G. I., & Westall, G. P. (2009). Rehabilitation and transition after lung transplantation in children. Transplantation Proceedings, 41(1), 296–299. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19249539 Cooner, T. S. (2010). Creating opportunities for students in large cohorts to reflect in and on practice: Lessons learnt from a formative evaluation of students’ experiences of a technology-enhanced blended learning design. British Journal of Educational

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 10, pp. 113-129, September 2016

Efficacy of Music Therapy and Bibliotherapy as Interventions in the Treatment of Children With EBD: A Literature Review Raol J. Taft and Jannah L. Hotchkiss University of Missouri-Kansas City Kansas City, MO, USA

Daesik Lee

Gyeongin National University of Education Incheon, Korea

Abstract. Expressive arts therapies are commonly used in the treatment of children with disabilities. Two forms of art therapies often recommended to address issues of self–esteem and challenging behaviours are music therapy and bibliotherapy. The purpose of this review is to investigate the literature on the effectiveness of music therapy and bibliotherapy as interventions for students with emotional behaviour disorders (EBD) and challenging behaviours. Eleven studies published in articles involving 523 students in three countries met criteria for inclusion. Results from five studies suggested group music therapy had minimal to no impact on self-esteem or aggression of students with behaviour problems. However, one group music therapy study indicated statistically significant improvement in students’ negative self-evaluation, depression, and anger. Data from five studies using bibliotherapy as an intervention in group and individual therapy sessions suggested an increase in self-concept and a decrease in aggression of students with challenging behaviours. Findings from this review indicate a paucity of empirical research in this area and a need for further research on the effectiveness therapies in the treatment of children with challenging behaviours. Keywords: bibliotherapy; music therapy; emotional behaviour disturbance

Introduction

It is well recognized in the literature that students who present challenging behaviours are more susceptible to social and academic failure at school (McIntosh & Goodman, 2016; Orpinas, Raczynski, Peters, Colman, & Bandalos, 2015). For various reasons, traditional behaviour management and teaching strategies have proven to be inadequate in ameliorating academic and

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behavioural concerns of these students. (Crone, Hawken,, & Horner, 2015; Hemphill, Plenty, Herrenkohl, Toumbourou, & Catalano, 2014; Skiba, 2014; Van Acker, Grant, & Henry, 1996; Wehby, Symons, & Canale, 1998). Pehrsson and McMillen (2005) argued for the need for innovative practices so that these students might experience success in school. The notion that the arts are beneficial to the "emotional well-being of the observer or participant has been around since Aristotle proposed the idea of emotional catharsis" (Pehrsson & McMillen, p. 1). Bunt and Stige (2014) note that healers have utilized music therapy plenteously throughout history. Some (Forgan, 2002; Haines, 1989; Montello & Coons, 1998; Sausser & Waller, 2006) feel that bibliotherapy and music therapy offer avenues to address the needs of students with behavioural concerns. This review examines the efficacy of music therapy and bibliotherapy interventions for students with challenging behaviors and ascertains if they are viable treatment approaches for this student population. This review considered four questions: (a) What were the foci and outcomes of the studies, (b) What were participant characteristics, (c) What were student placements where studies took place, and (d) What intervention formats were used.

Method: Literature Search

Several strategies were employed to find studies suitable for inclusion in this review. A search of ERIC, PyschINFO, Google Scholar, and Web of Science databases was conducted using the key words: music therapy, adjunctive therapy, bibliotherapy and children with disabilities or special needs students, emotional behavior in the descriptor fields, abstracts and titles of the articles. Databases were searched from the earliest date available to the present. Only studies presented in peer-reviewed journals were considered. References contained in literature reviews of music therapy and bibliotherapy and expressive art therapies targeting other special needs populations were examined for additional sources. Ancestral searches were performed by checking citations of acceptable articles. Finally, a manual search of studies published from 1970 to 2015 was performed on the journals Music Therapy and The Journal of Music Therapy to determine if any studies from these journals had were missed in the ERIC, Psychâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;INFO, Web of Science, and Google Scholar database searches. Eleven studies were identified using the following criteria: (a) targeted students with emotional behaviour disorders (EBD), emotional disturbance (ED), behavioural disorder (BD), conduct disorder (CD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), or children at risk for developing behavioural difficulties; (b) the studies were empirical in nature and targeting specific behaviors as dependent variables with measurable outcomes; (b) the study involved some form of music therapy or bibliotherapy as an intervention; (c) there were no age limits on subjects, and all settings (i.e., residential treatment facility, home, school, alternate education placement, or vocational) were acceptable; and (d) studies that included students with stated behavior criteria and general education students reported the findings for the special needs students separately. In this article we discuss within discrete sections definitions of music

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therapy and bibliotherapy and discuss relevant literature. The review is further organized under three broad sections: results, discussion, and implications for research and practice. The broad sections results and discussion include three subsections: (a) participants and settings, (b) treatment format and focus, and (c) treatment outcome, with music therapy data followed by bibliotherapy data included in each subsection. The review closes with a discussion of limitation of existing research and suggests directions for future research.

Computation of Effect Sizes

Effects sizes were calculated only from the group design studies reporting significant effects and when the studies provided necessary information (sample size in each group and standard deviation) for the calculation of Cohen’s d. For example, even if a study reported significant effects of intervention, calculation was not possible when it did not provide information on the number of participants in or the standard deviation data of each group. In addition, effect sizes were calculated for each dependent measure, regardless of the number of the dependent variables in each study. The effect sizes were scaled to Hedges’ g to account for the overestimation of the studies with small sample sizes.

Music Therapy Literature: Definition

According to the American Music Therapy Association music therapy is defined as “motor skills, social/interpersonal development, cognitive development, self– awareness, and spiritual enhancement” (AMTA, 2016). Further, the AMTA states that “music therapy interventions can address development in cognitive, behavioral, physical, emotional, and social skills. Music therapy can also facilitate development in communication and sensorimotor skills" (AMTA). Music therapy is used to improve self–concept and communication skills by teaching the child a skill that is important to them and to others. However, music therapists working in schools have little research to aid them in constructing programs that might work in teaching students with emotional and behavioural disorders (EBD). Sausser and Waller stated, “No literature currently available describes a specific music therapy program for working with students with EBD” (p. 5). The trained music therapist may employ two types of music therapy. Active therapy occurs when the student or client actively participates in “music making.” In passive music therapy the student or client is not physically active but is involved in “music listening” (Montello & Coons, 1998).

Participants and Settings

One hundred and 37 students participated across six music therapy studies (Bittman, Dickson, & Coddington, 2009; Eidson, 1989; Haines, 1989; Hallam & Price, 1998; Montello & Coons, 1998; Rickson & Watkins, 2003;). Table 1 summarizes the reviewed studies. Seventy eight participants were male, 34 participants were female, and the genders of the remaining 25 participants were not specified. In the study by Montello and Coons (1998), participant ages ranged from 11 to 14 years old. In this study, 14 participants were male and two were female. Six students were Caucasian, seven African–American, and three Hispanic. In the study by Haines (1989), 19 male students, ages 11 to 16 years old, participated. These students were African–American or Caucasian, but

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specific numbers of each were not given. In the study by Rickson and Watkins (2003), the ages of the 15 students ranged from 11–15. Nine were ethnic Maoris and nine participants were New Zealand European. In the study by Bittman et al. (2009), 52 students whose age ranged from 12-18 were participants. The participants consisted of 11 females and 22 male subjects. Participants were African American, Asian, Caucasian, and Puerto Rican, but specific numbers of each were not reported. In the study by Hallam and Price, ten students aged nine to ten years old participated. Two females and eight males were included in the study. The participants’ ethnicities were not reported. The 25 participants in Edison’s (1989) study were between 11 and 16 years old. Genders and ethnicities were not reported. Five studies occurred in a school setting. Two of these studies (Eidson, 1989; Montello & Coons, 1998) were conducted in self-contained classrooms in public schools. Another was conducted in the United States in an alternative school setting for students with ED (Haines, 1989). The study by Rickson and Watkins (2003) was conducted in a residential school in New Zealand. Children in the study by Hallam and Price (1998) attended a day school for children with emotional behavioural concerns. The study by Bittman et al. (2009) took place in a children’s home for adolescents that served as a residential juvenile treatment program. Participants in one study had been diagnosed as ED, LD, and ADD (Montello & Coons, 1998). All participants in another study were identified as ED (Haines, 1989). The third study included participants with ADHD, ODD, and/or CD (Rickson & Watkins, 2003). Participants in the fourth study had numerous mental health disorders, including CD and ADHD (Bittman et al., 2009). Numbers of participants specifically identified with a condition were not given. Participants in two studies (Eidson, 1989; Hallam & Price, 1998) had no specified diagnoses, but they were identified as emotionally and behaviourally troubled (Hallam & Price) or emotionally handicapped (Eidson). Calculating an average effect size from the music therapy studies with significant effects was not possible due to either the lack of information on the number of participants or because of a one-group design.

Music Therapy Interventions

Montello and Coons (1998) focused on aggression as the dependent variable and compared active and passive music conditions. Subjects were separated into Groups A, B, and C. Group A underwent active music therapy for 12 weeks and passive music therapy for the 12 following weeks. Group B, the control group, received passive music therapy for all 24 weeks of the study’s duration. Group C received active music therapy for 24 weeks. Active music therapy included learning and playing primarily percussive instruments. Passive music therapy involved the students listening to a selection of eclectic music. Haines (1989) focused on self-esteem as the dependent variable and specifically targeted raising the participants’ self-esteem. The study compared an active music condition versus a verbal condition. Ten students received music therapy treatment in a group setting. Activities included song writing, listening to music, singing, and rhythm exercises. Nine other students served as the control group and received verbal therapy

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Rickson and Watkins (2003) focused on aggression as the dependent variable. The study implemented four active music activities: creation of a greeting song, rhythm–based exercises, experiencing and caring for musical instruments, and group song writing. Students were not divided into smaller groups but participated in the activities as one large group. Bittman et al. (2009) focused on numerous variables including behaviour toward others, anger control, self-concept, depression, and school/work performance. The study used active music therapy and implemented an intervention called HealthRHYTHMS drumming protocol. Students were divided into two groups and had six weekly, one–hour sessions. Program activities included icebreakers, playing percussive instruments, and responding rhythmically to questions. Group A received the intervention from weeks one through six, while Group B received no intervention. From weeks seven through twelve, Group B received intervention while Group A did not. Hallam and Price (1998) focused on behaviour and mathematics performance. The study used passive music in a non–therapeutic setting. All participants performed timed mathematics tasks for four consecutive sessions with no background music followed by four sessions with background music. After a gap week, they had three sessions with background music followed by three sessions without it. Teachers and one researcher attended all sessions to observe the amount and type of rule-breaking behaviours and math performance. Eidson (1989) focused on seven general behaviours and participant behaviours as the dependent variables. Students were divided into three groups: Group 1 received music therapy that targeted specific behaviours, Group 2 received general music therapy, and Group 3 received no music therapy but were monitored as a control classroom with no interaction. Group 3 students were differentiated by the schedule of reinforcement, which resulted in four sub–groups. Students were given tokens and accrued points for performing target behaviours.

Treatment Outcomes Two studies targeting aggression (Montello & Coons, 1998; Rickson & Watkins, 2003) reported the only significant effect size was an increase in aggression in the treatment group. No other significant effect sizes were reported. Both studies reported an increase in positive behaviours from results obtained from teacher and student self–reports but these increases were not significant. Haines (1989) reported a significant change in self–esteem in both treatment and control groups. Bittman et al. (2009) reported statistically significant positive changes in all dependent variables which ranged from school performance to self-evaluation. Hallam and Price (1998) reported a significant improvement in mathematics performance during sessions when background music was played. Participant behaviour generally improved in sessions with music, but these findings were not statistically significant. Eidson (1989) reports that scores for behaviours stabilized over time in the experimental groups, but in the control group these scores continued to fluctuate. He also noted the most regularity in

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weeks when reinforcement was provided via token distribution. However, no significant increase or decrease in appropriate behaviour occurred when reinforcement was withheld. Table 1: Music Therapy Studies Study

Focus

Participant/S etting

Conditions

Format

Length of Treatment

Outcomes

Montello & Coons (1998)

Aggression, motivation, and attention in ED, LD, and ADD cases

16 students (2 females) ages 1114 years old in a self-contained U.S. class

Active and passive music therapy

Group therapy led be a professio nal music therapist

24 weeks during regular music class time

Increase in hostility in one experimental group. No significant differences between active and passive therapies on 3 dependent variables

Haines (1989)

Self-esteem in ED cases

19 students (all males) ages 11-16 years old in a private (alternative) ED school in the U.S.

Active music therapy and verbal therapy

Group therapy led by a professio nal music therapist

2 stages of 6 30-minute sessions over 3 weeks totalling 6 weeks

No significant differences between the effects of music therapy and verbal therapy conditions

Rickson & Watkins (2003)

Aggression in ADHD, ODD, and/or CD cases

15 students (all males) ages 11-15 years old in a residential New Zealand school

Music therapy with various session lengths

16-30 minute sessions twice a week

No definite treatment effects could be detected

Bittman, Dickson, & Coddingt on (2009)

Anger control, self-concept, and behaviour toward others in mental health disorder cases

52 students (30 females, 22 males) ages 12-18 in a residential treatment facility in the U.S.

Active music therapy

Group therapy led by a professio nal music therapist Group therapy led by a trained facilitator

2 stages of 6 consecutive weekly 1hour sessions

Significant increase in school/work performance, depression, negative self-evaluation, and instrumental anger

Hallam & Price (1998)

Behaviour and mathematical performance in cases with “emotional and behavioural difficulties” (no label specified) Interpersonal skills and behaviour in “emotionally troubled” students (no label specified)

10 students (2 females, 8 males) ages 9-10 at a day school for children with emotional and behavioural difficulties 25 students (gender not specified) ages 11-16 in five selfcontained classrooms in the U.S.

Passive music therapy

Timed trials facilitate d by the students’ teachers

7 trials with background music and 7 trials without it. Length of sessions not specified

Significant improvement in behaviour and mathematics performance for all students

Group 1: Active behaviour-specific music therapy Group 2: General music therapy Group 3: No-contact control classroom Group 3 divided into three subgroups

Group therapy led by a therapist

9 sessions followed by a performance

In the experimental groups, behaviour was more stable and consistent during weeks when reinforcement was given, but no significant improvement when reinforcement was withheld

Eidson (1989)

Note. ADD = Attention Deficit Disorder; ADHD = Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder; ED = Emotional Disorder; ODD = Oppositional Defiant Disorder; CD = Conduct Disorder

Bibliotherapy Literature: Definition Unlike other forms of the arts, bibliotherapy has not been academically established as a legitimate form of therapy. The literature reveals two individual types Clinical bibliotherapy usually is administered in a structured setting; is implemented by a counsellor, therapist, or psychologist; and is most often used

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to treat individuals with serious emotional or behavioural problems. Developmental bibliotherapy is implemented by lay persons in a school setting such as a classroom or library room and employs guided reading to promote interactions between readers and literature. Developmental bibliotherapy is useful as a proactive approach to dealing with inappropriate behaviours and as a tool for facilitating problem solving in specific conditions (Cook, EarlesVollrath & Ganz, 2006; Pehrsson & McMillen, 2005). Bibliotherapuetic theory suggests that students might be able to better understand and deal with their behaviours by identifying with a character in a book, film, poem, or other literary medium. Interaction between the individual and the character in the story provides a safe distance for the child and aids them in verbalizing their problems. A clarifying process intensifies the transition to form insight that facilitates a change in behaviour (Shechtman & Nachshol, 1996). This catharsis enables the person to understand his/her problem and hopefully facilitates improved problem solving using appropriate behaviours rather than unacceptable behaviours to deal with challenging situations presented to the student in everyday life (Cook et al., 2006; Forgan, 2002; King & Schwabenlender, 1994; Shechtman & Nachshol). Cook et al. stated that a basic foundation of bibliotherapy is that when students identify with characters in a story experiencing problems similar to ones they face, the child forms an association that makes it possible to release emotions. This change assists children in gaining an alternate trajectory in life and supports more diverse methods of interacting with other individuals. Bibliotherapy sessions can be conducted utilizing an individual or group format. Group formats are preferred when working with aggressive children for a number of reasons. Children will feel less threatened in a group session than in an individual session, if implemented correctly group sessions may provide positive role modelling, and groups provide a context for psychoeducation and interpersonal interactions (Shechtman & Ben-David, 1999). Individual group sessions ensure that the therapist-client relationship is fortified and the focus of the interventionist is on the individual child during the session (Shechtman & Ben-David).

Participants and Settings

Three hundred eighty–six students participated across five bibliotherapy studies (Lenkowsky, Barowsky, Dayboch, Puccio, & Lenkowsky, 1987; Shechtman, 1998; Shechtman & Ben-David, 1999; Shechtman & Nachshol, 1996; Shechtman, 2006). Table 2 provides a summary of the reviewed studies. Participant grade levels were reported more frequently than ages and ranged from first through ninth grade. Two hundred sixty eight participants were male, 16 were female, and the genders of 102 participants were not specified. Males participated in at least four studies and females participated in at least one study (Lenkowsky et al., 1987)). In one study (Lenkowsky et al., 1987), participants’ grade levels were reported instead of their ages. In this study, 79 male and 16 female students in fourth through seventh grade participated. One hundred and two students ranging from grades one through nine participated in Shechtman and Ben-David’s study (1999), but participants’ genders were not reported. Though race for each student was not specified, the sample represented diverse schools and peoples

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in Israel including Jewish, Arab, and Druz. In another study, age was reported instead of grades (Shechtman & Nachshol, 1997). One hundred and seventeen males ages 13-16 years old participated. Shechtman’s study (1998) reported both age and grade. The 10 participants were 8-year-old boys in fourth grade. Participant ages in Shechtman’s study (2006), ranged from 8-16 years old. Thirty of the participants were Arab and 31 of the participants were Jewish. Generally, racial and socioeconomic breakdowns were not reported in the studies. Bibliotherapy participants had learning disabilities, were emotionally handicapped (Lenkowsky et al., 1987); ED, BD, or socially maladjusted (Shechtman & Nachshol, 1996); or “aggressive” or “highly aggressive” (Shechtman, 1998; Shechtman & Ben-David, 1999; Shechtman, 2006) but numbers of subjects specifically identified with a condition were not given. Only one study was conducted in the United States (Lenkowsky et al., 1987) and was carried out in an alternative school that only served students in special education. Participants in this study were identified by their school systems. Two studies in Israel (Shechtman, 1998; Shechtman & Nachshol, 1996) took place in alternative education settings, and two studies in Israel (Shechtman & BenDavid, 1999; Shechtman, 2006) took place in a public education setting. Participants in Israel were identified by the government and referred to an alternate placement or by home room teachers if the participants were in a public education setting.

Bibliotherapy Interventions

Lenkowsky et al. (1987) focused on self–concept as the independent variable and compared bibliotherapy and literature as treatments. Participants were split into four groups. Group 1 and 2 both read the same books of general interest during three periods weekly. Group 2 participants engaged in a dialogue session each week where students talked about "feelings, emotional experiences, and school– related problems" (Lenkowsky et al., p. 486). Participant in Groups 3, and 4 were the initial and second bibliotherapy groups and both read identical literature. Group 3 met three time weekly and read literature focused on problems the students might encounter on a regular basis. There was no weekly discussion session for Group 3. Group 4 participants engaged in a discussion meeting weekly. Shechtman and Nachshol (1996) focused on aggression, adjusting behaviour, and belief system sustaining aggression as the dependent variables. Students were split in three groups and each received treatment 15 weekly one hour sessions. The control group received an intervention mandatory in Israel but without focus on aggression. The other two groups were from two different schools and received bibliotherapy treatment during these sessions that focused on aggression. Shechtman (1998) focused on aggression as the dependent variable. Five students were the control group counterparts of the other five students who received bibliotherapy. This single–subject design study consisted of 10 weekly 45–minute affective bibliotherapy sessions. Shechtman and Ben-David (1999) also focused on aggression as the dependent variable. Participants were split into 15 small groups and 15 students did not receive treatment because they were wait-listed. Affective bibliotherapy was administered to the groups during

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10 weekly 45–minute sessions. Shechtman (2006) focused on empathy and aggression. Two to three aggressive students were selected from 24 classrooms and split into three treatment groups for individual counselling. The first group received integrative counselling plus bibliotherapy (ICB), the second received integrative counselling with no bibliotherapy (IC), and the third was the control group. The participant’s treatment condition was administered by counselling students during 10 45–minute sessions over the course of 4 months.

Treatment Outcomes

Lenkowsky et al. (1987) reported a significant difference between both treatment conditions and the non–treatment conditions. Each bibliotherapy treatment group, Group 3 and Group 4, exhibited significant increases in self–concept. Non–treatment conditions, Group 1 and Group 2, reported no changes. Studies targeting aggression (Shechtman & Nachshol, 1996; Shechtman, 1998; Shechtman & Ben-David, 1999; Shechtman, 2006) all reported a reduction in aggression in some capacity. Shechtman and Nachshol (1996) reported no significant differences between treatment and control groups in any targeted variable in the first year but in the second year of the study investigators reported a significant increase in the control group on beliefs maintaining aggression. No other significant changes were noted on other behavioural variables. Shechtman (1998) reported reduced aggression in treatment groups and a non-significant increase in constructive group behaviours. Data from the study by Shechtman and Ben-David (1999) indicated (a) reduced aggression in treatment groups, (b) the individual format showed less aggression over time but the difference was not significant, and (c) therapists in group conditions used more directives and exhibited a lower level of self–disclosure than therapists in individual therapy sessions. There were no changes noted in control groups of any study. Shechtman (2006) reported an increase in empathy and reduction in aggression for both ICB and IC treatment groups, but the gains for ICB were greater than the gains for IC. Effect sizes from the studies reported significant effects of bibliotherapy ranged from 0.15 to 1.84, resulting in about an average effect size 0.964.

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Table 2: Bibliotherapy Studies Study

Focus

Participants and Settings

Condition s

Format

Lenkowsky et al. (1987)

Self-concept in LD and emotionally handicappe d cases

96 students (79 males and 16 females) in 4th-7th grade in a U.S. alternative school for special education students

Group therapy. Implement er not stated.

3 weekly sessions. Length of time unspecified

Significant improvement in selfconcept in bibliotherapy treatments. Nonbibliotherapy results insignificant

Shechtman & Nachshol (1996)

Aggression, behaviour adjustment, and belief system sustaining aggression in ED, BD, or socially maladjusted cases Aggression in “highly aggressive” cases (no label specified)

117 male students ages 13-16 years old in alternative schools in Israel (vocational n=46, residential =44, secondary n=14)

Group 1: literature Group 2: literature and rap session Group 3: bibliotherapy Group 4: bibliotherapy and discussion session Group A: bibliotherapy Group B: bibliotherapy Group C: no treatment

Group therapy led by graduate students, teachers, and counsellors

2 years

In 1991, no significant differences between control and treatment groups. In 1992, control group indicated significant increase in endorsement of beliefs maintaining aggression.

10 males students age 8 years old in an alternative school in Israel

Bibliotherapy . Each student compared to student in control group

Group therapy led by two experience d special education teachers

10 weekly 45minute sessions

Treatment group: decrease in aggressive behaviours; Constructive group: behaviours increased. Control group: no change

Aggression, outcome difference in formats, and difference in processes in “highly aggressive” cases (no label specified) Empathy and aggression in “aggressive ” cases (no label specified)

102 students (gender not specified) in 1st through 9th grade

15 small groups and 15 individual students with no treatment

Group and individual therapy led by 30 graduate counselling special education students

10 weekly 45minute sessions

Reduced aggression in treatment groups and therapists used more directives and exhibited a lower level of self-disclosure

61 male students ages 8-16 years old from 24 classrooms in Israel. Arabs n=30, Jews n=31

Group 1: ICB Group 2: IC Group 3: no treatment

Individual therapy led by randomly assigned counselling students matched by ethnicity.

10 45-minute sessions over 4months

Significant improvement in empathy and therapist satisfaction for the ICB group. Slightly less resistance and more insightfulness in the ICB group than in the IC group.

Shechtman (1998)

Shechtman & BenDavid (1999)

Shechtman (2006)

Length of Treatment

Outcomes

Notes. LD = Learning Disability; ED = Emotional Disturbance; BD = Behavioural Disorder, ICB=adjunctive bibliotherapy, IC=counselling with no literature

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Discussion

The review generated five findings. First, data suggested that the main focus of the studies was aggressive behaviour. Second, participants were predominantly adolescent males. Third, student placements were seldom in general education settings. Fourth, group formats were used in music therapy studies, and group clinical bibliotherapy was most frequently used in bibliotherapy studies. Finally, there was little evidence to support the claim that music therapy was effective as an intervention tool for addressing challenging behaviours of this student population, while bibliotherapy studies indicated that these interventions may be more effective. Most data indicated that music therapy did not produce significant changes in student behaviours and would not be an effective method of intervention to address the needs of students with challenging behaviours. In fact, two studies reported an increase in aggressive behaviours (Rickson and Watkins, 2003; Montello & Coons, 1998). The only study that reported notable, positive effects of music therapy was the study by Bittman et al. (2009). Results also indicated bibliotherapy might reduce aggressive behaviours and have a positive impact on group behaviours of students with behavioural concerns when used as a facilitative agent to promote changes in student behaviours. At least 66% of the students participating in studies reviewed in this paper were male adolescents. It is commonly accepted that males make up a higher percentage of students diagnosed with behaviour problems (Friend, 2013; Wagner, Kutash, Duchnowski, Epstein & Sumi, 2005), but it appears that such a high percentage might indicate female students were either overlooked, not diagnosed as having behaviour problems, or were not nominated as aggressive students by teachers. Since gender was not specified for 127 of the participants this percentage of male–to–female adolescents must be taken with caution. Only one study included participants in first through fourth grade. The main focus of three music therapy studies was student aggression (Bittman et al., 2009; Montello & Coons, 1998; Rickson & Watkins, 2003). Results question the efficacy of music therapy as an effective intervention tool when used with students with EBD. Montello and Coons investigated the effects of active versus passive music participation. They hypothesized students in the treatment group (active participation) would exhibit a decrease in aggressive behaviours. The authors stated that the only significant findings were from Group A (active followed by passive) which exhibited increasing hostility in the first half of the study. Group B exhibited an improvement in aggression, motivation, and attention in the second half of the study (passive followed by active). It is unclear what may have produced the effect, active vs. passive therapy, order of therapy presentation, etc. Montello and Coons concluded that the data did not indicate that active music therapy reduced aggression of the participants of this study. This finding is inconsistent with the results of Bittman’s (2009) study, which indicated a substantial decrease in aggressive behaviour, among many other variables, after exposure to the intervention. Rickson and Watson (2003) also examined the effects of music therapy on aggressive behaviours. The treatment group exhibited increased aggressive behaviours while in the of music therapy period and not during the non– treatment phase. The treatment group subjects all had ADHD, despite

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randomization during assignment to groups, and the authors suggested that this might have impacted the results. Montello and Coons (1998) also found that boys with ADHD presented more disruptive behaviours during music therapy. This finding suggests that boys with ADHD might become over stimulated during music therapy or in a less structured setting. These findings conflict with Cripe’s (1986) study on the effect of rock music as an adjunctive supportive therapy for students with ADD. Data indicated rock music therapy did not negatively impact aggression, attention, or motivation of students with ADD and during periods of listening to rock music levels of motor activities decreased. Three music therapy studies reviewed (Eidson, 1989; Haines, 1989; Hallam & Price, 1998) focused on the behavioural and emotional improvement of students and not on aggression as a specific dependent variable. Haines (1989) examined the result of music therapy on self–esteem of students with ED and found active music therapy had no significant effect on the self–esteem of students with emotional disturbance. Hallam and Price found that passive music therapy significantly improved students’ behaviour and mathematics performance for all participants receiving this intervention. Similarly, Eidson (1989) found behavioural stability and improvement in targeted behaviours for groups receiving music therapy. However, it was difficult to determine whether the changes in behaviour described in the study were a result of the music therapy intervention of if they were a result of the token economy and reinforcement system implemented as part of the intervention. Four studies explored the effect of bibliotherapy on aggression of students with behavioural problems (Shechtman, 1998; Shechtman & Ben-David, 1999; Shechtman & Nachshol, 1996; Shechtman, 2006). Results indicated that bibliotherapy might be an effective intervention tool for addressing behavioural concerns and self–esteem of students with emotional behaviour problems. Shechtman (2006) reported that individual bibliotherapy resulted in greater empathy and less resistance in the experimental group than the control group. However, Shechtman and Nachshol (1996) conducted a two–year longitudinal study which produced conflicting results. Results from the first year showed no significant differences between experimental and control groups in gains in any targeted behaviour areas. Results from the second year indicated significant differences between groups in attitudes towards aggression and aggressive behaviour. The data from the control group indicated significant increases in validation of beliefs maintaining aggression. There was no difference demonstrated in the experimental group. Shechtman and Nachshol (1996) stated this might indicate the intervention was only able to stop endorsement of this belief system, not eliminate it. Lenkowsky et al. (1987) examined the effect of bibliotherapy on the self–construction of students with emotional disabilities. This study had two bibliotherapy treatment groups, one utilizing a discussion group and one without a discussion group. Both treatment groups showed significant positive changes in self–esteem when compared to equivalent control groups, but there were no differences between treatment groups. Investigators concluded the presence of a discussion group was not a factor impacting the outcome of the study and that bibliotherapy appeared to be the causative agent promoting change.

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Suggestions for Future Research

There is a notable paucity of empirical inquiries on effectiveness of bibliotherapy and music therapy related to students with emotional behavioural concerns (Rickson & Watkins, 2003). Much of the evidence that is available is either anecdotal or narrative (Sausser & Waller, 2006). Furthermore, existing empirical evidence is often contradictory (Edison, 1989; Haines, 1989) Studies from Israel, New Zealand, and the United States were reviewed in this paper. Labels identifying students as students with challenging behaviours ranged from ED to “highly aggressive.” Labels or diagnoses may differ from one country to another or, as in the United States, from one school, district, or state to another. Generalizability is questionable in light of this variable. Shechtman (2003) noted it is not clear whether a population studied in Israel would be different from populations of aggressive children in Western societies such as United States inner city populations. The fact that search procedures found only one empirical study conducted in the United States would indicate that more research should be undertaken with United States student populations to determine efficacy of bibliotherapy in this country. Additionally, more studies need to be conducted in inclusive settings with this population to determine whether music therapy, bibliotherapy, or art therapy might be effective in an inclusive general education setting. Three studies (Shechtman, 1998; Shechtman & Ben-David, 1999; Shechtman & Nachshol, 1996) implemented an “Affective” integrative model of group bibliotherapy based on a clinical format adjusted to suit individual developmental requirements of the children. One study (Shechtman & BenDavid, 1999) specifically investigated use of group vs. individual therapy and reported no difference between treatment groups. If this finding could be replicated across populations and settings it might indicate that group therapy is as effective as individual therapy. Implications would translate into cost effectiveness for schools and more students would be able to receive treatment. Several music therapy studies contained weaknesses in study design. Montello and Coons’ (1998) groups were not randomly assigned and Group C was lost in the second half of the study due to attrition factors. Investigators stated that Group A was significantly more hostile than Group B at pre-test and that Group C was more musically talented than Groups A and B. Statistical procedures to ameliorate potential bias in the results were not discussed by the researchers. The study by Bittman et al. (2009) was conducted in a highly structured environment, which would be difficult to duplicate in a general education setting similar to the settings of the other music therapy studies. The results from Eidson (1989) cannot be attributed to the music therapy intervention with certainty because student behaviour was reinforced through a token economy. There’s no mention whether this system was used to prior to the onset of the music therapy intervention or implemented as a component of the intervention. Rickson and Watkins (2003) reported all subjects in one group had ADHD despite randomization during assignment to groups. The authors suggested that this might have impacted results. Montello and Coons (1998) also found that boys with ADHD presented more disruptive behaviours during

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music therapy. They claimed that boys with ADHD might become over stimulated during music therapy in a less structured setting. Differences between groups and differences between individuals in groups may have acted as proximal causes which impacted targeted study outcomes. Rickson and Watkins suggest conducting studies which utilize larger numbers of subjects. These studies should incorporate procedures that match multiple treatment streams and multiple outcome measures with specifically targeted goals. Again, it is possible that proximal variables impacted study outcomes. Haines (1989) found factors that may have accounted for a lack of differences between the two groups could be sample size, attrition of participants during the study, length of treatment period, test of instrument, outside variables, numerous interruptions during therapy sessions, and overall design of the study. Students with brain injury and students with emotional disturbance constitute two different disability categories under IDEA, but in Hainesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; study, no distinction is made between these two populations and targeted behaviours for students with emotional disturbance and those with brain injury were the same. Bibliotherapy studies appeared to be better designed. Several key factors mentioned by investigators that needed to be considered were small sample size, population demographics, and impact of the therapist on the outcomes of a group. Any of these variables can affect reliability and generalizability of findings.

Conclusion

Special educators are responsible for ensuring that best practices are implemented with their students who have special needs. Only interventions that have a solid base of valid empirical research studies to demonstrate that they are, in fact, best practices should be used with this disability population. Research has demonstrated that there are proven and sound interventions that can be used to address the needs of children with challenging behaviours. Opportunities to Respond (Sutherland & Wehby, 2001), behavioural momentum (Cooper, Herron, & Heward, 2013), proximity control, use of positive reinforcement, principles of applied behavioural analysis, school-wide positive behaviour intervention and supports (SWPBIS), the use of functional behavioural analysis to determine the function of behaviours, and the use of qualified applied behavioural analysts (Alberto & Troutman, 2013; Yell, Meadows, Drasgow, & Shriner, 2013) are just a few of the interventions and tools proven successful and available for educators who work with children with challenging behaviours. Unfortunately, there is also a long list of unproven interventions that have been adopted by special educators (Mostert & Crockett, 1999). The findings of previous reviews (King & Schwabenlender, 1994; Lee, 2015; Yeaw, 2001) support the findings of this review. Two reviews investigated the efficacy of music therapy in the treatment of children with developmental disabilities (Lee, 2015) and psychiatric and developmental difficulties (Yeaw, 2001). Data from both studies indicated that music therapy research was burdened with methodological issues which weakened findings of the studies. Both Lee and Yeaw both found that the reviewed studies were limited by their

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research designs and findings were compromised by small sample size, lack of control groups, and lack of reliable assessment and measurement tools. These researchers concluded that results from the studies in their reviews should be interpreted with caution. Twentyâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;one years ago, King and Schwabenlender (1994) investigated the use of supportive therapies for individuals at risk for or identified with EBD. They concluded that even though supportive therapies were heuristically rich and offered teachers new strategies to use for addressing the needs of children with behavioural issues, the studies did not "consistently adhere to strict and rigorous scientific methodological efficacy" (p. 2). Results from the current literature review also found that there were methodological and design concerns in both music therapy and bibliotherapy and suggest a lack of enough empirical data to support a conclusion that bibliotherapy or music therapy had a significant, positive impact on target behaviours exhibited by students with or at risk for EBD. Today, Bradt (2016) emphasizes the importance of systemic reviews in research. History has shown that educators in the United States often implement programs of instruction that have a paucity of empirical research to demonstrate their efficacy and value to our student population (Stahl, McKenna, & Pagnucco, 1994). It is perplexing that such interventions persist and appear regularly (Mostert, 1994; Mostert & Crockett, 1999-2000). Music therapy and bibliotherapy have been in use in the United States since the 1930s and some have suggested their use as interventions for addressing problems presented by students with emotional behavior problems. A finding of this review is there is a marked paucity of evidence to support that assumption. Empirical evidence is limited at best. Further research needs to be conducted on bibliotherapy and music therapy to establish if they are, in fact, viable approaches for addressing problems exhibited by students with behavioural concerns. Perhaps, as Mostert and Crockett (1999) suggested, as special educators, we need to remember our history of adopting less than empirically sound practices. Professionals in teacher preparation programs must demonstrate "three critical components of informed practice: what has worked, what has not, and the ability to tell the difference" (p. 142). The authors of this review agree with Mostert and Crockett that the use of some practices in the treatment of children with behavioural issues should be employed with caution and an understanding that these practices are by no means "best practices". Educators should not assume that these supportive therapy interventions will result in significant behavioural changes for these student populations until further research is conducted.

References Alberto, P. A. & Troutman, A. C. (2013). Applied Behavior Analysis for Teachers (9th Ed).Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. American Music Therapy Association. (2016). Frequently asked questions about music therapy. Retrieved from:http://www.musictherapy.org/faqs.html. *Bittman, B, Dickson, L, & Coddington, K. (2009). Creative musical expression as a catalyst for quality-of-life improvement in inner-city adolescents placed in a court-referred residential treatment program. Advances, 24, 8-19. Bradt, J. (2016). Systematic review and meta-analysis in objectivist research. In B. L.,

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Wheeler & K. Murphy (Eds.), Music therapy research (3rd Ed, pp. 1237-1254.) Dallas TX: Barcelona Publishers. Bunt, L., & Stige, B. (2014). Music therapy: An art beyond words. London: Routledge. Cook, K. E., Earles-Vollrath, T., & Ganz, J. B. (2006). Bibliotherapy. Intervention in School and Clinic, 42, 91-100. Cripe, F., F. (1986). Rock music as therapy for children with attention deficit disorder: An exploratory study. Journal of Music Therapy, 23, 30-37. Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Crone, D. A., Hawken, L. S., & Horner, R. H. (2015). Building positive behavior support systems in schools: Functional behavioral assessment. Guilford Publications. *Eidson, C. E., Jr. (1989). The effect of behavioural music therapy on the generalization of interpersonal skills from sessions to the classroom by emotionally handicapped middle school students. Journal of Music Therapy, 26(4), 206-221. Forgan, J. W. (2002).Using bibliotherapy to teach problem solving. Intervention in School and Clinic, 38, 75-82. Friend, Marilyn. (2013) Special Education: Contemporary Perspectives for School Professionals (4th edition). Pearson Education: Upper Saddle River, NJ. *Haines, J., H. (1989). The effects of music therapy on the self-esteem of emotionally disturbed adolescents. Music Therapy, 8(1), 78-91. *Hallam, S. & Price, J. (1998). Can the use of background music improve the behaviour and academic performance of children with emotional and behavioural difficulties? British Journal of Education, 25(2), 88-91. Hemphill, S. A., Plenty, S. M., Herrenkohl, T. I., Toumbourou, J. W., & Catalano, R. F. (2014). Student and school factors associated with school suspension: A multilevel analysis of students in Victoria, Australia and Washington State, United States. Children and youth services review, 36, 187-194. King, R. P., & Schwabenlender, S. A. (1994). Supportive therapies for EBD and at-risk students: Rich, varied, and underused. Preventing School Failure, 38, 1-2. Lee, D. (2015). The effects of musical interventions for students with intellectual disabilities: Literature review of studies published in 2000-2014. Special Education Research, 14, 363- 390. *Lenkowsky, R. S., Barowsky, E. I., Dayboch, M., Puccio, L., & Lenkowsky, B. E. (1987). Effects of bibliotherapy on the self-concept of learning disabled, emotionally handicapped adolescents in a classroom setting. Psychological Reports, 61, 483488. McIntosh, K., & Goodman, S. (2016). Integrated multi-tiered systems of support: Blending RTI and PBIS. New York: The Guilford Press. *Montello, L., & Coons, E. (1998). Effects of active versus passive group music therapy on preadolescents with emotional, learning, and behavioral disorders. The Journal of Music Therapy, 35, 49-67. Mostert, M. P. (1994). The more things change: New ideas, old directions? Beyond Behavior, 5, 17-18. Mostert, M. P., & Crockett, J. B. (1999-2000). Reclaiming the history of special education for more effective practice. Exceptionality, 8, 133-143. Orpinas, P., Raczynski, K., Peters, J. W., Colman, L., & Bandalos, D. (2015). Latent profile analysis of sixth graders based on teacher ratings: Association with school dropout. School Psychology Quarterly, 30(4), 577-592. Pehrsson, D. E., & McMillen, P. (2005). A bibliotherapy evaluation tool: Grounding counsellors in the therapeutic use of literature. The Arts in Psychotherapy. 32, 4759. *Rickson, D. J., & Watkins, W. G. (2003). Music therapy to promote prosocial behaviours in aggressive adolescent boys - A pilot study. Journal of Music Therapy. 40, 283301.

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Sausser, S., & Waller, R. J. (2006). A model for music therapy with students with emotional and behavioural disorders. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 33, 1-10. *Shechtman, Z., & Nachshol, R. (1996). A school-based intervention to reduce aggressive behaviour in maladjusted adolescents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 17, 535-552. *Shechtman, Z. (1998). Bibliotherapy: An indirect approach to treatment of childhood aggression. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 30 (1), 39-53. *Shechtman, Z., & Ben-David, M. (1999). Individual and group psychotherapy of childhood aggression: A comparison of outcomes and processes. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice. 3, 263-274. Shechtman, Z. (2003). Therapeutic factors and outcomes in group and individual therapy of aggressive boys. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 7, 225-237. *Shechtman, Z. (2006). The contribution of bibliotherapy to the counselling of aggressive boys. Psychotherapy Research, 16(5): 645-651. Skiba, R. J. (2014). The failure of zero tolerance. Reclaiming children and youth, 22(4), 27. Stahl, A. S., McKenna, M. C., & Pagnucco, J. R. (1994). The effects of whole-language instruction: An update and a reappraisal. Educational Psychologist, 29, 175-185. Sutherland, K. S, & Wehby, J. H. (2001). Exploring the relationship between increased opportunities to respond to academic requests and the academic and behavioural outcomes of students with EBD: A review. Remedial and Special Education, 22, 113-121. Van Acker, R., Grant, S. H., & Henry, D. (1996). Teacher and student behaviour as a function of risk for a aggression. Education and Treatment of Children, 19, 314-316 Wagner, M. M., Kutash, K., Duchnowski, A. J., Epstein, M. H., & Sumi, W. C. (2005). The children and youth we serve: A national picture of the characteristics of students with emotional disturbances receiving special education. Journal of Emotional and Behaivoral Disorders, 13, 79-96. Wehby, S. H., Symons, F. J., & Canale, J. A. (1998). Teaching practices in classrooms for students with emotional and behavioural disorders: Discrepancies between recommendations and observations. Behavioural Disorders, 24, 51-56. Yeaw, J. D. A. (2001). Music therapy with children: A review of clinical utility and application of special populations. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Biola University, La Miranda, Ca. Yell, M. L. Shriner, J. G., Meadows, N., & Drasgow, E. (2013). Evidence based practices for educating students with emotional behavior disorders (2nd Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 10, pp. 130-146, September 2016

Quality of Academic Resources and Students’ Satisfaction in Public Universities in Kenya Augustine M. Kara, Edward K. Tanui Maasai Mara University Narok, Kenya

Jeremiah M. Kalai

University of Nairobi Nairobi, Kenya Abstract. Quality of academic resources and students’ satisfaction in universities has emerged a high profile agenda in the 21st Century. Universities require the resources in order to effectively fulfill their core mandate of teaching, learning and research hence contributing to a fulfilling educational experience for the students. In Kenya, public universities have expanded rapidly without adequate financing from the Government over the last two decades. These factors have a bearing on the ability of the universities to provide quality academic resources that guarantee students’ satisfaction which is yet to be determined. The study adopted cross sectional research design. Eight universities representing 36 percent of the accessible public universities participated in the study. Data were collected from 1062 third and fourth year undergraduate students using a questionnaire. The overall Cronbach's Alpha reliability coefficient for the entire scale was 0.887. The study found that quality of academic resources had four reliable dimensions of quality of teaching facilities, quality of library service environment, availability of text books in the library, and availability of internet services. It was found that independently, quality of teaching facilities, availability of textbooks, and quality of library service environment were positively and significantly related to student’ satisfaction. Availability of internet services was insignificant in determining students’ satisfaction in the universities. Keywords: Academic resources; teaching facilities; textbooks; library service; internet services; students’ satisfaction.

1. Introduction

Public universities play a key role in training human resources favourable to attainment of the United Nations Millenium Development Goals (World Bank, 2010a). However, diminishing public funding and increasing students’ enrolments resulting to rapid expansion threaten the capacity of universities to fulfill this core mandate (Altbach, Reisberg & Rumbley, 2009). Confronted by these constraints, there have been concerns that the universities are not likely to deliver a fulfilling university experience that facilitates the development of a high calibre graduate (UNESCO, 2014). Indeed, universities are hard pressed by

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stakeholders to pursue excellence in educational service with the ultimate aim of ensuring that customers, including students, are satisfied (World Bank, 2010b). According to Hansemark and Albinsson (2004), customer satisfaction is an overall attitude towards a service provider, or an emotional reaction to the service experience. McDougall and Levesque (2000) also define customer satisfaction as cognitive or affective outcomes that emerge in response to a single or prolonged set of service encounters. The Commission for University Education in Kenya (2008) lists parents, students, staff, community, funding agencies, and employers as the main stakeholders in universities. However, Firdaus (2006) expounds that students are the primary customers and outcomes of their perceptions of the university experience is relevant in the continuing debate on quality improvement in universities. According to Kishore (2012), outcomes of students’ perceptions of educational service quality in universities include positive word-of-mouth communication about their universities to their friends, future intention to come back to their university to pursue other academic programmes, and perceived value for money the student pays for educational services. Dib and Alnazer (2013) contend that students’ satisfaction results to contentment with the educational services experience culminating to feelings of joy and pleasure for being associated with a university. Arokiasamy and Abdullah (2012) emphasize the need for universities to provide a fulfilling university experience because of the potential impact of students’ satisfaction on the competiveness of an institution, motivation and ability of students to develop the desired competencies, retention of existing students, and efforts to attract and recruit new students in a highly competitive higher education market. Although students’ satisfaction in universities is affected by various factors, quality of academic resources, a key component of educational service quality, has generated a lot of interest in recent years (Prasad & Jha, 2013). Quality of academic resources is a multidimensional construct which is often approached from a range of indicators that support teaching, learning and research activities in a university. Such indicators include lecture facilities, laboratory facilities, library service, and access to Information and Communication Technology (ICT) infrastructure and digital resources (Taib, Warokka & Hilman, 2012; Mahmood, Dangi & Ali, 2014). Inadequate financing and rapid expansion of public universities over the years has resulted to deterioration of the average quality of academic resources (Yizengaw, 2008). Ndirangu and Udoto (2011) observe that low quality academic resources not only affect teaching and learning but also impacts on students’ and lecturers’ motivation, self-image, dignity, and sense of pride in their universities. Coskun (2014) study in a university in Albania found that students give particular importance to academic facilities because they spend a lot of their time interacting with the facilities. Sufficient facilities are likely to enhance the interaction, bring about creative learning, and contribute to a fulfilling university experience. Salad (2014) study in Mogadishu found that adequacy of teaching facilities is significantly related to students’ satisfaction. Similarly, Mansor, Hasanordin, Hafiz and Rashid (2012) research in a university in

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Malaysia found that quality of academic resources significantly impacts on students’ satisfaction perceptions. The findings suggest that students appreciate the provision of adequate laboratory equipment, lecture rooms, and other physical evidences of an excellent university. Contrary to this finding, J. Douglas, A., Douglas, A. and Barnes (2006) study in Liverpool John Moores University in England; and Khan, Ahmed and Nawaz (2011) study in Pakistan concluded that quality of academic resources has an insignificant relationship with students’ satisfaction. The findings suggest that quality of academic resources is not a matter of consideration for students in a university. Over the last two decades, public universities in Kenya have expanded rapidly without adequate financing from the Government (Republic of Kenya [ROK], 2007). Students’ enrolment in the universities increased from 139,470 students in 2010/11 academic year to 276,349 students in the 2013/14 academic year (ROK, 2014). This translates to 98.1 percent growth in enrolment over a period of three years. According to Kinyanjui (2007), rapid increase in students’ enrolment has resulted to widespread perception from stakeholders that the average quality of public university educational service has declined. Increasing enrolment has been associated with pressure on available teaching and learning resources (ROK, 2006). There have been concerns that the available infrastructure in the universities cannot adequately support students and teachers in achieving their academic goals (Ndirangu & Udoto, 2011). The situation may be more aggravated in the recently established public universities which were upgraded from middle level colleges without requisite infrastructure to support university teaching (Wanzala, 2013). The Government also delinked admission of students to public universities based on available accommodation (ROK, 2005). Consequently, public universities in Kenya have on a number of occasions, been pressurized to admit more students than they can accommodate (ROK, 2006). Students possibly learn in congested and stressful environments likely to affect students’ satisfaction which is the subject of the current study. In response to concerns for quality educational service delivery, public universities in Kenya are required by the Government to implement Total Quality Management practices such as International Organization for Standardization (ISO) systems with an aim of improving service delivery and ensuring that customers, including students, are satisfied with the university experience (Owino, Oanda & Olel, 2011). The Commission for University Education [CUE] in Kenya demands that universities shall provide adequate lecture rooms/theatres, adequate laboratory facilities, quality university library commensurate to students’ enrollment and quality ICT services as critical components of academic resources in the universities (CUE, 2014). The Commission’s requirements are aimed at ensuring that the universities promote highest standards of teaching and learning and that students acquire skills consistent with educational goals and aspirations of Kenyans (CUE, 2014). However, the extent to which the existing quality control and improvements initiatives have impacted on the quality of university experience remains unknown. At a time when there is global recognition that students are the primary customers in universities, it is urgent to determine the

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relationship between quality of academic resources and students’ satisfaction in public universities in Kenya with the ultimate aim of identifying improvement priorities. The study was guided by the following objectives: i. To determine the indicators of quality of academic resources in public universities in Kenya. ii. To examine students’ ratings of the indicators of quality of academic resources in public universities in Kenya. iii. To determine the relationship between the indicators of quality of academic resources and students’ satisfaction in public universities in Kenya.

2. Conceptual framework

In analyzing the relationship between quality of academic resources and students’ satisfaction in the universities, it was important to conceptualize the linkage in terms of the independent and dependent variable chain. The conceptual framework shown in Figure 1 demonstrates that the independent variable, which is quality of academic resources, is a multidimensional construct of the dimensions of quality teaching facilities, quality library services, and access to ICT resources.

Input

Quality academic resources - Teaching facilities - Library services - Access to ICT

Process

Provision of quality academic resources

Output Students’ satisfaction - Pleasurable feelings for being associated with a university - Willingness to come back to the university and pursue an academic programme - Recommending to prospective students - Perceived value for fees paid to a university

Figure 1: Relationship between quality of academic resources and students’ satisfaction The independent variable for the study is students’ satisfaction. It was conceptualized as the composite mean score of students’ feelings of pleasure and contentment for being associated with a university, future intentions to enrol in their universities for other academic programmes, recommending prospective students to pursue degree programmes in their university through positive word of mouth communication, and perceived value for fees paid to a university. Teaching facilities, library service, and access to ICT resources relate to students’ satisfaction. Similarly, overall students’ rating of quality of academic resources influences students’ satisfaction. The extent to which quality of academic resources affects students’ satisfaction depends on the commitment of the universities to ensure that the resources are sufficient and effective.

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3. Methodology

The study used cross sectional design. According to Bryman and Bell (2007), cross-sectional design entails the collection of data from a random sample representing some given population at a given time in order to detect patterns of association between the variables of study. Henn, Weinstein and Foard (2009) explain that the key strength of cross sectional design is the collection of data at the same point in time hence mitigating the possibility of external time-related events and variables confounding on the findings. Cross sectional design was selected for the study because it enabled the researchers collect data at a single point in time hence minimizing time related events that were likely to impact on quality of academic resources and students’ satisfaction in the universities. The design also enabled the researcher determine the relationship between quality of academic resources and students’ satisfaction in the universities. Eight universities representing 36 percent of the accessible public universities participated in the study. Data were collected from 1062 third and fourth year undergraduate students using a questionnaire. Quality of academic resources was measured using 16 items while students’ satisfaction was measured using six items placed on a five point Likert and Likert type scale. To ensure validity of the questionnaire, the study used face and content validity which was achieved through expert review. Piloting was done in one of the public universities in order to determine the Cronbach's Alpha coefficient of reliability for the subscales and the entire questionnaire. The pilot university was exempted from the main study. The sample size for the pilot study was 110 third and fourth year undergraduate students as per Mulusa (1990) who recommends that piloting should involve at least 10 percent of the sample size for the main study. The pilot study revealed that the overall Cronbach's Alpha coefficient for entire scale (22 items) was .887. The reliability indices for the different subscales were; quality of academic resources (.852) and students’ satisfaction (.883). The reliability indices for the entire scale and subscales were above the .700 threshold recommended by Pallant (2005). The questionnaire was therefore considered reliable and used in the actual study. Data from the main study were analyzed using descriptive statistics, factor analysis and regression analysis. Interpretation of the data was done with reference to the research objectives and the results are presented in the following sections.

4. Results and Discussions

The following results were obtained from the study;

4.1 Indicators of Quality Academic Resources

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was applied in determining the indicators of the quality of academic resources in the universities from the questionnaire items. The analysis was necessary in order to determine whether the items accurately measured the intended indicators and ensure that the factors were defined by items which grouped for a particular factor only (Yong & Pearce, 2013). Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy and Bartlett’s test of sphericity results for the entire scale were examined. KMO test provides information regarding the grouping of survey items. It determines whether enough items predicted each factor. Bartlett's test is used to test whether

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questionnaire items are correlated highly enough as to provide a reasonable basis for factor analysis (Field, 2009). The KMO and Bartlett's Test for the scale on quality of academic resources are summarized in Table 1. Table 1: KMO and Bartlett's Test for the Scale on Quality of Academic Resources KMO measure of sampling adequacy .832 Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 5970.790 df 120 Sig. .000 The analysis found that KMO measure of sampling adequacy for the scale on quality of academic resource is .832 and was considered adequate because it indicated that enough items grouped into distinct factors of quality of academic resources (Leech, Barret & Morgan, 2005). The Bartlett's test results of the scale items show Chi-Square value = 5970.790 which is statistically significant at p<.05. According to Field (2009), a significant Bartlett's test infers that the variables in the scale on quality of academic resources had a high correlation as to provide a reasonable basis for factor extraction. Varimax orthogonal rotation was applied in extracting the indicators of quality of academic resources. The study settled for varimax orthogonal rotation because it reduces the complexities of factors by maximizing variance of loadings on each factor and therefore generating a simple structure as conveyed by Field (2009). According to Leech, Barret and Morgan (2005), a factor should have an Eigen value greater than one for it to be considered useful. The solution generated revealed a total of 16 components explaining 100.0% of the variations in the quality of academic resources. Four (4) components had an Eigen value greater than one suggesting that the scale measured four dimensions which explained 60.568 percent of the variations in quality of academic resources as summarized in the rotated component matrix in Table 2. The matrix reveals that component one (1) had five items. The five items were interpreted as quality of teaching facilities and accounted for 31.16% of the variations in quality of academic resources. Six items loaded on component two (2). The items emphasized the need for library staff to be responsive to students’ needs, the library having basic comfort for study and having adequate sitting space. Items in component two were grouped as quality of library service environment and accounted for 13.30% of variations in quality of academic resources. Three items loaded on component three (3). The component was interpreted as provision of internet services and explained 8.82% of the variations in quality of academic resources. Component four (4) had two items. These items were interpreted as availability of textbooks in the universities libraries. After determining the factors that constitute quality of academic resources in public universities in Kenya, the study proceeded to check the internal reliability of each of the components in the scale. The study found that all the components had Cronbach’s alpha above .700 threshold recommended by Pallant (2005). The analysis therefore revealed that quality of academic resources in the universities could be defined using four

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reliable dimension or indicators. The indicators are quality of teaching facilities, quality of library service environment, availability of text books in the library, and availability of internet services. Table 2: Indicators of Quality of Academic Resources Component 1 Lecture halls and rooms has enough tables and chairs The university has adequate teaching laboratory facilities The university has adequate lecture rooms and halls Lecture halls and rooms have enough sitting space for students The university has adequate computers for ICT lessons Library staff are friendly and helpful Library staff provide prompt services to students The library has convenient opening and closing hours The library has comfortable chairs and tables When i visit the library, I always find a seat and a table to study from The library provides a conducive environment for study Students can access university internet on their phones and laptops The university provides internet facilities for students Library facilitates access to internet resources The library is stocked with latest and authoritative textbooks The library has textbooks that lecturers recommend for my course Cronbachâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s alpha value of component

.759

Factor and percentage variance Quality of teaching facilities, 31.16%

.755 .749 .726 .701 .792 .778

Quality of library service environment, 13.30%

.699 .632 .487 .483 .883 .879

Access to internet services, 8.82%

.498 .816 Availability of text books in .815 the library, 7.29% .816 .784 .731 .774 Total variance 60.57%

Although the study identified four internally consistent indicators, quality of teaching facilities was the most important and accounted for 31.16% of the variations in quality of academic resources. The finding implies that students were most concerned with adequacy of lecture rooms and halls, availability of quality lecture chairs, adequate sitting space during lectures, sufficient and equipped laboratory facilities, and adequate computers for ICT lessons practicals. After determining the indicators of quality of academic resources, it was important to analyze studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ratings of the indicators in order to establish the extent to the universities had quality academic resources to support

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teaching, learning and research activities and the results are presented in the following section.

4.2 Ratings of the Indicators of Quality of Academic Resources

Students ratings of the quality of academic resources were collected on a five point Likert and Likert type scale of strongly disagree (SD), disagree (D), not sure (NS), agree (A), and strongly agree (SA). Results summarized in Table 3 indicate that students’ rating of the quality of teaching facilities was below average (M = 2.43, SD = 0.93) implying that most of the public universities had inadequate teaching facilities. Majority 727 (68.5%) of the students disagreed that the universities had adequate lecture rooms and halls suggesting that lectures were conducted in congested environments which possibly hindered effective teaching and learning. This is contrary to Isa and Yusoff (2015) assertion that adequate lecture facilities are a prerequisite for quality teaching and learning. Ndirangu and Udoto (2011) also argues that learning in congested environments decreases students’ concentration and attention, affects students’ motivation, self-image, and a sense of pride in their universities. Majority 680 (64.0%) of the students disagreed that the universities had adequate teaching laboratory facilities implying that students pursuing disciplines requiring practicals had inadequate exposure to the enriching laboratory learning experiences. According to Reid and Shah (2006), teaching laboratories provides students and instructors with an opportunity to illustrate ideas and concepts, and to expose theoretical ideas to empirical testing. Hofstein and Lunetta (2003) also stress that laboratories provide students with an opportunity to handle equipment and chemicals, and to acquire and develop general skills such as team work, time management, and problem solving. The results revealed that majority 724 (68.1%) of the students were not satisfied with the adequacy of computers for ICT lessons practicals. The study results imply that the universities were not adequately equipped with ICT infrastructure to facilitate practical orientation of students towards ICT skills possibly because on inadequate funding for ICT resources. The finding concurs with Tarus, Gichoya and Muumbo (2015) who found that inadequate ICT infrastructure was one of the key barriers to teaching of ICT skills in public universities in Kenya. On the quality of the library service environment, the study results indicated that students had above average ratings (M = 3.26, SD = 0.87). The results suggest that most of the public universities had a library service environment that could support students’ private study and research needs. Majority 587 (55.3%) of the students agreed that library staff were friendly and helpful. Most 573 (53.9%) of the students also concurred that the staff provided prompt service to students. This is in line with Tiemensma (2009) who observed that approachable, helpful, and responsive library staff is a key ingredient towards performance excellence in provision of library services. Despite the positive ratings of the quality of the library service environment, majority 572 (53.9%) of the students indicated that the libraries did not have enough chairs and tables. The results imply that most of the universities did not have a library facility whose size could accommodate the existing students’

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enrollment possibly because of inadequate finances to upgrade the existing library facilities and procure reading carrels. Table 3: Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Ratings of the Quality of Academic Resources Item SD D NS A The university has 293 434 65 239 adequate lecture rooms and 27.6% 40.9 6.1 22.5% halls % Lecture halls and rooms 273 350 66 299 have enough chairs of 25.7% 33.0 6.2% 28.2% acceptable quality % Lecture halls and rooms 272 350 73 304 have enough sitting space 25.6% 33.0 6.9% 28.6% for students % The university has 240 440 124 221 adequate teaching 22.6% 41.4 11.7% 20.8% laboratory facilities % The university has 320 404 106 197 adequate computers for 30.1% 38.0 10.0% 18.5% ICT lessons practicals % Overall mean rating of quality of teaching facilities, M = 2.43, SD, 0.93 Factor Quality of teaching facilities

SA 31 2.9% 74 7.0% 63 5.9% 37 3.5% 35 3.3%

Quality of Library Service Environment

The library provides a 96 113 54 582 217 conducive environment for 9.0% 10.6% 5.1% 54.8% 20.4% study The library has comfortable 111 177 99 502 173 chairs and tables 10.5% 16.7% 9.3% 47.3% 16.3% When i visit the library, I 243 329 107 304 79 always find a seat and a 22.9% 31.0% 10.1% 28.6% 7.4% table to study from The library has convenient 125 147 83 513 194 opening and closing hours 11.8% 13.8% 7.8% 48.3% 18.3% Library staff are friendly 150 203 122 466 121 and helpful 14.1% 19.1% 11.5% 43.9% 11.4% Library staff provide 142 214 133 477 96 prompt services to students 13.4% 20.2% 12.5% 44.9% 9.0% Overall mean rating of quality of library service environment, M = 3.26, SD = 0.87 Availability The library is stocked with 361 346 120 188 47 of text books latest and authoritative 34.0% 32.6% 11.3% 17.7% 4.4% in the library textbooks The library has textbooks 223 357 89 323 70 that lecturers recommend 21.0% 33.6% 8.4% 30.4% 6.6% for my course Overall mean rating of rating of availability of textbooks, M = 2.47, SD = 1.13 Availability of internet services

The university provides 114 131 47 659 internet facilities for 10.7% 12.3% 4.4% 62.1% students Students can access 92 143 49 635 university internet on their 8.7% 13.5% 4.6% 59.8% phones and laptops Library facilitates access to 149 199 111 493 internet resources 14.0% 18.7% 10.5% 46.4% Overall mean rating of availability of internet services, M = 3.42, SD = 0.96

111 10.5% 143 13.5% 110 10.4%

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This was contrary to CUE (2014) requirement that universities should provide adequate library facility for students. CUE also requires that the facility should have adequate and appropriate furniture that guarantees privacy and comfort for each individual reader who seeks to use the library resources (CUE, 2014). Data on the provision of textbooks in the libraries revealed that students’ mean rating was below average (M = 2.47, SD = 1.13) as summarized in Table 3. The results suggest that most of the public universities in Kenya did not have adequate number of latest and authoritative textbooks in circulation, including those that were recommended by the lecturers. This was likely to affect the standards, quality and relevance of university education as students did not have adequate textbooks to consult from. The finding on inadequate library resources concurs with Mwiria, Ng’ethe, Ngome, Ouma-odero, Wawire and Wesonga (2007) who argue that the acquisition of library resources is the worst victim of neglect in universities in Kenya. Data on the availability of internet resources revealed that students’ had above average ratings (M = 3.42, SD = 0.96). Majority 770 (72.6%) of the students agreed that the universities provided internet facilities for the students. A high proportion 778 (73.3%) of the students also agreed that the universities internet facility was accessible on their phones and laptops. The findings suggest that public universities in Kenya recognized the role played by internet services in higher education resulting to widescale uptake and facilitating access of the services to students. According to Bett (2014), availability and access to ICTs such as internet services is the basic minimum for any institution to apply ICTs in education. Indeed, it is a strategic option towards preparing students for effective participation in the global knowledge economy (Poda, Murry & Miller, 2006). Provision of internet services, as found in the current study, has a high potential in improving the students’ academic and social encounters leading to a fulfilling university experience (Adesoji, 2012). Further, most 603 (56.8%) of the students reported that the universities facilitated access to internet resources. The results suggest that the universities had subscribed to online resources to complement the textbooks available in the libraries. Amunga (2011) attest that a variety of online resources are available to public universities in Kenya through open access online platforms, institutional subscription to established online academic resource providers and through efforts of local and international collaborations and networks. According to Rotich and Munge (2007), availability of online resources, though not the panacea for the teaching and learning resource scarcity, has a huge potential of complementing the available teaching and learning resources hence improving the quality of university experience among the undergraduate students.

4.3 Students’ Satisfaction in Public Universities in Kenya

The students’ satisfaction scale had six items measuring overall students’ satisfaction in the universities. Principal Component Analysis was used to determine whether the items in the scale accurately measured the construct of students’ satisfaction as to help in finding solutions for the hypothesis of study. The scale was first examined for suitability to factor analysis using KMO measure of sampling adequacy and Bartlett’s test of sphericity. The analysis

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revealed that the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of sampling adequacy for the students’ satisfaction scale was .868 and was considered adequate for the study. The Bartlett's test results revealed Chi-Square value = 3910.495 and is statistically significant at p<.05. The analysis extracted one component that explained 66.746 % of the total variance in students’ satisfaction. The total variance explained by the Principal Component Analysis for the students’ satisfaction scale is summarized in Table 4. Table 4: Total Variance Explained by the Components in Students’ Satisfaction Scale Initial Eigenvalues

Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings

% of Cumulative % of Component Total Variance % Total Variance

Cumulative %

4.005

66.746

.722

12.041

78.786

.437

7.288

86.074

.368

6.126

92.199

5 6

.271 .197

4.514 3.287

96.713 100.000

4.005

66.746

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. The Unrotated Component Matrix on Students’ Satisfaction Scale revealed a one factor model of students’ satisfaction. Consequently, there was no need for rotation. The scale was subjected to a Cronbach’s alpha test, resulting in an overall scale of α = .898 which was above the recommended Cronbach’s alpha threshold of .700. This showed that the items included in the students’ satisfaction scale adequately captured a single construct. The scale was therefore used to represent students’ satisfaction in the universities. Students’ satisfaction was the dependent variable for the study and needed to be determined. To determine students’ satisfaction in the universities, overall mean of the items measuring satisfaction was computed. On a scale of one (1) to five (5) where one was the lowest possible mean score and five the highest, the study found that overall, students’ satisfaction was moderate (M = 3.08, SD = 1.04). The finding reveals that slightly above half of the students would; recommend their universities to prospective students, were satisfied with the educational experience in their universities, felt that they got value for fees paid, and would enroll in their universities for other academic programmes in future. Although the results suggest that the students perceived the universities more positively, Kapur and Crowley (2008) acknowledge that it is the desire of most individuals to pursue university education due to high rates of private returns such as lifetime earnings and self-esteem. Positive perceptions towards the universities could possibly be explained by the fact that the universities had provided the students with a lifetime opportunity to pursue university education, quality of educational services being provided notwithstanding. It was therefore important

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to determine the relationship between quality of academic resources and students’ satisfaction in the universities.

4.4 Quality of Academic Resources and Students’ Satisfaction

The study sought to determine the relationship between the indicators of quality of academic resources and students’ satisfaction in the universities. To test this relationship, a multiple linear regression analysis was applied. The analysis involved four independent variables (predictors) of quality of academic resources. The predictors were quality of teaching facilities (M = 2.43, SD = 0.93), quality of library service environment (M = 3.26, SD = 0.87), availability of text books in the library (M = 2.47, SD = 1.13), and availability of internet services (M = 3.42, SD = 0.96). Students’ satisfaction in the universities was the dependent variable (M = 3.08, SD = 1.04) and the results are summarized in Table 5. Table 5: Multiple Linear Regression Analysis: Quality of Academic Resources and Students’ Satisfaction Model Summary Model

1 .482 ANOVA

Adjusted R Square

.232

.229

.91007

Sum of Squares

Mean Square

Sig.

Regression

264.278

66.069

79.773

.000

Residual

875.430

1057

1139.708

1061

Model 1

R Square

Std. Error of the Estimate

Total Coefficients

.828

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized Coefficients

Model

Std. Error

Beta

1.187

.128

(Constant)

Sig.

9.249 .000

Quality of teaching facilities .186

.034

.167

5.564 .000

Availability of textbooks

.188

.029

.205

6.522 .000

Quality of library service environment

.298

.039

.249

7.636 .000

Availability of internet services

.002

.033

.002

.065

.948

Dependent Variable: Students’ satisfaction The results summarized in Table 5 reveal that the R-value of the multiple linear regression model is .482 with an adjusted R2 of .229. Quality of academic resources therefore accounted for 22.9% of the variations in students’ satisfaction in the universities. To assess the statistical significance of the model, it was necessary to examine the ANOVA results. The results provide an F – test for the

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null hypothesis that none of the dimensions of quality of academic resources is significantly related to students’ satisfaction. The analysis revealed that the Fvalue (F 4, 1057 = 79.773) and p = .000. The model was considered significant because p<0.05. It was concluded that the dimensions of quality of

academic resources in the model had a significant combined effect on students’ satisfaction in the universities. Further, it was important to determine the relationship between each of the indicators of quality of academic resources and students’ satisfaction. This was achieved by assessing the standardized Beta coefficients (whether positive or negative) and the level of significance (Sig) or p values in the indicators of quality of academic resources in the model. According to Field (2009), a positive standardized Beta coefficient conveys that there is a positive relationship between an independent variable and an outcome whereas a negative coefficient represents a negative relationship. Pallant (2005) explains that the significance or p value indicates whether a variable is making a statistically significant unique contribution to the dependent variable. The study used p<0.05 to determine the statistical significance of variables in the study. Data summarized in Table 5 show that quality of teaching facilities was directly and significantly related to students’ satisfaction (β = .167, p = 0.000). An increase in the quality of teaching facilities in the universities was likely to result to a proportionate increase in students’ satisfaction. The finding implies that students are likely to be more satisfied pursuing their education in universities which have adequate teaching facilities that guarantee comfort, facilitates practical learning experiences, and supports the acquisition of ICT skills. The finding concurs with Mansor, Hasanordin, Hafiz and Rashid (2012) research a university in Malaysia which found that there is a significant relationship between quality of academic resources and students’ satisfaction. However, the findings are contradicted by Khan, Ahmed and Nawaz (2011) study in universities in Pakistan which found that teaching facilities were having an insignificant relationship with student satisfaction. Data summarized in Table 5 further show that there is a positive and direct relationship between availability of textbooks and students’ satisfaction in the universities (β = .205, p = 0.000). The finding implies that the availability of a variety of authoritative textbooks that supports students’ learning and research needs is a prerequisite for a fulfilling university experience. The finding concurs with Tuan (2012) study in universities in Vietnam which found that academic resources such as sufficient textbooks and references were important determinants of students’ satisfaction. The quality of library service environment also had a direct and significant relationship with students’ satisfaction in the universities (β = .249, p = 0.000). The finding implies that an increase in the quality of library service environment was likely to results to a proportionate increase in mean students’ satisfaction in the universities. Students are more likely to be satisfied in universities providing libraries with adequate and comfortable seats. In addition, the library should be accessible to the students and the library staff should have customer focus. The finding concurs with Tuan (2012) study in universities in Vietnam which found that academic resources such as modern library facilities, sufficient textbooks and references were the

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strongest determinants of students’ satisfaction. Students’ ratings of availability of internet services (β = .002, p = 0.948) was not significantly related to students’ satisfaction since p>.05 controlling for other variables in the model. The finding implies that students were contented with the provision of internet services in the universities. 5. Conclusion The conclusion of the study is that quality of teaching facilities, quality of library service environment, availability of text books in the library, and availability of internet services are reliable indicators of quality of academic resources in public universities in Kenya. The study concludes that the universities did not have adequate teaching facilities, the library service environment was constrained by library facilities that did not match students’ enrollment, and inadequate textbooks to support teaching and learning. These constraints had the potential to affect the quality of academic programmes and students’ satisfaction negatively. The study also concludes that there is a significant and direct relationship between quality of teaching facilities, availability of textbooks in the library and quality of library service environment and student’ satisfaction in the universities. An improvement in the level of provision of these dimensions was likely to result to a proportionate increase in students’ satisfaction in the universities. Availability of internet services had a direct but insignificant relationship with students’ satisfaction implying that students were contented with the provision of internet services in the universities.

6. Recommendations

The following recommendations are made from the results and conclusions of the study: i. The Commission for University Education (CUE) should enforce University Standards for Accreditation and Operations. It was evident that majority of the universities were operating without conforming to the stipulated minimum requirements in terms of quality and size of lecture facilities, laboratories, libraries, and ICT services as to guarantee students’ satisfaction. ii. The Ministry of Education should also ensure that the universities budgets are fully funded. Quality university education cannot be guaranteed in an environment where universities are struggling to finance critical aspects such as teaching and learning facilities, ICT services, and quality library service. iii. The role of Kenya Universities and Colleges Central Placement Service should be strengthened. The Placement Board should work closely with CUE in controlling admission in public universities to commensurate the declared enrollment capacities of the universities.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 10, pp. 147-162, September 2016

The Understanding of Contemporary Vocal Pedagogy and the Teaching Methods of Internationally Acclaimed Vocal Coaches Dr. Trish Rooney Institute of Education, London Abstract. As a result of the growing interest in Contemporary Commercial Music (CCM) singing, and increasing interest in TV shows such as ‘The Voice, ‘X-Factor’ and ‘American Idol’, many singers are realising the importance of developing a strong vocal technique. Lack of scientific understanding and poor kinaesthetic awareness in the past, has meant that singing pedagogies have relied on the use of imagery and on the sensations of singers and teachers (Morris, 2012, Chapman, 2006). In the 21st century, however, scientific understanding and knowledge about the voice, as well as a great tradition of imagery and sensation based pedagogies, has led to a great deal of disagreement about the best method to approach the teaching of singing. Vocal music is a broad field and incorporates many genres. Voice qualities vary greatly between these styles and are very different from classical singing (Bjorkner, 2008, p. 533), which has been the predominant style of tuition until relatively recently. The difference in voice quality between classical and CCM styles has raised issues about the nature of appropriate teaching for CCM. Some have argued that different techniques are needed for learning to sing CCM and that classical tuition is not appropriate. The research reported in this project aims to develop further understanding of pedagogy as it applies to CCM by interviewing ten internationally acclaimed vocal coaches as well as finding out what approach they would have to addressing the vocal issues of two singing students shown to them on video. Epistemologically, this research adopted a phenomenological approach and used semi-structured interviews. The research generated many specific lessons for vocal pedagogy. It has shown: teachers must base their teaching on an in depth understanding of how the vocal mechanism works rather than just teaching how they were taught. They must tailor their teaching to the individual needs of students, as well as stay up to date with the latest developments in vocal pedagogy; that there are differences between teaching singing in the classical and CCM styles; that learning about specific styles requires specific training. Teachers should also have professional performance experience; always support and encourage students; and help their students to understand how to connect with a song and perform with emotional awareness. Education is ultimately concerned with the improvement of practice. My aim is that this study contributes to the development and re-

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evaluation of the teaching and learning of CCM singing in Ireland and provides a strong and comprehensive vocal methodology. Keywords: Contemporary Commercial Singing; Vocal Education; Singing; Popular Music

The Training of Vocal Teachers

To learn how to sing rock, jazz, country or any style of music, one needs to have listened to and exposed oneself to that music to know how the artists sound when they sing in that style. Chandler (2014, p. 48) argues that research into different genres of CCM unfolds more ‘sub genres, cross genres, derivative genres and “sibling” genres’. To teach these styles, teachers need to at least be aware of the fundamental differences and have made these sounds themselves, know how they feel, know how to prepare the throat to make these sounds and know how they are produced physiologically. As LoVetri argues ‘you can’t teach what you do not do and you can’t do what you do not understand. But, in singing, people do it (or try to) every day’ (LoVetri, 2014). If classical teachers have had extensive exposure to the artistic and interpretative elements of CCM and are very familiar with a particular style, they may be competent CCM vocal teachers. However, it is generally the case that ‘the stylistic requirements for popular music are beyond their own background as teachers’ (Riggs 2008, p.81). As LoVetri puts it ‘there is no such thing as good generic training for anything. General study produces general results’ (LoVetri, 2014). CCM singing has different stylistic requirements to classical singing and because CCM is a relatively new area, tutors may not have been exposed sufficiently to the style or have a background in CCM as either performers or teachers (Edwin, 2005, Riggs, 2008, p. 81). There are differences in learning to sing classical and CCM. Underpinning these are some common issues relating to teaching including those concerned with breathing, singing from the diaphragm, larynx position, yawning, vocal cord closure, subglottic pressure and airflow. The difference in voice qualities between classical and CCM styles has raised issues about the nature of appropriate teaching for CCM. Edwin (2002) suggested that in the past, differences in vocal quality in CCM may have been viewed as aesthetically inferior by some classical commentators (Edwin, 2002), and differences in technique may have been considered to be vocally damaging (Spivey, 2008). Therefore, teachers who say ‘singing is singing, if you have a solid classical technique you can sing anything’ (Edwin, 1998, p. 81) could be causing vocal damage if they insist on using classical vocal technique for CCM singing (Edwin, 1998; Edwin, 2005). Teachers without appropriate experience may be unable to help a student master a rock song, for example, through providing traditional vocal instruction – breath support and resonance (or placement) (LoVetri, 2014). Riggs (2008) supports this: Often a teacher will avoid his lack of ability in this area by saying that the student should learn the “right way” first, and then sing the songs they want later, implying that any singing that isn’t opera or lieder is a prostitution of the vocal art. Their usual methodology - badgering students about diction, breathing, tone colour, posture etc - which may barely be tolerated in the “classical idiom”, does not apply at all to popular styles

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such as country, rock, jazz, blues and gospel (Riggs, 2008, p. 82). While traditional training has been shown to benefit classical virtuosos, musical theatre performers, jazz and other singers, ‘new techniques are needed to physically support the broader sound vocabulary used in contemporary musical styles’ (Deva, n.d, para 7). Although more and more teachers have CCM vocal training, the pedagogy for teaching CCM is still in its early days. The probability for uninformed or generic teaching is high. Chandler (2014, p. 36) supports this view when she states ‘the specifics are distinctive and non-generic, requiring specialised knowledge, training and competence on behalf of those teaching it’. For further discussion see Chandler, K. (2014) Teaching Popular Music Styles, in Harrison, S & O’ Bryan, J. (eds) Teaching Singing in the 21stCentury. The Role of the Contemporary Singer The role of a CCM singer has developed in response to the specific style of music, which s/he is required to sing and involves telling a story through song, engaging an audience and evoking their feelings. ‘When we sing, a lot of the believability that naturally comes with speech is lost…. the challenge for a singer is to bridge the gap between the believable realm of speaking and the more artificial world of the song’ (Love, 1999, p. 155). Love argues that Frank Sinatra was the master of the art of making singing believable: ‘with every note, you feel the emotion. When he hurts, you hurt. When he’s happy, you can’t help but smile…. that’s the goal, whether you’re a rocker or a folk singer-songwriter’ (Love, 1999, p. 155). For Love, the goal is to sing as if you were speaking. Gerald Seminatores’ (2010) paper ‘Teaching poetry through song: A modest proposal’, outlines how to speak, analyse and paraphrase song lyrics where he advocates that singers practice speaking the text before they sing it in a performance. Seminatores’ aim is ‘to teach students not only how to sing notes and phrases, but also to speak words and ideas in songs as if they were the student’s own’ (Seminatore 2010, p. 515). Understanding the meaning of a song and developing an emotional connection with the lyrics being sung is very important. Conveying that meaning to an audience is an important skill for every CCM singer to develop. Wormhoudt (2001) suggests that audiences love when an artist connects with a song and expresses emotions. ‘It is this shared communication which engages us on a number of different levels that is the foundation of an interpretive artist’s skill’ (p. 72). The need to make an emotional connection with the audience can influence vocal tone, and quality. Historically, vocal teaching has supported the development of emotional awareness and generally achieved good results (Morris, 2012, p. 2). However, because of a lack of scientific understanding, singing pedagogies have relied on the use of imagery and on the sensations felt by singers and teachers (Morris, 2012, Chapman, 2006). Some authors have argued that the imagery used in teaching singing is based on myths that have been passed down from generation to generation (Chapman, 2006; Michael, 2010). Chapman argues that if imagery is applied skilfully, and if it is consistent

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with science it can be useful, but it can be confusing if it is a substitute for informed teaching. She also suggests that it can be destructive when teachers use images such as ‘breathe into your buttocks’, ‘push your belly wall down and out while singing’, or ‘fill every crevice of your body with air’, as these may not always be successful. She argues that an image such as ‘imagine you are walking across a bridge made of cling film in very high heels’, could be interpreted as singing high notes in a light and effortless way, but could also produce the opposite effect to that desired by creating fear and constriction in the vocal tract (Chapman, 2006, p. 255). Also, imagery that works positively for one individual may be unsuccessful or have a negative impact on someone else. Riggs (2008, p. 78) argues, that teaching that provides definite cause and effect relationships helps the student to understand how the voice works and how certain sounds are produced, and exercises that produce the desired result are much more beneficial than descriptions of somebody else’s personal experience. Thurman (2004) suggested that in the 21st century, ‘the profession of singing teaching is currently in a decades-long historic transition from prescientific vocal pedagogy to science based voice education. During this transition, mixtures of pre-scientific and science- based concepts, terminologies, and practices are inevitable’ (Thurman, 2004, p. 28). Scientific understanding, knowledge about how the voice works and new findings that are counterintuitive have challenged common teaching methods (Roth & Abbott, 2014). This, paired with a long tradition of the use of imagery and sensation based pedagogies has led to much disagreement about the best way to approach the teaching of singing. Some teachers adopt a scientific perspective, while some believe that using imagery and felt sensation is the best approach, and others adopt a combination of the two (Morris, 2012, p. 3). While good teachers have produced great singers adopting a traditional approach, there is ‘a need for an approach to CCM that is distinct from classical vocal pedagogy in order to better serve the needs of these singers’ (LeBorgne & Rosenberg, 2014). Research Questions The specific research sub-questions addressed were:  To what extent is the teaching of internationally acclaimed vocal tutors of CCM affected by their own experiences of being taught?  To what extent, do internationally acclaimed vocal coaches have similar approaches to the teaching of CCM?  What are the perceived differences between classical and CCM technique?  To what extent, do internationally acclaimed vocal coaches tailor teaching methods for each individual student?  What opportunities are there for the professional development of vocal tutors of CCM and to what extent do they take advantage of these? The overarching research question was: How can vocal education practices be improved through the exploration of contemporary vocal pedagogy and the teaching methods of Internationally acclaimed vocal coaches?

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Methodological Perspective Epistemologically, I adopted a qualitative approach to the research. As qualitative researchers tend to be phenomenological in their orientation, this was my philosophical stance (Bowmann, 1998). Finding meaning is the objective of phenomenology and it is grounded in early-20th-century continental philosophy, that of Heidegger (1962) and Husserl (1913) in particular. The start and end point of phenomenological research is lived experience (Bresler and Stake, 1991). ‘The aim is to construct a clear experiential memory and to help people create a more sophisticated account of things’ (Bresler & Stake, 1991, p. 76). Phenomenology attempts to investigate what was experienced and how it was experienced and tries to understand what it is like from the point of view of the participants. Phenomenological methods are particularly useful for bringing experiences and perceptions of participants from their own perspectives to the fore, exploring how they affect approaches to teaching and learning and therefore challenge assumptions and traditional wisdom. Adding an interpretive aspect to phenomenological research allows it to be used as the basis for practical application and enables it to inform, support or challenge policy and action. Methods/Design Phenomenological Interviews/Interview Structure Phenomenological interviews are used to generate data, which is derived from examining the lived experiences of participants. Such interviews can be used to generate thorough and in-depth accounts of human experiences. In devising such interviews it is important to pose questions that generate comprehensive information regarding these experiences as well as the participant’s responses to the phenomenon of investigation. Adams and van Manen, suggest that the ‘direct description of a particular situation or event as it is lived through without offering causal explanations or interpretive generalisations’ is the focus of phenomenological interviews (2008, p. 618). They distinguish between two corresponding types of interview - the ‘phenomenological interview’, which compiles and explores accounts of lived experience, and the ‘hermeneutic interview’ which seeks to examine the ‘interpretive meaning aspects of lived experience material’ (2008, p. 618). Many researchers use phenomenological interviews to accrue comprehensive accounts of lived experience but may adopt various types of analysis which are not informed by the diverse strands of phenomenological theory, for example narrative analysis or constant comparative analysis. In some studies the term ‘phenomenological’ is used as a synonym for ‘qualitative’. Research Design I decided that the most appropriate method for addressing the research questions was to undertake semi-structured interviews with experts in the field. As part of the interviews I decided to introduce two short video recordings to stimulate participants’ thinking about their teaching. One was of a sixteen- year

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old male student, the other a thirteen-year old female student. Each performed a verse and the chorus of a song. These pupils were chosen as they had particular vocal and stylistic issues that needed improvement. These videos were used to prompt discussion and stimulate interviewee’s responses (Roth, 2009). I invited each tutor to treat the recordings as if they were in a master class situation whereby they commented on the performances and explained how they would set out to help the students improve their vocal skills and knowledge. The aim of the video recordings was to witness how the experts addressed vocal problems, identified common exercises and techniques that they used and how they changed their methodology depending on the needs of a student and also provided a basis for reflection on practice and continuing professional development (Jewitt, 2012). Issues relating to generalisability, reliability and validity and ethical issues were also addressed. The Development of the Interview Schedule The interview questions were based on my reading of the existing literature, my own experiences as a performing musician and teacher, and a desire to add to the existing body of CCM vocal knowledge, and share the results with CCM singers and teachers alike. I wanted to learn if leading vocal educators had shared common experiences, and whether or not these experiences influenced their teaching methods. The vocal education literature is sometimes contradictory and teachers hold many different beliefs and attitudes and adopt a variety of different practices. The questions asked came about as a result of my own personal experiences of vocal lessons and a quest to understand and develop a solid vocal methodology for CCM as well as to attempt to fill gaps in the literature. Sample I chose ten participants to take part in this research, as this was deemed sufficient to obtain in depth knowledge of their life experiences as musicians and teachers and to discuss their teaching methodologies. The intention was to involve participants with different backgrounds, some who were vocal coaches on TV shows such as ‘American Idol’, ‘X-Factor’, and ‘The Voice’, celebrity vocal coaches, authors, artists, vocal education researchers, and teachers. The Thematic Analysis After analysing the data, three overarching themes emerged. These themes were Teaching, Learning, Style and Technique. Each of these themes has a range of sub-themes. Figure 6.1 synthesises the findings from the interviews and the videos and refers to the number of times each theme was mentioned by participants.

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Figure 1.1 Findings from the interviews and the videos

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Key findings All of the expert teachers agreed that it was important to tailor teaching to the individual needs of the student. The participants believed that people learn in different ways and that the type of teaching approach that might work for one student may not suit another. There was much disagreement between the interviewees about how to teach breathing in relation to singing CCM. Six of the participants suggested that imitation was one the biggest problems that CCM singers faced as some of the sounds they hear on recordings are impossible to create with the human voice and also because copying discouraged them to develop their own voice. The participants believed that the differences between classical and CCM singing included vowel shapes, style, flexibility, larynx position, vocal technique and vocal qualities. The expert teachers did not agree as to whether it was appropriate to use imagery in teaching or whether explanations should be based on scientific evidence. All of the participants had classical training. Their experiences had affected their teaching practices. Despite this there was disagreement about the extent to which classical training was useful for singing CCM. There was almost unanimous agreement that to teach CCM, teachers needed to have experience as performers. There were differences in the extent to which the participants were familiar with the different methods and approaches to teaching singing such as The Estill Method, Speech Level Singing, Accent method and so on. All but one participant agreed that it was important for teachers to continue their education. Most participants indicated how important it was to listen to and be exposed to as much music as possible. Focus in practice was felt to be important by some participants. Its’ subjective nature was stressed by others. Five participants emphasised the importance of being physically fit as a singer. Three participants reported using resources as a teaching aid. Findings in Relation to the Research Questions The following sections relate the findings to the research questions and the existing literature. The specific research sub-questions to be addressed were:  To what extent is the teaching of internationally acclaimed vocal tutors of CCM affected by their own experiences of being taught?  To what extent, do internationally acclaimed vocal coaches have similar approaches to the teaching of CCM?  What are the perceived differences between classical and CCM technique?  To what extent, do internationally acclaimed vocal coaches tailor teaching methods for each individual student?

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What opportunities are there for the professional development of vocal tutors of CCM and to what extent do they take advantage of these?

To what extent is the teaching of internationally acclaimed vocal tutors of CCM affected by their own experiences of being taught? All of the participants discussed their experiences of singing lessons. Issues relating to style, experience as a learner and developing an interest in vocal pedagogy as well as imagery vs science emerged as reflecting the tutors own experiences of being taught. Overall, the findings from the research suggested that the teaching of vocal tutors of CCM is affected by their own experiences of being taught. This was sometimes as a result of them rejecting the approaches of their own teachers and attempting to develop more effective ways of teaching the singing of CCM rather than in the traditional empirical model of ‘teach how you were taught’ as discussed in the literature review. Despite this, and consistent with the literature, there continued to be controversy about issues relating to breathing, the use of imagery and whether classical training had anything to offer. In relation to breathing, the responses from the participants confirmed the different views held amongst vocal teachers. While it is unquestionable that breathing is important for singing, there are questions about how it should be taught and described, with some seeing breathing and singing as a relaxed process and others viewing it as something to be controlled and practiced. Kempfer (2014) argued that the differences in breath use between classical singing and CCM are not sufficiently covered in the current literature. This needs to be addressed. The use of imagery in teaching also led to conflicting responses from the participants, reflecting the literature, where some authors have argued that the imagery used in teaching is based on myths that have been passed down from generation to generation (Chapman, 2006, Michael, 2010), while others argue that if imagery is applied skilfully and is consistent with science it can be useful. Overall, there appeared to be three groups. The first group had positive associations with teaching from a classical perspective as they felt they could amend their classical knowledge to suit CCM. The second group had complemented their classical training with extensive industry experience. The third group rejected classical teaching outright and felt that it was not fit for purpose. The literature set out above revealed increasing evidence that having expertise in singing the classical repertoire did not transfer to CCM. Chandler (2014) and Brown (1996, p. 136) argue that ‘popular and classical singers live in different worlds’. To conclude, it would seem that traditional classical pedagogies did not prepare any of the interviewees entirely for performing or teaching CCM. All of the interviewees reported rejection, innovation, or major industry experience as a vital addition to their understanding. This is consistent with Thurman (2004), who suggested that the profession of singing teaching is currently in a decadeslong historic transition. As a result of this it is inevitable that there are mixtures of pre-scientific and science-based concepts and understanding (Helding, 2015, p. 353). It is clear that there is still considerable disagreement and different points of view both in the literature and in practice.

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Are there common underlying approaches to vocal teaching of CCM? Overall, there was some commonality in the approaches to vocal teaching of CCM. These tended to be based on very broad principles. The importance of listening to a wide range of music and performers was stressed. Growing up listening to, being exposed to and performing in a broad range of music and genres, will inevitably provide a learner with a wide variety of musical experiences, skills and knowledge. The more skills and musical character, the greater chance the individual has of having a sustainable musical career. Learning musical style through listening is implicated here. Being immersed in music emerged as the best way to learn a particular style. Some participants felt that imitating was not a useful approach and while it might be useful to imitate performers as an exercise, this was problematic as a key strategy as:  each individual has a different physiological structure to their voice;  it is important to develop an individual style;  singers need to connect emotionally with a song;  recordings often enhanced or manipulated sounds which made accurate copying impossible;  overuse of imitation can limit creativity and the development of a personal style. It was argued that students need to be aware that copying can be a very useful exercise, as great singers are extremely accomplished and have various voice qualities and sounds that can and should be replicated and experimented with. This can lead to a greater understanding of how certain voice qualities are produced. If students copy a range of great singers and recording artists, they will acquire a wide set of skills and musical vocabulary. This will provide them with a huge range of vocal colours that can be used to create their own individual style. Kempfer (2014) supports this suggesting that it is important to understand your own voice and how the voice works in general rather than trying to create someone else’s sound and that singers should create their own sound with similar colours (Kempfer, 2014, p. 34). There was strong belief from those who discussed the importance of expression and emotion that when a singer really had an emotional connection with a song, the audience would feel that connection. Expression and emotion are vital tools for singers to develop. Connecting with an audience requires communication skills and for the singer to feel a relationship with the song. Understanding the meaning of a song is important but can be difficult for younger singers to express, as their life experiences are limited. To overcome this, CCM teachers should be equipped with interesting emotion evoking exercises to help young singers to develop the ability to emotionally engage with the repertoire. The importance of expression and emotion has been stressed by many authors (Bathori, 1957; Love, 1999; Wormhoudt, 2001; Seminatore, 2010). Participants also believed that it was important that performers were in good physical shape. If dance routines are required or lengthy performances or rehearsals are expected, being fit and healthy will benefit a singer.

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Depending on the background, professional experience and professional development of vocal tutors, the participants had varying degrees of knowledge about how the voice works. As in the literature, there were different approaches and beliefs about breathing and larynx position. With on-going research and growing interest in CCM the underlying mechanisms will be identified and some of the disagreements will be resolved. Teachers will then become more aware of the technical and stylistic requirements of CCM singers via master classes, workshops, books, blogs and general discussion with colleagues who may have attended professional development courses. Change takes time. What are the differences between classical and CCM technique? Some of the differences between classical and CCM technique reported by the participants included vowel shapes, style, larynx position, vocal technique and voice qualities, movement, breathing, improvising, ad libbing and expression and emotion. The participants clearly indicated that classical singing requires a very different skill set to CCM. As CCM is closer to the way we speak, maintaining an ‘ah’ position for example, for an entire song is inappropriate. Speech reflects what we are feeling and changes depending on what we are saying, this is the same as when we sing. The emotion and story of a song should be reflected in the singing voice and the inherent voice qualities and intensity level associated with it. The conceptualisation of voice quality is less fixated in CCM than in classical music. In classical music singers voices are categorised and repertoire matched to their voice and learned as part of building up a personal repertoire. CCM singers select songs to learn for a range of reasons. They are sometimes expected to mimic the sounds of recording artists and be familiar with songs currently in the charts. They could be in a tribute act, a soul band, a gospel group, or a pop band or other group and knowing the relevant repertoire and understanding stylistic differences is important. Singers may select songs because they believe that they suit their voice, they have an emotional connection with the song, they like it, it is a challenge, it is fun and enjoyable to sing, or their favourite singer sang it. The songs usually tell stories that people can relate to. CCM singers are required to move with the music and sometimes dance or ‘groove’ with the music. This of course depends on the style of the music and the type of performance setting or gig. As the literature revealed classical singers may only be required to move or dance when singing an operatic role. As previously noted, there is a necessity for breathing in relation to CCM to be addressed in research and the literature. The findings from the research reflected those in the literature showing widely different views about the role of breathing for singing and how it should be taught. In particular, further research on breathing techniques when belting are needed. A basic understanding of improvisation would be very useful for all singers of CCM as outlined by Chandler (2014) and LoVetri (2011). They discuss how gospel, soul and R&B singers frequently use very heavily ornamented melismatic lines for expression. CCM singers are expected to improvise riffs and ad lib and jazz singers are expected to engage an audience and hold a musical conversation with other instrumentalists through improvisation. Learning how

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to improvise and ad lib also greatly aids the process of creating an individual style. In general, CCM and classical singing require very different training. To what extent are teaching methods tailored for each individual student? The participants agreed that it was very important to tailor teaching to each individual student. They argue that as every student tended to present different problems it was the role of the teacher to diagnose what areas needed work. This means that teachers require a great deal of knowledge about the voice and the types of strategies that could be adopted to address studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; problems. Approaching every lesson in the same way was seen as unproductive because of the variability in individual voices, personalities and aspirations. Teachers should establish what students want to achieve and support them in achieving their aims. For example, some students may simply like to sing, while others will want a career in singing and performing and some might like to become teachers. Teaching methods should be tailored accordingly and teachers need to develop a range of approaches and adopt them flexibly. What opportunities are there for the professional development of vocal tutors of CCM and to what extent do they take advantage of these? The research showed that, overall the participants agreed that it was important to continue their professional development. The nature of what they felt to be useful varied. While some indicated that it was important to know about specific methods, such methods were not universally adopted. No one educational approach to teaching CCM in singing was seen to be dominant. The findings suggested that having performing experience was extremely important in teaching individuals to sing CCM, although there were examples of excellent teachers who were not performers. However, this seemed to be the exception. As teachers need to be able to prepare students for performing, and educate them as to how to use their voices efficiently so that they are prepared for a career in singing, having experience of performing is important. The participants felt that lack of personal performing experience might limit the extent to which the teacher could do this. Teachers should also be able to demonstrate. This requires them to have vocal fitness. Professional CCM singers can be required to perform anywhere from three to six hours, which would require them to be vocally fit and healthy. Implications for Practice This research generated some very specific lessons for vocal pedagogy, which can now be added to the existing body of knowledge to help improve existing practices. It has shown that: ďŁ§

there are differences between teaching singing in the classical and CCM styles;

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learning about specific styles requires specific training;

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where possible teachers should have professional performing experience;

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teachers should impress upon students that imitating the sound of their favourite singer can be unproductive and they should develop their own distinctive sound;

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teachers should encourage and support students;

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teachers need to help their students to become emotionally aware and to communicate emotionally with the audience;

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teachers should encourage students to be physically and vocally fit and to care for their voice;

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teachers need to base their teaching on an in depth understanding of the physiology of breathing and singing rather than just teaching how they were taught;

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teachers need to tailor their teaching to the needs of individual students and have a range of available strategies to meet the individual needs of students; teachers should be aware that they may not have the skills to provide solutions to all of their students’ challenges and that there may be times when they need to seek advice from other teachers or refer students to others.

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teachers need to be aware of the latest developments in vocal pedagogy and attend courses and master classes to prevent their teaching practices becoming out dated;

Conclusion Historically, teaching methods have been passed down from generation to generation and the emphasis has been on being able to sing classical music. However, having expertise in singing the classical repertoire does not automatically transfer to CCM. Learning about specific styles requires specific training. Students need to find a teacher who has knowledge of the required style and how to teach it. It is clear that many different approaches and attitudes towards singing are commonplace. As the singing profession has transitioned from a prescientific understanding of vocal education to a science based vocal education a mixture of different terminologies, concepts and practices are inevitable. As western classical vocal training has been the usual method of instruction the majority of teachers have experience in this approach only. In this age of multi

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media, internet and globalisation, all styles of music have become widely known and easily available. Providing education in one style ie. Western classical singing is not sufficient. As the research shows clear differences between classical and CCM style it seems unlikely that a traditional classical pedagogy will provide singers with the understanding and skill set required for CCM performance styles. In addition to the use of registers, vocal qualities and articulation, the abdominal support needed for CCM is different from that of classical singing and will also change depending on the CCM style being sung. The relevance of traditional classical technique(s) in view of these clear differences becomes very questionable. Bartlett (2014, p.32) states that ‘some authors continue to plainly and strenuously challenge the view that traditional classical training is sufficient for singing success in any style or genre’. Hence, there is an urgent need for teachers to re train and keep themselves up to date with advances in voice science and also to develop stylistic awareness. There are influences from so many cultures that vocal training needs creativity. The more experience teachers have with different styles of singing and different vocal methods or approaches, the more they will have to offer students. There are now many opportunities for teachers to explore and develop their skill set and knowledge base. Online scientific journals cover a vast array of topics including classical singing, pop/rock, music theatre, vocal distortion, acoustics physiology and so on. Organizations such as The New York Singing Teachers’ Association (NYSTA) offer online courses that are available to teachers from all over the globe (Meyer & Edwards, 2014 p.442). Other organizations have a strong web presence and provide journals, webinars, master classes, and conferences where researchers, teachers and medical professionals can share their knowledge to improve the standard of vocal training. These include the National Association of Teachers of Singing (NATS), the Voice Foundation, the American Academy of Teachers of Singing (AATS), The National Centre for Voice and Speech (NCVS), International Congress of Voice Teachers (ICVT), Physiology and Acoustics of Singing (PAS), Pan-European Voice Conferences (PEVOC), American Speech Language Hearing Association (AHSA) and Voice and Speech Trainers Association (VASTA). Moving forward, a new and more comprehensive vocal pedagogy is called for, and as demonstrated by this research, for the training of CCM. Benefit for my Institution and my own Teaching The aim of this research was to raise the awareness of CCM vocal education in Ireland and to explore how its quality might be improved. As Principal and Vocal Tutor at a CCM School, the experience and knowledge that I have gained was of huge benefit to the students in this institution. The research has provided me with in depth insights into the practices and teaching methods of expert vocal tutors, which have inevitably improved my practice, which will in turn be handed down to my students. The expertise that I have gained from this research project through the interaction with the expert vocal tutors and the engagement with the literature has been invaluable. It has increased my awareness, knowledge and skill set primarily as a teacher, but also as a

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researcher. It has raised my own standards as a vocal coach and I am confident that the standard of teaching I am providing and will continue to provide will be well informed, passionate, up to date and most importantly, cater to the needs of every student. I have studied privately with many of the participants, which has opened up new avenues and approaches to my teaching, helped me to create new and inspiring exercises and ways to engage students. The acquaintance made with the participants has already let to a webinar series whereby these tutors can give online master classes to my students. This has created invaluable opportunities for vocal education in Cork as students can now have guidance from these world experts as well as their regular weekly lessons. Studying the vocal education literature, reading journals and blogs and following various Facebook accounts has become much more than research but a true passion, which I am confident will always continue. It is important that the needs of aspiring CCM singers are met and high standards of teaching are developed and maintained. Education is ultimately concerned with the improvement of practice. Music educators are always searching for successful teaching approaches from which to learn and on which to model. My aim is that this study may contribute to the development and reevaluation of the teaching and learning of contemporary singing in Ireland and provide a strong and comprehensive vocal methodology. This research could possibly and potentially diversify vocal teaching methodologies and practices and contribute theoretically and empirically to improving educational policy and practice for future professional development.

References Adams, C. & Van Manen, M. (2008). Phenomenology. The Sage encyclopedia of qualitative research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 614-619. Bowman, W. (1998). Music as experienced. In Bowman, W. (Ed.). Philosophical perspectives on music. 254-267, Oxford University Press. Bresler, L. & Stake, R. (1991) Qualitative Research Methodology in Music Education. 2014 from University of Illinois. Retrieved June 14th, http://faculty.education.illinois.edu/liora/sub_directory/pdf/QRmeth.pdf Bjorkner, E. (2008). Musical Theater and Opera Singing—Why So Different? A Study of Subglottal Pressure, Voice Source, and Formant Frequency Characteristics. Journal of Voice, 22 (5). Chapman, J. (2006). Singing and Teaching Singing - A Holistic Approach to Classical Voice. Plural Publishing. Chandler, K. (2014). Teaching Popular Music Styles, in Harrison, S. D & O’ Bryan J. (eds) Teaching Singing in the 21st Century. Springer. Deva, J. (n.d.). Classical vs. Contemporary Vocal Technique, retrieved July 15th, 2014 from http://www.jeanniedeva.com/page/226328 Edwin, R. (1998). Belting 101: Part two. Journal of Singin,g 55(2), 61–62. Edwin, R. (2002). Belting: bel canto or brutto canto. Journal of Singing, 58, 67–68. Edwin, R. (2003). A Broader Broadway. Journal of Singing, 59 (5). Edwin, R. (2004). Belt yourself. Journal of Singing, 60, 285–288. Edwin, R. (2005). Contemporary Music Theatre: Louder Than Words. Journal of Singing, 61 (3), 291-292.

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Heidegger, M. (1962) Being and Time. San Francisci, CA: Harper and Row. Helding, L. (2015). The Clinician’s Illusion. Journal of Singing ,71(3), 353-357 Husserl, E. (1913). Ideas pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and Phenomenological Philosophy: First Book, Husserl, Collected Works, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1983, (2). Husserl, E. (1913). Ideas pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and Phenomenological Philosophy: First Book, Husserl, Collected Works, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1983, (2). Jewitt, C. (2012). An Introduction to Using Video for Research. Institute of Education, London. LeBorgne, W.D. & Rosenberg, M. (2014). The Vocal Athlete. Plural Publishing. Love, R. (1999). Set Your Voice Free: How to get the singing or speaking voice you want. Little, Brown & Company. LoVetri, J. (2014, January 9). Specific Training for Specific Styles. Retrieved April 16th, 2014 from http://somaticvoicework.com/specific-training-for-specific-styles/ Morris, R. (2012). The Effects of Accent Method Breathing on the Development of Young 2014 from Classical Singers. Retrieved July 3rd, https://www120.secure.griffith.edu.au/rch/file/31c9fb59-1bd6-735b-be966f04fb955a52/1/Morris_2013_02Thesis.pdf Roth, W.M. (2009). Epistemic mediation: Video data as filters for the objectification of teaching by teachers, in Goldman, R., Pea, R, Barron and Derry (2006) Video Research in the learning sciences. Routledge: New York, 367-382. Riggs, S. (2008). Singing for the Stars. Alfred Music. Roth, W.M. (2009). Epistemic mediation: Video data as filters for the objectification of teaching by teachers, in Goldman, R., Pea, R, Barron and Derry (2006) Video Research in the learning sciences. Routledge: New York, 367-382. Seminatore, G. (2010). Teaching Poetry through Song: A Modest Proposal. Journal of Singing, 66(5), 515-525. Speed, A. (2012). The Estill Model. Retrieved January 8th, 2014 from http://www.thevoiceexplained.com/content/brief-overview-estill-model Spivey, N. 2008. Music Theatre Singing. let’s talk. Part 2: Examining the Debate on Belting. Journal of Singing, 64 (5), 607–611. Thurman, L. (2004). Myth-Conceptions? About Breathing for Singing and Speaking. Australian Voice, 10, 28-37. Williams, J. (2013). Teaching Singing to Children and Young Adults. Compton Publishing Limited. Wormhoudt, P. S. (2001). With a Song in My Psyche: On the Psychology of Singing and 2014 from Teaching Singing. Xlibris. Retrieved April 15th, http://www.anats.org.au/data/AUSVOICE/2004_AV10.pdf

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 10, pp. 163-179, September 2016

Understanding the Developing Persuasive Writing Practices of an Adolescent Emergent Bilingual through Systemic Functional Linguistics: A Case Study Dr. Joshua M. Schulze

Western Oregon University Monmouth, Oregon, USA

Abstract. This article presents the findings of a qualitative case study which stems from a teacher action-research project that analyzes the persuasive academic writing practices of an adolescent, beginning-level English language learner (ELL) and the teaching practices of a veteran English as second language teacher (the author). The author, who is also the teacher and researcher, details the implementation of a Systemic Functional Linguistic (SFL)-based pedagogy designed to support ELLs in increasing their control of the linguistic resources necessary to write persuasive texts in school contexts. The SFL analysis of written persuasive arguments composed by the focal student before and after the implementation of the SFL-based pedagogy indicates the student’s increased control of both discourse structure and register. This purpose of the study is twofold: to present a detailed exploration of SFL pedagogy in practice and to demonstrate how teachers can use SFL to understand the developing writing practices of their emergent bilingual students. Keywords: English language learners; Systemic Functional Linguistics; Genre based Pedagogy; Academic Writing

Introduction

Students in US middle schools (years 6-8) are expected to construct cohesive, persuasive arguments using academic language. Employing the expected academic language and discourse structure of persuasive arguments can be a daunting task for emergent bilingual English language learners (ELLs) as they simultaneously learn to negotiate meaning from social as well as academic language (Gibbons, 2015; O’Halloran, 2014). Although research indicates that ELLs may take upwards of seven years to develop academic language proficiency (Collier, 1989), the current instructional context, influenced by the expectations of the Common Core and the standards-based educational reform movement prevalent in US public schools, does not afford ELLs seven years to develop a command of academic writing practices equivalent to that of a native

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speaker of English. ELLs who have not demonstrated control of academic language remain at risk of not completing school and, consequently, failing to demonstrate sufficient career and college readiness. Therefore, it remains imperative that ELLs receive instructional scaffolding designed to accelerate the pace of their academic persuasive writing development. Correspondingly, teachers of ELLs need tools for understanding the demands of persuasive academic language and well-researched instructional methods for making those demands visible to their students. With these challenges in mind, I constructed the following research questions to guide my study: How can systemic functional linguistic-based genre pedagogy support ELLs in expanding their control of the linguistic resources necessary to construct written persuasive texts composed in school contexts? What can systemic functional linguistics (SFL) tell teachers about the academic writing practices of ELLs? Recent research indicates a SFL-based pedagogy designed to make the discourse structure and linguistic features typical of persuasive academic writing visible can have a significant impact on the way ELLs shape persuasive texts (Brisk, 2014; O’Halloran, 2014; Gebhard, Harman, & Seger, 2007; Schulze, 2011, 2015). For instance, Gebhard et. al (2007) demonstrate how SFL-based pedagogy can support 5th graders in constructing arguments to change school policies. Schulze (2011) illustrated how SFL-based pedagogy facilitates ELLs in participating in persuasive civic discourse. Both studies indicate that SFL-based pedagogy results in ELLs producing more effective arguments that employed the linguistic features such as syntax, cohesive elements and word choices, and discourse structures expected of academic persuasive writing. While these studies have highlighted the instructional practices that have influenced the academic writing development of ELLs in primary and upper elementary settings, there has not been sufficient research that explores the implementation of SFL-based pedagogy in middle school ESL instructional contexts nor research that clearly shows how teachers can use SFL analysis of student texts to better understand how emergent bilinguals learn to write in academic settings (Schulze, 2016). Additionally, teacher educators and professional educators seeking to develop proficiency in SFL pedagogy need additional, explicit examples that clearly illustrate how SFL theory can be put into practice in ESL classrooms (Gebhard, Harman, & Seger, 2007; Paugh & Moran, 2013; Schulze, 2011, 2015). As a teacher dedicated to reflective practice, I was eager to discover potential connections between my teaching and changes in my students’ academic writing practices. I decided to collect data related to my implementation of SFL-based pedagogy. Creating a teacher-action research project allowed me space to pose questions about the challenges of my teaching practice and my focal student’s learning, reflect on the data, and inform my future practice. Focusing on the work of one student through a case study approach allowed me room to conduct an in-depth and intricate SFL analysis of the changing writing practices of an ELL. Through the descriptive case study presented in this article, I illustrate the teaching practices of a veteran ESL teacher (the author) and academic writing practices of a beginning-level ELL. The case study shows how SFL-based © 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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pedagogy provides visible instruction focusing on the organization and linguistic features of persuasive academic writing. Complementing the description of SFL-based pedagogy, SFL analysis of a persuasive argument produced by a focal student seeks to connect changes in the organizational structure and academic language use with SFL-based pedagogy. Last, the study illustrates how the cultural and linguistic resources of ELLs can be embedded in SFL-based pedagogy in ways that promote student investment in improving academic persuasive writing practices.

Context

The study was born from a necessity many teachers encounter in their classrooms. My students needed to learn how to use academic language effectively to read and write in academic contexts and wanted to do so in an engaging manner that promoted their investment in learning. As a teacher providing supplemental English as a Second Language (ESL) instruction to 6-8th grade ELLs, I was tasked with supporting the academic literacy development of ten Caribbean-born Spanish speakers. The task was made complicated because the instructional materials the large, urban school district provided failed to promote student investment in learning English. The textbook consisted of a series of decontextualized grammar exercises coupled with Mexican-centric reading passages about such topics as the historical contribution of the Aztecs and making tamales, topics which did not resonate with my Caribbean-born students. On the other hand, my students frequently expressed an interest in the musical genre of reggaeton 1 and shared critiques of artists and their latest songs. Therefore, I had what I would describe as a pedagogical epiphany through which I determined that exploring reggaeton would potentially promote my students’ investment in learning to write persuasive arguments as it would allow my students to assume the role of content experts apprenticing me into the world of reggaeton, while I apprenticed them into the world of persuasive academic writing in English. My first step was to design a standards-based instructional unit centered on the topic of reggaeton music. The Common Core State Standards adopted by the majority of US states require students in grades 6-8 to compose persuasive arguments. Therefore, I tasked my students with constructing a persuasive argument in the form of a persuasive music reviewed designed to convince their peers to purchase and download the latest musical work of their favorite reggaeton artist. To do so, I taught students how to compose arguments that employed the discourse structure and register expected of persuasive academic written discourse. To gain a baseline assessment of their current control of the discourse structure and language features associated with persuasive writing, I invited my students to write an initial draft of their music review. The “un-coached” first drafts of students’ writing did not effectively accomplish the persuasive purpose. The text produced by my focal student, whom I will call Laura, demonstrated a significant number of linguistic strengths demonstrated by an emergent 1

Reggaeton is genre of music with Latin and Caribbean roots.

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bilingual student, but also illustrated significant challenges faced by ELLs learning to control the grammatical and lexical resources necessary for effective academic writing. Mi nina bonita I like This artist Because the songs are romantic does are chino and nacho. I recommend because is very beautiful And romantic And they can arrive far away with this music because is very nice and cute. Is better than the rest because no serve and I don’t like. Figure 1. Laura’s First Draft of Argumentative Text

Most noticeably, her text was short because it did not include significant detail that would inform the reader about her artist or the genre of his music. While there were some cohesive devices evident at the sentence level (“because, and”), it generally lacked sufficient use of linguistic devices that contributed to a cohesive and coherent text. Furthermore, although she made a recognizable attempt to convey a positive evaluation of the artist throughout her paragraph, her writing lacks adequate demonstration of the control of the lexical and grammatical resources to convey her positive judgement and evaluation of the artist and his work. With Laura’s linguistic strengths and challenges in mind, I sought to develop an instructional unit that would benefit her as well other students in the class who were also experiencing similar challenges. I decided to implement an SFLbased approach to writing instruction that brought explicit attention to the language features and discourse structure of persuasive arguments to gauge the effects of the pedagogy on helping Laura and students like her to become more effective persuasive writers.

Theoretical Framework: SFL, Genre, Schematic Structure, Register Before I present details of the instruction, it is important to understand the theoretical basis that informs SFL-based pedagogy. As its name suggests, systemic functional linguists consider language to be a semiotic system which is governed by choices that language users make in particular contexts. These language choices are influenced by one’s ideological assumptions such as one’s values and biases, the genre one enacts, and the register one employs to construct or react to particular context of situation (Schulze & Ramirez, 2007). Register is constructed by three distinct aspects: field, tenor and mode. These register variables can be somewhat simply stated as what is the topic, who or what is referenced, and the manner or channel in which the language act is being presented (Eggins, 2004; Gibbons, 2015). Field is concerned with the action happening within the text (the processes), who or what is participating in these events (the participants) and the linguistic features that designate when, where and how the events take place (the circumstances). From an SFL perspective, processes form the principal foundation of a clause given that the clause is mainly about the action or the state in which the participants are involved (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014). The transitivity system of English grammar construes experience into a controllable group of process types. The central © 2016 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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categories of processes composing the transitivity system are divided into those that represent internal and external experience (the material and mental processes) and those that function to classify and identify (relational processes). Table 1. Three Principal Process Types from Focal Student Work

Process Type Function

Material Shows external action Drake sings in the genre of hip-hop.

Mental Relational Shows internal Classifies and actions identifies Example He wants to tell Drake is a good people if you artist. want something you have to work hard to succeed. Tenor constitutes the second element of register. Language users utilize linguistic resources to create relationships and convey authority within written discourse. These linguistic choices often contribute to what writing teachers call “voice.” SFL theorists explore several linguistic elements to uncover the role language plays in establishing interpersonal relationships within a text. Namely, tenor analysis involves examining an author’s use of appraisal resources or, “the kinds of attitudes that are negotiated in a text, the strength of the feelings involved and the ways values are sourced and reader’s aligned” (Martin & Rose, 2008, p.25). Oftentimes such value systems are not made explicit, but are revealed only through close examination of the varying aspects of the system of appraisal upon which authors draw to express their values. Martin and Rose (2008) propose a tripartite system of appraisal involving engagement, graduation and attitude. Due to the space limitations of this article, my analysis will focus on the three principal linguistic elements that construct attitude within a text: affect, judgment, and appreciation. Within the context of writing a persuasive music review, authors are expected to draw on appraisal resources to express attitude through opinions of various artists and their music. Persuasive writers call on appraisal resources to clarify their attitudes towards a subject or to construct a voice of authority. The three clauses below exemplify the varying appraisal resources as they may appear in the context of the persuasive argument students were expected to construct for this assignment. Table 2. Appraisal Value Resources

Appraisal Aspect Affect

Definition Example Expresses an attitude The music was about an object or thing. boring. Appreciation Expresses thoughts The audience found regarding a the rhythm phenomenon or action. captivating. Judgment Expresses thoughts on Banning IPODS from justice. school was unfair. Mode has to do with how the message is being conveyed and the role language plays in communicating that message. Spoken and written discourse frequently

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rely on different language resources to make meaning. To analyze the mode of written discourse, linguists focus on features such as conjunction, Theme and Rheme and repetition (Brisk, 2014; Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014; Schulze, 2011). Theme refers to first part of the message in the clause (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014). Rheme is described as what remains in the clause after the Theme. Though the Theme is frequently found in the subject position of the clause, it does not always take this role. Rather, various clause constituents can serve as the Theme, and thus create a marked theme that allows the author to emphasize varying aspects of the clause. As writers begin to develop control of written language, they also typically use patterns of Theme and Rheme to advance ideas throughout a text coherently and cohesively. For instance, writers typically introduce new information in the clause’s final position. As the text unfolds, novel information is situated in the Theme position of the subsequent clause (Christie, 2012). The skillful manipulation of Theme and Rheme in a quasi-zig zag pattern is a fairly common way to bring what writers call “flow” to lengthy passages of texts. With greater frequency, developing writers also begin to rely on repetition as a linguistic resource to maintain textual cohesion. Writers may repeat certain lexical terminology or entire phrases. Repetition is especially useful in texts that address complex or technical subjects as it helps to maintain focus on the topic. Good writers also begin to use cohesive elements to construct a logical flow. The logical relations often include contrast, as exemplified by the conjunctions “but” or “however”, or equal relations, held together by the conjunctions “and” or “or.” Although not all writers use elements of mode consistently, developing control of these elements typically indicates writing development (Schulze & Ramirez, 2007, Schulze 2011). From an SFL view, the register variables described above play an important part in the construction of genre. According to SFL theorists, registers combine to form genres which enact socially recognizable meanings and accomplish tasks within a culture. Martin, Christie and Rothery (1987) define genre as a “staged, goal-oriented social process” with “structural forms that cultures use in certain contexts to achieve various purposes” (pg. 59). A genre is said to consist of stages because it usually advances sequentially through these stages to accomplish its purpose. Certain clause level elements like processes, participants, and circumstances tend serve as linguistic signposts through the stages (Eggins, 2004). While a text advances through its stages or “schematic structures” (Martin & Rose, 2008, p. 9), the linguistic, syntactical and textual features associated with the genre work to accomplish a text’s goal; thus, making genres “goal oriented.” Genres are said to realize a social process because they are recognized as purposeful by participants who are members of the culture. The social processes typically associated with academic writing in school contexts involve: describing, narrating, synthesizing, analyzing, defining, explaining, evaluating, and persuading (Knapp & Watkins, 2005; Rose & Martin, 2012). The corresponding genres used to accomplish these social processes include: recounts, narratives, explanations, informational reports, and arguments.

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Persuasive Writing in School Contexts Written arguments composed in school contexts employ a distinct discourse structure and contain recognizable linguistic feature (Derewianka, 1990). The first stage of persuasive argument usually begins with the presentation of the issue in which the author introduces the main topic of the argument and provides any relevant background to the reader. Typical linguistic features that contribute to the fulfillment of the purpose of this stage include the introduction of participants related to the field of discourse and circumstances of time and place used to describe these participants. In the second stage, the author typically takes a position and justifies it. During this stage, writers rely primarily on declarative sentence structure. Additionally, the position stage is typically distinguished by the inclusion of conjunctions at the paragraph and clause level that function to facilitate the construction of a cohesive introduction to the argument (Gibbons, 2015; Rose & Martin, 2012; Schulze, 2011). During the third stage, the author may include some form of resolution to the argument. Within the fourth and final stage, the author usually restates the position and recommends action. Within the entire argument, particular language features assist writers in accomplishing the genre’s purpose. SFL linguists have identified linguistic features such as generalized participants, the timeless present tense of processes, emotive vocabulary, and cohesive connectors occurring at the clause and paragraph level (Derewianka, 1990; Schleppegrell, 2004).

SFL-Based Teaching and Learning Cycle The initial stage of instruction in the SFL-based teaching and learning cycle begins with the process of deconstruction in which teachers lead students in an analysis of model texts created to bring attention to the typical stages writers follow as they attempt to make meaning and the linguistic features they typically employ within each of the stages to help accomplish the genre’s purpose. As part of the initial text deconstruction, teachers make explicit a text’s social purpose, intended audience and typical schematic structure, the aforementioned stages through which a text typically progresses as meaning unfolds within the text. For teachers of ELLs, this stage frequently emphasizes building the field of knowledge of the topic as new writers may experience great difficulty writing about topics with which they are unfamiliar with in their home culture (Brisk, 2014; Gibbons, 2015). Following the textual deconstruction stage, the teaching and learning cycle continues with teachers and students jointly constructing a text which demonstrates the expected discourse structure and register. In the last phase of the teaching and learning cycle, teachers reduce the amount of direct instructional scaffolding and afford students opportunities to write independently. The teaching and learning cycle is intended to be recursive and allows for teachers to reenter the cycle according to the level of support students need to ultimately develop independent control and a critical orientation to the socially valued genres found in school contexts (Brisk, 2014; Gebhard, Harman & Seger, 2007; Rose & Martin, 2012, Schulze, 2011).

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SFL Intervention in Middle School ESL Classroom As I implemented the teaching and learning cycle described above with my beginning-level ELL students, the deconstruction stage of instruction focused on building the field of discourse. Although I had heard my students conversing about reggaeton before and after class and had read the initial drafts of their persuasive music reviews, I needed a way of assessing their prior knowledge of reggaeton before continuing instruction. With this goal in mind, I facilitated a guided discussion in which I asked students to tell me what they already knew about reggaeton. I asked students to share which artists were most popular and provided language frames written on the white board such as “One artist I know is . . . ” to promote the participation of all students in the discussion. I then transcribed the list of artists they identified in the class discussion on chart paper which I displayed in the front of the room. After completing the transcription of the list, I prompted students to tell me what they knew about the origins of reggaeton. To facilitate student responses, I defined the word “origin” in Spanish. I pointed out that the word is a direct cognate of the Spanish word (Origin) thereby encouraging them to use their existing knowledge of language to understand the word’s meaning and the meaning of the question. As students shared their responses in the group discussion, I transcribed their responses on a KWL chart. KWL serves as an acronym for What We Know, What We Want to Know and What We Learned. The construction of a KWL chart helped me guide my students’ thinking, as I recorded their understandings of the topic before and after we began a deeper exploration of the topic of reggaeton. Following the coconstruction of the KWL chart, I distributed a shared reading about the history of reggaeton intended to answer the questions we constructed regarding the origin of the musical genre of reggaeton. The text provided a comprehensive overview of the history of reggaeton and exemplified several linguistic features expected in written persuasive arguments. For instance, the text contained a number of participants related to the field of discourse of music such as: “reggaeton”, “music”, “singers”, and “rhythm”, among others. Furthermore, the author of the text drew extensively on appraisal resources to convey attitude and evaluation. Last, the text contained a number of logical connectors and pronouns that function to bring cohesion and coherence to the text. The next stage of the teaching and learning cycle called for me to conduct a modeled writing exercise. During the course of my modeled writing, I employed instructional strategies such as “think aloud” to make my composition strategies visible and to build my students’ metalinguistic awareness related to the organizational and linguistic choices I employed to construct persuasive text. The modeled writing was a complex instructional practice involving frequent recasting of my written text. The entire modeled writing activity took approximately 25 minutes and gave me space to make visible the language choices writers contemplate when constructing persuasive texts. Following the modeled writing, I displayed the teacher-constructed text as an exemplar to the whole group and guided students through an analysis of the stages and linguistic features of persuasive texts. I invited students to read the text aloud with me. As we read the text aloud, we stopped to define new lexical items and discuss how particular word choices contributed to the purpose of persuading

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readers to download the work of the chosen artist. As we analyzed the text, I had students chart processes, participants and circumstances in their notebooks. Next, students worked collaboratively in dyads to identify the stages of the text. They had 10 minutes to use their notes and the exemplar texts we had analyzed, to identify each stage of the persuasive argument. Following the analysis of the teacher-constructed text, we jointly constructed a new text. Throughout the joint construction, students volunteered potential sentences and word choices. My role including offering suggestions, translating, recasting to improve syntax, and insisting on punctuation. I did not edit studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; words completely, as constructing an perfect work sample was not the goal of joint construction. Instead, I offered suggestions that I thought would augment my studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; understanding of the field of knowledge and discourse structure of the genre. I prompted them to use the model texts and the words and phrases they had recorded in their notebooks. I circled words and underlined phrases that they contributed on the chart paper and stopped to discuss why they chose a particular word or phrase in an effort to bring attention to those choices to all learners in the class. Once the jointly constructed text was drafted, I asked students to evaluate the text to ensure that the stages and linguistic features typical of persuasive text were evident and that the text had ultimately accomplished its task of effectively persuading its audience to download the latest album of a reggaeton artist. The last step in teaching and learning cycle calls for students to construct texts independently. Although I was not taking a central role at this point of instruction, I did continue to provide instructional support. Namely, I distributed a graphic organizer to assist in organizing their drafts. I also encouraged students to use resources such as the modeled texts and word-lists that they kept in their notebooks, the jointly constructed text which was displayed prominently in the classroom, a bilingual dictionary, and perhaps most importantly, each other. I wanted them to identify as language learners who not only had command of the topic of reggaeton, but also had developed significant content knowledge regarding how to construct an effective persuasive text. After they were finished writing, they conferenced with me individually. During the writing conferences, students edited, conducted organizational revisions, and consulted the graphic organizer to evaluate their work. Following the individual conference, they created their final draft.

Methods: Focal student, data collection and analysis The instructional unit highlighted in this study took place over the course of approximately five weeks in which I met with students for approximately two hours each day. As I was the teacher of record, I had permission to collect and analyze data related to student performance, however, I did share an overview of the project with parents and obtained their permission to share the results of the study. The focal student for the case study, whom I will call by the pseudonym, Laura, was selected because the linguistic challenges she displayed in her first draft of the persuasive text were representative of the challenges that other ELLs at the beginning stages of English language acquisition experience.

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Laura was a 13-year-old from the Dominican Republic who had recently enrolled in the 8th grade. According to her school records, her parents, and my observations, she was fully literate in Spanish. She had entered the United States within the last year and was identified as a beginning-level ELL. To gain a deeper understanding of how Laura’s writing practices changed during the course of SFL-based instruction, I collected numerous sources of data related to my teaching and her learning. During the study, I collected students’ notebooks, written drafts, and made substantial field notes after each class. I collected two versions of students’ texts composed during the course of my teaching. The first text was a “first draft” representing the “un- coached” version of a persuasive text created prior to the implementation of SFL-based pedagogy. The second text was composed following the teaching and learning cycle. Figure Three displays the two instantiations of Laura’s texts which are analyzed within the findings section of this article. Laura’s First Text Mi nina bonita I like This artist Because the songs are romantic does are chino and nacho. I recommend because is very beautiful And romantic And they can arrive far away with this music because is very nice and cute. Is better than the rest because no serve and I don’t like.

Laura’s Text Composed Following SFL-based pedagogy Drake sings in the genre of Hip Hop He’s a up and coming artist His most famous song now is “forever” He was born on October 24, 1986 in Toronto, Canada Drake is a good artist Became e he writer interesting lyrics For example in the song “Forever” he tell a story about a boy who want to learn to play basketball. He wants to tell the people if you want some thing you have to work hard to succeed. I recommend that you listen to his music and download it. I recommend his music became e its emotional and interesting. I recommend Drake became e his songs are popular and soulful. He sings in the hip---hop genre. and download his most famous song now. It is “Forever” and also his famous song became e it talk about important things.

Figure 3. Laura’s Persuasive Arguments

I conducted an SFL analysis of Laura’s second text to identify changes in the discourse structure and register and subsequently evaluate changes in her

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persuasive writing practices following SFL-based pedagogy. To analyze the extent to which Laura employed the recognizable discourse structure expected of persuasive texts, I began by transcribing her writing and then separating each clause. Next, I identified and labeled each stage of the schematic structure typically found in arguments as identified by SFL linguists (Brisk, 2014; Derewianka, 1990; Rose & Martin, 2012). After identifying the recognizable stages of the discourse structure of the persuasive argument, I further identified and labeled the linguistic features indicative of the stage and identified language features that contributed to the accomplishment of the social purpose of persuasive texts. Following the analysis of the discourse structure, I turned my attention to register, analyzing the language features of Laura’s texts to evaluate whether the language choices constructed the expected register of academic persuasive writing. Using the typed transcription of Laura’s texts which had been divided into clauses, I analyzed transitivity patterns contributing to the field of discourse (Christie, 2012; Halliday & Matthiessen, 2014). The processes were next divided into subcategories of material, relational, and mental processes. Next, to highlight how Laura used appraisal, I made a visual chart that included all lexical items with the exclusion of articles and prepositions that occurred more than twice in her texts. The words and phrases were subsequently transcribed to a chart designed to locate the lexical choices on an appraisal continuum of word choices that indicated positive evaluations or judgments. Words that I interpreted as reflecting a positive judgment or evaluation were placed closer to the plus sign. Last, I analyzed the mode by identifying and labeling cohesive elements such as repetition and conjunctions as well as identifying the Theme and Rheme of each clause.

Findings Related to Control of Schematic Structure SFL analysis of Laura’s text composed following SFL-based pedagogy indicates more effective control of schematic structure necessary to realize meaning within her argument. For example, as her text unfolds, she presents a sequenced discourse structure beginning with an issue statement. Whereas in the first rendition of her argument, she began her text with a fragment identifying the title of a song (Mi Nina Bonita), in her second version she presents a more carefully constructed introduction for her reader that, in turn, more effectively orients her reader to the topic of the text. For instance, within the first two clauses of her text, she efficiently introduces her reader to her topic by introducing the artist in the form of the participant “Drake” and identifying the type of music he composes and reveals her positive attitude/affect towards his music. Drake sings in the genre of Hip Hop. He’s an up and coming artist. Improvement in Laura’s construction of an issue statement can be traced directly to two elements of SFL-based pedagogy. First, during the stage of instruction devoted to building the field of knowledge of the purpose and structure of persuasive texts, I had reinforced the important function of the issue statement as we completed a graphic organizer designed to support students

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with understanding the function of each stage of persuasive argument. During this portion of instruction, I defined the purpose of the issue statement in terms of its function: orienting the reader to the topic of the writing. Second, during the modeled writing stage of the teaching and learning cycle, I used “think aloud” strategies to explicitly emphasize that effective persuasive writers introduce readers to the topic through a general issue statement. I explicitly taught students how issue statements function to orient the reader to the topic under discussion by introducing the participants that will take part in the text. To exemplify this function directly, I provided constructed an exemplar text that illustrated these stages and linguistic features. The teacher-constructed model text included the following clause: An excellent new release from an up-and-coming artist has just arrived in stores. Noticeably, the clause from the model text above includes two linguistic features that construct a more elaborate and detailed opening issue statement. First, the model text includes a modified nominalization (an excellent new release) in the subject position. This modified nominalization in the subject position includes a post-modifier that adds further description (from an up-and coming artist). Such changes in Laura’s texts indicate that she was appropriating linguistic resources presented in the model texts to accomplish the purpose of the issue statement stage. As Laura subsequently develops the first paragraph of her final text, she demonstrates her increased understanding of the function of issue statements. Within her issue statement, she shares important information about her artist with her reader. Namely, she informs her readers about what kind of music Drake sings (Hip Hop), the title of his most well-known song (Forever), and his birthplace (Toronto). She accomplishes this information sharing by using circumstances to enhance her issue statement. While I did not conduct direct instruction regarding how to elaborate clauses with circumstances of place and manner, I did provide examples of how to use details effectively through our joint construction of persuasive texts. A second indication of Laura’s enhanced control over the linguistic resources necessary to construct an effective issue statement is evident in that she immediately clarifies her stance and expresses her opinion about the artist she is writing about through the use of appraisal elements. For example, Laura describes Drake as an “up-and-coming” artist, which represents an additional direct lexical appropriation from the model text. Laura continues to utilize appraisal resources as she advances her text to the argument stage. Within this stage the author is expected to state the argument and justify it by presenting supporting details. Within the second paragraph Laura accomplishes the goals of the argument stage as she states “Drake is a good artist” and supports her assertion by describing the song and interpreting its underlying social message. Her interpretation of his music contrasts greatly with her first text that only gave general opinions about the music being “beautiful” and “romantic” without providing supporting details about why she liked the music. The most noticeable evidence indicating Laura’s increased control of the linguistic resources necessary to construct an effective persuasive text in school contexts occurs in the recommendation stage. During this stage the author

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typically proposes a course of action for readers to follow. In her first text, Laura omitted the recommendation stage. However, following SFL-based pedagogy, she includes a clear recommendation for action. She states that she wants readers “to listen to his music and download it” and supports this call for action by appealing to the sensibilities of her readers by using appraisal resources to describe the music as “emotional” and “interesting.” As Laura concludes her final text, she includes a clear summary statement that, through skillful use of participant repetition, re-orients her readers to the artist under discussion (Drake), the type of music he sings (Hip Hop) and his most famous song (Forever). Additionally, she repeats her call for action (download his most famous song now) and reiterates her evaluation of the social relevance of the song: It is “Forever” and also his famous song because it talks about important things.

Findings Related to Changes in Control of Register

Analysis of the register of Laura’s final text reveals substantial enhancement in her control of the linguistic resources necessary to construct persuasive music reviews appropriate for school contexts. Examining elements of the field of discourse highlights this development. Most notably, her second text demonstrates an increased number of music-themed processes and participants. For example, in her initial text she writes about the artists and songs in very general ways and never actually names the artist she is discussing. In contrast, in her final text she specifically names the artist, describes the music as “the genre of hip hop” and evaluates the “interesting lyrics” of his song, “Forever.” Additionally, she demonstrates greater expertise in using processes related to the field of music discourse. For instance, in the following clause she uses three processes related to persuasive music reviews: I recommend that you listen to his music and download it. This particular clause indicates positive changes in Laura’s persuasive writing practices in two specific ways. First, her choice of the mental process “recommend” functions as a linguistic signpost signaling to readers that a specific call to action will follow. Second, the expected, specific actions follow in the second half of the clause, as she instructs her readers to “listen” and “download” Drake’s latest recording. The material process “download” represents a particularly interesting process choice that appears frequently in the context of electronic music transfers, the way music is obtained by the current generation of music fans. Notably, “download” is a process that appears twice in the model texts which exemplifies a lexical appropriation directly from the model text constructed in class. Also worth noting are two circumstances appearing in the first paragraph. Both circumstances function to broaden the depth of the field by providing the reader with personal background information about the artist. The temporal circumstance “on October 24, 1986” pinpoints when Drake was born and the circumstance of location, “in Toronto Canada”, specifies where he was born. Analysis of the tenor of Laura’ second text also reveals increased control of the linguistic resources necessary to construct a relationship with her readers that ultimately allows her to persuade readers more effectively. Perhaps most effectively, she more readily draws on appraisal elements to express her

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judgment and evaluation of her artist and his music. The clauses below highlights several examples of this increased control: I recommend his music because it’s emotional and interesting. I recommend Drake because his songs are popular and soulful. Laura evaluates the lyrics of Drake’s songs using lexical choices that have positive appraisal values such as “interesting” and categorizes the songs as “popular” and “soulful” and the music as “emotional” and “interesting.” She also expresses her judgment of Drake as person by describing him as “an upand-coming” and a “good” artist, using the attributive relational process “is” to connect the participant “Drake” to the positive characteristics she attributes to him. She also extends her appreciation of the lyrics of the song as she evaluates them as being “important” separating them perhaps from other lyrics of other artists, these of which deems as having social relevance. In addition to increased control of the linguistic resources necessary to construct the expected tenor of a persuasive music review constructed in school contexts, Laura’s final text demonstrates more skillful management of the linguistic features constructing the register variable of mode that function in the construction of a coherent and cohesive persuasive argument. To maintain this coherence, she utilizes conjunction, repetition, and thematization. At the clause level, she includes conjunctions such as “for example” and “because” to elaborate, illustrate, and advance her ideas through the text. The presence of these conjunctions may be linked to their inclusion in model texts and indicate that Laura was using the model texts and the charts containing these conjunctions as a resource for her own writing. The following clause exemplifies how she took up the resources made available in the SFL instruction to links ideas and elaborates her point using conjunctive elements. Drake is a good artist because he writer [sic] interesting lyrics. For example within the song “Forever”, he tell a story about a boy who wants to learn to play basketball. The conjunction “because” connects her evaluative claim (Drake is good) with the detail supporting her claim (he writes interesting lyrics). She expands her idea using the phrase “For example.” Additionally, Laura maintains cohesion through repetition. For instance, she includes an explicit repetition of the name of the artist (Drake) in each paragraph as well as repetition of the title of his most famous song (Forever). In her final summary paragraph, Laura also employs repetition effectively to reorient her readers to the main ideas expressed in her review and repeats the phrase “I recommend” three times to emphasize her point. Through repetition of the key terms of “genre” and “hip hop” as well as the key process “download” readers are provided explicit direction as to what action they are expected to perform after reading the text. The last indication of her developing control of modal elements is evident in the noticeable change in Laura’s negotiation of the thematic elements of Theme and Rheme to advance ideas within her text. The same excerpt from above serves to illustrate her control of theme and rheme: Drake is a good artist because he writes interesting lyrics. For example, in the song, Forever, he tells a story about a boy who wants to play

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basketball. By picking up the Theme “lyrics” from the first clause and then elaborating in detail why the lyrics are interesting in her subsequent clause she demonstrates increased control in her ability to advance key concepts and supporting claims in her text.

Discussion

The analysis presented above indicates that SFL-pedagogy had a significant impact on bringing Laura, a beginning-level ELL, closer to the intended goal of writing effective persuasive texts by providing instructional support to demonstrate the connection between form and purpose, but also by strengthening her ability to include academic persuasive language at the clause level. The study shows that through explicit teaching focusing on the stages and linguistic features of persuasive writing, emergent bilingual students may potentially learn to construct detailed and coherent arguments. From the perspective of a teacher and teacher educator, the study also highlights how SFL analysis can pinpoint what our students can do with language and provides a way for us to potentially track that development and design instruction to enhance persuasive writing development. For instance, from my analysis, I was able to identify the next steps in instruction. I noted that Laura would require continued and focused instructional support in learning how to build on the ideas she introduced within the clause and connect and expand those ideas cohesively and coherently throughout the text. That meant that I needed to highlight examples of cohesive elements that appeared in reading and provide direct instruction through language-focused in-class language instruction. One instructional practice I could implement to support her control of cohesive elements is the presentation of a mini-lessons focused on teaching students how to create nominalizations and use those nominalizations effectively to bundle ideas that can extend throughout a text and thereby develop textual coherence and cohesion. At the clause level, Laura may also need continued support to enhance her control of lexical- grammatical resources, such as the use of the past participle, in order to help her share her ideas without as many indications of non-native English writing. However, as good writers and writing instructors know, writing is a recursive event with opportunities to revise and develop one’s writing.

Conclusion

This study shows how emergent bilingual students can benefit from SFL-based pedagogy in ways that help them develop greater control of persuasive language through instruction that focuses on academic writing both at the genre structure and clause level. Case studies in language teaching and learning remain inherently limited in their applicability to broader contexts because, however in-depth the analysis of the case may be, it is by definition limited to one learner’s experience. To adequately “prove” that SFL pedagogy was the defining factor contributing to the changes in Laura’s writing practices examined in this article is impossible. As a teacher researcher, I recognize that in order to make creditable claims related to the language development of my learners, a larger data set encompassing numerous texts composed over a longer period would be much more informative. Yet, what I sought to accomplish in this paper

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was to show how teachers and the teacher educators who prepare them can use SFL as tool to examine their ELLs existing and changing writing practices. The paper also sought to provide a detailed explanation of how SFL pedagogy is implemented in ESL instructional contexts, given that academic language instruction, particularly in the content areas, has become an essential ingredient in effective teaching practice. However, given that teachers have long practiced process-based approaches to writing instruction, having an explicit analysis of SFL pedagogy can serve as guide and example of the ways teachers can bring attention to language and potentially support ELLS in increasing their control of grammatical and lexical resources through culturally-relevant SFL based pedagogy.

References

Brisk, M. (2014). Engaging students in academic literacies: genre-based pedagogies for K-5 classrooms. New York: Routledge. Christie, F. (2012). Language learning through the school years: A functional perspective. Malden, MA: Wiley & Sons. Collier, V.P. (1989). How long? A synthesis of research on academic achievement in second language. TESOL Quarterly, 23, 509-531 Derewianka, B. (1990). Exploring how texts work. Sydney: Primary English Teaching Association. Eggins, S. (2004). An introduction to systemic functional linguistics: London: Pinter. Gebhard, M., Harman, R. & Seger, W. (2007). Reclaiming recess: learning the language of persuasion. Language Arts 84 (5), 419-430. Gibbons, P. (2015). Scaffolding language, scaffolding learning. Portsmouth: Heinemann. Halliday, M.A.K. & Matthiessen, C. (2014). Halliday’s Introduction to functional grammar. Routledge: New York. Knapp & Watkins, (2010). Genre, text, and grammar: technologies for assessing writing. London: Orient Blackswan Publishing. Martin, J.R., Christie, F. & Rothery, J. (1987). Social processes in education: a reply to Sawyer and Watson (and others). In I. Reid (Ed.) The place of genre in learning: current debates. Deaken: University Press. Martin, J.R. & Rose, D. (2008). Genre relations: mapping culture. London: Equinox Publishing. O’Halloran, C. (2014). Supporting Ells’ argumentative writing development. Written Communication, 31, 304-331. Rose, D. & Martin, J. (2012). Learning to write, reading to learn: genre, knowledge and pedagogy in the Sydney school, South Yorkshire, UK: Equinox. Paugh, P. & Moran, M. (2013). Growing language awareness in classroom Garden. Language Arts, 90 (4), 253-267. Schleppegrell, M. (2004). The language of schooling. Routledge: Mahwah, New Jersey. Schulze, J. (2011). Writing to Persuade: A systemic functional view. GIST Educational Research and Teaching Journal, 5, 127-157. Schulze, J. (2015). Academic language, English language learners, and systemic functional linguistics: Connecting theory and practice in teacher education. Catesol Journal, 27, 109-130.

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Schulze, J. (2016). Enhancing pre-service teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; knowledge of language through Systemic functional linguistics. International Journal of Education and Social Science, 3 (8), 8-17. Schulze, J. & Ramirez, A. (2007). Intertexuality as a resource for building ELLs generic competence: a systemic functional linguistic view. Colombian Applied Linguistics Journal, 9, 69-98.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 15, No. 10, pp. 180-192, September 2016

Relationship between the Principal's Leadership Style and Teacher Motivation Wasserman, Ben-eli, Yehoshua, Gal Lifshitz, College Jerusalem, Israel

Abstract. The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between the principal's leadership style and the motivation of the teachers in their work. The research was conducted using the Quantitative Method and included questionnaires for the teachers relating to leadership style and motivation. The questionnaire was given to 137 teachers who teach in elementary and secondary schools in 2014. The research findings indicate a number of significant correlations: a significant correlation was found between the principal's styles of leadership and the teacher's perception of the teaching profession as positive. A significant correlation was found between the teacher's willingness to actively devote himself and the teacher's initiatives related to teaching. In addition, a significant positive correlation was found between the teacher's perceptions of the profession as being positive and between the teacher's initiatives relating to teaching. Keywords: Principal's leadership Style; Teacher Motivation; School principals

Introduction School is one of the social, political and economic centers of our lives. Within this framework, the principal constitutes one of the major links in the educational system in general and in the school in particular. The principal oversees many fields in the school and is responsible for a wide range of duties. The research literature found that the principal and his style of leadership has great influence on the various processes in the school ( Shabbat, 1996; Kula & Globman, 1994; Hau et al., 2016). The patterns of leadership in its entirety is called "Management Style". The personal style of the principal which is influenced first and foremost by his personal values and mental perception, although, this style is influenced by his principles and the norms by which he prefers to work. Also, the principal's personality and leadership style is reflected in his performance as a principal in the system (Oplakta, 2007). Researchers point to the various models of leadership styles adopted by principals. This

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research will concentrate on one of these model which is the decentralized or centralized model. The researchers Leithwood et al. (2006) present the decentralized style of management Decentralized management is characterized by the ability of the principals to relax their hold and maintain cooperation and delegation of authority. These are not simple skills and every principal must develop them. The decentralized management is a dynamic and not static concept. Leithwood et al. (2006) emphasize that the more complex the principal's role the more necessary it is to delegate authority with other people, and the decentralized model has proven to be effective in organization and leads to successful consequences for the school and it pupils. In decentralized leadership it is not enough to hand the reins over to others who are experts in that field, there must also be an effort to develop leadership (Elmore, 2006). The decentralized principal recognizes his staff's talents, he encourages and develops the pedagogical abilities of the teachers. With the growth of the expert's influence and delegation of authority, these people take on the responsibility of implementation (PwC, 2007; Elmore, 2006).

The Effect of the Leadership Style on the School Studies that were conducted have found that the decentralized style of leadership that results in efficient pedagogical leadership is one of team work and cooperation. The more the school succeeds in sharing with the professional staff its decisions (coordinators, administrative staff) the more it can expect greater involvement on their part, identification and personal commitment to fulfill its institutional policy (Sharan, 1986). A leadership style, which is aimed largely at fostering interpersonal relationships will express higher intimacy and a strong push towards greater consideration. In a study that was conducted by Bimber (1995), it was found that very few schools changed their educational management in a significant manner. It was found that after years of decentralized process the leadership structure remained under central command, or in a good scenario there existed a mixture of centralized and decentralized leadership. In his opinion the main reason for the limited influence of decentralization is the link that cannot be broken between decision making and budget, personnel and teaching. Namely, the authority to make these decisions is dependent upon other decisions, over which he has no authority. Friedman (2004) points out that principals have a critical role in creating a positive and nurturing environment for the teacher. Teacher's expectations from principals are receiving support, establishing clear areas of responsibilities, setting goals, giving feedback, encouragement, information, creating good communication and effective professional interaction between staff members. In addition, the principal is responsible for creating an open atmosphere in the school, to be organized and goal oriented. From the studies of Prizker and Hen (2010) we can understand that there is great importance to cultivating the teacher's side of the relationship with the

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administration especially in the early years of teaching. The principal is responsible for creating a supportive environment from the side of the administration and seasoned teachers to the new teacher.

Teacher's Motivation What motivates the teachers in their work? Various researchers in the educational department tried to trace the process of motivation of teachers and educators. Therefore, a definition is needed as to what constitutes motivation for teachers. The researchers (Gibson, Ivancevich & Donnelly, 1988) define motivation, as the force that causes an individual to act in a certain manner or to be oriented towards it. To Herzberg (1967) motivation would be enhanced when opportunities were provided for subordinates to demonstrate their capabilities and when they are recognized for their accomplishments. Many researchers tried to trace the process of motivation of teachers, from the studies that confronted Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory (Trusty & Sergiovanni, 1966) it appears that teachers do not reach self-actualization from their work. Acker (1989) believes that the motivating factor for teachers is essentially the feeling of self-realization, expertise, respect, a mission for future generations and the desire for advancement, and not salaries and benefits. It was also found that higher wages and extrinsic benefits are not enough to preserve their energy and strength for the long term in the workplace. Rosenblat and Robin's (2000) study showed that there is a correlation between job security and their commitment to the school. In their study they show that teachers reported a low level of job security and connected it their low salary, while those teachers who reported a high level of job security connected it to achievement and their self-actualization. According to this study it appears that the more the teacher receives a free hand, responsibility, multi-tasks, and selfactualization, the more committed he will be to the school, will feel more job security and as a result his motivation will be strengthened to use his talents for the school. According to Adams (1965) who defined the concept of "fairness" as a situation in which the relationship between input and output of its employee is equal to that of other workers with whom it has a direct or indirect relationship. Adams (1965) claims that there is no doubt that financial reward is also a motivation for teachers, but it is a secondary one compared to their primary idealistic one. Therefore dealing only with teacher's salaries will not raise their motivation in the workplace. Other essential factors that serve as a motivating force for teachers are psychological benefits such as: appreciation of their work, freedom in carrying out their work, meaningful and diverse projects, partnership in decision making, receiving positive feedback, obtaining resources to carry out the work, teamwork, delegation of authority and support from the administration, fair treatment and a reasonable work load, opportunities for advancement and continuous learning.

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Oplatka (2010) adds that according to various studies, it appears that job tenure and a good salary are not listed as one of the main factors that motivate teachers. On the contrary, what motivates teachers is improvement of self-esteem, expertise, respect, and a feeling of accomplishment in their work. Asor (2001) believes that motivation comes from two main factors: Intensity and autonomy. The amount of effort the teacher is willing to devote to realizing the goal (Intensity of investment) and freedom of choice and identification with the goal (autonomy of investment). In order for the teacher's motivation to be high, there is a need for them to identify strongly with the goals of the education ministry and the school administration and there must be full partnership and freedom of choice in the decision making process of the educational goals. Navon and Schapiro (1989) point out that teachers aspire to fulfill a broader role in the educational system than in the past, from a desire to control and oversee the activities of adults, which gives them intrinsic satisfaction beyond the external benefits they receive like wage increases or less hours of frontal teaching. These benefits result in satisfaction from their work and a feeling of belonging to the school, even when the teachers do not receive social prestige from the general public. In relation to motivational factors Oplatka (2006) found that a sense of mission, family atmosphere in the teacher's room and the principal's sensitivity to the teachers' needs contribute to a higher motivation amongst the teachers in the school. KocabaĹ&#x; and KarakĂśse, (2005) emphasize: The most important factor for the motivation of teachers is the school administration, the participation of teachers in decision making, the sharing of authority and responsibility, compensation and rewards can motivate them.

Research on the Relationship between Principal's Management Style and Motivation of Teachers

Research emphasizes the correlation between the management style and the teacher's commitment to their work(Dou, et al., 2016; Ling & Ling, 2012; Raman et al., 2015). It was found that teachers are more committed when the principal mediates and provides encouragement, recognition and clear goals (Nguni, Sleegers & Denessen, 2006). There are studies that point to the style of management as the influence on teacher's motivation and Job Satisfaction teacher's ( Ghazala, et al., 2015). Park and Rainey (2008) showed in their research: Research has shown a positive correlation between transformational leadership and motivation. Transformational leadership increase motivation of employees. The research of Eyal and Roth (2010) also show a positive influence: Studies that investigated the correlation between educational leadership and teacher's motivation, found two important finding. First, transformational leadership was negatively associated with teachers' burnout, and this association was partially mediated by teachers' autonomous motivation. Second, transactional leadership was positively correlated with teachers' burnout, and this association was partially mediated by teachers' controlled motivation. Thus, principal leadership style, as perceived by teachers, was a predictor of teachers' motivation type and feelings of exhaustion

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in school. Principal empowering behaviors centering on the intrinsic or personal power of teachers' explained 14% of the variability in teachers' motivation (Davis & Wilson, 2000). Additional studies in the field of education show that the more the leader is attentive and answers the personal needs of the followers the higher their motivation at work will be and this encourages them to solve the problems that arise and increases their participation (Avolio et al., 2004). Friedman (1997) adds and emphasizes that expanding the authority of the teacher and assigning tasks strengthens the teacher's feeling of responsibility and therefore increases his motivation and his willingness to devote himself to the work (Avidav-Unger & Friedman, 2011). On the other hand, there are studies that show that management style does not influence teacher motivation. In a study that was conducted by Eres (2011) they did not find a meaningful correlation between the transformational leadership characteristics of school principals and the level of teacher motivation. Gallmeier (1992) also did not find a definitive connection: teachers who work under democratic and transactional administrators do not have a significantly higher motivational level than those who work under dictatorial administrators. The study that they conducted differentiates between dictatorial and democratic principals while this study differentiates between principals who use decentralized and centralized management styles.

Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between the principal's leadership style and teacher motivation in their work. Is it true that the more decentralized the principal's style by delegating authority and sharing decision making with the staff, the higher the motivation of the teachers will be?

Method The study was conducted in the State of Israel. The study included a questionnaire of teacher's attitude towards management style and motivation. The questionnaire was given to 137 teachers who teach in elementary and secondary schools. 35% of the teachers had between 1 and 10 years tenure, 6.3% had 11-20 years tenure, and 1.6% had 21-30 years tenure. The study was conducted in the year 2014.

Research Tools The study was conducted using the quantitative method. A questionnaire was prepared with two subjects. The management style variable included 16 questions on the scale of 1 - 5. The questions related to the style of management of the principal where 1 indicated a centralized style of management and 5 indicated a decentralized style. The motivational variable included 23 questions on a scale of 1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 6. The questions related to the motivation of the teacher for his

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work where 1 indicated a teacher with low motivation and 6 was a teacher with high motivation.

Results Below are means and standard deviations of the two variables: motivation and management style. Table No. 1: Means and Standard Deviations for Each Statement in the Management Variable. Averages are displayed in descending order. N=137 5 = very characteristic, 1 = very uncharacteristic

Mean

S.D

4.13

0.94

The principal appoints teachers for special tasks

3.87

1.03

The principal makes time to listen to the teachers

3.72

1.03

The principal discusses issues that were suggested by the teachers

3.65

1.09

The principal creates a comfortable atmosphere for the staff

3.59

1.10

The principal checks the distribution of grades the teachers give in the different classes

3.57

1.27

The principal encourages the teachers to participate in deciding school policies

3.55

1.06

The principal waits for the teaching staff's approval before acting on important issues

3.21

1.16

Teacher conferences are organized according to a strict agenda

2.81

1.39

The principal acts without consulting the teaching staff

2.53

1.08

The principal rules with an iron hand

2.51

1.26

The principal does not explain his actions

2.36

1.16

Teacher's conferences are devoted mainly to the principal's report

2.36

1.16

The principal is a "lone wolf"

2.29

1.53

The principal does not want to listen to opinions that differ from his opinion

2.25

1.06

The principal does not encourage innovation

2.09

1.16

The average range shown is between 2.09- 4.13.

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The comment that received the highest average was "The principal is an educational role model" (Average 4.13, deviation 0.94). Table No. 2: Means and Standard Deviations for Each Statement in the Motivation Variable. Averages are displayed in descending order. N=137 6 = Agree strongly, 1 = Disagree strongly

Mean

S.D

The work constitutes a positive challenge for me

5.10

0.93

I participate in the school's social activities

4.98

1.07

I initiate personal conversations with my students

4.98

1.05

Most of the time I arrive at school in a happy mood

4.98

1.07

I am willing to devote extra effort in my work

4.95

0.89

I learn professional courses in my field

4.93

1.03

I use my creative ability in my place of work

4.93

1.03

I update the parents about their children's achievements and behavior on my own initiative.

4.87

1.16

It's important to me to promote a student even at the expense of my personal time.

4.83

0.96

I'm willing to take upon myself responsibility for important projects

4.81

1.09

I take care to diversify my teaching methods

4.80

0.93

I devote my free time to advancing my school tasks

4.78

1.11

I feel that my work as a teacher is very enjoyable

4.77

1.08

I give myself tasks that are hard but achievable

4.59

1.26

I devote a lot of time in preparing my lessons

4.57

1.06

I initiate activities with the professional and supervisory staff

4.55

1.06

If I had to do it all over again I would still choose the teaching profession

4.51

1.44

I organize social activities for my pupils

4.47

1.25

I aspire to fulfill additional tasks in the system

4.47

1.25

I feel that teaching is burning me out

3.02

1.54

I feel that as a teacher I am not advancing enough in my life

2.76

1.51

I feel that my expectations of teaching are not being fulfilled

2.69

1.32

If I had a different profession I could use my skills better

2.60

1.43

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The average range shown is between 5.10-2.60. The statement that received the highest average was "The work constitutes a positive challenge for me" (Average 5.10, deviation 0.93).

The variable: Teacher's work motivation For the teacher's motivation variable an analysis was made. There were 3 main factors involved: the teacher's willingness to actively devote himself, the teacher's perception of the teaching profession as positive and the teacher's initiatives related to teaching. Below is a table that presents the 3 main factors that were found in the teacher motivation variable. Table No. 3: Analysis of Factors in the Teacher Motivation Variable

Number of Items

Reliability Factor

Mean

S.D

The teacher's willingness to actively devote himself

Îą=0.832

4.83

.68

The teacher's perception of the teaching profession as positive

Îą=0.755

4.45

.85

From Table No. 3 we can see that the averages are high and range between 4.454.83 (on a scale of 1-6) and the deviation standard was similar (0.68, 0.85, and 0.97). ` Table No. 4: Pearson Correlations between the Variables of Motivation and Management Style

The teacher's willingness to actively devote himself

The teacher's perception of the teaching profession as positive

The teacher's initiatives related to teaching

Management Style

-0.042

-0.316**

-0.020

The teacher's perception of the teaching profession as positive

0.136

0.214**

0.472**

0.214**

The teacher's initiatives related to teaching

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From Table No. 4 we can deduce that: 1. A significant negative correlation of a moderate intensity was found between management style and the teacher's perception of the teaching profession as positive, thus the more decentralized the management style the higher the teacher's positive perception rises.(rp= -0.316, p<0.01). 2. A significant positive correlation of moderate intensity was found between the teacher's willingness to actively devote himself and the teacher's initiatives related to teaching, thus the higher the willingness to devote himself the greater the teaching initiatives will be. (rp=0.472, p<0.01). 3. A significant positive correlation of low intensity was found between the teacher's perception of the teaching profession as positive and the teacher's initiatives related to teaching, thus the more positive the teacher's perception of teaching is the more he is willing to actively devote himself to teaching tasks.(rp=0.214, p<0.01).

Discussion The statement that received the highest average in the management variable was "The principal is an educational role model" (Average 4.13, deviation 0.94). The teachers feel to a great extent the educational role model of the principal and this can be explained according to Oplotka (2007) who claims that the personal style of the principal is reflected in his role as a school principal who is influenced first and foremost by his personal values and mental perception. The statement that received the highest average in the teacher's work motivation variable was "The work constitutes a positive challenge for me" (Average 5.10, deviation 0.93). This finding matches Acker (1989) statement who claims that the motivating factors for teachers in their work is a feeling of self-realization and not salary or benefits. A negative correlation was found between the management style and the teacher's perception of the teaching profession, thus the more decentralized the management style the higher the teacher's positive perception rises (rp= -0.316, p<0.01). Studies have shown, that teacher participation and encouraging involvement in the school constitutes a means for developing the school as a whole and to the improvement of teaching. According to White (1992) the lowering of supervisory pressure and delegation of authority to teachers improves their teaching, prevents good teachers from leaving and strengthens the cooperation of the teachers with the administration and work colleagues. There are testimonies that in these kind of conditions the teachers report high motivation, satisfaction, and loyalty to the school and are open to new initiatives Shedd and Bacharach (1991) in Edi and Hen (1997). Johnson (1990) in Edi and Hen (1997) emphasizes the great importance of the school workplace and its influence on the teacher's method of working. Long hours, a lot of administrative paper work, large and heterogeneous classes, tight working hours etc. make it difficult for the teacher and affects his motivation at

189

work. On the other hand, professional advancement, accepting roles, independence and involvement in decision-making enhances the teacher's satisfaction and encourages persistence in teaching. Fox (1986) tested the school principal's ability to create a right basis for motivating teachers. His findings show importance in giving respect and recognition to teacher's efforts, setting difficult but achievable goals and participation of the teachers in decision-making. Furthermore, it was found that transformational leadership of principals allows for worker empowerment and affects their development (Avidav-Unger & Friedman, 2011). In addition, a significant positive correlation was found between the teacher's willingness to actively devote himself and the teacher's initiatives related to teaching (rp=0.472, p>0.01). The more the teacher is willing to actively devote himself in the school the more willing he will be to devote of his time and energy in his class and school tasks. In addition, a weak moderate correlation was found between the teacher's perception of the teaching profession as positive and the teacher's initiatives related to teaching (rp=0.214, p<0.01). Part of the teacher's perception of the teaching profession as positive includes initiatives related to teaching.

Conclusion The management style of the principal of the school has an impact on the teachers in their work in general and the teacher's perception of the teaching profession in particular. Studies have shown that a positive and significant relationship between the principal and his teachers influence the teacher's fulfillment and his attitudes (Price, 2012; Huang et al., 2013). In addition, the results of the studies indicate that a teacher who is willing to actively devote himself and a teacher who perceives the profession of teaching as positive, will be a teacher with educational initiatives in the school. The study conducted by Fairman and Mackenzie (2015) also shows that teachers who perceive themselves as leaders and teachers who know themselves and their abilities, these will be the teachers that will improve and devote themselves to their work in the school.

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