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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 19, No. 1 (January 2020) Print version: 1694 2493 Online version: 1694-2116 IJLTER International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 19, No. 1 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprinting, re use of illustrations, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machines or similar means, and storage in data banks. Society for Research and Knowledge Management

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Foreword We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research. The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer reviewed open access journal committed to publishing high quality articles in the field of education. Submissions may include full-length articles, case studies and innovative solutions to problems faced by students, educators and directors of educational organisations. To learn more about this journal, please visit the website Whttp://www.ijlter.org.earegratefultothe

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VOLUME 19 NUMBER 1 January 2020 Table of Contents Transition to a Learning Organization within a Highly Centralized Context: Approaches in the Case of Greek Teachers’ Perceptions 1 Nikolaos Raptis, Nikolaos Andreadakis and Konstantinos Karampelas ‘Driven in a Cart Pulled by Elephant and Horse Together’ the Perception of Government School Teachers about their Capacity Building through Public Private Partnership 16 Sujata Deshpande and Jyoti Chandiramani Constructivist Learning and the Law of Sines in Advanced 10th Grade Geometry Textbooks in Vietnam 38 Ngoc Giang Nguyen and Huyen Trang Pham Empowering Learners with Role Playing Game for Vocabulary Mastery 60 Aam Ali Rahman and Anggi Angraeni The Effectiveness of a Training Program Based on Frank Williams' Model in Developing the Divergent Creative Feeling among Students in Jordan 74 Fadi Soud Samawi, Naifa Hamdan Hamad Alshoubaki and Hassan Rafi’ Ali Shaheen Development of Mathematics Teaching Device Integrated with Quranic Values: Issues, Challenges, and Implementation Model 95 Widodo Winarso and Sirojudin Wahid The Impact of a Teacher Preparation Programs on Professional Teaching Competencies Female Novice Teachers’ Perspectives 118 Saba Qadhi, Manal Hendawi, Elham Ghazi Mohammad, Intisar Ghazi, Nasser Al Dosari and Xiangyun Du The Discursive Governing of Elementary School Student Identity in Norwegian Educational Policy 2000 2015 136 Fred Rune Bjordal and Gunn Elisabeth Søreide Paradigms to Drive Higher Education 4.0 159 Pauline Swee choo Goh and Norwaliza Abdul Wahab

and Klinge Orlando Villalba Condori Educative Curriculum Material and Its Impact on the Teachers’ Instructional Performance and Learners’Achievement ....................................................................................................................................................... 206 Momo Rosbiono Kartamiharja and Wahyu Sopandi

The Impact of Using Storyboards on Improving Reading skills of Third Grade Students with Reading Disabilities in Jordanian Context 172 Haitham Abuzaid and Murad Al Kayed Relationship between Academic Procrastination and Attributions of Achievement Motivation 188

Luis Enrique Quispe Bendezú, Rey Luis Araujo Castillo, José Enrique García Tejada, Yuri García Tejada, Antonio Silva Sprock

a1 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 1 15, January 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.1.1

Keywords: teachers’ views; centralized context; learning organization; school transformation teachers’ board

1. Introduction This study examined teachers’ notions regarding their role in the transformation of schools from a traditional paradigm to a “learning organization” paradigm. The rationale behind this transition is that schools need to adapt to the continuously changing wider social conditions and demands. Moreover, they need to be flexible enough to contribute to social progress (Senge, 1991). Hence,

Konstantinos Karampelas Pedagogic Department of Elementary Education, University of the Aegean, Rhodes, Greece

Nikolaos Andreadakis Department of Nursery Education and Education Design Sciences, University of the Aegean, Rhodes, Greece

Transition to a Learning Organization within a Highly Centralized Context: Approaches in the Case of Greek Teachers’ Perceptions

Nikolaos Raptis Department of Nursery Education and Education Design Sciences, University of the Aegean, Rhodes, Greece

Abstract. This research examined Greek elementary school teachers’ views concerning the transformation of their school into a “learning organization” paradigm. This transformation is important for contemporary schools as it allows teachers to develop, adopt new roles, promote better learning, and contribute to the wider social context. However, Greek schools have been found to be resistant to reforms due to the prevalence of a highly centralized system. Therefore, using a quantitative approach, this study aimed to identify teachers’ perceptions towards adapting to a learning organization, with regards to their believes and the actual implementation. The conclusions that were drawn after the statistical analysis demonstrated that teachers claimed to have adopted certain new roles, but they did feel restricted in certain cases.

2. Educational Organization Principles

The context of the study is the Greek educational system. In Greek schools, teachers have the opportunity to be involved in managerial tasks thanks to their board, which has been given relevant authority and privileges by the law (OECD, 2017). In that respect, the study attempted to identify whether in such a highly centralized context, transformation toward a learning organization model is assisted or not.

the study focused on the teachers’ perceptions and beliefs, as teachers have a significant role in any kind of reform and improvement within the context of school and education. Therefore, teachers need to understand their new roles and apply themselves accordingly otherwise, any transition or reform would be high unlikely to succeed (Fullan, 2015).

Contemporary schools are expected to follow the learning organization model, which goes beyond the traditional perception and role of schools to support the idea that the mission of schools is not knowledge transition for pupils solely but to focus on supporting progress and improvement in more complex ways. Schools are expected to promote new missions, such as by identifying the concerns of the wider community that call for improvement and getting involved with relevant activities. This can be achieved, either through their educational role or other innovative roles that members of schools may adopt according to their capacity and capital. Thanks to these multiple roles, schools more flexible and capable of contributing to social progress and development.

With this approach, schools may contribute by promoting new ways of teaching, school functioning, decision making, and developing new sets of duties for teachers and people involved in the learning organization. All these new approaches would be expected to lead to more effective schooling that is capable of catching up with changing and rising social demands. Thanks to the interaction that is developing between the schools and the society, these demands can be negotiated and discussed at the level of the school organization. As a result, responses can be designed, decided, implemented, and, lastly, evaluated. It is within this context that the role of teachers is changing. As members of the learning organizations, it is teachers who need to adopt new duties to make sure that these new approaches are realised (Senge, 1990).

In order to achieve the goal of this study, it was important to first identify the main themes and principles of the learning organization, which include five basic principles (Senge, 1991). Besides that, it was necessary to point out the role of teachers in decision making, along with the research already done on this subject (Foskett & Lymby, 2003). By combining the main theoretical points and research findings of these topics, it was possible to explore the beliefs teachers hold concerning this transition in the schools in which they are employed. It is in this manner that this study aimed to provide accurate findings (Cohen et al , 2011).

Second, these should be a set of mental models that will help in implementing these ideas as well as the mastery and vision in the actual contest of the organizational work and functions. These models will include thoughts and attitudes about observing, identifying points that function effectively or ineffectively, planning, carrying out plans, and evaluating actions. These can be done at a personal or group level. Any kind of vision, idea, or inspiration on behalf of the organization members could be submitted to these models and processed through them. This process will turn them into applied practice, leading to improvement (Fullan, 2015). Thanks to these models, teachers can develop a dynamic approach to their work, making it flexible enough to match up to rising challenges consequently, increasing the potential of the organization (Senge, 1990).

First, there should be personal mastery from the teachers’ side. This means that teachers should understand and internalize the idea that their role is changing. They should appreciate the need for new roles and develop an accurate and clear vision of their new roles. If teachers cannot conceive of the rational and deep meaning behind these roles, it is high unlikely that they will adopt and perform them (Fullan, 2015).

The new role of the teachers as well as all the members of the learning organization depends on the establishment and achievement of five basic principles, which are directly related to the notions regarding the mission of the schools and the educators’ work. These principles are considered as fundamental dimensions for the process of a school’s transition from the traditional to the learning organization model.

Third, there should be a shared vision among the teachers. This means that it is important for all the teachers working in the organization to adopt these new ideas. Moreover, this vision should be adopted by the organization’s wider group of members, including the learners, parents, and collaborators. Nevertheless, the emphasis should be put on the role of the teacher as in the case of a change, the teachers act as the moral agents of this reform (Fullan, 1993) Both the principles of personal mastery as well as a shared vision may be considered to constitute a concrete theoretical background as they address the attitudes and beliefs regarding what the schools should do and what they should contribute to the society (Crossan et al, 1999; Foskett & Lumby, 2003; Fullan, 2015).

Fourth, there should be team learning, which refers to the ability of the members of an organization to interact and cooperate for the benefit of the organization. If this principle is missing, an improvement is unlikely to take place. Without this principle, even if teachers have developed mastery, they will not be able to assist or be assisted by other members in their effort to apply their ideas. In the same way, even if there is shared vision and members have common aspirations related to their workplace, it will be difficult to work in that direction without team learning. Moreover, mental models might not be as effective either in such a case Therefore, for all the previous principles to work, members should

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. develop patterns to meet, exchange ideas, respect, observe, advise, and collaborate (Senge, 1990; Slater & Narver, 1995). Following the pattern of team learning, it is possible for the learning organization to take full advantage of the organizational intellectual capital (Kelly, 2004).

Fifth, the principle of “systems thinking,” as proposed by Senge (1991, pp. 53), should be involved. This refers to a desired complex set of capacities that the learning organization needs to gain. These capacities deal with processes, challenges, and incidents. Most of these are multidimensional and depend on complex relationships and interactions. Moreover, the systems thinking factor has to do with understanding what these interactions are, how they develop, and what their effects are. In this manner, it is possible for an organization to manage them in order to improve. Systems thinking also has to do with establishing patterns to send or receive feedback from any type of groups, people, authorities, or institutions. The feedback might lead to reinforcement or balancing, depending on the case or the outcomes. Apart from that, it has to do with a general understanding of how interrelationships work in any field.

Creativity is indeed necessary in many aspects and levels. Harris and Jones (2015) emphasized the importance of collaborative professionalism in school improvement. This collaboration needs to be promoted through leadership.

A case where systems thinking could help is when a learning organization faces financial challenges. Through systems thinking, a school can identify how funding can work by understanding interrelations such as who can fund the school, what are the legal possibilities or restrictions, how the funds can be used, how the personnel and members can help, which further responsibilities have been developed, or which risks have arisen. For these concerns to be dealt with effectively, feedback should be provided by different groups, whether internal to the organization or not. This will lead to the evaluation and improvement of funding mechanisms. Further, this experience can prepare the organization to deal with other challenges (Senge, 1991; Kelly, 2004; Fullan, 2015). As Kalantzis and Cope (2012) claim, education cannot be treated as an individualized psycho cognitive process. It should be approached through the totality of the relationship of its members in the context of learning or knowledge society. Bearing in mind that cognition is a social process, it is reasonable to treat learning as a collaborative endeavor. In that aspect, education leadership should keep readjusting to catch up with the standards and demands of the society In return, there should be appropriate context for schools to work in this manner. The school’s reality, functions, legal system, and behaviors of the teachers and the wider social conditions should in some capacity assist schools in that process. Moreover, the school’s mission should be compatible with all these factors in conjunction with the concept of school culture (Fullan, 2015).

Therefore, teachers’ board is useful for normal and effective functioning of a learning organization. By paying attention to the teachers’ board and the way in which it is organized, it is possible for teachers to work towards developing new roles. This board can provide teachers with the opportunity to think, develop, and reconsider their role as managers. By participating in it, they will cease to treat themselves solely as employees who are expected to deliver the knowledge pre described in a curriculum without any option or choice and will be able to express their opinion, exchange ideas, and develop plans about their work. In other words, the teachers’ board is their opportunity to participate actively in decision making (Senge; 1990; Fullan, 1993; 2015) According to Somech (2010), decision making in schools is a complex and important process. This is the main reason why it has attracted significant interest in education research. The contemporary approach supports the notion that effective school functioning and improvement is usually achieved when there is participative and decentralized decision making. In other words, school members, including teachers, need to have a voice in decisions concerning the school in which they are employed. The alternative would be to simply implement the decisions made at the central level of national or even prefectural authority, which allows schools little room for feedback and comment. Therefore, there are significant advantages in the case of the former alternative, as decentralised decision making is open to those decisions that are more compatible with a school’s reality and specific conditions, making them more appropriate and applicable. This advantage is supported by the idea that contemporary schools should have the flexibility to adapt to dynamic and constantly changing social conditions. Decisions taken at school level can assist that desired flexibility since these come directly from the experience of school members who are aware of the school’s potential, needs, strengths, and Asideweaknesses.fromthis,

The development of schools as learning organizations highly depends on teachers’ ability to adopt new perceptions and implement new roles. To review, teachers need to develop a personal mastery, share their visions with other people, develop mental models regarding their work, become accustomed to team learning, and establish norms of systems thinking so that their workplace is not restricted to knowledge transmission but expands to developing new roles and new forms of learning through which they can contribute to education and social progress in general Following these principles, they will get used to updating their philosophy and ideas regarding how to work and what type of work they should carry out. In this manner, schools will develop into flexible learning organizations capable of adapting to social reforms and changing demands (Senge, 1990; Day, 2002; Foskett & Lumby, 2003).

teachers are thought to have higher satisfaction in their work when their opinions are taken into consideration. This, in turns, is also claimed to have a positive impact on their work motivation, performance, and outcomes

3. The teachers’ board as a decision-making group

In the case of collegial managerial models, in which administration is dispersed so that groups contribute to school improvement, decisions should be based on collegiality, cooperation, and concession. There are practices which help this cooperation and the creation of an effective and cooperative group.

Brainstorming is such one type of practice and involves teachers’ participation in an open and spontaneous discussion of ideas and concerns. During a usual brainstorming session, the group members sit close to each other, and the group leader clarifies the topic under discussion. Then, the members bring up as many points as they find suitable. Usually, they are expected to do this without any criticism or comment at first and under certain instructions and limits of time. Sometimes, clarifying the topic and instructions in advance leads to better outcomes as the members have the opportunity to prepare for the topics at hand.

Another practice is the nominal group technique, which is believed to prevent pointless arguments as it focuses on structuring the interaction between the members. In doing so, it follows six specific stages: In the first stage, group members discuss a pre stated topic and write down potential ideas or solutions. In the second stage, each member presents an idea to the group. No discussion takes place unless all the ideas are presented. In the third stage, ideas are clarified and evaluated by the group. Afterward, in the fourth stage, each member prioritizes these ideas silently and independently. Later, a decision is made based on the idea that is most highly prioritized (Bogler & Somech, 2004; 2005; Bush, 2011; Bush et al., 2019). Group work usually leads to more ideas and more accurate decisions. Moreover, the quality of ideas tends to be better, since everyone has a say in the decision making. Therefore, all the members have stronger vision, which can lead to a greater possibility of implementing new ideas. Furthermore, there are also more opportunities for communication and dissemination, which improves the interaction as well as the learning. With this approach, each member can contribute their strong points as well as help in alleviating their weak points, which can create confidence and assurance within the group. Thanks to all these advantages, group work leads to the enrichment of the intellectual capital of

Bush (2011) described ‘certain categories of the nature of educational decision making and managerial models: the “rational” in the formal model, the “collegian” in the collegial model, the “political” in the political model, the “subjective” in the personal model, the “ vague ” in the unclear model, and, finally, the “value oriented national” in the cultural models.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. as it makes them feel more responsible and respected within the school and the wider community context (Townsend et al., 2017). It is these two factors that have led researchers to conclude that the model of Participatory Decision Making (PDM) helps in developing an appropriate organizational behavior on behalf of its members (Blogger & Somech, 2004; 2005; Somech, 2010; Townsend et al., 2017). In this manner, this model helps teachers to develop the fundamental principles of the learning organization and assist in the adoption of this model on behalf of the school (Senge, 1990).

In order to deal with any possible challenges or disadvantages, effective cooperative leaders should establish the appropriate climate and institutions. For example, a head teacher can identify each risk, challenge, or disadvantage and draw appropriate solutions. Such a solution can be an appropriate time scale, which will provide the adequate as well as sufficient time for quality discussions, exchange of ideas, and decision making. In the same context, the head teacher should have a clear vision concerning the number of meetings to be held and topics to be discussed, along with the allocated roles. In other words, it is necessary for the head teacher to demonstrate qualities related to creative design. Appropriate awards for punctual team members may act as sources of motivation as well. For all these to work, the basic condition is the effective managerial skills of the head teacher. These skills have to do with communication, appreciation of the members’ strong and weak points, clear vision, evaluation, and innovation. In short, effective group decision making requires the appropriate management, collaborative and collegial cultures However, this is dependent on the wider climate that abides the schools and education system. In other words, it depends on the school culture (Fullan, 2015).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. schools (Kelly, 2004; Harris & Jones, 2015; Kangas & Ukkonen Mikkola, 2019; Solheim, However,2019).inmost real contexts teachers rarely get the opportunity and the time to discuss managerial issues, which restricts their potential to exchange ideas and experiences that would lead to fruitful decision making (Bogler & Somech, 2004; 2005; Harris & West Burnham, 2018). Certainly, any benefit from these advantages need to be understood under certain conditions. First, there should be adequate time, framework, and context for effective and efficient meetings, discussions, and interactions. Second, members should know how to interact, meaning that they should have the appropriate knowledge, skills, and attitudes If these conditions are not met, group decision making is likely to be less effective and beneficial for schools (Kelly, 2004; Vakola & Nikolaou, 2005).

4. The teachers’ board within the Greek Education Context In Greece, the teachers’ board is considered by law as a collective body of the school management (MINEDU, 2018, par. 11) and belongs to the so called “fourth level” of educational decision making. More specifically, the teachers’ board is expected to meet at regular times and decide on the school’s functions Its duties cover expanding teaching dimensions, making decisions and comments regarding school infrastructure, funds, and resources, identifying challenges, planning and implementing solutions, evaluating and observing progress, and allocating responsibilities. In this context, cooperation and group work is especially important (Bush, 2011; Fullan, 2015, Harris & Jones, 2015; Bush et al., 2019). This law certainly provides schools the opportunities to adopt the learning organization model. Moreover, teachers get to take advantage of brainstorming

6. Research tool

The present study aims to answer whether there is a correlation between teachers’ beliefs regarding collegial decision making and the reality of their schools. It focused on the perception of elementary school teachers regarding the administrative role played by teachers’ council as well as what concerns the two levels of educational decision making. The first has to do with their vision for the decision making role of the teachers’ council, while the second has to do with the actual reality of the influence of the teachers’ council on the schools in which the teachers are employed. By examining these data, it is possible to identify if these teachers have developed a perception of their role that is compatible with the demands of the learning organization model (Senge, 1990). In this study, the sample size included 451 elementary school teachers from various areas of Greece.

The data were collected using an online questionnaire, which contained closed type questions grouped in three categories. The first had to do with introductory personal information of the participants, such as gender, teaching subject, education level, and the number of years for which they spent teaching (both

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. and the nominal decision making technique by enjoying greater satisfaction and making decisions, compatible to their requirements and demands (Bogler & Somech, 2004; 2005. Bush, 2011; Bush et al , 2019). In turn, this may promote the schools’ transition into a learning organization (Senge, 1991).

However, Greek schools lack autonomy in certain managerial aspects, which are controlled centrally by the Ministry of Education Moreover, plenty of decisions concerning the functioning of schools are usually decided at the level of central government. This also applies to actual teaching, as teachers are expected to use the already prepared and designed textbooks, teaching packages, and lesson plans distributed by the Ministry. Additionally, this also applies to issues such as funding, resources, and problem solving as teachers are thought to rely more on assistance and instruction offered to them from a higher level than on their own initiative (OECD, 2017). This can be disadvantageous to school improvement, restricting the development of cooperation and group decision making, along with no established timetable and timeframe for teachers’ board meetings (Kelly, 2004; Fullan, 2015). In short, on one hand, there is a law that grants teachers the roles that are compatible with the needs of a learning organization, while on the other, the overall legislation and school climate does not seem to support these roles. It is, therefore, interesting to examine if within these contexts the teachers’ board can actually implement the roles as set by the law. In relation to that, it is interesting to examine if any challenges arising out of the educational system’s highly centralized character can be dealt with through appropriate leadership (Vakola & Nikolaou, 2005; Bush et al , 2019).

5. Research aim

The statements were drawn from the extant literature on the role of teachers, the requirements of a learning organization, and the relevant legislation (MINEDU, 2018) The teachers commented on whether managerial roles should be distributed and more employees should be involved in making decisions concerning the units’ budget, equipment, and infrastructure. Moreover, teachers commented on their participation in decision making, which involved comments on how they should be involved in challenge identification and problem solving. These statements helped in identifying whether the condition for personal vision has been developed by investigating the level of perception. Moreover, they also helped in identifying whether learning models have been developed by investigating the level of implementation Besides, the teachers commented on how their meetings and managerial duties are or should be approached and implemented with regards to cooperation, discourse, support, and collegiality. These statements helped in identifying whether a shared vision has been developed by investigating the level of their perception. Moreover, they also helped in identifying whether a team learning had been developed by investigating the level of their implementation (Senge, 1991; Bogler & Somech, 2004; 2005; Bush, 2011; Bush et al., 2019). Table 1 demonstrates this. As soon as the teachers filled the questionnaires in, their responses were entered on an Excel file. Then, the average of their resounces on the Likert scale was calculated for each statement for both the perceptual and the implementational Bylevelscalculating the value of T test between the average values, it was possible to identify whether there was a significant difference between the teachers’ level of ideas and the level of practices. This helped in identifying whether the principle of systems thinking is being applied in the schools where participants were employed.

These statements and comments demonstrate the teachers’ understanding of their roles and whether these are adopted within the context of the school. In

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. generally and specifically)at the education organization they were involved with at the time of the data collection. The second had to do with the characteristics and figures of the unit they worked in such as the number of students and the student/teacher ratio. Finally, the third dealt with the main portion of the study, which included ten statements. At the first (perceptual) level, each participant expressed either their agreement or disagreement with the items in a five point Likert scale, which included the following range: strongly agree, agree, no comment, disagree, and strongly disagree. At the second (implementational) level, each participant expressed whether particular statements applied to the school in which they work. Here too, a five point Likert scale was used, which included the following range: always, frequently, occasionally, rarely, and never.

In other words, each participant had to rank each statement twice. The first addressed to what they considered appropriate and the second addressed to what they believed actually happened (Watling, 2006; Cohen et al., 2011).

Brainstorming takes place before or during the meeting of the teachers’ council. visionShared Team learning

The teachers’ council identifies causes of risks and challenges. visionPersonal Mental models

7. Findings and discussion

Statement Perception Implementation

Table 1. Statements that the participants ranked on Likert scale and the principle that each statement refers to for both the perceptual implementational levels

The teachers’ council is involved with the issues concerning the equipment and infrastructure of schools. visionPersonal Mental models

The teachers’ council is involved in managing the budget of the school. visionPersonal Mental models

The teachers’ council’s meetings are well planned. visionShared Team learning

The teachers’ council members have developed the sense of a shared responsibility. visionShared Team learning

9 Collegiality is important among the members of the teachers’ council visionShared Team learning

With regards to statistical importance, as seen in Table 2, there was a correlation in the level of perception and the level of implementation for all the ten statements. In other words, teachers’ ideas regarding their council and its role on decision making had not been applied. In fact, in some cases, this deviation was

The teachers’ council identifies alternative solutions and options to problems and challenges. visionPersonal Mental models

turn, this can show whether the schools adopted the learning organization model (Senge, 1991; Fullan, 2015).

The teachers’ council shares managerial roles with the head teacher. visionPersonal Mental models

10 There is room for debate and disagreement among the members of the teachers’ council. visionShared Team learning

Analytically, Table 2 presents the average and standard deviation for all the statements of the questionnaire along with the statistical significance. Based on the teachers’ responses, the principles embedded in these statements had been partly implemented in the school units where they were employed. In fact, the teachers indicated that only occasionally was there room for disagreement, identification of alternatives and solutions, high level of collegiality, identification of causes, shared responsibility, brainstorming, and well planned meetings. Moreover, they also indicated that the teachers’ council rarely shared duties with the head teacher, rarely got involved in budget planning, and rareky made decisions related to infrastructure and equipment.

9. Collegiality is important among the members of the teachers’ council. 4,79 0,41 3,87 1,11 9,265 .000

a11 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. less than 1%, which suggests a great difference. Additionally, in all the cases, the perception was much higher than the implementation. These findings show that the educators of the sample agreed strongly with four of the ten statements regarding the role of the teachers’ council. They strongly agreed that there should be room for disagreement, feelings of collegiality and shared responsibility, and careful planning, which would include different alternatives and solutions to a problem. Moreover, they agreed with the rest of the statements, which claimed that the teachers’ council should have well planned meetings, identify the causes of the problem, spend time brainstorming, get involved in the provision of infrastructure and equipment, have a say in the budget of the school, and, share managerial duties with the head teacher.

Table 2. The average and standard deviation of the perceptions and implementation statements regarding the role of teachers’ council in decision making, as calculated from the sample of educators Α/Α Statements concerning the role of the teachers’ council Research Sample evelPerceptuall ationImplementallevel sStatisticalignificance AV. SD AV. AV. SD AV. The teachers’ council should share managerial roles with the headteacher 4,05 1,12 3,39 1,40 5,725 .000 The teachers’ council should be involved in managing the budget of the school. 4,11 0,92 3,23 1,24 7,487 .000 The teachers’ council should be involved with the issues concerning the equipment and infrastructure of schools. 4,19 0,89 3,41 1,26 7,037 .000 The teachers’ council should identify the causes behind the risks and challenges. 4,31 0,75 3,79 1,01 5,048 .000 The teachers’ council should identify alternative solutions and options to problems and challenges. 4,62 0,56 3,91 1,04 7,984 .000 Meetings of the teachers’ council should be well planned and prepared. 4,42 0,67 3,58 1,23 7,329 .000

7. Brainstormingshouldtakeplacebeforeorduringthe meetingsoftheteachers’council. 4,22 0,83 3,59 1,31 5,164 .000

10. There should be room for debate and disagreement among the members of the teachers’ council. 4,82 0,39 3,95 1,15 8,410 .000 This means that the principles of personal and shared vision had been developed among the participants, who obviously understood the need to adopt new roles in their work and assist their school’s transformation towards being a learning organization. The teachers seemed to agree that they need to be actively

8. Teachers’ council members should have developed the feeling of shared responsibility. 4,65 0,55 3,79 1,11 8,861 .000

The aim of this research was to examine teachers’ perceptions regarding the role of the teachers’ board and its’ effectiveness. The context was Greek elementary education. The teachers’ board has a significant role to play i n the normal functioning of a school; therefore, it needs to be given authority This can be beneficial for the teachers. According to research, teachers express satisfaction when their opinion and experience is heard and taken into consideration. As a

Bearing these values in mind, it can be concluded that as regards the development of systems thinking discipline, there had been achievements within the units where the participants worked, even though they seem limited.

8. Conclusions

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. involved in the organizational duties or functions of their schools by expanding their traditional teaching duties. Moreover, they expressed support for the idea that their roles should not be restricted in following and implementing a predesigned curriculum. On the same note, they expressed that this applied to the whole of the school (Senge, 1991; Foskett & Lumby, 2003; Fullan, 2015).

The considerable lack of coordination between the perceptions and implementation indicates that there is room for improvement in the field of establishing patterns and models within the schools for applying new modes of working (either of the educational nature or wider). The lack of established institutions that allows teachers to cooperate and exchange ideas and experience leaves limited room for understanding the complex relationships at the organizational or social level. This can be an opportunity to promote new roles and relationships for the school to contribute and be assisted (Senge, 1991; Bogler & Somech, 2004; 2005; Somech, 2010)

In Table 3, the average and standard deviation on the level of agreement and reality for the ten statements of the role of teachers’ council are presented. It indicated that the average value of agreement level for the educators of the sample concerning the ten statements is 4.41 which is corresponds to “strongly agree ” on the Likert scale. As regards the level of implementation, the value is clearly lower, being equal to 3.65. Statistically, the difference between the average is in favor of the agreement level (p=.000), which points to the divergence between the expectation and the reality of the decision making role of the teachers’ council. Table 3. The average and standard deviation of the perceptual and implementational statements regarding the role of the teachers’ council in decision making, as calculated from the sample of educators. Sum Sample Perceptual level evelImplementationall sStatisticalignificance AV. SD AV. SD t pair p Role of the teachers’council 4,41 0,43 3,65 0,98 8,568 .000

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. result, they perform better in their teaching duties. Besides, there are greater benefits for the school climate and context. If the school is to work with democratic procedures and climate, the teachers’ board needs to have the appropriate privileges, voice, and role in decision making Certainly, this authority should be used prudently for the school to benefit (Senge, 1991; Kalantzis & Cope; 2012, Fullan, 2015).

The study was of quantitative nature. The most appropriate tool for data collection was the online questionnaire, which is known to assist the collection from rather large samples in a convenient time (Watling, 2006; Cohen et al , 2011). This questionnaire was in two parts. The first set included statements reflecting the teachers’ perceptual level, which could provide insights concerning the principles of personal vision and shared vision. While the second set included similar statements from an implementational level related to their work contexts, which could provide insights concerning the principles of metal models and team learning. By evaluating the deviation between the two sets, it was possible to get insights concerning the fifth basic principle of systems thinking (Senge, 1991) Teachers had to rank their agreement towards these statements on a Likert scale. As soon as the questionnaires were completed, the average for each statement and level was calculated. This led to data analysis and conclusions (Cohen et al , 2011). The findings demonstrated that teachers had developed the appropriate personal and shared vision. With regards the implementation, they believed that the metal models and team learning had been achieved, although there was room for improvement. This applies to the principle of systems thinking, which has been developed but the statistical significance between perception and implementation suggests that it has been limited to some extent (Senge, 1991) It might be that the highly centralized character of Greek schools and educational system imposes these restrains. In conclusion, despite the fact that teachers have the legal right to act as members of the learning organization, the overall climate does not provide them with enough room to exercise these rights in reality. In other words, a highly centralized system might be restraining for the transition to the paradigm of learning organization, even when legislation might help occasionally. Perhaps, along with legislation, there should be a general shift in

Thanks to the teachers’ perceptions regarding their contribution in decision making, it is possible to evaluate whether the schools are adopting the learning organization model effectively. This includes evaluating whether the teachers have developed an appropriate personal vision, mental models, shared vision, group learning and the ability for the organization to implement systems thinking (Senge, 1991). As with any kind of reform, the effective achievement of it depends on the teachers and the level at which they are able to shift ideas and understand as well as carry out newly reformed roles (Fullan, 2015). This is perhaps the most innovative point of this study, which is among only a few that have thus far examined the perceptions related to this topic (Vakola & Nikolaou, 2005; Kalantzis & Cope, 2012).

Leading and managing education: International dimensions. London: Sage. Fullan, M. G. (1993). Why teachers must become change agents. Educational Leadership, 50(6), 12 7. Fullan, M. (2015). The NEW meaning of educational change (5th ed.). New York: Teachers’ College Press. Harris, A., & Jones, M. S. (2015). Leading futures: Global perspectives on educational leadership. London, U. K.: Sage Publications. Harris, D., & West Burnham, J. (2018). Leadership dialogues II: Leadership in times of change Carmarthen: Crown House Publishing Limited. Kalantzis, M., & Cope, B. (2012). New learning: a charter for change in education. Critical Studies in Education, 53(1), 83 94. https://doi.org/10.1080/17508487.2012.635669

Kangas, J., & Ukkonen Mikkola, T. (2019). Multi voiced development in Finnish early childhood education practices. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 18(11), 1 17. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.18.11.1 Kelly, A. (2004). The intellectual capital of schools. Measuring and managing knowledge, responsibility and reward: Lessons from the commercial sector. Nethelands: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/1 4020 2594 7 MINEDU (2018), Law 1566/1985Structure and function of primary and secondary education, in Greece. Ministry of Education. Middlewood, D., Abbot, I., & Robinson, S. (2018). Collaborative school leadership. Managing a group of schools. London: Bloomsbury.

References Bogler, R., & Somech, A. (2004). Influence of teacher empowerment on teachers’ organizational commitment, professional commitment and organizational citizenship behavior in schools. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20(3), 277 89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2004.02.003

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. the character and climate of the educational system (Fullan, 2015; OECD, 2017; Townsend et al., 2017) However, before generalizing these conclusions, it is necessary to stress on the limitations of this research. The findings were drawn from questionnaires of a certain sample of teachers and are based on their personal impressions, in limited contexts. Perhaps in the near future, it would be interesting to have these data triangulated (Cohen et al., 2011).

Bogler, R., & Somech, A. (2005). Organizational citizenship behavior in school. Journal of Educational Administration, 43(5), 420 38. https://doi.org/10.1108/09578230510615215

Bush, T. (2011). Theories of educational leadership &management (4th ed.). London: SAGE. Bush, T., Bell, L., & Middlewood, D. (2019). Principles of educational. Leadership and management. London: SAGE. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2011). Research methods in education (7thed.). London: Routledge. Crossan, M. M., Lane, H. W., & White, R. E. (1999). An organizational learning framework: From intuition to institution. Academy of management review, 24(3), 522 537. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1999.2202135 Day, C. (2002). Developing teachers: The challenges of lifelong learning. London: Routledge. Foskett,https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203021316N.,&Lumby,J.(2003).

in schools: A mediating moderating analytical framework for understanding school and teacher outcomes. Educational Administration Quarterly, 46(2), 174 209. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094670510361745

Vakola, M., & Nikolaou, I. (2005). Attitudes towards organizational change: What is the role of employees’ stress and commitment? Employee Relations, 27, 160 74. Watling,http://doi:10.1108/01425450510572685R.,(2006).Theanalysisofqualitativedata.

Senge, P. M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York:Doubleday/Currency Senge, P. M. (1991). The fifth discipline, the art and practice of the learning organization. Performance + Instruction, 30(5), 37 37. https://doi.org/10.1002/pfi.4170300510

Townsend, T., Wylie, C., & Wilkinson, J. (2017). Leading schools down under. In W. Duncan & I. Bogotch (Eds.), The Wiley international handbook of educational leadership (pp. 253 70). Maiden, MA: Wiley Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118956717.ch14

Slater, S. F., & Narver, J. C. (1995). Market orientation and the learning organization. Journal of marketing, 59(3), 63 74. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224299505900306

OECD. (2017). Education at a glance 2017: OECD indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/eag 2017 en Solheim, K. (2019). Teachers’ aspirations to improve their classroom interaction. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 18(6), 147 69. Somech,https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.18.6.9A.(2010).Participativedecisionmaking

In M. Coleman &A.R.J. Briggs (Eds.), Research methods in educational leadership and management (pp. 262 78). London: Sage

Together’- the Perception of Government School Teachers about their Capacity Building through Public-Private Partnership Sujata Deshpande Symbiosis International University Pune city, India Jyoti Chandiramani Symbiosis International University Pune city, India

Abstact. The purpose of this study is to identify the relevance and adequacy of capacity building initiatives from government school teachers’ point of view. The enrolment of students in government schools in India is dwindling due to poor teaching learning practices and so to enhance the quality of education and supplement government’s efforts in capacity building of teachers a unique public private partnership (PPP) based teacher mentor program has been initiated at Pune city in India. The data collected from both the survey and in depth interview of fifty government school teachers were analyzed through framework approach to identify teachers’ perceptions on A) what according to them is effective capacity building, B) the perceived strengths and weaknesses of the ongoing PPP based training and C) their suggestions on the way forward. The findings reveal the deeper reasons for sub optimal results despite the best intentions from both government and private partners. Metaphorically inferred, the PPP based capacity building is like an elephant and a horse pulling a cart together. Where ‘Elephant’ denotes the large, powerful yet bureaucratically slow placed government school system and ‘Horse’ represents the goals driven and fast paced external (PNGE) specialist/ catalyst. The researchers hope that the insights from teachers’ ‘voices’ will help optimize the outcome envisaged by the PPP, and the findings will foster the advocacy for deep rooted policy changes.

Keywords: Capacity building; Government school teachers; PPP; teacher perceptions; teaching learning practices

‘Driven in a Cart Pulled by Elephant and Horse

1. Introduction The government school teachers of India are at crossroads of expectations. There is extensive research highlighting the urgency for the teachers across the globe to revamp their existing practice to meet the complex learning needs of twenty first century students (e.g., Cole and Knowles, 2000; Bolam, 2002; Darling Hammond, 2009). In the context of India, age appropriate reading and numerical skills are lacking in students from government schools pointing towards ineffective teaching learning practices that call for improvement. Also, various studies point out that since India is poised to witness a huge demographic dividend, strengthening the foundation of students is necessary (e.g. Rath, S. K., & Bhagavan, B. 2014; Contractor, F. J., Kumar, V., & Dhanraj, C. 2015; James, K. S. 2008) Therefore, to enhance the capacity of school teachers, in service training programs mandated by the centre and state governments are periodically conducted by DIETs. Despite a spate of successive education policy reforms in the last decade (see notes, NCF1; NUEPA2; NPE3),the dismal PISA4performance of India and the more recent results ofASER5 survey indicate that only 44.2% of standard five students from government schools can read the grade two level text. To strengthen the government’s effort, the PNGEs are also supporting in the government schools. For this study, one unique PPP between municipal (local) government and PNGE, for capacity building of vernacular (Marathi) medium school teachers are selected. Through this PPP, an internal cadre of teacher mentors has been identified and systematically developed since 2017, and these mentor teachers, in turn, train the 1300 teachers. The purpose of this study is to understand the perceived relevance of PPP based capacity building, by the teachers.

2. Review of Literature For this study, a review of literature is conducted by authors to understand the emerging views on the capacity building of teachers.

2.1. Changing expectation from twenty first century teachers and their professional development As aptly quoted, “To solve the learning crisis, all children must have teachers who are trained, motivated and enjoy teaching, who can identify and support weak learners, and who are backed by well managed systems” (UNESCO, 2013, p. 30). There has been an extensive literature on the changing expectations from the teacher while stepping into the new millennium. Bransford et al. (2005) observed that only capable and competent teachers would be able to demonstrate the resilience to incorporate new pedagogy and knowledge required in the changing times. Bransford further added that teachers need to be aware that their day to day decisions have a significant and transformative impact on student’s long term development as each student is unique in terms of his or her context, language, culture, personality as we move more towards inclusive learning. The approach towards teaching must be child centric and embrace diversity. Similarly, Turner Bisset (2001) highlighted that to have the

European Commission (2000, p. 40) asks a pertinent question that while teachers are facing demands to evolve with huge expectations from them to transition and become “multifaceted” do they have matching capacity building support or experience to adapt and cope with this new wave of change. Menter et al. (2010) aptly point out that the main themes of the educational debates across countries are around “positioning” and “ownership” of teacher education. From the systemic nexus who onus is capacity building of teachers is important for the successful teacher development. Collinson et al. (2009) point out that in the highly interconnected world with enormous interdependencies, teacher learning through continuous and ongoing learning is viewed with importance today. In their article, they highlight glocalization, mentoring, and teacher evaluation as evolving themes in different countries. In their critical analysis of what makes professional development effective. Garret et al. (2001) who studied a national sample of teachers, claim that the contemporary professional capacity development of teachers is planned to ensure sustainable learning over time. Researchers agree that only concentrating on content, facilitation skills and methodology is not enough to ensure effective professional development. As stated by Webster Wright, A. (2009), the ongoing methods of planning professional development for teachers do not focus on actual learning outcomes instead they focus on delivery, methodology and evaluation. As noted by Kirby et al. (2006), the professional development of teachers is more “exaggerated wordiness and lofty ideas” which lack objectivity. Commenting on the need and scope of teacher professional development amid educational reforms. Little, J. W. (1993) states that effective Professional development (PD) should lead to a useful association of thoughts and practices among colleagues, even outside the context of the classroom. It should not be one pill panacea to all requirements. It

The impact of quality inputs from teachers in catapulting students learning has been accepted and widely emphasized upon in literature (Hammerness et al. 2005; Darling Hammond, 2009).Researchers also emphasize that capacity building programs cannot be considered ineffective if they do not result in enhanced student learning outcomes(e.g., Shymansky et al. 2001; Fletcher et al. 2002; OECD, 2005). OECD study elaborates that in a complex school environment, many factors affect students learning and not just teaching inputs.

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upper hand in the teaching profession; the teachers need to continue their up gradation of knowledge and skills and apply their practice in classrooms.

The demanding nature of the job, high expectations from the teachers to be prepared to face the needs of 21st century learners are highlighted through a large number of scholarly articles highlighting the importance of adaptivity and integration of nuances in teaching learning (Cole & Knowles,2000; Darling Hammond, 2009). Given the vast and fast paced changes in education today, there is a shift in teachers' roles from the positivist approach (Snape & Spencer, 2003),which promotes the transfer of knowledge to the constructivist paradigm (Ormston et al., 2014),where a teacher is a facilitator to students in co creating their meanings. It is, therefore, crucial for teachers to not stagnate and keep enhancing their repertoire of pedagogy and content. However, it is not enough for teachers to know and actively seek what they need to learn without a supportive environment and an equally change savvy education system.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. should allow for ‘informed dissent.’ It should be learner centric and help them employ ability and grow. It should promote ‘inquiry’ and finally, Little argues that there should be bureaucratic non interference. Thus, the literature points out to an enhanced focus and interest in expectations from teachers and their corresponding professional development.

2.2. Professional development of government school teachers in India

Batra, P (2009), observes that a lot of government resources are spent on “motivating” teachers who have a weak academic foundation, and therefore the author denotes them as “poorly qualified” through “piece meal in service training” without taking into consideration the actual need of millions of teachers. Clearly, in this case, ‘motivation’ given to teachers is a waste of time as what limits them is a skill issue and not a will issue. It does not, however, mean that all the government school teachers are in efficient in delivering quality inputs; in fact, some of them are highly experienced and adept in their practice, and therefore it is equally important to provide them with specific and need based learning opportunities to develop further. As opined by Anuradha De et al. (2005) in their study, “…parents face a difficult choice between low quality and no quality at the primary level.”

Teacher education reforms are not new to the Indian education system. Even the Education Commission (1964), professed professionalization in training the teachers through comprehensive colleges and interlinked programs, among many other recommendations. Subsequently, NPE (1986) also acknowledged that the teacher education scenario was far from satisfactory and emphasized on revamping both the pre service and in service training. NCF (2009) highlighted that insufficient training of teachers and their inability to equip the learning needs is one of the reasons for the educational crisis along with the disconnected and incoherent curriculum. NCF further pointed out that teacher training and school education have a ‘symbiotic relationship,’ and without looking at both in totality, the quality of the education system cannot be improved. For teacher training, the policy recommendation included twenty one days in service training, conferences, professional fora, resource room, faculty visits exchange and fellowship. NUEPA (2014), Annual report which also documents the summary of their research studies conducted on its different states of India, admitted that “education planning in India is yet to be professionalized and made result oriented’” not merely a “compliance exercise to access funds” from the federal government. NPE (2016), pointed out that the poor quality of education in schools was directly linked with the poor quality of teaching inputs as the teacher education was not up to the mark. NPE (2016), states that teachers with low academic achievement and inadequate pre service training get appointed as school teachers. Though there have been several successive policy regulations to improve the capacity of the school education system, even the recent draft NPE (2019) also points out the need to “reconfigure, transform and reinvigorate” the education system. Therefore, in a nutshell, if one looks at the comprehensiveness of the thought process of policymakers towards teacher education, it is highly commendable, however, ironically most of the studies reveal that there are many challenges in the implementation at the ground level.

2) What are their perceived strengths and challenges of PPP based program?

3. Research Design 3.1 Sample

The study of the literature reveals that in India, only a few researchers including Batra, P (2009), highlight the importance of teacher’s voice stating that there is not enough seriousness at the policy level to cull out their felt relevance about such interventions. The paper is an attempt to surface teachers' voices on their capacity building. To bridge this gap, there has been increasing support provided to government schools by Corporate Social responsibility (CSR) funders, private philanthropists, and NGOs. For the ease of understanding in this paper, we would refer to all the non government supporters as private non government entities (PNGEs). Though the PNGEs bring expertise and quality, they do not have the advantage of scale and bandwidth. For this study the researchers selected a unique PPP partnership between the local government and PNGE, to internally build the capacity of teachers by developing a cadre of teacher mentors. The teacher mentors are selected from among the existing government school teachers based on the pre specified criterion and further trained by experts through PNGEs support and in turn, are expected to train and coach the teachers in their respective clusters through a structured approach to build their capacity. The city is divided into fifteen clusters each with twenty to thirty government schools on an average depending on the area. The purpose of our study is on teachers’ perceptions of their professional development (Bolam, 2002).Our objective is to enquire from the teachers ‘ex post’ (that is after attending both DIET training and PPP based training) periodically during 2017 19 on vernacular (Marathi) language reading fluency about the following:

3) What are their suggestions for way ahead?

The researchers conducted in depth inquiry from teachers who have attended both government training and PPP training, which is based on a partnership between municipal (local) government and PNGE during 2017 19,while the government training is also conducted per the mandate of Centre and State government through DIET periodically. The study focused on vernacular (Marathi) medium schools where through both the initiatives, how to teach reading of Marathi language was trained to teachers. The government schools are divided into fifteen area clusters with an average of twenty to thirty schools in each and a total of 1300 primary school teachers from Marathi medium schools. Out of these, a random sample of fifty teachers was selected. The basis of selection was a random selection from those who had in the academic year 2017 18, attended both ‘DIET training’ and ‘PPP based training’ simultaneously, and were permanent teachers (not contract teachers). The purpose of choosing vernacular (Marathi) medium schools was that in recent times the effort towards capacity building of teachers to improve the teaching learning practices in these

1) What are the components of effective capacity building for teachers?

The qualitative study has been conducted with fifty randomly selected municipal school teachers from 15 clusters in a large city in Maharashtra, India. Since it was carried out in government schools, a due letter of permission was sought from the Education Department of the municipal (local) government. To avoid bias from the result both online survey and in depth interviews were conducted to bring out deeper meanings and perceptions from the teachers.

First, the dipstick understanding of the teachers' perception was garnered from the survey which was followed by an in depth interview of teachers at pre agreed time and place in school. Additionally, the key stakeholders were interviewed to understand their role in design, delivery or implementation of capacity building interventions including DIET trainers, education officers, PPP trainers, NGO representatives, and school Headmasters. Their view was important for a holistic interpretation through data triangulation for qualitative analysis. As aptly stated by Taylor and Bogdan (1998:7), the qualitative research “produces descriptive data on people’s own written or spoken words and observable behavior.” Most of the teachers taught in 3rd to 8th standard. The qualification of 80% of the teachers interviewed was D.Ed. and only 20 % had B.Ed. or M.Ed. qualification. The approval letter from the Education officer helped galvanize the research process as teachers are government servants and without prior permission, no one is authorized to interview them. Audio or video recording was strictly prohibited therefore interviews were conducted in the Marathi language and captured by the researcher verbatim through notes and then translated in English on excel sheets. The instrument was based on essential information questions recording gender, educational qualification, days and type of training attended, etc. along with the questions asked on research objectives, the instrument was piloted to check the ease of comprehension, modified, and the content was validated by experts. The online survey results revealed that the majority of teachers found capacity building exclusively by the government through DIET very useful. However, during the next level of an in depth interview which lasted on an average for forty minutes, many ‘tongue in cheek’ responses were received stating that. “… the training was good, I attended it. Do I have a choice”? The data analysis was done using framework approach which involves recurring and repeated reading of the transcript to identify the underlying themes, the data was rearranged in excel sheet, and against each theme/sub theme, each teacher’s entries were coded and categorized with a frequency of pattern in similar texture or meaning (Ritchie & Spencer, 2002). For ease of further interpretation and analysis of data, the transcribed data included “rich, thick descriptions” with “adequate engagement (of the researcher) in data collection” strategies to arrive at meaningful, candid and data based inferences (Merriam, 2009). While the in depth interview was conducted, detailed verbatim

3.3. Data Collection and Analysis

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. schools has increased, given the dwindling enrollment of students and move towards private schools.

3.2. Methodology

and relevant Teaching Experience • Skill enhancement & motivation • Post training, Coaching & Feedback & school context New practices supported by system • Headmaster & Supervisors • Learning circle /group Planned intervention • Communication of schedule • Calendar adherence Best practices showcasing• Strengths of PPP  Teaching strategiesLearning str Data driven observation rubric assessments • Personalized coaching Way Forward  Institutionalization  Planned systemic Buy in • Accountability • Professional approach Challenges of PPP • Inter dependencies • Less Classroom modelling • Union objection • Clash with school time table • C

22 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. notes (in Marathi) were taken by the researcher also documenting the non verbal cues (Creswell 2012) as the researchers noticed signs of enthusiasm, pauses, masking, sarcasm, spontaneity or caution in their responses. 4. Findings and Discussion

Table 1. Summary

The data collected from the teachers were collated and analyzed. The analysis of data revealed four broad categories on what teachers considered as effective capacity building programs for them. In the table below the first column enlists broad categories and themes emerging from teachers' views on effective professional development. The second and third columns capture their views on strengths, areas of improvement and suggestions for way forward for the PPP based capacity building. Due to the limitation of space for this paper, sub themes are not discussed. This article only presents the analysis of the teacher’s perception of PPP and does not include the more extensive comparative analysis with DIET training as the objective of this study was to identify the teacher’s perception of the PPP based training program. The results have been summarized in the table below: of findings on teacher perception Need based

Another senior teacher (T9)with over fifteen years’ experience opined that“ Attending random training programs is not my idea of capacity building, it may be a checklist item for authorities, profession for NGOs and compliance for us but not value adding, effective capacity building should take me forward from where teacher is at the given moment, if I talk for myself then I find the refresher courses repetitive and monotonous, and only when we get a program on new ways of teaching, I learn a lot.”

The experienced teachers’ views were similar to the study conducted by Feiman Nemser (2001) which highlighted the link of capacity building with the phase of teacher’s career. Similarly, Huberman (1995) pointed out that the learning needs of a teacher are related to the stage of career. He classifies them as “career entry,” then “diversification and change,” followed by “stock taking and interrogation,” and finally “serenity” or “disengagement.” Serenity is a function of the “life review” by teachers and if the teacher is not satisfied the same will be replaced with “disengagement” in the last phase of career (Huberman, 1995).Varied perspectives were shared on expected training matching experience even less experienced teachers also wanted more in depth content training. The experienced teachers learning needs were different from those of novice teachers. the videos. 4.1 (a) 2. Skill enhancement and personal motivation

4.1 Research question one: What is effective capacity building according to 4.1teachers?(a)Need based and relevant

Most of the teachers (33, 66%) shared that capacity building is effective if it leads to change in practice. For example, the teacher (T6) said, “In government schools, there are only children from poor families and as per RTE Act, every child between 6 to 14 years of age has to be compulsorily enrolled in an age appropriate class. This is with or without prior schooling, so effective capacity building for me is to learn the differentiating strategies and optimize on thirty minutes duration of each period”.

Among the senior teachers who have ten plus years of teaching experience and exposure to training over the years (15,30%),most of the teachers voiced that their learning needs were different than those of new teachers, for instance, a verbatim of one (T14)was, “I am fifty years old and joined when I was twenty, so I already have sufficient experience of teaching, and at this time according to me effective capacity building should be subject specific and not merely a motivational training.:

Another teacher stated, “Capacity building is knowing ‘how’ in addition to understanding ’what.’ Most training that we attend only focuses on what we need to do; they are good, but more recently, I like the program, which helps me with the skills.”

Teacher (T8) stated, “Effective capacity building is skill building not trainers notes

Most of the teachers stated that according to them the capacity building is effective if the topic, content, and methodology is as per their specific learning needs: 4.1 (a) 1. Teaching Experience

4.1 (a) 3. Post- training expert coaching and feedback Teachers considered the capacity building program which closed the loop after the workshop through classroom modeling, observation, coaching, and feedback as effective. For instance, one teacher (T16) said, “I have attended many workshops and while it did seem to be important at that time, on the very next day once I was back to class routine everything was forgotten, however more recently I have been exposed to such training workshops where there is a mentor who observes my class and shares feedback, and there is gradual change in my practice.”

Another teacher (T5) stated, “I find effective capacity building when there is a modeling in my class, and when I see my students learning faster it motivates me to apply my learnings in class with a confidence that if I make a mistake, I will be given a constructive feedback after the class to understand areas of improvement.” Learning from competent and expert trainers and coach’s adept in both andragogy and pedagogy was the nutshell of the voices. One of them (T7)said that “If a trainer who has never taught children tells me how to teach or observes my class and only tells what I could have done better though I have to accept as that person has more knowledge of new innovative methods, but if not able to teach my students in class, then the feedback has no significant value to me.” It is similar to the importance of handholding after the training highlighted by Garet et al. (2001) in their study of a national sample of American teachers. 4.1 (a) 4. School and community context

being transferred in my notes and then after the sermon, the trainer vanishes. I need to learn the application in class”. The teachers categorically mentioned skill and learning of the process as an essential aspect of capacity building. The findings resonate with the expectations of the teachers highlighted by Joyce and Showers, 2002 and Hammerness et al. (2005) on the importance of skill learned during the in service program through an iterative process of practicing and reflecting on the new skill learned. There were teachers (28,56%) who attributed personal motivation or will to excel in their chosen field of teaching as the reason to attend all training programs with the belief that they will learn something. It is similar to the study by Feiman Nemser (2001), pointing that the desire for teacher training depends on the teacher’s perception, motivation, and attitude for self development.

One of the most significant aspects for effective capacity building for the teachers was the ability to the context relatable to their specific school, and community context, a teacher (T5) said: “My school is located in a violent community my classroom challenges are different and more than content training, I need classroom management strategies.” Another teacher (T12)stated that” Parents of the children in our government schools are not educated, so their academic support at home is missing in student’s holistic development, and effective capacity building for me would be an ability to loop in parents for their non academic support.” The findings matched with the description given by Fullan et.al. (2006) on “contextually based, personalized, data driven instruction context” (Fullan, Hill & Crevola, 2006). It is necessary for professional development to take into cognizance the specific school and personal context of teachers. The teachers said that when the

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4.1 (b) New practices to be supported by the system

One of the most critical voices from teachers was the importance of systemic support for their capacity building. The following were the main perspectives: 4.1 (b) 1. Headmasters and supervisors

“An effective program for me would be when seniors in school hierarchy agree to the importance of training and support me in applying the new learnings in class,” stated one teacher (T3) who also shared that it happened very rarely. Another teacher said, “Our role is to develop the students academically and also inculcate values; however, as we are also government servants and have to do other duties like election duty, census survey and our headmaster not his fault but requires us to do non academic, administrative work during school time. So, if we cannot even do justice with our syllabus when can we apply the learnings from training”. Teachers felt that acknowledgment of incremental changes in practice from headmaster and Supervisors would be very motivating to apply the learning. It is because unlike private schools, the context of teachers and students is different in government schools, a teachers (T22) said. “we are always told that due to job security our teaching practice is poor, but another reality is that students are not at appropriate class level, so if I make small improvements in teaching practice some appreciation from authorities will motivate me to continue, but if the culture is more to complete the administrative work there is no reason to swim against the tide.” Researchers have pointed out that educational changes have to be system wide, the stakeholders (e.g., Levin & Fullan, 2008; Wedell, 2013).It was evident from the data that one of the significant strengths or impediments for the effective implementation of any positive change in school is from the seniors within the system. The unsupportive system will quell the benefits from capacity building and the training would only remain a theoretical exercise. Sandholtz, J. and S. P. Scribener (2006), in their article ‘The Paradox of Administrative Control in Fostering Teacher Professional Development,’ highlight the importance of systemic support, which was reinforced by teachers views.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. school and community context were missing, they felt that the training was not relevant to them “nice to hear” but “not practical.”

4.1 (b) 2. Learning Circles/ Groups A few (10, 20%) teachers shared the need for an overall culture to learn, discuss, debate, divide among the peer groups, or teaching staff would be a great help. One of the teachers (T3) said, “ Most of the time only one or two of us from my school are nominated at a time, and when those teachers come back feeling motivated, other teachers cannot relate to enthusiasm nor can they get any further input in the same direction from within the school. An effective program should have a mechanism to keep the tempo on from within the teachers who participate”. Teachers stated that if they have a support group with whom they could share their challenges and get solutions, it will make the program far more effective and sustainable. There have been similar studies which highlight the need for teachers to participate in learning communities for in depth learning (Putnam & Borko, 2000).

4.1 (b) 4. Best practices showcasing

Almost all teachers (42, 94%) voiced the need to have flexibility in the school calendar. A teacher (T25) said, “if we take practice sessions, the supervisors who visit want us to follow the calendar strictly.” A teacher (T4) quoted,” while training is conducted after school hours or on holidays all the new teaching learning practices like action learning or reading fluency classes need to be applied in school but if the school does not accommodate the existing calendar the three is not enough scope to practice.”

These findings are similar to an analysis of the ways in which the school leadership team can help in effective implementation of professional development of teachers including openness and flexibility to experiment, among other things (Loxley et al., 2007).

The majority of teachers (39, 78%) in government schools reiterated the need for inspiration, role model, and motivation, which will be met by sharing that for capacity building to be effectively implementable. Incremental learnings incorporated in class should be showcased. Their perceptions correspond to the experience of Finnish teachers on the benefits of receiving appreciation (Jyrhämä, R, 2008). As one teacher (T1) said,” it would serve two purposes, one if it is my best practice, I will feel acknowledged and motivated from peers and seniors and second it would inspire other teachers.” Another teacher (T5) shared similar views stating, “unlike private schools, we do not have promotions or performance linked appraisal and if the best practices are showcased it will be a motivator also to be one of the best.” This is the problem of government school teachers since the jobs are permanent; they have no performance linked appraisal or promotion. The teachers feel that at least if their best practices are showcased, they will get some acknowledgment and limelight which alludes them as their training program of elementary education suffer from “isolation, low profile and poor visibility” (NCTE, 2009, p. 11).

4.1 (b) 3. Calendar adherence

4.1 (c) Planned Intervention Many teachers (30, 60%) particularly commented that effective capacity building program should be a well planned activity. They said that random programs are very inconvenient; however, content rich they may be. The following were the verbatims on both the aspects of communication and involvement in design voiced by teachers. The findings were akin to the study highlighting the importance of methodological factors for the capacity building like process and procedure in addition to content and context (Villegas Reimers, E., 2003; Terehoff I. I., 2002).As Terehoff, emphasizes that only through planning teachers will receive “rich opportunities” for learning along with “growth and self fulfillment.”

When asked about the strengths and challenges of PPP as compared to regular government training programs on Marathi reading fluency, the following views were seen: 4.2 (a) Strengths of PPP

For a useful capacity building inclusion in design and overall plan was the felt need, most of whom were senior teachers (28, 56%.) One senior teacher (T9) said,” I can share the classroom context to make the design practical. So, for me, most programs seem theoretical with an outside in view such inputs are needed, no doubt, but they should not remain just pleasant to listen but impractical to implement.” Another teacher (T30) shared that, “I know the program comes from management and they can’t ask each one of us however at least while implementing each one’s context and inputs should be taken for better results.” Frost et al. (2010) effectively highlight the importance of planning, mainly when a teacher training program is run through a collaboration.

4.2 Research question two: What are the strengths and areas of improvement of PPP based training?

4.1 (c) 1. Communication of schedule

4.1 (c) 2. Involvement from design to implementation

Most of the teachers (37, 74%) were thankful for the PPP training received and could experience the difference in comparison of regular training that they received directly without any private (PNGE) support: 4.2 (a) 1. Professional approach

The teachers invariably stated that PPP training was far more precise in terms of timelines, objectives, methodology, delivery, post training support, etc. For example, one teacher (T20) said, “Apart from how to teach ‘Marathi reading fluency’, I also see the demonstrated punctuality, discipline, planning of resources, use of teaching aids, communication during PPP. I have learned positive ways of teaching discipline, accountability, and punctuality which I have started using with my students than shouting and scolding them.” Another teacher (T17) added, “The teacher mentors are chosen from amongst us, and they are trained by (PNGEs), and when we see them

Most of the teachers (32, 64%) felt that whether it is a one time workshop or a long intervention, a proper prior notification of the timeline and other commitments is a pre requisite. The vocal teacher (T3) stated,” I would prefer to know before the starting of next academic year as to what training will be imparted, when would it start, what would be the benefits and all other relevant details.” The importance of “timely update” and regular information was emphasized by another teacher she said,” We must show mutual respect as surprise announcements and especially of long term duration change our existing teaching and personal schedule.”

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. demonstrating professional skills using PowerPoint presentations, flip charts, and other teaching aids effectively, we feel inspired to learn and practice the same.” The use of various teaching aids and demonstrated professionalism was tremendous learning, according to teachers. The findings were similar to the importance of a professional approach to teacher development highlighted by Pitsoe, V. J et al. (2012) who emphasized the constructivist approach of giving teachers a choice to learn rather than only passive listening of rote based training programs.

Teachers felt that PPP training had given them exposure to many teaching learning strategies to reach students with different learning styles. On being interviewed one teacher( T 16) said,” I used to only cater to the students who were below the class average, and the brighter students would feel bored and play mischief during the class, and when I would begin teaching them the others would lose connect and my grades used to be chaotic. The PPP on reading fluency has segregated the lower order reading skills as level 1, next level 2 and age appropriate as level 3 and this has solved a lot of problems for me.” Another teacher said (T37), “instead of only reading from books and writing on the blackboard, I have started bringing assignment sheets, newspaper cuttings, other material as trained by mentors, and it is a mutually engaging experience for students and me.” One teacher (T12) said, “My creativity has been spurred as I think of innovative ways to teach and organize the available resources.” The importance of how new teaching learning strategies evolve, and the role of productive dialogue is also highlighted by Routman R. (2000) which is similar to the findings of this study where teaches also voiced that they appreciated the new strategies taught through PPP. 4.2 (a) 3. Personalized coaching Teachers appreciated the mentoring support after every module completion to see the implementation in the class. A teacher (T27) said, “I await the day when the teacher mentor comes in my class, unlike other classroom observation where I feel judged as the observer sits with impassive expression and then goes away making me wonder what his/ her opinion was, this is one observation I cherish.” Teacher (T18) said, “If I struggle with any aspect of applying the new learning, I know teacher mentor is there to guide and even my students await the teacher mentors as they have developed a bond with frequent visits. My practical challenges and struggles are known to my mentor.”

Another teacher (T4) shared, “When the training is over the onus of applying the new practices is on teacher earlier the trainers did not have any experience of teaching children; however, the teacher mentors trained by PNGEs have been picked up from among us so they understand students context which reduces the frustration of just listening to desirable but unpractical stuff. In government run DIET training programs, there is no after the training handholding”. Researchers have similarly pointed out that having an expert/ veteran coach, and observer for personalized goal setting and action is beneficial for teachers, rather than a one time workshop (Martinez, M., 2019; Johnson, S. R.et al., 2016).

4.2 (a) 2. Teaching-Learning strategies

4.2 (a) 4. Data driven rubric assessment

Another exceptional feature of PPP based capacity building was the use of a data driven rubric for assessment of teacher competency. One teacher (T23) said, “Our lessons are observed with the help of a rubric and after each session, our mentor gives us feedback.” Another teacher (T42) said,” The feedback is always constructive, and areas of improvement are shared with data in terms of teacher actions and student activities, and we are asked what would have been a better way than telling us down. This system has helped me reflect on my teaching practice and bring positive change where needed.” There have been a lot of studies (e.g. Avalos, B., 2011; Kane T. J, et al., 2011) emphasizing the importance of data based observation and assessment of practice, as Avalos has pointed this based on in his ten year analysis of teacher capacity building.

Another teacher (T7) said, “ Only a short duration class is given for Marathi reading fluency, which should be ideally longer duration and I have to send level wise students to other class and receive students from other class in my class for the level I am teaching example level 3. This shuffling takes away a good ten minutes of the thirty minutes duration. Children take five minutes to settle down and align with the topic.” Another teacher (T4) said, “I do not like to send my students to other classes rather with differentiating strategies learned. I want to plan the thirty minutes for all the three levels of reading for my students; however, this PPP model does not give us flexibility.”

Out of the fifty teachers interviewed (29, 58%) shared many challenges of the PPP model as well, which gives a more in depth explanation of why despite two years of PPP National Achievement Survey (NAS) 2017 reveals that students in this city of research study have lower (less than age appropriate) reading levels compared to others in India. The perceptions have been clubbed in given categories.: 4.2 (b) 1. Clash of timetable

4.2 (b) Challenges of PPP

Teachers found the clash in time table of reading fluency class with earlier timetable an impediment. One teacher (T31) said, “Since the order comes from top to attend the program, we only follow it however if the PNGE intervened program requires changes in time table only top layers permission guarantees attendance but other levels have to agree and just getting an order to that effect leads to challenges.

Though it seems to be a small problem, the rigidities of the system, coupled with rigidities of models, create a lot of difficulties, which was also seconded through interviews of PPP teacher mentors. As stated by Terehoff, I. I. (2002), planning is essential for the success of professional development. In the case of PPP despite thorough planning by PNGE partner the rigidities of the school calendar lead to a change of plan or clash of timetable as stated by teachers.

4.2 (b) 3. Union objection The union objects to any private or NGO interference fearing privatization and resisting interference. A teacher (T22) said, “Our Union instructed us to ban PPP training, it was sad as the training was beneficial and yet we had to succumb to the pressure for a while. However, thankfully they allowed us to attend later but they are still against any third party(external)observation of classroom practices.” Another teacher (T49) said, “In my cluster, all the schools had to ban PPP training for a longer time as compared to other clusters. It was done unofficially due to the presence of many union teachers in our cluster. Union resists because though teacher mentors are from within the government school system, they are trained by PNGEs. After a lot of discussion and directives from the top, the training resumed but a lot of time was wasted.” Teacher union is against the PNGEs influence in government schools. Three of the teachers interviewed were from the union, and they shared that they fear “privatization” of government schools and object to PNGEs imposing any rules, routines, and structures. They also do not allow third party assessment of teacher training or student learning level assessment from outside. For the future success of PPP, a dialogue with the union is also necessary. The objection from teacher union is not new in research across time and geographies (for e.g. Gaynor C, 1998; Adams A.et al., 2005) have also discussed this long standing tussle. Therefore, it is essential to find a way to harness the Union’s energy constructively.

4.2 (b) 4. Interdependencies

The interdependencies of government and PNGEs to leverage strengths is not without challenges as PNGES have to take fast action, and decision making is slow and bureaucratic in government schools. Teacher (T16) shared, “Many a time when I have a PPP training, a letter is received for all teachers to report for some other program by the administrative officer. There are too many interdependencies

One of the shortcomings of PPP was that the teacher mentors trained, observed class and gave feedback but had no classroom modeling. One teacher (T32) said, “the mentors are handpicked from among us and trained by PNGEs as part of PPP, so we need to see how they would teach differently. Initially, they did not model a lesson plan in class at all, but during the quarterly feedback, we shared this concern and as a response, they have begun modeling which is value adding but not adequate.” Another teacher (T18) said, “Since teaching us is comparatively easier as compared to teaching students we prefer class modeling, and this is an area which is not very effective in PPP.” PNGE partners also stated the same which was used for deeper understanding and triangulation of data for analyses, and it was clear that andragogy (training adults) and pedagogy (teaching children) are two different skills and after receiving quarterly feedback, the mentor teachers who had been teachers earlier were through course correction trained to model the lesson in class; however, the class modeling was not enough. As pointed by Pitsoe, V. Jet al. (2012) the professional development should not only be “sustained, ongoing, intensive” it should also be “supported by modeling.” This observation and feedback of teachers for PPP are very crucial.

4.2 (b) 2. Less classroom modeling

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Another teacher (T3) shared, “I feel that PPP should be allowed to adhere to their plan but due to many official and non official work requirements either some or all teachers request for change of schedule’. This is one of the biggest challenges, the same was highlighted by PNGE partners and teacher mentors who reiterated that there has to be “mutual accountability “along with “joint ownership’ of PPP capacity building. The views were similar to the findings of Acar, Metal. (2004) concerning PPP interdependencies in the US. In their recent study of the need for PPP in the Nigerian school context (Oyewole, 2016) highlighting the intricacies of public private partnership nexus. There is a need to demarcate the responsibilities in PPP for sustenance (Bajwa, S. U, et al.,2018).

4.3 Research question three: What is the way forward for PPP training? 4.3 (a) Way Forward

When teachers were asked about the way forward, only (20, 40%) teachers shared their views, and the remaining teachers more or less had the same opinion that the ongoing program was excellent and should continue in the same way. The themes on suggestions were: 4.3 (a) 1. Institutionalization

The teachers said that new learning practices usually continue only while the ‘NGO’ support exists and forgotten after that, however since they found this PPP model unique with their teachers as mentors, they spoke about institutionalization. One of the teachers (T29) said,” We hope to have a teacher mentor system as a continued way and not as a fad which will come and go. If this method of strengthening our teaching practices stays, we will benefit consistently and not for this one reading fluency program.” Another teacher (T10) said, “this level wise progression to teach Marathi reading taught by PPP should continue for students so that poor reading levels which are less than age appropriate will no longer be a problem in government schools.” If, after the PPP tenure, the cadre of teacher mentors is dissolved, it would be just an experiment and the resources time and expertise in training the mentors by PNGEs would be lost. This PPP helps develop an internal cadre of teacher mentors and it is the first time that for the capacity building of teachers government and PNGE’s are working at a large scale with joint ownership, the teachers' perception based on their experience of other NGOs forgotten efforts is an essential indication of the need to institutionalize the process. The failure of institutionalization in PPP is succinctly dealt with by Kumar, K. (2008), where he says that it only leads to joint ownership but does not allocate tasks or institutionalize the learnings.

4.3 (a) 2. Planned systemic buy in A few teachers felt that while PPP was much more professional teachers, they thought that any program however good, should be intimated at least in the previous year. Also, all stakeholders including HM, supervisors, union, parents, students, should be aware of and co own the process. A teacher (T5) said, “In the

This study highlights the importance of teachers’ voices; hence we recommend that instead of idolizing, patronizing or criticizing the teachers, their views should be duly taken into consideration before any change intervention in schools. The study reveals the bureaucratic and systemic nexus within the educational eco system. The researchers caution that it is not enough to only subject the teachers to a multitude of programs as a captive audience and they recommend the availability of options like lengthy or modular or granular programs that are not one size fits for all (Diaz Maggioli, G. 2003). The study also revealed that there is very less focus on teachers as the co authors of their own professional development and therefore, there is a need to assimilate their

Another critical recommendation from one teacher (T26) was, “when three teachers share one level each (among 1,2,3) while teaching reading fluency, each one should teach the students from other classes sincerely and this does not always happen. Without ownership and accountability from all teachers, the reading level in each category will forever remain skewed. The teachers spoke about the accountability of their peers to teach with same sincerity and almost all of them said that they were saddled with administrative work, the PNGE partners implored on the accountability of government stating that even when there is transfer of senior officials the practice should continue seamlessly without a change in schedule or planned commitment. Most teachers said that at the last minute, the administrative officer of their respective cluster sends an order to them to attend another meeting instead of PPP training scheduled on that day, which they cannot refuse. It is similar to the paper on the futility of PPP by Kumar K (2008), where he argues that to increase the efficiency of government more inefficiency is generated; authority remains the same, but accountability towards the work is given to non government partner.

5. Conclusions and Recommendations

Another important theme that most teachers shared (though in undertones) was two way accountability. One teacher (T30) said, “ We are learning how to optimize the time with students by addressing students from all reading levels, it would be nice if our administrative workload is exempted on the day of training, we should not be called back for any official work.”

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. past, many NGOs conducted sessions directly with students, a few gave us free resources, and they could reach a limited school for a short while, hope this is going to be different and long term.” Another teacher(T44) said, “This PPP is different as the teacher members are selected teachers from within our school system; all we need is blessings from seniors to implement the new learnings. Our success will largely depend on support from our seniors in the system.” Earlier, various NGOs have worked in few schools by only taking the permission of the school headmaster. However, when the NGO withdrew support, the changes brought by them were forgotten due to no systemic buy in from the education department, supervisors, local politicians, or other stakeholders in the system. In his in depth paper on PPP Paradox, Gopalan, P. (2013) has also pointed out the perils of not getting the systemic buy in. 4.3 (a) 3. Accountability

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5.2. Directions for future research

Researchers hope that this study would help policy makers, educationists, PNGEs and future researchers to delve deeper into real issues from ground for sustainable improvement in capacity building endeavors. The findings could be used to foster the advocacy for deep rooted policy changes and pave way for more research on How best to build the teachers capacity with systemic involvement? Whose onus is capacity building of government school teachers? Should mutual accountabilities in PPP be defined perfunctorily by MOU as present scenario or be prescribed by policy or should the partnership be a project management exercise transacted professionally?

views, assess their needs, perceptions and elicit their active involvement from design to the implementation phase of capacity building through PPP. Teachers found PPP based training far more effective and professional than regular training by the government. The lack of policy on systemic support on teaching learning practices (Knapp, 2003) are evident in this PPP based initiative and there should be a periodic review of trainings conducted and class room implementation without any bureaucratic hinderances.The accountabilities should be co owned by both the partners otherwise, this intervention, may also be forgotten. Since this PPP is already operational at a scale in the last two years, with optimum results of capacity building this model can potentially be replicated in other districts. Based on this study of government school teachers, inputs from teacher mentors, PNGEs, DIET trainers working at the ground level, the researchers recommend that along with capacity building efforts, the teacher selection, assessment, and accreditation standards of government schools need to be revamped. The study reveals a need to committedly drive one change at a time The research is also a pointer to Local government to prohibit arbitrary orders to not allow teachers to attend pre planned PPP training. PNGEs face resistance from teacher union members who do not even allow a third party assessment of their teaching practice. A constructive dialogue with union teachers is recommended, as, few union teachers who were interviewed had unaddressed grievances and feared privatization. Therefore, taking them on board is required with a demarcation of responsibilities, to pave the way for a seamless and impactful PPP training.

5.1. Limitations of the study

Due to the space limitation the present study does not provide a comparative analysis of the perceived relevance of teachers for the government’s DIET training with PPP based training and therefore may seemtobeunidimensional.

Finally, this paper recommends the PPP stakeholders to synergize their respective strengths of ‘Elephant’ (government) and ‘Horse’ (PNGEs); otherwise, the differences may lead to unsustainable results.

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3. NPE3: National Policy of Education (NPE3,1986) As per Wikipedia, The National Policy on Education (NPE) is formulated by the government to promote education. The successive policies are applicable for elementary education to colleges in both rural and urban India. Recently draft NPE 2019 has also been published.

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2. NUEPA2: National University of Educational Planning and Administration (NUEPA) was established towards the universalization of quality education.

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1. Introduction The content of the constructivist theory has existed for a long time. According to Husen, T., & Postlethwaite, TN (1989), the content of the constructivist theory appeared in Giambattista Vico's De antiquissima Italorum Sapientia in 1710. He thought that "to know something means to know what parts it is made of and how they have been put together.” In modern psychology, Mark Baldwin (1861 1934) and Jean Piaget (1896 1980) first developed the concept of cognitive

Constructivist Learning and the Law of Sines in Advanced 10th Grade Geometry Textbooks in Vietnam Ngoc-Giang Nguyen Banking University of Ho Chi Minh City Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Huyen Trang Pham Faculty of Primary Education, Hanoi Pedagogical University Phuc Yen city, Vinh Phuc Province, Vietnam

Abstract. The law of Sines is the law that appears much in mathematics in particular and in science in general. The law of Sines allows us to calculate the length of the remaining sides and angles when we know three of the six elements of the side or angle of a triangle. This law, along with the law of Cosines, are the first two laws, the most important when one wants to build a trigonometric system. In Vietnam, they teach the law of Sines in Geometry 10 program, including the Basic and Advanced sections Constructivist learning is one of the theories of the teaching process based on Piaget's psychology generating awareness and Vygotsky's operation theory. There are many different views on constructivist learning. All of these points of view agree that this is a positive teaching method, promoting the internal strengths of learners. In other words, this is a learner centered teaching method. Although the law of the Sines function is important, there are not many documents that mention how to teach the law of Sines effectively. The paper examines the combination of the constructivist learning method and the law of Sines as well as the relationship between mathematics and other fields expressed through this law.

38 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 38 59, January https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.1.20203

Keywords: Law of Sines; Constructivist learning; the real problem; Informatics; Physics

The second person that we cannot help but mention when studying Constructivism is Vygotsky. He is regarded as the father of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) theory. According to Vygotsky, teaching is the origin of newness in development and unity with the old. Teaching always needs to be ahead of development (teaching pulls development along with you). The teaching process is carried out through the individual psychological characteristics of students. Vygotsky acknowledged that "Teaching, in one way or another, must be appropriate to the child's developmental level, which is a fact discovered by experience and tested over and over again, undeniable. ”. (Vu, T. N, 2014)

Vygotsky said that the child development process often takes place at two levels of the present level and the zone of proximal development. The present level is the level at which the psychological functions have reached maturity, and in the zone of proximal development, the psychological functions are maturing but not yet mature. In practice, the current level of performance is expressed by children independently solving tasks without any help from the outside, and the zone of

construction. Among the pioneers of the development of the constructivist theory, Jean Piaget is one of the most knowledgeable about the constructivist theory. According to Jean Piaget, the cognitive structure develops gradually in the process of a subject adapting to the environment. That adaptation starts at birth as a result of natural physiological development and experience of environmental exposure. Children transform and develop structures to function, think, and perceive the world, so they become more and more sophisticated with age. (Tran, T. M. L, 2012)

This cognitive structure develops according to a dual process, the assimilation process, and the accommodation process (Tran, T. M. L, 2012). The process of assimilation is the process of transforming new knowledge by the existing cognitive structure, so that the subject can rely on old knowledge to solve new situations. It is necessary to fully exploit the students' existing knowledge and experience related to the knowledge to teach as the basis for creating new knowledge. In particular, it is necessary to identify the "input" as the knowledge and experience that students know, analyze the "black box" as thinking manipulations such as: analysis and synthesis, generalization, analogy, systematizing knowledge to build a process of organizing learning activities for students. The process of accommodation is the process of transforming new knowledge when it is different from the existing cognitive structure, forcing the subject to change the cognitive structure to suit the new knowledge. In doing so, we need to exploit misconceptions (or inadequacies) of students as a basis for designing learning activities, thereby building a process of organizing learning activities for students. Thus, the assimilation process leads to the growth of old knowledge structures, which is the process of dealing with new information of the environment in the form of pre existing thinking, while the process of accommodation creates the development of new knowledge structure and the process which the subject transforms the previous cognitive structure according to the interactions with the environment. (Tran, T. M. L, 2012)

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. proximal development is shown in the situation when children complete the task when there are cooperation and help from others, and they cannot do it themselves. Thus, two levels of child development represent two degrees of maturity at different times. At the same time, they are always in motion: the zone of proximal development today will become the current level tomorrow, and the new zone of proximal development will appear. (Tran, T. M. L, 2012) Many people have studied constructivist learning. For example, Jones, M. G., & Brader Araje, L (2002), Husen, T., & Postlethwaite, T. N (1989) studied the impact of constructivism on Education which are language, discourse, and meaning. Olusegun, B. D (2015), Sjoberg, S (2007) referred to a paradigm for teaching and learning of constructivist learning theory. Matinez Delgado, A (2000) gave to the radical constructivism. Suhendi, A., & Purwano, P (2018). Koohang, A., Riley., L., & Smith, T (2009) determined e learning and contructivism. Mogashoa, T (2014) researched the applicability of the constructivist theory in qualitative educational research. Ramsook, L., & Thomas, M (2016) referred to constructivist linking theory with the practice among pre service teachers at the University of Trinidad and Tobago. Ayaz, M. F., & Sekerci, H (2015), Maheshwari, G., & Thomas, S (2017), Bhattacharjee, J (2015), Le, T. L. H., Luu, T. T , & Nguyen, T. L. A (2016), Doan, T. K. N., & Hoang, T. M. T (2016) explored the effects of the constructivist learning approach. Nguyen, T. T., & Dang, T. X (2013) used the Google Sites tool to set up a website to boost students' self study ability on the constructivist theory Nguyen, D. N., & Manyvanh Inthavorigsa (2018) talked about teaching the constructivist topic "primitive integral" in high schools of the People's Democratic Republic of Laos. Truong, T. H (2011) discussed testing and assessing the formation process of Vietnamese knowledge in High School from the perspective of the constructivist theory. Nguyen, T. H (2013) knew how to apply the constructivist theory in teaching Education at pedagogical schools. Tran, V. D (2015) presented a constructivist theory that underpins collaborative learning. Pham, V. H (2016) referred to the practical lesson design skills of the constructivist theory of elementary pedagogical students. Nguyen, T. T., Hoang, T. P., & Tran Trung Ninh (2014) studied the development of the ability to apply knowledge into practice for students by applying the constructivist theory to teaching chemistry 10.

Although there have been many studies on teaching with the constructivist theory and teaching the law of Sines, there have not been any researches on teaching the law of Sines by the constructivist theory. In this paper, we study how to teach the law of Sines according to the constructivist theory in Vietnam in this article.

2. Content 2.1. Teaching according to the constructivist theory

Currently, there are many different views on the constructivist theory The constructivist theory states that the learners' knowledge, skills, and competences are not an "empty box" for teachers to teach what they want to. The teacher only

3. An Illustrative example of applying the constructivist theory to teaching the law of Sines For a constructivist teaching method to succeed, a teacher must create learning situations that stimulate students' interest in learning. That understanding must be received by learners in a positive, proactive, and creative manner. Learners must discover knowledge by themselves, not passively learn from the environment. Learners both act as instructors, leading the problem to help students confirm the correctness. Depending on the specific teaching content,

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. imparts knowledge to the learners based on the existing knowledge base on the learners' experience. Learners only acquire when connecting new knowledge and their life experiences. The close relationship between new and old knowledge is systematically arranged, then the new knowledge is valuable to use and remember longer.

“Knowledge, no matter how it is defined, is in the heads of person and that the thinking subject has no alternative but to construct what he or she knows based on of his or her own experience.” (Glasersfeld, 1992) From the above points of view, we propose the concept of the constructivist theory as follows: Constructivism is the process by which subjects perform assimilation and accommodation activities, to establish new knowledge based on old knowledge. This process of establishment is not a process of mechanical establishment. Still, the process of a subject perceiving, eliminating outdated, inappropriate, and inheriting the core, nature, correct, thereby adjusting, developing experience and available capacity to receive knowledge and build new knowledge for himself or herself. The process of establishment is not only the discovery but also the explanation and the structure of the new experience to receive, or it is the process of adaptation and evolution. This process is both personal and public.

2.2. The process of learning according to the constructivist theory (Bui, V. N, 2009)

“Constructivism is not a theory about teaching… it is a theory about knowledge, and learning…the theory defines knowledge as temporary, development, socially and culturally mediated and thus, non object” (Brooks & Brooks, 1993, p. vii)

“Constructivist allege that it is we ho constitute or construct, based on our theorizing or experience, the allegedly observable items postulated in our theories.” (Nola, 1998)

Teacher: To find the distance from A to C tower we need to solve the problem of finding the side AC when we know the edge AB; angle C 180604575;  =−−= angle =  45.B Steps 3 & 4. Design questions, activities and guide students to participate in the constructivism. Teacher: Draw the triangle ABC in example 1, measure the lengths of the edges, the angles, and then fill in the following table: A a a Asin B b b Bsin C c sin c C

Step 1. Select teaching content

Teacher: Our teaching content is the law of Sines. Step 2. Design a constructivist situation Teacher: Please see the following problem. Example 1 A person is sitting on a train from station A to station B. When the train was at station A, through binoculars, he saw a high voltage pole C. The direction of his view to the high voltage pole created with the path of the train at an angle of 60.  When the train was at station B, the person looking back could still see the tall voltage column C, the view from that person to the high voltage pole created in the opposite direction of the train's path at an angle of 45.  Given that the railway section that connects Station A with Station B is 8 km long. What is the distance from station A to tower C? (Doan, Q., et al. 2019)

42 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. specific teaching subjects, teachers give students different learning tasks. Students interact with each other to create an atmosphere, both personal and socia,l in the classroom. Bui, V. N. (2009) provided the following steps for designing and implementing a constructivist teaching lesson: Here we will illustrate how to teach a math problem through the law of Sines.

43 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Students: We do not know how to draw and measure shapes on GeoGebra software. Teacher: I will draw and measure BC on GeoGebra software as follows. Draw a line AB with a length of 8. Draw the rays AC and BC so that BACABC60;45.  == Hide unnecessary routes. Measure angle A, sides AC and BC. We have the following table: A a a Asin B b b Bsin C c c Csin 60 7.17 8.28 45 5.86 8.28 75 8 8.28 Teacher: What do you think about the quantities abc ABC,,? sinsinsin Students: These quantities are equal. Teacher: Can you show that the triangle ABC has abc ABC ? sinsinsin == Student: We haven't found a way to prove it yet. Teacher: If ab ABsinsin = , then, aB 22 sin is equal to bA 22 sin or not? Students: Yes. Teacher: If = 2222 sinsin aBbA , then, aaBbbA 222222sin(sin) is equal to ab22 ? Students: Yes. Teacher: Put the common factor of the expression abaaBbbA 22222222sin(sin)?−=−−−

44 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Student: 22222222 2222 2222 sin(sin) (1sin)(1sin) coscos (coscos)(coscos). abaaBbbA aBbA aBbA aBbAaBbA −=−−− =−−− =− =−+ Teacher: Use the law of Cosines to calculate −+ coscos;coscos? aBbAaBbA Student: I calculate the following: aBbAcabbcaab ccc cabbca aBbAc cc 22222222 222222 coscos; 22 coscos. 22 +−+−− −=−= +−+− +=+= Teacher: So −+= (coscos)(coscos)? aBbAaBbA Student: 22 22 (coscos)(coscos).. ab aBbAaBbAcab c −+==− Teacher: Please deduce the solution. Student: Suppose that abc ,, are three sides and ABC ,, are three angles respectively with three sides abc,,. Applying the law of Cosines, we have: abcbcAbAbca c 222 222 2coscos(1). 2 +− =+−= bacacBaBacb c 222 222 2coscos(2). 2 +− =+−= From (1) and (2) we have: aBbAcabbcaab ccc cabbca aBbAc cc 22222222 222222 coscos; 22 coscos. 22 +−+−− −=−= +−+− +=+= So 22 22 (coscos)(coscos).. ab aBbAaBbAcab c −+==− Or: aBbaBbA abbAaBab 22222222 22222222 coscos(1sin)(1sin) sinsin. −=−−− =−+−=− Therefore: aBbA 2222 sinsin = . Inferred: aBbAab AB sinsin. sinsin == Similarly, we have the formula: abc ABC . sinsinsin ==

45 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Step 5. Validation, consolidation of new knowledge, new skills. Teacher: Say the law of Sines: Student: For every triangle ABC, we have: abc ABCsinsinsin == Teacher: Let's return to example 1. Do you know the length of the edge AB? Student: AB = 8 Teacher: What about angles CB , ? Student: CB180604575;45.  =−−== Teacher: Please use the law of Sines to prove the problem. Student: I demonstrate the problem as follows: Take a look at the triangle ABC. We have C 180(6045)75. =−+= Applying the Law of Sines to the triangle ABC, we get bc BC . sinsin = Inferred bkm sin45 8.6(). sin75 =   So the distance from Station A to Tower C is approximately 6km. Teacher: Please apply the law of Sines to solve the following similar problem: Example 2 In the figure, there is a ship moored at position C on the sea, and there are two people at observation positions A and B 500 meters apart. They measured CAB angle of 87 and CBA angle of 62.  Calculate the distances AC and BC (Doan, Q., et al. 2019)

46 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Student: I solve the problem as follows: We have =−−=  180876231.C Applying the Law of Sines to the triangle ABC, we get BCACAB ABC . sinsinsin == Or ACBC500 sin31sin62sin87 ==  So ACm 500.sin62sin31857().=   Similarly: =   500.sin87sin31969(). BCm Teacher: Please solve the same problem in physics as follows: Example 3 A bus named B moves steadily with a speed of = 1 54/. vkmh A passenger named A is at a distance from the bus am 400= , and at a distance from dm80,= to take the bus. Which direction and what minimum speed does he have to run to catch the bus? (Bui, Q. H., et al 2003) Teacher: Call C the position of the car and the person meeting; the velocity the person runs to meet the bus is v2 ; t is the time from the start of the run until the moment when he or she meets the bus. Can you show AC, BC in vv12 , and t? Student: ACvtBCvt 21 .;.. == Teacher: If we apply the law of Sines to the triangle ABC, what do we get? Student:    ==21 21 sin sinsinsin vtvt vv Inferred v2 has minimum value with = 90 ; 2min11 ()sin.10,8(/). d vvvkmh a  === Teacher: Please complete the solution to the problem. Student: Suppose that C is the location of the meeting. ACvtBCvt 21 .;.. == Apply the law of Sines to the triangle ABC: vtvt vv21 21 sin .. sinsinsin  ==  

a) The direction of the person running to meet the bus. Assume  is an angle formed by the direction of the person to the vehicle and the path the a person must run;  is the angle formed by the direction the person running and the direction of the car (figure).

b If he wants to meet the vehicle at the lowest speed, which direction does he have to run? What is the smallest velocity? (Le, V. V, 2018)

Inferred v2 has the minimum value with = 90 ; 2min11 ()sin.10,8(/). d vvvkmh a  ===

Teacher: Please use the solution shown in example 3 to find the answer to this problem. Student: I solve the problem as follows.

Applying the law of Sines to the triangle ABC, we have: AC ACABAB sinsin sinsin == with vt ABbACvtBCvtaaa BCvtbvt 11 1122 2222 ;;;sinsin.(1) ======  If the person arrives before the vehicle does:  21 (2)tt

Teacher: The following is another example that illustrates the law of Sines in physics similar to example 3. Example 4 A taxi moves straightly on the road with a speed of vms 1 16/.= A passenger stands 60 meters from the road. This person saw the taxi at a time when the vehicle was about b = 400 meters away a. Which direction must the person run to get to the way at the same time or before the cab gets there? Given that the average human speed is vms 2 4/.=

b) Find conditions for two vehicles to meet at H (Le, V. V, 2018)

a) Which way does car II have to travel to meet car I and how long does it take to reach car I?

a) Time for two vehicles to meet is: Suppose two vehicles meet at point E after time t.

So the minimum running speed for the person to meet the vehicle is vms min2 2,4(/)= , and the direction then is perpendicular to the direction where he or she sees the car.

Teacher: Another problem similar to example 4 is the following: Example 5 The car I starts from point A running on straight line AB with a velocity of 1.v At the same time, car II starts at point C, which is a segment L away from A, with a speed of v2 to reach car I. Given that the segment AC creates with CH line at an angle .

So to meet the bus he has to run in the direction that creates with the path from the person to the car at an angle of 3645'  to 14315'. 

b) The minimum speed for the person to meet the vehicle. For the person to meet the vehicle at the lowest speed tt21 = and sin1. = v aa vvvms bvb min 1 221 2 60 .1.162,4(/). 400 =====

Teacher: Please solve this problem. Student: I've solved the problem as follows.

Inferred

b) For two cars to meet at H, we must have = , then from (*) we conclude v v 1 2 tan= and LL t vv 12 sincos == 

49 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. We have: AEvt 1 = and CEvt 2 . = Inferred v AE vCE 1 2 (1)= Applying the law of Sines to the triangle ACE, we have: CEAE sin(90) sin (2)=    From (1) and (2) we have: vvvv 1212 sin(90)sincossin(*) −== 

So car II must go in the direction of CE and create with AC an angle  with v v 1 2 (cos) sin. =  

Condition: vv 12 cos.  The projections of 1v and v2 down to AC are v1 sin and v2 cos.  Time t needed for vehicle II to meet vehicle I is: = + 12 . sincos L t vv From (*), we infer v v v 1 2 1 cos cos() =   , we get L t v1 sin cos() =  

Teacher: The object with mass m hanging at O is in equilibrium. The equilibrium O point is affected by three forces: TT12 , tension forces and weight P of object m. The forces of TT12 , and T are in balance with P. Can you use the law of Sines to solve the problem?

Teacher: Please continue to come to the law of Sines through the following practical problem: Example 6 An object with mass m = 2kg is hung by two inelastic ropes that intersect with the vertical direction at angles of 70 and 30 respectively (figure). Determine the tension of each rope. Take gms 2 10/.= (Bui, Q. H., et al. 2003)

Teacher: Drawing shapes and finding the set of vertices for this problem is a difficult problem of dynamic geometry software. Here we will use the law of Sines. We draw shapes as follows: Step 1. Drawing shapes Draw angle xIy with the magnitude . Draw a circle Oa (;) , which a is the length of some line. Draw an M point on (O). Draw the OM beam. Draw a line d passing through A and parallel to the OM beam. Draw Ot ray on d so that Ot has the same direction as OM ray Calculate = .sin. sin AB BAtm  Draw a circle Bm (;) to cut Ot ray at a point P , we have = .APB  Hide unnecessary routes. Step 2. The locus Trace point P, move point M, we obtain the set of points A, which are two symmetrical arcs through AB. (Nguyen, N. G, 2010)

Applying the law of Sines the triangle, we have: TTT 12 ==  here = TP , so: TPN TPN 1 2 sin30sin30 sin70sin70 .2.10.19.   

sin80sin30sin70,

sin80sin80 == == 

.2.10.10. sin80sin80

Teacher: the law of Sines also has many applications in informatics. The following example is an illustration of drawing shapes by the law of Sines on GeoGebra software that helps accurately find the shape of the locus. Example 7 An angle with two sides always passes through two fixed given points A and B and has a size equal to a given  , prove that the set of vertices is two arcs.

Student: I have solved the problem as follows: The object with mass m hangs at O in equilibrium. The equilibrium O point is affected by 3 forces: 12 , TT tension forces and weight P of object m. The synergies TT12 , and T are in balance with P.

4. Pedagogical experiments 4.1. Experimental purposes Pedagogical experiments were performed to test the feasibility and effectiveness of the teaching method of Sines function law according to the constructivist theory by us

WeCommenthave = . sin sin ABBP BAP Or = .sin. sin AB BPBAP  From that, we have a way to draw the shapes as above. We prove it as follows The compliance We will show that the set of vertices is two symmetrical arcs through AB , and remove two points AB,. Indeed, draw =AQB  , so == (orequalto ') (orequalto ')AQBABCABCAPBAPB , so the four points ABP ,, (or P' ) and Q are on the same circle (the two triangles share the same bottom and have the equal angles respectively) ). So Q is on APB arc (or APB ' arc), but cut off two points A and B.

The reciprocity Teacher: Read and prove yourself as homework. Teacher: Above is an application of the law of Sines in informatics. Come home and find other applications of the law of Sines yourself.

=== 

4.2.1. Experimental organization Pedagogical experiments were performed at Phan Dang Luu High School, Binh Thanh District, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. + Experimental class: 10C09. + Control class: 10C10

the height AB is m 70, the AC view intersects with the horizontal direction of angle 30,  the BC view intersects with the horizontal direction of angle  1530'. How many meters high is the mountain above the ground?

=−+=−=

sin10530'sin1430'

 So

==  

4.2. Organization and experimental content

The answer and the scale of the No. 1 test are as follows: Answer Scale From the hypothesis, we infer that the triangle ABC has: CABABCc60,10530',70. CAB180()18016530'1430'. points2.5 According to the law of Sines, we have: bc BC sinsin, = or b 70 . = ACbm 70sin10530'sin1430'269,4(). poi2.5nts

The Experimental period was performed from September to November 2018. The teacher of the experimental class and control class: Do Thai Phuc.

With the consent of the Board of Directors of Phan Dang Luu High School, we studied the results of the grade 10 classes of the school and found that the general level of Math in both 10C09 and 10C10 classes are equivalent. On that basis, we propose experiments in class 10C09 and take class 10C10 as a control class. School administrators, teachers of Mathematics team and 10C09 and 10C10 teachers accepted this proposal and facilitated us to conduct experiments.

4.2.2. Experimental content

The experiments were performed in the lessons on the scalar product of two vectors. After the experiments, we have students take tests. The content of the tests is as follows: Test 1 (Time allotted: 15 minutes) From the two positions A and B of a building, one observes mount C of the mountain Given(figure).that

a) If vms 2 5/= , which direction must the person run to catch the car (the person comes to the road at the same time or before the vehicle gets there)?

Assume that CH is the distance from C to the ground. The right triangle ACH has the side CH opposite to the angle 30 , so AC CHm 269,4 22134,7().== points2.5

So the mountain is about 135m high. points2.5

c) If the person wants to meet the car at H (MH perpendicular to AB), what speed of v2 must that person have? The answer and the scale of test 2 are as follows: Answer Scale

Test 2 (Time allotted: 20 minutes) A person was standing at point M, a distance from straight road AB: h = 50 meters to wait for a car. When he saw the car at point A, a distance from him: L = 200 meters, he started running to the road to catch the vehicle as shown. The velocity of the car is vms 1 10/.= The velocity of the person is 2v Given that the car and the person move straight and steadily.

b) In what direction do people have to run, so that v2 is the smallest? What is the minimum value v2 ?

a) The person's running direction when vms 2 5/.= Call C the point where the person meets the car; t1 and t2 are the movement time of the vehicle and the person respectively. Call  the angle by the direction of the person running with AM. Applying the Law of Sines to the triangle AMC, we have: 2 points

c) The velocity of the person to meet the car at H. We have: MHhvtvt AHvtvt Lh 2222 22 1111 tan(4) === From (2) and (4), we have: hv vms Lh 1 2 22 2,58(/).= At that time, the person must run in the direction of MH. 2 points 4.3. The evaluation of experimental results 4.3.1. Qualitative evaluation Before conducting the experiments: Students have difficulty in solving practical problems. The ability to associate and connect knowledge is limited. Students do not know how to apply the law of Sines in solving physics problems. The ability to integrate mathematics and physics is weak. The ability to incorporate mathematics and informatics is limited. Students cannot find applications of the law of Sines in information technology. After conducting the experiments: Students know how to apply the law of Sines in real math problems. Students know how to use the law of Sines in solving physics problems. Students are excited to find more examples of using the law of Sines in predicting the shape of a set of points of locus problems.

For the person to catch the car (the person arrives at C before or at the same time as the vehicle): tt21 (2). From (1) and (2) we infer = 1 2 sin.0,5 hv lv 30     150. 2 points

b) The person's minimum running speed is From (1), we conclude: hvt v Lt 11 2 2 sin(3)=  2 points From (3) we conclude that v2 is the smallest when t2 is the largest equal to t1 and sinis the largest equal to 1. Inferred hv vms Lmin 1 2 2,5(/);== then =  90, i.e. MC is perpendicular to AM 2 points

55 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. 4.3.2. Quantitative evaluation The test results of experimental and control classes are shown through the following two tables: Table 1. The results of test 1 Score Class 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total Experimental 1 3 8 8 5 6 4 2 37 Control 1 7 9 8 4 3 2 1 35 The experimental class has 91.89% of the students that score above average, of which 45.95% of the students are quite good (points 7 or above) with two students achieving perfect scores, four students scoring 9. The control class has 77.14% of the students achieving an average score or above, of which 28.57% of the students achieving a fairly good score (score of 7 or above) 1 student with a perfect score, with two students achieving 9 points. Table 2. The results of test 2

In the experimental class, 94.59% of the students score above average, and 59.46% of the students get good grades (7 or more), four students who get perfect scores, six students who get 9 points.

Based on the test results, we can initially see the effectiveness of pedagogical measures to train students the ability to learn the law of Sines according to the constructivist theory that we have proposed and implemented in the experimental process.

The control class has 77.14% of the students achieving average scores or higher, of which 45.71% of the students with good grades (7 or more), two students achieving perfect scores, four students with 9 points.

4.3.4. General conclusions about the experiments

5. Conclusion Teaching the law of Sines according to the constructivist theory, helps promote internal force of learners. Learners themselves take knowledge and deepen knowledge development through two ways of assimilation and adaptation. Adaptation helps learners gain new knowledge and assimilation helps learners expand and develop new knowledge. The constructivist teaching method has many outstanding advantages compared to the traditional teaching method. That is the way to develop the learners' capacity. Learners are the center and main subject of this teaching process. Teachers are just guides through suggested questions to bring students to new knowledge. For the teaching process of constructivist teaching to become vivid and attractive, in the step of designing the situation, the teacher should choose a practical example to make students fall in love with the lesson. The teacher then presents the obstacles that are teaching phases. Each teaching phase has certain difficulties. Teachers absolutely should not assign tasks that are too difficult for students, but rather moderate tasks in the nearest developmental area of each student. If the task is too easy, the student is not interested, but if the task is too high, the student wants to give up. After bringing students to new knowledge, the teaching process there cannot be stopped. Teachers need to dig deep, suggest analytic for them to expand the problem, explore new developments from the initial problem. It is the process of creativity and the highest thinking of all the thinking scales according to the new Bloom rating scale. References Ayaz, M. F., & Sekerci, H (2015). The effects of the constructivist learning approach on student’s academic achievement: A meta analysis study Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 14(4), 143 156. Bhattacharjee, J. (2015). Constructivist Approach to Learning An Effective Approach of Teaching Learning. International Research Journal of Interdisciplinary and Multidisciplinary Studies, 1(6), 65 74. Retrieved from http://oaji.net/articles/2015/1707 1438677336.pdf Brooks, J., & Brooks, M. H. (1993). The case for the constructivist classrooms, Alexandria, Va: ASCD. Bui, Q. H., Tran, V. B., Pham, N. T., & Nguyen, T. T. (2003). Solving the problems in Physics 10, volume 1. Vietnam: Education Publishing House Bui, V. N. (2009). Applying the theory into practice of teaching mathematics in high school, Vietnam: University of Pedagogy Publishing House. Doan, Q., Van, N. C., Pham, V. K., & Bui, V. N. (2019). Advanced geometry 10 Vietnam: The Vietnam Education Publishing House. Glasersfeld, V. E. (1992). Questions and answers about radical constructivism. In M. K. Pearsall edition, Scope, Sequence, and Coordination of Secondary School Science, Vol. II: Relevant research, 169 182.

The experimental process with the results obtained after the tests shows that the experimental purpose has been made, the feasibility and effectiveness of the measures have been confirmed. Implementing teaching methods of the law of Sines in the constructivist theory, contributing to improving the efficiency of teaching Maths for high school students.

Le, T. L. H., Luu, T. T., & Nguyen, T. L. A. (2016). Approaching the constructivist theory in teaching. The Vietnam Journal of Education, 4, 80 82. Le, V. V. (2018). The ultimate training for good students through the 10 Physics Olympiad, Episode 1. Vietnam: Ho Chi Minh City General Publishing House. Maheshwari, G., & Thomas, S. (2017). An analysis of the effectiveness of the constructivist approach in teaching business statistics. The International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline, 20, 83 97. https://doi.org/10.28945/3678 Matinez Delgado, A. (2001). Radical Constructivism: Between Realism and Solipsism, Science Education 85(6), 840 855. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.10005

Koohang, A., Riley., L., Smith, T., & Schreurs, J (2009). E learning and Constructivism: From theory to application Interdisciplinary Journal of E Learning and Learning Objects, 5, 91 109. https://doi.org/10.28945/3321

Husen, T., & Postlethwaite, T. N. (1989). Constructivism in Education. The International Encyclopedia of Education, Supplement, 1, 162 163. Jones, M. G., & Brader Araje, L. (2002). The Impact of Constructivism on Education: Language, Discourse and Meaning. American Communication journal, 5, 1 10

Nguyen, D. N., & Inthavorigsa, M. (2018). Teaching the constructivist theory on the topic of "primitive integral" at high schools in Lao PDR The Vietnam Journal of Education, 5, 297 301. Nguyen, N. G (2010) Application of the laws of Sines and Cosines in informatics The Vietnam Today's Teaching and Learning Magazine, 10, 35 38. Nguyen, T. H (2013). Applying the constructivist theory in teaching Education subject in Pedagogical schools. The Vietnam Journal of Education, 320, 35 37. Nguyen, T. T., & Dang, T. X. (2013). Using Google Sites tools to set up websites to support the teaching of atomic chapters (chemistry 10) to improve the self study ability of students based on the constructivist theory. The Vietanm Journal of Education, 314, 54 56. Nguyen, T. T., Hoang, T. P., & Tran, T N (2014). Developing the ability to apply knowledge into practice for students by applying the constructivist theory to teaching chemistry 10. The Vietnam Journal of Education, 342, 53 59. Nola, R. (1998). Constructivism in Science and Science Education: A Philosophical Critique. In M. R. Mathews (Ed.), Constructivism in Science Education, 31 59. New South Wales, Australia: Kluwer Academic Publishers https://doi.org/10.1007/978 94 011 5032 3_3 Olusegun, B. D. (2015). Constructivism learning theory: a paradigm for teaching and learning IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education, 5, 66 70. Pham, V. H (2016). Current situation of lesson design skills based on the constructivist theory of students majoring in Primary Education The Vietnam Journal of Education, 4, 210 215. Ramsook, L., & Thomas, M. (2016). Constructivist linking theory with practice among pre service teachers at the University of Trinidad and Tobago. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 15(7), 127 137. Sjoberg, S. (2007). Constructivist and learning. International Encyclopaedia of Education 3rd Edition, Oxford: Elsevier (in print), 1 11. Suhendi, A., & Purwano, P. (2018, April 87 95). Constructivist learning theory: The contribution to foreign language learning and teaching Paper presented at The 1st Annual International Conference on Language and Literature, KnE Social Sciences, Dubai, UAE. Retrieved from https://knepublishing.com/index.php/KnE Social/article/view/1921/4297.

Tran, T. M. L. (2000). Applying the process of the constructivist theory to teach the rule of genetic phenomena (Biology 12), The Vietnam Journal of Education, 285, 51 54.

Truong, T. H. (2011). Testing and evaluating in the process of forming Vietnamese knowledge in High Schools from the viewpoint of constructivism The Vietnam Journal of Education, 265, 39 45.

Tran, V. D. (2015). Social learning theory and the constructivist theory are the basis of the collaborative learning method The Vietnam Journal of Education, 355, 16 18.

Keywords: Language Learning; Role Playing Game; Vocabulary Mastery 1. Introduction

Aam Ali Rahman Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia Bandung, Indonesia Anggi Angraeni Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia Bandung, Indonesia

Abstract The current issue of industrial revolution 4.0 in Indonesia opens many opportunities for innovation in education. This circumstance arouses researchers’ interest to create the most innovative strategies and techniques in language learning, especially in teaching vocabulary. It makes the use of computers as media inevitable. This research dealt with the use of computer Role Playing Game (RPG) as vocabulary learning media. A quasi experimental study was used to analyse the effect of the media on students’ vocabulary mastery. This research aimed to investigate the significant effect of RPG on students’ vocabulary mastery and also their responses toward the media. Comparative analysis using t test calculation was employed. It worked with two groups: an experimental and a control group. The statistical result was analysed, and supported by students’ responses toward the game as a vocabulary learning tool, including its application in the classroom activities. Based on the statistical result, the experimental and control groups were significantly different. The experimental group tended to have a better rating than the control group. It was supported by the finding that students believed the media could force them to implicitly learn vocabulary. To some extents, the RPG was sufficient to develop students’ ability in mastering vocabulary.

The common stereotype of people about vocabulary is a long list of words from textbooks, spelling word lists, or even the multiple lists of terms to study for examination only. This condition drives many researchers to innovate the techniques to teach vocabulary. The most common way applied by teachers is using flashcard, and it becomes an easy technique in mind. As a result, it may

Empowering Learners with Role-Playing Game for Vocabulary Mastery

Even though specific and perfect techniques to teach vocabulary to students do not exist, still, vocabulary is a basic communication and most likely plays as a big problem for foreign language learners. In fact, more and more language learners depend on dictionary and utilize it for further usage including lexicographic quality (Lew & Szarowska, 2017). In consequence, considering how important learning vocabulary for language learners, another technique to learn new vocabulary terms is required.

Generally, every teaching and learning activity engages learning goals and learning strategies for students and teachers (Suherdi, 2009). If learning goals cannot be achieved, the analysis may only be referred to those elements. Either the teachers apply unsuitable teaching technique or students who may lose interest to learn. In non English spoken countries, like Indonesia, the chance of failure in mastering vocabulary in higher, since learning vocabulary mostly takes place only in class during English lessons. It results learners have a very limited time to gain and to practice the new terms in the meaningful context. This condition

More techniques come as alternatives to solve the issue. First is “Look and Remember” technique. This technique asks students to typically stare to the words and their definition, apparently trying to activate their super memory they wish they had. Another technique is related to “word rehearsing.” Students are asked to say the terms over and over again in the exact language and format with the original definition.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. create a common childhood experience of having to “go look up the words in the dictionary, write the definition, and write a sentence using the terms,” but how many of that words’ list remains.

While both techniques are considerably effective to enhance students’ vocabulary mastery, compared to other considerably stronger techniques, “Look and Remember,” and “Word Rehearsing” seems seductive (Haycraft, 1993), it works only for the short terms, and rarely results in sustained memory. Nevertheless, related studies of vocabulary mastery (Bytheway, 2015; Diaz, 2015; Naeimi & Foo, 2015; Teng, 2015) offer excellent ways to learn vocabulary. Those studies promote that a meaningful context has to be applied to learn vocabulary, and it stores to learners’ long term memory using various methods of learning.

On the other words, vocabulary has to play as a set of meaningful experiences for which students understand the new terms contextually and have an opportunity to put them in different contexts. Hence, the stereotype definition of vocabulary is gradually changing. It is not a series of words to learn but a series of words used in contexts. Therefore, an issue arises in applying the technique. Habitually, secondary school teachers in Indonesia require their students to memorize the list of vocabulary. It results to students who perform well in memorizing the list consider having higher vocabulary mastery. It is believed that their scores in vocabulary quizzes or unit tests are representing students’ vocabulary skills. Yet, the actual test is whether they still remember the tested terms in a few months later. If students cannot maintain and use those new terms, then the whole teaching, learning, testing and exercising are critically a waste of time.

learning media and teaching techniques, another factor affecting successful vocabulary learning is students’ motivation. Learning motivations along with learning strategies have a positive correlation with grades (Zhang, 2018). It can be assumed that the more attractive and innovative learning media is, the easier the students to learn vocabulary, and the more interesting the media is the higher the motivation of students to learn it.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.

In sum, this study investigates the use of computer Role Playing Game (RPG) to enhance students’ ability in mastering vocabulary. By referring to the previous research and theories, using computer Role Playing Game in classroom learning

is quite impossible to eliminate, yet modifying the teaching techniques and learning media may help them (Suherdi, 2009).

By combining meaningful teaching techniques and learning media, effective learning can possibly dispel and reduce the failure of vocabulary learning. In this case, creating well made approaches, well planned method and well applied techniques are required, so it can stimulate students to be active learners in their own right (D. Brown, 2001; Cameron, 2010). Unfortunately, no single formula exists to create meaningful and effective vocabulary teaching. The instructional method has been researched to be an effective method to teach vocabulary (McKeown, 2019), and the other promotes a novel method (He & Godfroid,

Furthermore,2018)besides

The use of technology in classroom activity changes students’ mind a lot. This circumstance advance education application of the computer and phone that provide rapid growing resources for language learning. Because of that, learning language, especially learning vocabulary, has been developed to take advantage of technology in the classroom. Hence, it promotes Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) (Beatty, 2003; Egbert, 2005). As learning media, innovation in teaching techniques and students’ motivation are keys to successful learning activities, a game is one way to work out the problems. The game encourages, entertains, teaches and promotes fluency. It brings natural native languages in a meaningful context. Besides that, vocabulary mastery has been developed for a traditional classroom type of learning using computers and phones. It offers the unique advantage of learning, analysing and both the development of vocabulary knowledge and usage. In particular, in Indonesia, a litter work has been carried out on vocabulary mastery using a computer game which specifies for learning media in the classroom. Some ethical restrictions to bring phones to the class avoid the usage of media to the classroom activities. However, conducting teaching activities in the computer laboratory offers an innovative and meaningful way of teaching to students. One appropriate computer game is applied for this study. The game has a visual and verbal explanation of vocabulary. It offers examples that are comprehensive enough for students to understand the term. The most important from all, the game is Role Playing typed Game (RPG) where the player roles as the main character on the game. This RPG provides actual conversation and meaningful action for the player. Thus, this computer RPG is chosen and utilized as a media in the classroom vocabulary learning activities.

This paper used quantitative analysis with a quasi experimental design. The design was chosen to test the hypothesis. In order to get the result, three groups were involved. The first group was a try out class. This try out class was used to test the instrument. The class was given 60 vocabulary questions in the form of multiple choices. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient Value was used to find the instruments’ validity, and Kuder Richardson 20 to analyse the reliability. The second group was a control group, and the last is an experimental group. In addition, a questionnaire and interview were used to triangulate the data. Participants The main prerequisite of population and sample for this study was participants should know how to operate a computer, and to engage with it continually. Furthermore, they should not have ever played the sample computer RPG before. Thus, purposive sampling was chosen. The target population for this study is homogeny population. Therefore, the same grade students in the same school were gathered as participants. Nevertheless, the number of participants in both the experimental and control group were 20 students, two different tests were given; normal distribution and homogeneity of variance. These tests aimed to identify the t test suitability.

One of computer role playing game was chosen as the vocabulary learning media. The game was selected since it provides audio and visual aids for the learners. This game was also produced and published in the English language. Thus, the participants engage with the contextual English given by its native. The game also provides subtitle for every utterance spoken by every character. In this game, players control the main character and decide what the main character will do. It makes players get a lot of opportunities to read. Reading

For further explanation, to test the validity and reliability of the instruments, a try out group which consists of 25 students were used. The experimental group was given the chosen media and the control group learned vocabulary along with normal classroom activities. Both the experimental and control groups were treated in 10 class sessions.

Learning Media (The Computer RPG)

63 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. activities as a media can help students to develop their skill in mastering vocabulary. Afterwards, this study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of playing computer role playing game to enhance students’ ability in mastering vocabulary, and the response of participants toward the computer RPG as vocabulary learning media.

2. ResearchMethodDesign

The Procedure of the Study

Picture 1: The sample activities provided on the game (HeRInteractive, 2006) Picture 1 shows how players engage with the selected game. This computer role playing game gives some tasks for the players to finish. Players cannot continue the game if the tasks given cannot be fulfilled. All tasks require the players’ understanding of the context provided. Players may explore the environment inside of the game to find the clues. Even, players may interact with other characters in the game and ask questions by choosing the options provided. Players may decide by their own to interact with any character in the game, and choose their own preferred question to ask. However, in this game, the questions have already prepared by the program, the answers have also been programmed to repetitively give the same responses for the same questions chosen by the players. Players cannot write their own question, and cannot naturally interact with the characters in the game. Generally, this computer role playing game provides native English speakers to dub the characters in the game. This game also gives the players to experience more meaningful vocabulary terms applied in meaningful contexts. The vocabulary terms provided in the game are considered a productive vocabulary that can be used and reproduced in the daily conversation context. For those reasons, this computer RPG was utilized as vocabulary learning media.

After three groups of the participants were chosen, a valid and reliable vocabulary test was created. The test items were created by considering the syllabus of targeted groups to create the learning goals, and eleven vocabulary aspects: boundaries between conceptual meanings, polysemy, homophony, homonymy, synonymy, affective meaning, style, register, dialect, translation, chunks of language, the grammar of vocabulary and pronunciation (Lewis, 1993). Further, the targeted vocabulary terms were taken from part of the conversations in the selected game. The vocabulary test was given to both control and experiment groups as a pre test. This pre test was used to check both class homogeneity. Afterwards, the

Figure 1: The result of normal distribution test.

The vocabulary test using the developed instrument was applied to both control and experiment groups to check whether both groups were normally distributed in mastering vocabulary or not. Based on Figure 1, the result of pre test analysis using SPSS 18, both groups had a normal distribution range. The observed values were forming in one straight diagonal line to expected normal value. In other words, both control and experiment groups had normal distribution participants. In addition, Barlet Formulae (Riduwan, 2004) was used to analyse the groups’ homogeneity. The result can be seen in Table 1.

Data Analysis

same vocabulary test item was tested to both control and experiment groups after both groups treated in eight sessions of leaning. The result of the post test was analysed to check the effectiveness of the computer role playing game to enhance participants’ vocabulary mastery by comparing both control and experiment groups using parametric t test calculation.

The concept of eleven vocabulary aspect from Lewis (1993), and high school English syllabus were used to comprehend the most suitable material for this study, as the participants were high school students. Those eleven vocabulary aspects are boundaries between conceptual meaning, polysemy, homophony, homonymy, synonymy, affective meaning, style, register, dialect, translation, chunks of language, the grammar of vocabulary and pronunciation. Meanwhile, the target words used as the instrument were taken from several conversations existing in the computer role playing game given. The chosen words are only highlighted words requiring players to understand the meaning if not, they cannot continue to play to the next scene.

To analyse the result, independent t test was employed to see whether the mean score of two independent groups differs to a statistically significant degree. The result of the pre test was used to test the normal distribution and homogeneity of participants. The result of normal distribution data can be seen in Figure 1

The non directional t test was applied to the result of post test. Since it employed non directional t test, the hypothesis used was null hypothesis: there is no significant difference for both experiment and control groups after the treatment. This null hypothesis was used to overcome the expected research outcome. It gave three option: to accept the result statistically; to negatively reject the result; to positively reject the result. The result can be seen in Figure 2.

Two different tests were used to check participant in both experiment and control groups homogeneity. The score results of pre test from both groups were also used to analyse their homogeneity. Non parametric calculation using chi square was used to check participants’ homogeneity, and it was supported by t test result. Table 1 shows that both control and experiment groups are Thehomogeneity.resultof chi square observed (0.345573) was lower compared to the chi square table (3.841) with the degree of freedom 1 and level of significance 0.05. This result was similar when applying the t test calculation. With the level of significance 0.05 and degree of freedom 38, the result of the calculation was 0.688. The result felt below the t table for those criteria (2.042).

3. Finding and Discussion

On the other words, since both test result felt below the required, so it can be said that statistically, there was no significant difference in term of mean scores for both groups. It means the experiment group and the control group considered had a similar level of vocabulary mastery before the treatments were conducted to both groups. Further, the parametric calculation can be used to test both experiment and control groups using non directional t test.

Table 1: The result of the homogeneity test for the pre test. Group n Test Chi square t test Control 20 0.345575 0.688 Experiment 20 Significance level 0.05 0.05

Figure 2: Curve of non-directional test for df=38≈30 and a=0.05

The data in Figure 3 is taken from the questionnaire given to participants in the experiment group. More than half of the group believe that playing computer RPG is interesting, and they love to have the game as part of classroom activity. Participants in the experiment group find it joyful to play compared to the usual teaching and learning activity since there is no pressure to learn. Furthermore, playing the game also offer amusement and different environment in the classroom. Interestinginteresting

Quite interesting VeryBoringboring

Based on Figure 2, it can be stated that with the level of significance 0.05, the t observed is 2.17864. This result falls positively above the t critical for df=38≈30 (2.042). It means that the null hypothesis is rejected. The t observed felt positively higher than t critical. It means that the scores difference between the experiment group and the control group is quite noticeable. The experiment group had statistically higher scores compared to the control group after the eight sessions with the different treatment applied. Thus, the computer role playing game is assumed successful to enhance students’ ability to master vocabulary. Further discussion about the process and prejudices are provided in the following discussion.

Figure 3: Students’ opinion about playing computer RPG

35% 35% 15%10% 5% Very

As it is shown in Figure 2, playing selected computer RPG is effective to develop vocabulary mastery. The investigation of these improvements is related to students’ tendency to implicitly learn without knowing it. It reduces students’ level of boredom. The degree of excitement is necessary for computer based learning material, particularly for young learners who have less motivation. However, within the classroom environment, computers can help to motivate through the organization of learning into game like formats, or even the pure game format.

Improving New Vocabulary Terms Using Computer RPG

In contrast, students who found it boring argued that the game actually offered great entertainment, but they believed it should be used in the classroom activity. They assumed playing game may result in laziness, and affects their motivation when the game is no longer played. Some believed that playing the game should not be for learning, but it was only suitable for leisure time.

By having English native developers and producers for the media uses in English language learning environment, it provides sources that are more realistic to the context of English. The expression, the pronunciation and the naturalness of the English language can be provided in the classroom by non native teachers of English. The role of teachers in this integrated CALL environment is to creatively analyse the suitable type of game to apply.

In learning vocabulary, phycological condition of learners affects the way the terms stored in learners’ memory (Nation, 2012). The more students enjoy the activity, the better understanding of new terms can achieve. The integrated theory of computer assisted language learning or CALL with games may result in supportive learning factors and meaningful context, even it can provide an actual context in the virtual world. Integrating game with computer assisted language learning provides fun learning, more attention span, more stimulated and motivated, get to use language and involve a lot of repetitions. Those advantages simultaneously result from process variable in the classroom and learning activities that can create a long term effect on players in simple ways. In non CALL environment and teaching using multimedia, a teacher tends to be the centre of information, so the learning result is too dependent on the teachers’ experiences; formative, training and teachers’ properties. However, in the adapted model of integrating game to CALL environment, teachers are no longer the centre of information, yet the collective experiences of material developers become the source of information.

another significant point for students when learning vocabulary is learners’ memory. Many types of games can help the teachers to put new terms in learners’ memory easy and long term (Marzano, 2005). In playing the game, learners found some intricacies to do the next steps because of a lack of vocabulary understanding. However, it becomes an effective strategy to activate learners’ meta learning skill. Learners force themselves to find the intended vocabulary terms.

Computer role playing games as vocabulary learning media owns information structured on a series of level encouraging readers to operate various levels, at any point, to delve deeper into the explanation. Thus, the media should provide the highest level of revised bloom taxonomy offered (Adesoji, 2018). For an instant, when a program presents thematic vocabulary, the learners might be allowed to follow more explanation to more complex expression uses in vocabulary learning. Such programs might also ask students to recall information and able to apply what they have learnt to the new meaningful Meanwhile,context.

Several tendencies of self learning within participants when playing the game indicate that every participant actually is able to activate their meta learning skill if they want. From the questionnaire result, generally, there are three ways

Meanwhile, the data gathered that 65% of students can still memorise the new terms they got after finishing the game (8 sessions). Vocabulary learning using diagrams, pictures or other various media can help learner memorising the new terms better (Cameron, 2010) By having those various media, fun factors during 60%40%20%0% dictionaryOpeing friendsAsking Guessingfromthe context teacherAsking 55% 15% 20% 10%

69 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. to solve and to learn new vocabulary terms explicitly. On the other words, the game gives them the motivation to open a dictionary, to ask their friends and to guess the meaning based on the context. It can be seen in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Students’ effort to understand new vocabulary terms

In Figure 4, most of the learners prefer opening the dictionary, in total, 90% of participants chose their own ways to understand the new vocabulary terms. Only 10% of participants asked the teachers. This circumstance indicates that learners’ motivation during the application of playing computer RPG increases as they enjoy the process of vocabulary learning through the media. Those efforts are the main point of vocabulary self learning, and by doing self learning. This self learning can crate long term memory (Cameron, 2010) Furthermore, the main issue in teaching vocabulary is that learners only need to know a few words and a small part of the word that can be dealt with at any one time (Nation, 2012). In other words, if learners think that they need to learn the new vocabulary terms, they will learn it, and vice versa. Because of that, teachers should realize that learners will not learn unless they believe they need it. In this case, a computer role playing game offers a portrait of life where players can experience themselves as they do conversation and adventures in the game. Players also interact with other artificial characters and doing and acting the natural conversation. Nation (2012) considers this circumstance as a productive vocabulary. Implicitly, participants are experiencing not only new terms but also how to use them; in what context and how to link them with other terms to build meaningful contexts.

The Significance of the computer RPG effects on Students’ vocabulary mastery As it was stated in Figure 2, the level of significance used for this study is 0.05. Factors affecting this result are assumed to be fun factors, exploratory learning with large amounts of language data, individualization, various learning styles and resources and real life skill building (H. D. Brown & Lee, 2015)

Based on the data collected from the experiment group, 70% of participants found this interesting and offered great excitement. As learners are native to computers these days, applying this media is not impossible. This stipulation indicates that outside school hours, learners can also play other games and learning more vocabulary terms by themselves. Thus, learners find computer assisted language learning or even phone assisted language learning is a combination of joy and effective vocabulary learning.

vocabulary learning help learners to memorise the new terms. In this case, playing the computer role playing game only has less possibility to effectively enhance learners’ ability in mastering vocabulary. Teachers as facilitators have to play their role by giving stipulation to retain the vocabulary mastery. Teachers have to do recalling the new terms and use them in conversation.

The fact that most popular games are published in English, it offers various great learning aids to language learners. It provides abundant of English native speakers with meaningful context as examples. The computer role playing game used for this study was developed by native speakers of English. The characters on the game speak native standardised English as they are dubbed by English natives. In this case, it is like inviting some native speakers of English to the classroom Furthermore,activities.bythe fact that participants found this media interesting, participants can learn better (Cameron, 2010). Interesting learning material can raise learners curiosity to do what they interested in. Self motivation to learn new terms can be activated automatically. Learners are no longer rely on to the teachers. Finding a new thing without any help from others is parts of acquisition, in which acquiring something is different than learning something. When someones acquire, he/she memorises better than learning (Ellis, 1994; Gass & Selinker, 2008) Another advantage of using the computer RPG as a vocabulary learning media is learning time span. This learning time span is very much depended on the learning environment. When learners enjoy the environment, the learners’ time span for learning is increasing (H. D. Brown & Lee, 2015). By using this computer RPG, the learning environment is built not like a common learning activity, yet it is just enjoying the game, not for learning. In addition, the unfamiliar words occurred in the game give learners more opportunities to learn new terms.

Egbert (2005) defines computers in the Computer Assisted Language Learning approach utilize only as media, so the aims of lesson are still language learning, not the technology or giving excitement for the learners. Thus, comprehending the media of learning computer RPG with teachers’ role as facilitators to retain learners’ memory. This can activate the naturalistic setting of the verbal working memory of learners when learning a second language in the classroom (Verhagen & Leseman, 2016)

Students’ responses toward the computer RPG as vocabulary learning media

4. Conclusion

Learners are encouraged to learn in the classroom, as the computer role playing game provides a joyful environment and a meaningful experience. It also brings native English speakers to the classroom without actually inviting them. Teachers also find this media helpful because the media can easily be applied and effective, particularly to motivate learners and to keep the vocabulary terms in a longer time span. In the same line, teachers role as a curriculum developer and actual planner along with a facilitator in the classroom.

Some very unfamiliar words also create burdens for participants. These less familiar words indicate the vocabulary mastery of participants. 85% of participants in the experiment group reported many terms in the context are unfamiliar for them. Meanwhile, reasonable vocabulary coverage to understand the full text is estimated at 98% (Schmitt, Jiang, & Grabe, 2011). In consequence, the application of this computer role playing game as a media to master vocabulary should be accompanied by the teachers who are ready to utilize the media, so learners get a continuous guide in applying it in the classroom.

The most important aim of this study was to see the effectiveness of using the computer role playing game to enhance learners’ vocabulary mastery. The computer RPG was utilized as a learning media in classroom activities. The findings of this study were indicative of the fact that the use of the selected computer role playing game had a positive significant effect on participants vocabulary mastery. The data gathered and the analysis counted supported the finding of this study. This successful media offers great excitement for learners to learn and helps teachers to achieve the learning objectives.

The role of the teachers is also required to create the suitable lesson planning.

However, the actual and meaningful language offered is not that actual. The game provides the answer for the questions given by the characters on the game. Players are only required to choose the limited possible option. Players also cannot interact with the characters in the game naturally, and the characters only reply repetitively to the chosen answers. The complete vocabulary learning: orthography, syntax, association, grammatical functions and meaning and form (Webb, 2005) cannot be comprehended. The game can only cover association, grammatical function and some part of meaning and form. Because of that, the role of teachers is still required in classroom activities.

The clear objectives and teaching plans are the successful keys to achieve the vocabulary mastery. Teachers decide and emphasize the objectives they want to achieve. Although this computer role playing game assumes has a large amount of material from vocabulary to communication skill, still, focusing on the objective is a must to limit the area of joy. Learners are not too overwhelmed with joy, but they can keep focusing on language learning. In general, this computer role playing game can only be served as a language learning media, not a full learning source. It still requires teachers to control the learning activity, and it also needs suitable planning and focuses objectives before applying as part of classroom learning activities.

The authors would like to acknowledge the game developer HeR Interactive for the computer role playing game (HeRInteractive, 2006). The game was used in the classroom activities for high school students. References Adesoji, F. A. (2018). Bloom Taxonomy of Educational Objectives and the Modification of Cognitive Levels. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 5(5). doi:10.14738/assrj.55.4233

Beatty, K. (2003). Teaching and Researching Computer Assisted Language Learning Edinburgh: PearsonEducationLimited. Brown, D. (2001). Teaching by Principles; An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy (2nd ed.). SanFrancisco: SanFranciscoState University Press. Brown, H. D., & Lee, H. (2015). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy (4thed.). White Plains, New York: PearsonEducationESL. Bytheway, J. (2015). A taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies used in massively multiplayer online role playing games. CALICO Journal, 32(3), 508 527. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/calicojournal.32.3.508

Acknowledgement

Cameron, L. (2010). Teaching Languages to Young Learners

Finally, the point should be underscored that this study had some limitations which can be an option for future research. Firstly, the participants in this study were limited to those who had difficulty in understanding the text coverage. A different result might be produced if the study is conducted to more advanced learners. Secondly, language learning using the computer RPG may be suitable not only for vocabulary learning but may also be for other language learning area. Finally, because of the time limit, caution should be made about undertaking the result of participants’ performance of this study, or in other words, some other factors might have affected the result of this study.

. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Diaz, I. (2015). Training in Metacognitive Strategies for Students’ Vocabulary Improvement by Using Learning Journals. PROFILE Issues in Teachers' ProfessionalDevelopment, 17(1), 87 102. doi:10.15446/profile.v17n1.41632 Egbert, J. (2005). CALL Essentials; Principles and Practice in CALL Classrooms. Virginia: Teachers of EnglishtoSpeakers of Other Languages Inc. Ellis, R. (1994). TheStudy ofSecond LanguageAcquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gass, & Selinker. (2008). Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course. New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. Haycraft, J. (1993). An Introduction to English Language Teaching (Revised Impression ed.). England: LongmanGroup Limited. He, X., & Godfroid, A. (2018). Choosing Words to Teach: A Novel Method for Vocabulary Selection and Its Practical Application. TESOL Quarterly, 53(2), 348 371. HeRInteractive.doi:10.1002/tesq.483(2006).NancyDrew: The Creature of Kapu Cave. London: Simon and Scluchter Inc. Lew, R., & Szarowska, A. (2017). Evaluating online bilingual dictionaries: The case of popular free English Polish dictionaries. ReCALL, 29(2), 138 159. doi:10.1017/s0958344016000252

doi:10.1044/2019_LSHSS VOIA 18 0126 Naeimi, M., & Foo, T. C. V. (2015). Vocabulary Acquisition through Direct and Indirect Learning Strategies. English Language Teaching, 8(10), 142 151. doi:10.5539/elt.v8n10p142 Nation, I. S. P. (2012). Learning Vocabulary in Another Language (Cambridge Applied Linguistics). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Riduwan. (2004). MetodedanTeknik MenyusunTesis. Bandung: Alfabeta. Schmitt, N., Jiang, X., & Grabe, W. (2011). The Percentage of Words Known in a Text and Reading Comprehension. The Modern Language Journal, 95(1), 26 43. doi:10.1111/j.1540 4781.2011.01146.x Suherdi, D. (2009). Mikroskop Pedagogik: Alat Analisis Proses Belajar Mengajar. Bandung, Indonesia: CELTICS Press. Teng, F. (2015). Assessing the Relationship between Vocabulary Learning Strategy Use and Vocabulary Knowledge. PASAA: Journal of Language Teaching and Learning, 49, 39 65. Verhagen, J., & Leseman, P. (2016). How do verbal short term memory and working memory relate to the acquisition of vocabulary and grammar? A comparison between first and second language learners. J Exp Child Psychol, 141, 65 82. Retrieved from doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.06.015https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26340756. Webb, S. (2005). RECEPTIVE AND PRODUCTIVE VOCABULARY LEARNING: The Effects of Reading and Writing on Word Knowledge. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27(01).doi:10.1017/s0272263105050023 Zhang, L. (2018). Analysis and Research on Science Technology Students’ English Learning Strategies and Motivation. Adcance in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, 252, 775 778. doi:doi.org/10.2991/jahp 18.2018.158

73 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Lewis. (1993). The Lexical Approaces. Cambridge: Cambridge Language Teaching Marzano,Publications.R.J.(2005). Building Background Knowledge for Academic Achievement. Virginia USA: Associationfor Supervisionand Curriculum Development. McKeown, M. G. (2019). Effective Vocabulary Instruction Fosters Knowing Words, Using Words, and Understanding How Words Work. Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch, 50(4), 466 476. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31600467.

The Effectiveness of a Training Program Based on Frank Williams' Model in Developing the Divergent Creative Feeling among Students in Jordan Fadi Soud Samawi Department of Psychology and Special Education, Princess Alia University College, Al Balqa Applied University Naifa Hamdan Hamad Alshoubaki Department of Psychology and Special Education, Princess Alia University College, Al Balqa Applied University Hassan Rafi’ Ali Shaheen Department of Psychology and Special Education, Princess Alia University College, Al Balqa Applied University

A semi experimental curriculum was used on a sample of (40) male and female students, the researchers distributed them randomly into two groups consisted of (20) students each, and they used the Creative Divergent Feeling Scale (LOLEMS), and they developed a program based on the emotional cognitive model. Results indicated the existence of the impact of the training program for the benefit of the experimental group, it also showed no differences due to the gender variable, and the results also showed that there are differences attributed to the parents' educational level variable in favor of the bachelor's degree holders. The study recommended the training of gifted students on the skills involved in the curriculum and the behavior of students in the emotional, cognitive interaction model, which helps them to develop a creative divergence feeling.

1. Introduction

Keywords: Emotional; cognitive interaction model; divergent creative feeling; King AbdullahII Schoolsof Excellence

Abstract. The purpose of this study is to identify the effectiveness of using a training program based on Frank Williams’ model of emotional cognitive interaction in the development of divergent creative feelings among tenth grade students in King Abdullah II schools for excellence.

The development of thoughtful and creative mental capacities is the responsibility of all state institutions and on top of their priorities educational institutions, creative abilities exist for all individuals, still, they need development and training, indeed, the situation in schools refers to the typical instructional methods that hinder these capabilities and do not lead to the preparation of individuals capable of diversified and new production, that the overall development of our community's needs (Lowry, 2006).

includes convergent thinking in addition to divergent thinking. What is meant by divergent thinking is to produce various answers or to think

Frank Williams developed his model called emotional, cognitive interaction to interpret creative thinking as an interaction of four cognitive components: originality, flexibility, fluency, and detail with four sensitive elements: imagination, risk, complexity, and curiosity to produce creative output (Katami, Creativity2010).

The reality of what is going on in the classroom in schools confirms that education is limited only to certain content without accompanied by growth in thinking, therefore, the need for innovation in the educational system has become urgent through building curricula that improve the thinking of students, the outputs of these systems are of compelling specifications so that they possess the characteristics of higher and creative thinking (Jamal, Huwaidi, and Ben Dania, 2003). (Jauk et al., 2015) in his study declared that the essence of creativity is divergent thinking (DT), which means that the individual can produce as many answers to the problem as possible. Therefore, tasks of DT were used for a long time to evaluate the creativity of individuals (Sayed and Mohamed, 2013), and the most popular psychometric assessment tools in the research fields of creativity were DT tests (Acar and Runco, 2014).

The emotional, cognitive interaction model which was developed by Frank Williams is a model based on several studies of the creative person and the creative process; it seeks to develop eight abilities in mental, physical, and emotional development. These abilities are General Intelligence, Academic Uses, Leadership, Creative Thinking, Visual and Performing Arts, Physical and Kinetic Development, Emotional development, self concept, professional and functional practice that is, and the development of total human capacity. The model consists of three dimensions each one interacts with the other, it demonstrates how content (first dimension) can be prepared and organized through teaching methods and strategies in the classroom (second dimension), to produce diverse thought provoking behaviors and saturated productive emotions (third dimension) (Talafha, 2009).

Gifted people are considered a real asset for all societies in the world. So, educators face significant challenges related to their numbers and their upbringing to face the future and knowing their psychological, cognitive and social needs, represented in the cognitive component and original features of the original person, and to meet their needs adequately.

creatively as referred to by “think out of the box”. Among the regular evaluations of divergent thinking is producing various ideas, as it is evaluated by other users of the task. On the other hand, convergent thinking means that when the individual has many answers, he can choose the most logical one. In fact, “evaluation of the novelty” which is a knowledge dependent, interacts with divergent thinking, and in situations where we have ready answers, it is very effective and what the individual need is only to recall his stored information (Ritter and Ferguson, 2017) Through the CAI model, teachers can provide real opportunities for integrated and meaningful learning and a combination of knowledge acquisition and how to learn skills, students can be taught to focus on issues that need to be investigated and developed, and to develop problem solving skills to include problem identification, research, and investigation, develop the necessary skills to organize, manage and implement problem solving information, and ultimately learn to create and improve products that are qualitatively higher than students' age and grade levels (Newman, 2005).

3. Complexity. It is the ability to challenge to recover alternatives and see the gap between reality and the imposed, and the ability to find systems and meaning of chaos and search for problems and challenging ideas. In this model, Williams (1993a) interprets creativity as behavior resulting from eight components, and the cognitive part consists of the following skills:

Scholars defined Williams' model as a three dimensional cube, a non taxonomic structural model in which each dimension interacts with each other; each aspect contains a set of elements and branching sections, a model of practical development used by the teacher to develop cognitive and emotional processes in students (Al Farra, 2007).

Frank Williams's model aims to enhance the cognitive and emotional processes necessary for creative production, feelings of poll, curiosity, risk, complexity, and imagination were developed by the traditional content of the topic, it resembles some extent the paradigm of the cultural structure of human intelligence developed by Gilford, which consists of three parts that interact with each other in any situation of the educational process, consequently, Frank Williams's creative divergent feeling Package reveals the students’ inherent creative abilities (Al Enezi, 2011), creativity, cognitive content, and skill should not be isolated variables, but it interact with each other, where creativity based on knowledge and expertise (Begheto & plucker, 2006), consisting of the following dimensions (Khairallah, 2008):

1. Curiosity. It is the ability to search to discover the mystery, play with ideas, open to puzzling situations, and meditating on mysterious things, it is also essential to have an incentive to search for knowledge, to ask what things are and how they work, and to seek an in depth understanding of the world around them.

2. Imagination. A person can build mental images, think of things that have not happened, and the use of sensual feeling to get meta cognitive physical and realistic limits.

cognitive trend assumes that creativity is a cognitive process that is developed through training, and learning according to controlled conditions, and planned training situations in which the student uses cognitive mental skills (such as cognition, organization, comparison, spiritual transformations, analysis, synthesis, evaluation) to form, create something new, new experience, or creative solution, these skills require in depth thinking that does not accept the processing of ideas, and information in a low level but it requires that the mind works to its fullest potential for the student to remain vigilant, attentive and sensitive to control these skills (Ghneim, 2005).

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. flexibility, fluency, originality and details, and the emotional domain consists of imagination, complexity, risk, and curiosity.

1.1 Study problem and its questions

Gifted people are a human asset in any society, they are entitled to educational care consistent with their abilities and preparations, because they are high national energy and wealth that must be nurtured, to invest and direct this wealth to serve and develop the community, therefore, taking care of them is an indispensable cultural and educational necessity, especially in our Arab countries whose educational institutions lack the programs and strategies for gifted students. (Samadouni, 2014)

On the other hand, Harrison (1997) and Glynn (2007) claimed that there is a correlation between the organization of knowledge and emotions and the empowerment of the individual to be creative; the creative process is a specific cognitive mental process that forms the traits of thinking and creativity, it also enables the individual to organize his information, to build his perceptions, and thus to make emotional, mental transformations to reach divergent creative Also,thinking.theemotional

Challenges that face our modern world need unconventional methods to cope with the growing developments in all fields that results from the development of information technology, to achieve the integrated development of the individual and taking care of him, by focusing on the learner's personality and preparing him for life, in addition to taking care of those talented and keeping school programs in line with the mental needs of the learners.

Gifted students also have cognitive and emotional needs and characteristics that distinguish them from other ordinary students which in turn affect their adaptation to the reality they live in, therefore, these students face problems and challenges, whether, at the level of personal life, or the level of family and school, this requires a more significant effort on the part of educational institutions to help them face these difficulties and challenges. The model of emotional cognitive interaction focuses on the cognitive and emotional aspects which are essential in the development of creative divergent feeling of students because it focused on the emotional side and feelings without which there is no meaning to creativity, which requires the development of special programs aimed at developing the capabilities of divergent creative sense and cares for

1.1.1 The first hypothesis: There are statistically significant differences at the significance level (α=0.05) between the average performance of the experimental group and the average performance of the control group in developing the divergent creative feeling among gifted students in King Abdullah II schools of excellence in Salt City due to the training program.

The purpose of the current study is to reveal the effectiveness of the use of a training program based on Frank Williams’ emotional, cognitive interaction model in the development of divergent creative feeling of tenth grade students in King Abdullah II schools of excellence, the present study also seeks to clarify the concept of both the model of emotional cognitive interaction and divergent creative feeling, and to know whether the performance of both groups vary in the development of divergent creative feeling among gifted students in schools of King Abdullah II for excellence in the city of Salt due to the variables of gender and educational level of parents.

1.2 The Purpose of the study

creators early detection of them, in the light of the foregoing, the problem of the current research focused in answering the following questions:

The significance of the study in its theoretical and practical aspects: Theoretical significance: The significance of the research stems from the importance of the emotional, cognitive interaction model as a new instructional strategy in line with the local and global strategies, and to highlight the significance of Frank Williams’ emotional, cognitive interaction model as a model with practical applications as a means of developing divergence creative feeling, so that the researchers, educators, teachers, counselors, and workers in the field of talent and creativity in all educational institutions benefit from it, and to identify and develop creative energies in all aspects of life, researching the various means to reveal the talented and creative people as the wealth of the nation in light of the race towards production and development, and that the teacher always needs to update his instructional information and skills, this study is a scientific addition to the Arab library in general, and the Jordanian library in particular. Applied significance: to demonstrate the efficiency of using a training program based on Frank Williams' emotional, cognitive interaction model in developing divergence creative feeling among the students, and to draw the attention of educators in the educational technology departments to the importance and role

1.3 The importance of the Study

1.1.2 The second hypothesis: There are statistically significant differences at the significance level (α=0.05) between the average performance of the experimental group and the average performance of the control group in developing the creative divergent feeling among gifted students in the schools of King Abdullah II for excellence in the city of Salt due to the gender variable and educational level of the parents.

Within the limits of their knowledge, the researchers did not find studies related to the variables of this study, but they found studies with individual variables, such as Vally, Salloum, Al Qedra, El Shazly, Albloshi, Alsheraif and Alkaabi

1. Human, Spatial, and Temporal limitations Tenth Grade Students at King Abdullah II Schools of Excellence, Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan / Balqa Governorate, for the second semester of the academic year 2018/2019.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. of such models in achieving critical educational outcomes, it also seeks to reveal the exact role played by teachers and specialists in a way that gives an accurate picture highlighting the strengths and weaknesses in teaching, this study is a starting point for experimental studies in different educational institutions. The results of this study may benefit teachers, educational decision makers and curriculum developers.

Divergent Creative Feeling

1.5 The limits of the study and its limitations

1.4 Conventional and procedural definitions

2. Objective limitations It is the effectiveness of using a training program based on Frank Williams’ emotional, cognitive interaction model in developing divergent creative feelings among tenth grade students in King Abdullah II Schools of Excellence.

This study included several terms that were conceptually and procedurally defined as follows: Cognitive Affective Interaction Model. A structural rather than a taxonomic model based on several studies on the creative person and the creative process, it aims to develop eight abilities looking at mental, emotional and physical development. These abilities are general intelligence, exceptional academic and leadership preparations, creative and complex thinking, physical and motor development, emotional development and self concept, professional, functional, visual and performing arts, and these eight capacities contribute to the overall development of human potential (Williams, 1993a).

2. Literature Review

It is the emotional state of the creative individual, represented in four dimensions: Curiosity, imagination, complexity, and risk tolerance (Williams, 1993a), it is procedurally defined as the scores that the students get on the divergence creative feeling scale which was used in the study.

The results of the study are determined by the extent of psychometric characteristics of the emotional cognitive program, the scale of divergent creative feeling, the degree of cooperation of the study sample in the program, and their seriousness in answering the scale items.

The limitations of the present study are as follows:

80 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. (2019) a plethora of evidence suggests that creativity can be enhanced following training. In the United Arab Emirates, where creativity and innovation are overtly promoted, especially among young adults, university students complete a semester long course in creativity as part of their undergraduate degrees. The effectiveness of this course, however, remains undetermined. Thus, they examined, using a sample of 133 participants who completed the 13 week program, whether improvements to creative production, creative self efficacy (CSE), and neuro executive functioning would emerge. Pre to post test differences were assessed and substantial improvements to originality, elaboration, and fluency were observed. CSE was enhanced. However, neuro executive functioning remained unchanged following the program. These results contribute to the literature attesting to the efficacy of training in creative skills.

Talafah and Alhamran (2013) investigated the effect of developing an educational unit according to the emotional, cognitive interaction model in teaching geography on perceived self efficacy among a sample of tenth grade students. The study sample was (112) 10th grade students, distributed into four sections randomly selected from two government schools at Al Taibeh in the academic year 2010/2011, and the participants were randomly divided into two experimental and control groups. The results showed that the students of the experimental group (emotional, cognitive interaction model) were superior in

Fink, Reim, Benedek & Garbner (2019) studied the effects of different types of creativity interventions on different facets of creative potential, also including more school related creativity demands. In a sample of 77 fourth graders in the age between 9 and 12 years, we administered verbal and figural creativity training, realized in two school lessons over two consecutive days each. As outcome measures, creative potential in both the verbal and the figural domain using two well established divergent thinking tasks was assessed. As additional measures of creative potential, a story completion task and a picture painting task were administered to examine training effects on more school related types of creative behavior. The verbal training was found to increase both verbal and figural divergent thinking ability, but not creative potential in the story completion and the picture painting task. The figural training yielded significant training effects only regarding the picture painting task.

Saleh's study (2016), which measured the impact of a training program in improving the communication skills of gifted students in King Abdullah II schools of excellence, this program based on the emotional cognitive interaction model. The study members consisted of all gifted female students in the ninth grade at King Abdullah II School of Excellence in Salt city, they were 40 talented students, chosen intentionally, and to achieve the study objectives, the researchers used a quasi experimental approach, the results of the study showed that that the training program based on the emotional cognitive interaction model has an impact on improving the communication skills of gifted students, whether, on the total score, or sub domains of communication skills of the experimental group, significant differences appeared in the scores of talented students in King Abdullah schools of excellence on the sub domains of the communication skills scale due to the impact of the group in all domains.

Karahan & Yalcin (2009) investigated the effect of a training program based on emotional cognitive interaction on the development of emotional intelligence among a sample of students of the Turkish University, and whether these beneficial effects of the program persist over time, the participants of the study were (40) students who had low scores on the self assessment of emotional intelligence and the researchers distributed them among two groups of (20) students, and the same number for the control, the results indicated that there were no significant differences on the pre test between the two groups, but these differences appeared for the experimental group who underwent the training program on the posttest, the results also showed continued improvement in showing emotional intelligence skills in favor of the experimental group after the end of the program.

Al Enezi (2011) codified Frank Williams’ creativity assessment packet in a sample of high school students in the State of Kuwait, the members of the study were (277) high school students, the researcher used the Frank William Scale (1993) to evaluate the creative feeling which included (50) items to measure the behavioral characteristics of the creators so that the scale consists of four dimensions: (Curiosity, imagination, complexity, risk tolerance), the study found that there is an effect of the class variable on the scale of feeling in favor of the eleventh grade, and no differences in the scale of feeling attributable to age Talafahvariable.(2009) investigated the impact of the Infinite Talent Program and the Emotional Cognitive Interaction Model in Teaching Geography on the creative abilities and perceived self efficacy of a sample of tenth grade students. The study sample comprised of (94) 10th grade students distributed over three sections selected randomly from three public schools at Al Mazar District in the academic year 2006/2007, where the researchers divided these three sections into control and experimental groups, and the results revealed differences between the averages of the first experimental group and the control group in favor of the first experimental group, which confirms the effectiveness of the infinite talent program, and the existence of differences between the mean of the second experimental group and the control group in favor of the second experimental group, which confirms the effectiveness of the emotional, cognitive interaction program in the development of creative thinking and its three elements (fluency, flexibility, and originality).

The study sample comprised of (198) 7th grade students who designed a group of games, and they were divided into two groups: experimental (45) students used foresight, transparency and interaction strategies, while the rest formed a control group. A pos/test was conducted to show that the strategy of the emotional, cognitive interaction model made it easier for students to design games creatively and enabled them to practice design flexibly and quickly.

Wang and Chen (2012) identified the impact of the emotional, cognitive interaction model on the creative performance of a sample of game designers.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. the perceived self efficacy scale as a whole, and in its five domains, the study found no statistically significant differences attributed to the gender variable.

3. The Study Methodology

Khairallah (2008) conducted a study on the legalization of Frank Williams CAP on (910) students from (3 6) primary grades to study the psychometric properties of the components of the package, the results of the study showed that feeling was characterized by high constructive validity, and the test phrases obtained high coefficients of excellence, and high scores on the reliability of internal consistency and split half, and no differences in the degree of the responses of the members to the creative divergence scale depending on the interaction between gender and classroom variables.

Fraunberger (2004) conducted a qualitative study aimed at developing creative writing based on the theory between Williams's emotional, cognitive interaction model and Clark's model of distinctive characteristics of gifted students in America. The sample consisted of (50) talented students; he employed four of Williams' strategies: structured random research, intuitive expression, creative writing skills, visual representation skills, through the methods of qualitative analysis, he reached the effectiveness of these strategies in developing creative writing.

The quasi experimental method in the equivalent group method (control group, experimental group, pre and post test) was used to determine the effectiveness of the use of a training program based on the model of emotional cognitive interaction of Frank Williams in the development of creative divergent feeling of tenth grade students in King Abdullah II schools of excellence.

3.1 Members of the study sample

The study members consisted of all the tenth grade gifted students in King Abdullah II School of Excellence in Salt City and their number (77) students for the second semester of the academic year 2018/2019, they were selected in an available way, for the school administration to cooperate with the researchers, and the divergent thinking scale was applied to the study members After correcting the tool, it was found that there were (40) male and female students whose responses on the divergent thinking scale were below average.

The students were consulted about the program and all students agreed, they were divided into two groups equally in a simple random manner, the experimental group consisted of (20) students who received a training program based on Frank Williams' emotional, cognitive interaction model, and the control group consisted of (20) male and female students who did not receive the training program, the pre/ post scale measures were applied to both groups, according to Table (1):

83 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Table 1: Distribution of Study Members variablesStudy Gender The educational level of parents Total Diploma Bachelor Postgraduate Males Females Group Experimental 9 11 3 10 7 20 Control 8 12 4 9 7 20 Total 17 23 7 19 14 40 3.2 The Scale of the Study 3.2.1 First: Creative Divergent Feeling Scale: To achieve the study's objectives, the Frank Williams scale was used to measure divergent emotional thinking, which was used in the study of Ghulam (2012), where the researcher applied the scale to a sample of (910) students between the ages of (9 12) years, the scale consists of 50 paragraphs that measure the following dimensions (curiosity, imagination, complexity, risk tolerance), for further verification, the validity of the test was confirmed by presenting it to a group of arbitrators from the faculty of education specialized in counseling and psychology, taking their views on the suitability of its domains and items, and the soundness of its language, and asked them to judge each paragraph of the test in terms of representation and adequacy for the category to which the study sample belongs, besides, in terms of language appropriateness. Based on the observations of the arbitrators, the wording of 4 items was amended and finalized. Also, indications of the validity of the internal consistency of the scale were extracted. The correlation coefficients of the paragraphs with the total score and the dimension were obtained in a pilot study consisting of (30) students. Table 2: Correlation coefficients between items, total score and domain of creative divergence feeling scale ItemN Correlationwithdimension Correlationwithtool ItemN Correlationwithdimension Correlationwithtool ItemN Correlationwithdimension Correlationwithtool 1 .413**0 .444*0 18 .563**0 .370*0 35 .386**0 . 700**0 2 0.381** . 828**0 19 .557**0 .533**0 36 .535**0 .477*0 3 .592**0 .395*0 20 0.694** .456*0 37 .507**0 . 521**0 4 .477**0 .581**0 21 .507**0 . 419*0 38 .323**0 0.481* 5 .435**0 0.395* 22 .547**0 .423*0 39 .246**0 .549**0 6 .572**0 0.493** 23 .532**0 . 412*0 40 .553*0 . 651**0 7 .478**0 0.541** 24 .543**0 .453*0 41 .368**0 . 421*0 8 .359**0 0.692** 25 .557**0 .608**0 42 .401*0 . 812**0

Scale domains Alpha Cronbach split half reliability Curiosity 0.74 0.68 Imagination 0.76 0.69 Complexity 0.77 0.70 Risk tolerance 0.78 0.71 Overall scale 0.80 0.73

84 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. ItemN Correlationwithdimension Correlationwithtool ItemN Correlationwithdimension Correlationwithtool ItemN Correlationwithdimension Correlationwithtool 9 .563**0 .370*0 26 .386**0 . 700**0 43 .413**0 .444*0 10 .557**0 .533**0 27 .535**0 .477*0 44 0.381** . 828**0 11 0.694** .456*0 28 .507**0 . 521**0 45 .592**0 .395*0 12 .507**0 . 419*0 29 .323**0 0.481* 46 .477**0 .581**0 13 .547**0 .423*0 30 .246**0 .549**0 47 .435**0 0.395* 14 .532**0 . 412*0 31 .553*0 . 651**0 48 .572**0 0.493** 15 .543**0 .453*0 32 .368**0 . 421*0 49 .478**0 0.541** 16 .557**0 .608**0 33 .401*0 . 812**0 50 .359**0 0.692** 17 .386**0 . 700**0 34 0.694** .456*0 * Statistical significance at the level of significance (0.05). ** Statistical significance at the level of importance (0.01). It is clear from Table (2) that the correlation coefficients of the items with the total degree and with the domain were statistically significant at significance levels (α=0.05) and (0.01), therefore, none of them has been deleted, indicating that the scale domains are suitable for measuring divergent creative feeling, thus, indicating that the scale has a high level of validity and its relevance for the current study. The reliability of the instrument was also verified in two ways. First, the Alpha Cronbach method: The researchers calculated the coefficient of reliability Alpha Cronbach for the domains of the scale and ranged between (0.74 0.78). The second split half method: The reliability of the scale was calculated by the split half or division method of the four domains, ranging between (0.68 0.71) on a pilot study of (30) students. Table 3 illustrates this: Table 3: Alpha Cronbach's reliability coefficients and Split half reliability of the scale domains and the total divergent feeling scale

The researchers also corrected the scale by placing in front of each item a five step ladder according to Likert's pentagonal method, where it shows the degree of applicability of the content of the paragraph to the subject, it is as follows: very large (5), large (4), medium (3), low (3), very low (1), thus, the total score of the scale between (24 120), the higher the degree indicates a high level in the divergence creative feeling and vice versa.

2. To train talented 10th grade students on how to develop a creative divergent feeling.

3. To enrich and refine the abilities and skills of the trainees to develop the skills of divergent creative feeling.

Second: The objectives of the training program: *The overall aim of the program is to develop a divergent creative feeling of gifted students through training on the emotional, cognitive interaction model strategies of Frank Williams. Special Program Objectives

First: Definition of the Program

Third: Target group: Tenth grade gifted students at King Abdullah II School of Excellence in Salt.

1. To introduce the gifted tenth grade students to the concept of divergent creative feeling.

3.2.2

4. To employ and use emotional, cognitive interaction model strategies to become a key input in the education process.

Second: The Training Program

The researchers reviewed the educational literature and related previous studies, accordingly, a training program was built based on the emotional, cognitive interaction model in developing the divergent creative feeling among the tenth grade gifted students, which includes training activities and skills that employ the four skills: “curiosity, imagination, complexity, and risk tolerance”, where the curriculum consists of all subjects from primary to tenth grade and consists of four courses: (Language, mathematics, science, social, science) where it consists of (8) strategies that teachers can use them during their presentation of content as a way of demonstrating four cross sectional behaviors that can be applied to develop creativity in any of the previous content topics, the most important of which are: creative writing and creative reading, contradictions, characteristics, symmetries, inequalities, provocative questions, examples of change, tolerance of ambiguity, inclinations, and desires of creative people.

4. Coordinate activities in the form of training sessions within a specified period, including several objectives, actions, and strategies.

Fourth: Program Design:

3. Define all the domains of divergence creative feeling that the researchers will train the students on it, and they collect a large number of activities and training for the development of each domain, and some activities were selected and modified, and they design new activities that suit the age, target group, and educational environment.

the arbitration procedure, the researchers did the appropriate modifications to the training program in the light of the opinions of the arbitrators and they finalized in preparation for applying it to the study members, a criterion (80%) was adopted to change, add or delete some activities, so that the duration of the session was adjusted from (45) minutes to (60) minutes.

Sixth: The content of the training program: The training program consisted of ten training sessions including objectives, procedures, and activities for the areas included in the four capacities in the emotional, cognitive interaction model, it was implemented at the King Abdullah II School of Excellence in Salt city, the duration of implementation of the program was approximately four weeks (one month) to train gifted students to develop a divergence creative feeling through the model of emotional cognitive interaction, it consisted of (10) training sessions at the rate of two sessions per week, and each session lasts for (60) minutes.

1. Review several training programs used in the theoretical literature and previous studies that are related to the model of emotional, cognitive interaction and divergent creative feeling.

2. Define the general framework of the training program within the emotional, cognitive interaction model, and analyze the four areas: "curiosity, imagination, complexity, risk tolerance".

Fifth: The validity of the training program: After the completion of the training program, the researchers presented to a group of arbitrators working in Jordanian universities and workers in educational psychology, special education, psychological counseling, measurement and evaluation to ensure the appropriateness of the program activities for the target group, and the effectiveness of the training program in achieving the objectives set, and the extent to which the items are linguistically accurate, and the clarity of the content, objectives, activities and procedures and their relevance to the target Aftergroup.

Gifted students are introduced to the idea of divergent creative feeling and the importance of creativity ineveryday life sessionThird Vision and visualization Developing the ability to visualize and imagination, the ability to build mental fantasies, the formation of integrated mental images of the imagined thing, the development of pictures if invention to accomplishand achieve 60 minutes sessionFourth Listening Introduce students to listening skills, train them and strengthen social relationships through good listening 60 minutes sessionFifth Speaking Introduce students to speaking skills, and trainthem in it 60 minutes sessionSixth Complexity Students are introduced to the skill of complexity, and the ability to search for several alternatives to solve a particular problem 60 minutes sessionSeventh Curiosity Introduce students to curiosity, train them to insist on things, and follow what happens next 60 minutes sessionEighth Risk tolerance Introduce students to the skill of risk tolerance, practice, and experiment with difficult situations 60 minutes sessionNinth Feedback Explain feedback and train students onfeedback. 60 minutes sessionTenth EvaluationSession Identify the advantages and disadvantages of the training program, and learn about the educational benefit of the training program 60 minutes

Gifted students are introduced to the goals of the program, to the role assigned to it during the training program, and to the strategies of the emotional, cognitive interactionmodel. 60 minutes sessionSecond The idea of divergent creative feeling, its importance, and its elements

Seventh: The Operational Plan of the Training Program: Session Training skill Objectives of the session durationSession

First session Introduction and definition

The design of the present study is as follows: The experimental group (pretest application of training program post test) (OXO). The control group (pre test non application of the training program) (O O).

* Where (O) represents the pre and post creative divergent feeling, and (X) training program.

This study uses quasi experimental design, to determine the effect of the training program based on the emotional, cognitive interaction model in developing the divergent creative feeling of the experimental group, where the pre application of the scale was to all the study members (experimental and control groups), and then the researchers apply the training program which was based on the Frank Williams emotional, cognitive interaction model in the development of divergent creative feeling to the experimental group only and not to the control group, after the completion of the training program, the post test was applied to all the study members again from the experimental and control groups, the pre, post, and adjusted arithmetic averages and standard deviations were extracted taking into account the pre differences between the two groups, and (ANCOVA) test was used to judge the significance of the differences between the mean scores of gifted students between the experimental and control groups, also, (MANCOVA) was extracted to extract significance differences in the sub skills of the creative divergence scale between both groups.

The first hypothesis: There are no statistically significant differences at the significance level (= α0.05) between the average performance of the experimental group and the average performance of the control group in developing the divergent creative feeling among gifted students in the schools of King Abdullah II for excellence in the city of Salt due to the training program?

Eighth: study design and statistical treatment:

4. The Study Results and its Discussion Hypotheses of the Study

The second hypothesis There are statistically significant differences between the average performance of the experimental and control groups in developing the creative divergent feeling among gifted students due to the gender variable and educational level of the parents.

To investigate this question, the mean and standard deviations of the pre and post measurements and the adjusted arithmetic averages were extracted for the grades of gifted students in the King Abdullah schools for Excellence on the scale as a whole and on the sub domains of the Creative Divergence Scale (for

The first hypothesis There are statistically significant differences between the average performance of the experimental and control groups in developing the divergent creative feeling among gifted students due tothe training program.

89 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. the two experimental groups) that underwent the training program (and control), that have not experienced the training program, the results are as follows: Table 4: means and the standard deviations of the pre/post scores of the gifted students on the overall scale of the divergent creative feeling of the experimental and controlGroupgroups Pre divergent creative feeling Post divergent creative feeling N Mean deviationStandard N Mean deviationStandard Experimental 20 163.14 15.85 20 184.27 12.79 Control 20 171.49 17.36 20 162.97 19.67 Total 40 167.49 16.61 40 173.62 16.23 Table 4 shows the existence of apparent differences between the pre and post arithmetic averages of the communication skills of gifted students of the experimental and control groups, to illustrate the significance of the statistical differences between the arithmetic averages of the scale as a whole, ANCOVA was used and the results are presented below: Table 5: Modified arithmetic averages and standard errors of students' scores on the creative divergent feeling scale in the experimental and control groups Group Mean Standard error Experimental 188.74 3.01 Control 161.49 3.38 Total 175.12 2.19 Table 6: Results of the ANCOVA analysis of the effect of the group on the overall scale of the divergent creative feeling of gifted students Source of variance squaresSumof Df squaresMeanif F value Sig (accompanying)Pre/test 3249.76 1 3249.76 14.97 *0.000 Group 7986.46 1 7986.46 35.69 *0.000 Error 8724.67 42 187.45 Modified overalltotal 17460.89 44 * Statistically significant at the significance level (α = 0.05)

Dimensions Group Mean Standard error

Table (6) revealed significant differences in the divergent creative feeling scale of gifted students due to the group variable with a value of F (35.69), these differences were in favor of the experimental group, which had an adjusted mean of (188.74) The program has contributed to the development of the sense of divergent creative feeling of gifted students. The means and standard deviations of the dimensions of the creative divergent feeling scale were also extracted, as shown in Table 7: Table 7: The means and standard deviations of the pre/post scores of the gifted students on the dimensions of the divergent creative feeling of the experimental and control groups

Test Dimensions Experimental Control Total Mean STD Mean STD Mean STD Pre/test Curiosity 23.47 3.24 23.68 3.41 23.58 3.33 Imagination 31.04 3.75 32.89 4.38 31.97 4.07 Complexity 21.79 3.17 22.48 3.82 22.14 3.50 Risk tolerance 33.46 4.19 35.19 4.73 34.33 4.46 Post/test Curiosity 26.37 2.46 24.92 3.57 25.65 3.02 Imagination 45.72 3.27 30.64 4.23 38.18 3.75 Complexity 29.63 2.86 21.78 2.75 25.41 2.81 Risk tolerance 46.83 3.98 33.63 4.87 4.23 4.43

Table (7) shows the existence of apparent differences between the pre and post arithmetic averages of both groups in the sub fields of the creative divergent feeling scale of gifted students; these results are presented below: Table 8: Modified Computational Modifiers and Standard Errors for Students on Dimensions of the creative divergent feeling scale in the experimental and control groups

Curiosity Experimental 26.79 0.49 Control 22.74 0.74 Imagination Experimental 34.02 0.41 Control 32.08 0.75 Complexity Experimental 26.21 0.51 Control 22.94 0.54 Risk tolerance Experimental 39.07 0.89 Control 33.38 0.79

Table (8) revealed significant differences in the creative divergent feeling scale of gifted students due to the group variable in favor of the experimental group, this is attributed to the activities and exercises involved in the program based on

Variables Mean deviationStandard Rank Gender Females 3.19 0.79 1 Males 3.21 0.85 2 Educational level of parents Diploma 2.74 0.86 3 Bachelor 3.41 0.72 1 Postgraduate 2.92 0.85 2

The second hypothesis: There are no statistically significant differences at the mean level (α=0.05) between the average performance of the experimental group and the average performance of the control group in the development of the creative divergent feeling of the gifted students in the King Abdullah II School of Excellence in Salt city due to gender variable and educational level for parents. Means and standard deviations of the study sample were calculated according to the variables of gender and the educational level of the parents. Table 9 illustrates this.

Emotional Cognitive Interaction model, the training program enabled students to interact with each other within a framework of respect and responsibility, this helped them to express themselves, increasing their motivation for further exploration, the practice of imagination, students also can interact with its contents and thus had the motivation to continue learning, and that they can learn, and that through the use of different strategies provided the students with the technical expertise necessary for the process of learning, this is confirmed by Newman (2005) that the model of cognitive interaction offers real opportunities for an integrated and meaningful education and its synthesis that includes acquiring knowledge and learning skills while ensuring that students can focus on issues that need to be investigated and develop problem solving skills to identify the problem and the areas of research and inquiry, and to develop the necessary skills to organize, manage and implement information that investigates the issue.

This finding agreed with the results of the Talafah and Hamran (2013) study, which demonstrated the superiority of the experimental group (the cognitive emotional interaction model) in the perceived self efficacy scale as a whole, and its five domains, the result was also agreed with the result of Wang and Chen (2012) study, which showed that the strategies of the cognitive interaction model made it easier for students to design games creatively and help them to practice flexibly and quickly. Vally, Salloum, Al Qedra, El Shazly, Albloshi, Alsheraif and Alkaabi (2019) concluded that the training program increased students' creativity. The result goes with Fink, Reim, Benedek & Garbner's (2019) study which concluded that. The verbal training was found to increase both verbal and figural divergent thinking ability, but not creative potential in the story completion and the picture painting task.

Table 9: Means and standard deviations of the study sample according to gender variables and educational level of parents

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.

Results showed that the model was able to develop the divergent creative feeling among male and female students alike, this is due to the nature of the balanced activities included in the program, which unleashed the creative potential of male and female students, helping them to express themselves freely, and to solve problems, and to raise their learning level. This may be because teaching of both sexes was done at the same level and within the same activities and procedures, and thus the development of their divergent creative abilities was similar in the context of parental educational level variable, this can be attributed to the nature of individual differences between students themselves, the quality of parents' education and follow up to their children. Therefore creative energies differ from student to student. In this context, Al Enezi (2019) noted that Frank Williams' divergent creative model is used to reveal the creative potential of all students in the school, and creativity, cognitive content, and skill should not be isolated variables, but interact with each other so that creativity depends on knowledge and expertise

The leveleducationalofparents Divergent feeling . 2176 .2541 .6344 .009* Error Divergent feeling 38.239 .254 Total Divergent feeling 38.658 * Statistically significant at the level of (α = 0.05) Where the calculated value of (F) was 1.239, the significance level (0.116) which is higher than the statistical significance level (0.05), this is attributed to the educational level of the parents and for the benefit of the bachelor's degree holders, the value of calculated (F) was (4.634) and the significance level (0.009) which is lower than the statistical significance level (0.05).

To verify the differences between the arithmetic averages in the study sample according to the gender variable and the educational level of the parents, Two Way analysis of variance between the means for each was performed, as shown in Table 10 below: Table 10: Two-Way analysis of variation of the study sample according to the study variables Source The level of divergent feeling squaresSumof Meanofsquares (F) value Sig Gender Divergent feeling .347 .519 1.239 .116

As noted from Table 9, there are differences in gender, where the female group constituted the highest percentage of the study sample with a mean of (3.19), while the mean of the male category reached (3.21), there are also slight differences concerning the educational level of the parents, where students whose parents’ educational level is bachelor's degree obtained the highest mean of (3.41), followed by students whose parents’ educational level is postgraduate with a mean of (2.92), and students whose parents’ educational level diploma with a mean of (2.74).

2. To train talented students on the skills involved in the curriculum and the behavior of students in the emotional, cognitive interaction model, and this helps them to develop a creative divergence feeling.

3. To develop different curricula in terms of content and objectives, and their activities so that they are more appropriate to create the creative feeling of students at different educational levels.

1. To include extra curricular activities that might develop creativity and ability to think in creative ways in schools.

Fink, A., Reim, T., Benedek, M., & Garbner, R. (2019). The Effects of a Verbal and a Figural Creativity Training on Different Facets of Creative Potential. Journal of CreativeBehavior,1(1),1 10.https://doi.org/10.1002/jocb.402

Al Enezi, F. (2001). Psychology of innovation and underdevelopment Kuwait: Al Falah Library for Publishing and Distribution. Al Enezi, F. (2011). Rationing the Feeling Scale for Creativity by Frank Williams in a Sample of High School Students in the State of Kuwait. Journal of Childhood and Education, 3(7), 13 53. Al Farra, R. (2007). The impact of storytelling on the development of creativity among a sample of fourth grade children (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Jordan, Jordan Al Samadouni, A. (2014). Education of the Gifted and Distinguished. Dar Al Fikr for Publishing and Distribution, Amman, Jordan Beghetto, R., & Plucker, J. (2006). The relationship among schooling، learning، and creativity: “All roads lead to creativity” or “You can’t get there from here?” InJ. C. Kaufman& J. Bear (Eds.). Creativity and Reason in Cognitive Development (316 332). Cambridge، NY: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511606915.019

Fraunberger, J. (2004). Affective Characteristics in The Creative Classroom The University of Illinois. Retrieved from www.fraunberger.com Ghoneim, M. (2005). Basic concepts in cognitive psychology. Alexandria: Alexandria Book Ghulam,Center.H.(2008). Standardization of Frank Williams' Innovation Assessment Package (CAP) for Grade 3 to 6 Primary Students in the Kingdom of Bahrain (Unpublished Master Thesis). ArabianGulf University, Bahrain. Glynn, S (2007) The Teaching with Analogies model: Build Conceptual bridge with Mental Models. (Methods Strategies: Ideas and Technologies to enhance your Science Teaching. Washington, DC: National Science Teacher Association.

4. To conduct further studies dealing with the application of emotional, cognitive interaction model strategies to gifted students at different ages and comparing them with ordinary students. References Acar, S., & Runco M. (2014). Assessing associative distance among ideas elicited by tests of divergent thinking. Creative Research Journal, 26(1), 229 238 https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2014.901095

94 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Harrison, A. (1997). Conceptual Change in Secondary Chemistry: The Role of Multiple Analogical Models of Atoms And Molecules (Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation) CurtinUniversity of Technology, Perth, WesternAustralia Jamal, M., Huwaidi, Z., & Ben Daniah, A. (2003). Methods of detection of creative and talented and the development of thinking and creativity. Al Ain, the University Book House. Jauk, E., Benedek, M., Dunst, B., & Neubauer, A. (2013). The relationship between intelligence and creativity: new support for the threshold hypothesis using empirical breakpoint detection. Intelligence, 41(4), 212 221 Karahan,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2013.03.003T.,&Yalcin,B.(2009).TheEffectsofanEmotional

Intelligence Skills Training Program on The Emotional Levels of Turkish University Students. Egitim Arasrinnalari, EurasianJournal ofEducationalResearch, 36(2), 193 208 Katami, N. (2010). Curricula and Methods of Teaching the Gifted and Distinguished. Dar Al Masirahfor Publishing, Distributionand Printing, Amman, Jordan. Khairallah, H. (2008). Standardization of the Frank Williams Package for Grades 3 to 6 (Unpublished Master Thesis). ArabianGulf University, Kingdom of Bahrain. Lori, A. (2005). A Comparative Study of the Effect of Two Models of Teaching Thinking on the Growth of Higher Cognitive Abilities among a Sample of Commercial Secondary School Students in the Kingdom of Bahrain. Journal of Educational and PsychologicalSciences, 7(1),80 103. Newma, J. (2006). Talents for Type: A guide for helping students become better creators, decision makers, planners, predictors, and communicators. Mansfield Center CT: Creative Learning Press. Ritter, S., & Mostert, N. (2017). Enhancement of creative thinking skills using cognitive based creativity training. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 1(3), 243 253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465 016 0002 3 Saleh, M. (2016). The impact of a training program based on the emotional, cognitive interaction model on improving the communication skills of gifted students in King Abdullah II Schools of Excellence (Unpublished Master Thesis). Al Balqa Applied University, Jordan. Sayed E., & Mohamed A. (2013). Gender differences in divergent thinking: the use of the test of creative thinking drawing production on an Egyptian sample. Creativity Research Journal, 25(2), 222 227. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2013.783760

Talafha, F., & Al Hamran, M. (2013). The impact of teaching an educational unit according to the model of emotional, cognitive interaction on the development of perceived self efficacy among the tenth grade students. Journal of An Najah University, 27(6),1233 1266. Talafha, F. (2009). The Effect of Using Unlimited Talents Program and Emotional Cognitive Interaction Model in Teaching Geography on the Creative Abilities and Perceptual Self Efficiency of Tenth Grade Students (Unpublished Doctoral dissertation). Yarmouk University. Vally, Z., Salloum, L., Al Qadera, D., El Shazly, S., Albloshi, M., Alsheraifi, S., & Alkaabi, A. (2019). Examining the effects of creativity training on creative production, creative self efficacy, and neuro executive functioning. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 31(1), 70 78.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2018.11.003 Wang, L., & Chen, M. (2012). The Effects of Cognitive Affective Interaction Strategy on Novices' Creative Performance in Game Design Project. Paper Presented at the 2012 IEEE 12th International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies. Williams,https://doi.org/10.1109/icalt.2012.27F.(1993b). The Creativity Assessment Packet, Chesterfield MO Psychologists and Educator Inc.

Abstract. The purpose of this study was to develop an integrated mathematics teaching device with Quranic values that meet valid, practical, and effective criteria to meet good product standards. This study includes a development study consisting of the design and implementation phases. The analysis in this study used validity analysis with Aiken's validity index, and the utility analysis performed by transforming the results of the test data on five Widoyoko scales. The analysis required to test the effectiveness of the integrated mathematics teaching device with Quranic values uses a one way ANOVA F test and a follow up test using Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons. The results of verification by two experts stated that the Quranic values of the integrated mathematics teaching device met valid criteria. In line with the teacher's assessment that the four components evaluated, namely syllabus, lesson plan, students worksheet, and test meet practical standards. There is no difference based on the responses of students from three schools with different accreditations/quality (P value = 0.340, with significance level = 0.05). This response to mathematics teaching device demonstrates that it has meet effective standards and can be used in schools with different certification status. The mathematics teaching device with Quranic values meets the criteria for good teaching devices because it meets valid, practical, and effective criteria

Institut Agama Islam Negeri Syekh Nurjati Cirebon, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 8527 7660

1 Corresponding author: Widodo Winarso, widodoiain@gmail.com

Widodo Winarso1

Keywords: Development; Teaching device; Mathematics; Science integrated; Quranic values

Development of Mathematics Teaching Device Integrated with Quranic Values: Issues, Challenges, and Implementation Model

95 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 95 117, January 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.1.6

Sirojudin Wahid Institut Agama Islam Negeri Syekh Nurjati Cirebon, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000 0002 0468 1574

1. Introduction Mathematics teaching device development is a series of processes or activities that are performed to create math teaching materials based on existing developmental theories. Huisman & Tight (2015) describes development research based on two objectives: (1) development to acquire product prototypes, and (2) formulation of methodological proposals for prototype design and evaluation. Richey & Klein, (2014) define development research as a systematic study of the design, development, and evaluation of programs, processes, and learning products that need to meet validity, practicality, and effectiveness criteria. Products are valid when they reflect the spirit of knowledge (state of the art knowledge) (Boudreau, Gefen, & Straub, 2001). This criterion is interpreted as content validity. Therefore, the components of the product must be aligned with each other (structural validity) (Mueller, Lambert, & Burlingame, 1998). Besides, if a product is considered usable, it is said to be practical. It is said to be effective if productivity results follow the goals set by the developer. Therefore, the development of a mathematics teaching device must meet all three aspects. To develop teaching devices, teachers need the ability to plan and manage to learn effectively. Learning math can improve logical thinking skills, attitudes, and mathematical skills (Sitopu, Saragih, & Hasratuddin, 2019). An effective teacher criterion is a teacher who can systematically prepare teaching devices (Moon, Mayes, & Hutchinson, 2002). Learning preparations can be designed and organized as a teaching device. Teaching device is a key component of successful learning (Beard & Wilson, 2014). Besides, teaching device can create learning that is interactive, exciting, fun, challenging, efficient, motivating students to actively participate (Gomez Martin, Gomez Martin, & Gonzalez Calero, 2007), and has plenty of space for initiatives Provides (Myers & Adams Budde, 2016), creativity (Ubaidah & Aminudin, 2019), independence according to talent, interest, student physical and psychological development (Posamentier, Jaye, & Krulik, 2007; Permendikbud No 65, 2013). Other data showing the importance of developing mathematics teaching device are the results of a study by (Sitopu et al., 2019). The development of the mathematics teaching device can increase students' willingness and attitude toward higher order thinking skills.

When implementing math learning in schools, some teachers have not yet developed their mathematical teaching device. Preliminary data from junior high schools in Cirebon, West Java, Indonesia indicate that teaching device needs to be developed. Eight teachers (66.67%) take lesson plan online, and four teachers (33.33%) create a lesson plan based on the results of questionnaire surveys on lessons and discussions with math teachers. Many teachers do not use learning models that can improve student attitudes and spirituality in their lesson plan. Most learning orientations focus on improving students' cognitive skills. The student worksheet used is a collection of exercises, usually purchased from a publisher or downloaded from the Internet. This situation indicates that teachers are not ready to develop a mathematics teaching device.

There seems to be no comprehensive development in the design of the teaching device based on the research of many researchers and teachers' problems. In particular, the development of a teaching device that provides an integrated overall model with the development of the four elements of the teaching device: syllabus, lesson plan, student worksheet, and achievement test. An alternative solution that can be offered in this study is the further development of integrated mathematics teaching device with Quranic values.

The integration of the Quranic values in mathematics learning is normatively aimed at achieving Quranic values (Islamic education) in mathematics learning activities that cover three aspects of student life (Kabir, 2013). First, the spiritual dimensions include Faith, religion, noble personality (Kabir, 2013; Nasr, 2013;

Preparing a mathematics teaching device is part of the lesson plan (John, 2006).

The lesson plan is designed in the form of a syllabus, lesson plan, student worksheet, and achievement test. There are several studies related to the development of the teaching device. For example, Kong, Looi, Chan, & Huang (2017) have been studying the development of teaching device in the form of e learning in Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Beijing, focusing on various development trends. The development of the teaching device can be done using Android software (Ahmar & Rahman, 2017) teaching device can improve arithmetic and computational skills, graphical representation, construction of geometric and algebraic objects, problem solving, and mathematical programming (Drigas & Pappas, 2015) Other studies related to the development of teaching devices using a specific learning model, such as the results of the study (Sitopu et al., 2019), have further developed teaching devices based on the Guided Discovery Model. Teaching device is used to improve students' understanding of concepts and mathematical critical thinking skills. Developing a teaching device with problem based learning models based on cultural contexts can also improve students' mathematical communication and social skills (Aufa, Saragih, Practice, & 2016, 2016). Developing problem solving models using integrated patterns can improve problem solving skills in math learning (Nurdyansyah, Masitoh, & Bachri, 2018). Lee, Lim, & Kim, (2017), on the other hand, prefer to develop learning design models using inverse proofs in problem solving. Therefore, this research contributes to the planning of the teaching device, especially in the syllabus and lesson plan The development of the teaching device involves at least some innovations in learning assessment. For example, the study Park & Jo, (2015) describes the development of a learning analytics dashboard to support student learning performance. (Artzt, 2015) have developed a guide for observation and self assessment in reflex skill efforts. Additionally, (Winarso, 2018) has also developed a teaching device in the form of a full scale assessment of students' mathematical attitudes, skills, and knowledge. These researchers have contributed to the development of mathematics teaching devices, such as syllabus, lesson plans, student worksheets, and achievement tests.

Based on these criteria, it is important to provide examples of teaching devices that are appropriate for developing students' religious attitudes and spirituality. An integrated mathematics teaching device with Quranic values is an option according to the desired learning goal. However, the phenomena that occur indicate that learning mathematics in school needs to improve this ability through the development of teaching devices. Besides, it is still very rare for math learners to integrate Quranic values to find a specially designed teaching

To overcome the problem of juvenile delinquency, the government, through the Indonesian Ministry of Education and Culture (Kemdikbud), aims to provide a curriculum that can meet the aims of national education. Develop of 2013 Curriculum (Kurtilas) as a solution to address these issues (Rumahlatu, Huliselan, & Takaria, 2016; Retnawati, Hadi, & Nugraha, 2016). Throughout Kurtilas, the government will provide a learning system that is oriented in four areas: spiritual, attitude, knowledge, and skills (Nur & Madkur, 2014; Wahyudin & Sukyadi, 2015). Indeed, the implementation of Kurtilas was not as smooth as expected, and many challenges and obstacles were facing educational institutions (Retnawati, 2016). It starts with the obstacles to developing a school curriculum, as well as implementing the curriculum.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Hixon & Hixon, 2003). Second, the sociocultural dimension is a stable and independent personality, social, and national responsibility (Kabir, 2013; Laskier & Lev, 2011) Third, the dimension of intelligence that leads to student progress: intellectual, creative, skilled, disciplined, work ethic, professional, innovative, productive (Mustaqimah, 2019; Kabir, 2013). When three dimensional Quranic values are applied to mathematics teaching device, they can have a positive effect on students. It develops the student's potential to be a human who believes and serves God, noble, healthy, knowledgeable, talented, creative, independent, democratic and responsible citizen, Following the purpose of national education (RI Law Number 20 the Year 2003). Therefore, the conduct of learning activities must pay attention to the development of the student, that is, the development of aspects of the student's emotions, cognition, and psychomotor (Kasim & Yusoff, 2014) Conducting learning activities requires continued attention to student development, both in knowledge, personality, and spiritual development. Reality is just different than expected. Based on data from the Central Bureau of Statistics (BPS), Indonesia had 54,712 mischievous children or crimes in 2012 (51,400 in detention and 3,312 in prison). In 2012, there were 5,358 criminals throughout Indonesia (2,063 were detained, and 3,295 were given prisoner status). Similar issues were obtained from Indonesian Commission for the Protection of Children (KPAI) data for 33 states between January and June 2008 and reached four conclusions. The first 97% of junior and senior high school students watch pornography. Second, 93.7% of junior and senior high school students engage in genital stimulation (touching genitals), kissing activities, and oral sex. Third, 62.7% of junior high school students are no longer virgins. And lastly, 21.2% of adolescents claimed abortion.

This research and development modify the Bennett, Borg, & Gall, (1984) and Akker, Bannan, Kelly, Nieveen, & Plomp, (2007) models that consist of design and implementation phases. The result of this research and development is an integrated mathematics teaching device with the Quranic Values The teaching device includes syllabuses, lesson plans, student worksheets, and achievement tests.

Population and Sample

This R & D procedure refers to the stage in the 4 D development model developed by (Thiagarajan, SivasailamI, 1974). The four stages are definition, design, development, and dissemination. During the definition phase, several analysis activities are performed as a reference for the initial product design. In other words, (1) basic problem analysis of math learning in schools and determination of alternative solutions to problem solving, (2) student analysis on student characteristics and academic achievement, and (3) material by choosing developed competencies. Analysis, and (4) determination of selected basic competency indicators. The following is an initial product design that references the results of the analysis performed. The result of the initial design is called Draft 1. During the development phase (development), there are three phases of testing: professional testing, limited testing, and field testing. Perform specialized tests to determine the strength and from the results of the initial design of the mathematics teaching device (Draft 1). Devices that meet the valid criteria (draft 2) are then subjected to limited trials and field tests. Attempts were made to determine the practicality of the teaching device. The result of the revised limited trial is called Draft 3, and a field trial will be conducted to determine the effectiveness of the device under development. The final step is dissemination by submitting products to schools where research and scientific publications are conducted.

2. Methodology

The population of this study is a student of middle school (SMP/MTs) from the Cirebon District Republic of Indonesia. Three middle schools (SMP/MTs) from the Cirebon district were selected as samples using a stratified random approach. The samples were selected based on the school's quality through the accreditation level. There are three levels of school accreditation, respectively, the best ones are A, B, and C. The samples consisted of experts, teachers, and students representing each school based on their accreditation level. Table 1 shows the distribution of samples in this study.

Research Design

Research Procedure

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. device. This situation demonstrates the importance of developing a teaching device integrated with the educational value contained in the Quran.

Data collection techniques for this study are using non test techniques (Lazaraton & Taylor, 2007). The non test method is provided through the provision of the expert evaluation form, teacher evaluation forms, and student evaluation forms for the development of mathematics teaching device. The Instrument used in this study was a validation form and a questionnaire. Validation form is used to measure the validity of the device, which consists of the syllabus, lesson plan, student worksheet, and achievement tests. Teacher and student evaluation forms are used to measuring the practicality of teaching devices. Besides, we measured student responses to pioneers in developing mathematics teaching device at three schools with different levels of accreditation. This activity was done as a next step, a key consideration for product dissemination.

The purpose of the usability analysis is to determine whether the developed teaching device meets the practicality criteria. The usability of the device was analyzed based on data obtained from the teacher and student evaluations in a limited number of tests. A teaching device is said to be practical if the category of analysis for each device is minimally practical (Widoyoko, 2000). Usability analysis is performed by converting test data in five steps, as shown in Table 2.

Data Collection Technique

Data Analysis

Data analysis of this study was performed to determine the validity, practicality, and effectiveness of teaching device development (MacLeod, Yang, Zhu, & Li, 2018). Expert judgment results were analyzed to determine the effectiveness aspects of the device. A teaching device is said to be valid if the results of the analysis performed on average fit into a valid category. Here, the validity analysis uses Aiken's validity index with the following formula (Aiken, 1980). : V = item validity index r = respondent choice category score I0 = lowest score in the scoring category c = categories that respondents can choose from n = the number of respondents

Information

Table 3. Analysis of needs and formulation objectives

Description: X = Empirical Score Xi = Average = ½(maximum score +minimum score) SBi = Standard Deviation =1/6 (maximum score minimum score)

During the field trial phase, students' responses to the application of the results of the development of mathematics teaching device were analyzed. Different tests are needed to use samples from three schools with different criteria. This analysis is necessary to test the effectiveness of developing an integrated teaching device with Quranic values using the one way analysis of variance F test (Moder, 2010). For advanced testing, use Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons (Kim, 2015)

The definition phase focuses on analyzing needs and setting goals. Includes at this stage; identifying learning objectives, conducting learning analysis, analyzing student behavior and characteristics, and creating specific learning. This phase is implemented through five information gathering strategies related to products developed to overcome the problems found in math learning at SMP/MTs in the Cirebon district (Thiagarajan, SivasailamI, 1974).

Strategy Description of findings Front analysisend  Based on interviews with middle school mathematics teachers in the Cirebon district, researchers were informed that the curriculum used was Kurtilas. Exercises included in the textbook. There are three groups with different characteristics inlearning absorption.  That is the abilities of students in accredited grades A, B, and C schools. The abilities of students at accredited C level schools are uneven. Schools with A certified titles have an even distribution of student abilities, and average performance is better than the average for B and C certified students. This condition is almost the same as a student in a school that warns of C certification, but below the average for students in a predicate school withcertificationA. analysisLearner  Students are still ashamed to ask questions and hate if they come to the top of the class and are asked to explain the work discussed.  Students are not very active inlearning.

Table 2. Five scale Actual Score Conversion Interval Skor Category Xi + 1,8 SBi < X Very good Xi + 0,6 SBi < X ≤ Xi + 1,8 SBi Good Xi 0,6 SBi < X ≤ Xi + 0,6 SBi Enough Xi 1,8 SBi < X ≤ Xi 0,6 SBi Less X ≤ Xi 1,8 SBi Very Less

3. Result and Discussion Define

 Teachers need a mathematics teaching device that can improve not only math learning outcomes but also shape students who behave inanIslamic way.

 Students are willing to complete a given task and pay attention toallthe explanations provided.

 Some students have low, but not enough, mathscores.

 Students are eager tolearn math.

 Students need math learning activities that can develop understanding and spirituality.

Figure 1. Mathematics Teaching Devices

Managing classroom learning requires the development and use of teaching devices (Karakas, Manisaligil, & Sarigollu, 2015) Teaching device is devices used in the teaching and learning process (Owen & Sweller, 1989). The teaching device needed to manage teaching and learning will take the form of syllabuses, lesson plans, student worksheets, and achievement tests (Washburn, 1992).

analysisConcept  Schools need a curriculum and a variety of activities that can fulfilltheir visionand mission.

 This condition is evidenced by the fact that there are still students who forget to do their homework and bring in other tools suchas books, stationery, and rulers.

objectivesinstructionalSpecifying By developing high quality mathematics teaching device in terms of validity, practicality, and effectiveness based on scientific and Quran values, students excel in mathematical attitude and religious spirituality. Design Indonesian government policy applies the 2013 curriculum (Kurtilas), which must integrate information technology and scientific approaches to all subjects, including mathematics (Purnamaningwulan, 2019; Mtebe & Kissaka, 2015).

 When starting to study, especially when starting to study mathematics, students rarely stillpray or read Bismillah

Taskanalysis

 Students are more active in asking questions and communicating their understanding withother students.

 This condition can be seen in their activities while learning in class. Some students are busy in the class and do not pay attention when teachers explain in front of the class. Some students are still unwilling to study math.

 Students get highor satisfactory grades.  Students canunderstand the teaching materialswell.  Students are accustomed to praying before they start learning.

Curriculum development in Indonesia, which prioritizes the enhancement of knowledge, skills, and personality education in learning, still suggests the current lack of particular performance (Mohamad, Kulap, & Hamdiyah, 2018) The flaws in the matter are juvenile delinquency and moral issues rampant among students. Deteriorating morals has led to a controversy in the national education system (Albantani & Madkur, 2016) Given this situation, we need a catalyst that can accelerate the process of absorbing information about Kurtilas and various enhancements. Catalyst means increasing the value of the Quran in learning activities (Hudhana, 2015).

Of course, the Quran is very close to the lives of Indonesian people, especially Muslim people. Many people read, memorize, and practice this holy scripture book every day. Many formal and informal educational institutions, organized by government or non governmental organizations, study and learn this holy scripture. Many Islamic boarding schools (Pesantren) and Islamic recitations (Pengajian) scattered throughout the country are ready to discuss and study the Quran, raise awareness about the values contained in the Quran, and provide the public with material (Herdiansyah, Jokopitoyo, & Munir, 2016).

Based on Figure 1, four teaching devices have been developed with a scientific learning approach. The scientific approach (Colburn, 2000; Hodson & Hodson, 1998) as one of the approaches that must be used for the application of Kurtilas, which is a manifestation of the constructivist approach. In this approach, students are given the most part to play a role in ongoing learning (Garrett, The, Interaction, & Case, 2015; Catalano & Catalano, 1999). That part can be seen from the following syntax (learning procedure). Observations, questions, trials, associations, and communication (Sumarmo, Kusnadi, & Maya, 2018)

It is also known that the Quran's principles and values are consistent with Indonesian education. Even the founder of this country used the Quran as a reference in shaping the ideology of the state, as stated in Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution. In the Quran (Cahyaningtyas, 2018). That is, the value of the Quran is packaged and widely accepted under other names so as not to compromise its diversity.

On that journey, Kurtilas experienced many developments and enhancements. One is to implement strengthening character education (PPK) in Indonesia's national education system (Aisyah, Samawi, & Untariana, 2018). Key values expected through the PPK include religion, nationalism, independence, cooperation, and honesty (Sulistyarini, Utami, & Hasmika, 2019). In addition to enhancing character education, facing the challenges of the 21st century requires students to strengthen their skills. Skills facing the challenges of the 21st century are known as 4C, including communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity (Jefferson & Anderson, 2017). Besides, for students to have these skills, they need to ask HOT questions and provide support to enhance student literacy (Sulastri, Rintayati, & Sarwono, 2019). These are both prerequisites or support for the development of future four skill (4C) students.

Based on Figure 2, the Design phase, which takes place, looks for Quranic Values related to learning activities. Next, extract the educational value contained in it. Search results related to the Quranic values are mapped to learning goals, learning methods, mathematics subjects, learning activities, dan learning evaluation in Table 4. Table 4. Al Quran verses related to learning CurriculumStructure

Letters dan Verses From Al Qur’an Quranic Content

GoalsLearning QS. Al Hujurat, 49:13 The purpose of learning is to be a person dedicated toAllah QS. Ali Imran, 3:190 191 The purpose of learning is to become a person withfaith and knowledge QS. Al Ahzab, 33:21 The purpose of learning is to become a noble person QS. At Taubah, 9:122 The purpose of learning is to warn his people and help them protect themselves

MethodsLearning QS. An Nahl, 16:125 Wisdom method, good advice/coaching method, and Jidal method (discussion) QS. Al Maidah, 5:31 QS. Al Ahzab, 33:21 ImitationMethod QS. Yusuf, 12:2 3 Story method QS. Al Ankabut, 29:20 Method of practical experience (trial and error), method of thinking

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Therefore, there is a need to enhance Kurtilas through the innovation of mathematics teaching device integrated with the value of the Quran. The simplicity of the goal can help us to absorb information about Kurtilas more quickly. Indonesians who are mentally close to the Quran are certainly familiar with the values contained in the Quran and apply it more easily in all their lives, including education. With the Quran value as a catalyst, most educators are expected to have a better understanding of Kurtilas. You can compare the values included in the PPK and 4C skills with the values included in the Quran. Besides, for a deeper understanding of Kurtilas, learning activities and assessment of Kurtilas are easier to carry out. Figure 2 shows the hierarchical structure of the developers. Figure 2. SL QVModel

QS. An Naml, 27:27 A story about the Prophet Solomon was testing the honesty of hud hud.

Develop Data from professional exams

During the development phase, the step of developing an integrated teaching device for the Quranic value is first to perform an expert evaluation (effectiveness test). The purpose is to check the quality of the product from a content perspective. Two experts perform the effectiveness of the teaching devices by assessing the syllabus, lesson plan, student worksheet, and achievement test. The data relevant to the validity test results in Table 5 are as follows.

CurriculumStructure Letters dan Verses From Al-Qur’an Quranic Content csMathematiSubject QS. Al Ikhlas, 112:1 QS. Al Kahfi, 18:25 QS. Al Ankabut, QS.29:14Al Baqarah, 2:261 Number QS. Al An’am, 6:78 83 Set QS. At Thalaq, 65:2 3 Algebraic Form QS. Al Anfal, 8:65 QS.66, Al Jumuah, 62:9 10 Linear equations and inequalities ActivitiesLearning QS. An Nahl, 16:125 Wisdom method, good advice/coaching method, and Jidal method (discussion) QS. Al Maidah, 5:31 QS. Al Ahzab, 33:21 ImitationMethod QS. Yusuf, 12:2 3 Story method QS. Al Ankabut, 29:20 Method of practical experience (trial and error), method of thinking EvaluationLearning QS. Al Ankabut, 29:2 3 Because all human beings test his faith, they are not allowed to say, "We have faith" before testing his faith. QS. Al Baqarah, 2:31 33 The story in which Allah taught the prophet, Adam, the name of the object, asked him to name the object infront of the angel. QS. Al Baqarah, 2:202 Humans will get some of what they are trying to do; Allah is very fast in his calculations. Here is how Allah counts (assesses) his servant customs.

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QS. As Shaffat, 37:103, 106,107 A story when God tested the patience and honesty of Abraham and his family through an order toslaughter Ishmael.

106 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Table 5. Syllabus validation results Rated aspect Score AikenIndex Criteria 1 2 Syllabus Format 13 14 0,75 Valid Syllabus Component 22 24 0,75 Valid Subject Identity 25 26 0,67 Valid Basic Competencies 13 12 0,68 Valid Indicator 25 27 0,70 Valid Learning Subject 13 15 0,78 Valid Learning Activities 16 20 0,74 Valid Assessment of Learning Outcomes 16 20 0,74 Valid Selection of learning resources 23 22 0,73 Valid Time Allocation 22 24 0,75 Valid Power of language 22 24 0,75 Valid Total 210 228 0,73 Valid Based on Table 5, verifier evaluation results relating to both the first and second experts are included in both categories, as the syllabus is declared valid. Besides, syllabus evaluation is performed by teachers, resulting in high quality results, and evaluation of student responses are categorized into appropriate categories. The syllabus can now be declared practical the effective results of the learning plan in Table 6. Table 6. Validation Results of Learning Implementation Plan Rated aspect Score AikenIndex Criteria 1 2 Learning PlanFormat 16 20 0,74 Valid Subject Identity 16 20 0,74 Valid Formulationof learning Objectives 23 22 0,73 Valid Conformity of Learning Subject 25 26 0,67 Valid Learning Model 22 24 0,75 Valid Learning Activity 13 14 0,75 Valid Selection of learning resources 25 27 0,70 Valid Assessment of Learning Outcomes 25 26 0,67 Valid Power of language 23 22 0,73 Valid Total 188 201 0,72 Valid Based on Table 6, the results of the verifier's evaluation of the lesson plan show that each component of the lesson plan has a valid category and that the average result of the total analysis has a valid category. Besides, teachers' assessments of lesson plans are in a good category, and student responses are also in a good category so that lesson plans can be declared practically. The results of the evaluation and analysis of the Student Worksheet validation assessment data show that all aspects have valid standards. The results of the LKS evaluation and analysis are reviewed from all aspects, as shown in Table 7.

107 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Table 7. Validation Result of student worksheets Rated aspect Score AikenIndex Criteria 1 2 Suitability of contents and subject 13 15 0,83 Valid Layout Settings 22 24 0,82 Valid Language Component 25 26 0,73 Valid PresentationComponent 13 12 0,68 Valid Benefits/Uses 25 27 0,68 Valid Conformity withthe integrationof quranic values 13 15 0,83 Valid Total 93 103 0,70 Valid The results of the verifier evaluation of the student achievement test meet valid criteria. The assessment data is based on two aspects: metrics and the suitability of the question editor, as shown in Table 8. Table 8. ValidationResult of Test Rated Aspect ScoreMax Score Criteria 1 2 Indicator Suitability 45 45 45 Valid Content of question 45 45 45 Valid Total 90 90 90 Valid On the other hand, based on the evaluation of the content of the learning device, Table 9 shows both the syllabus, the lesson plan, the worksheet, and the professional pre test test for the student. Table 9. Content assessment based on expert opinion DeviceType RevisionSource Before Revision After Revision Syllabus judgmentExpert The indicator used does not use operational verbs Indicators use operational verbs No information on Quranic values in each learning activity Add/insert Quranic values at every stage of learning There are no Quranic values in the learning source Added Quranic values to the Learning Resources column PlanLesson judgmentExpert The learning procedure is unknown Stages that make learning steps more clear The core activities of the learning step do not use the latest formats (2017 revised curriculum), including 4C (creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, communication). Use the latest Kurtilas formats, including 4C (creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, and communication) in core activities. The learning procedure involving the Quranic values is not yet clear/invisible. Learning steps with Quranic values are displayed because they are color coded

results

syllabus, lesson plans, and learning

108 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. WorksheetStudent judgmentExpert Student worksheet rating not yet clear Added evaluation using the student worksheet point system. All students earn points for performing certain activities listed on the worksheet. Students will be considered to meet the minimum criteria if they have earned a predetermined number of points.

tests meet

performed

Test judgmentExpert The rubric for multiple choice questions does not yet show instructions (final answer only) Added numbers and color codes to distinguish each activity on the worksheet. Make Student worksheets easier for teachers and students to use. Added steps to address multiple choice rubric questions test data Evaluation of learning tools on six teachers. Teachers' evaluations of the developed outcome practical The of the teacher evaluation of the developed worksheets Table 10 shows the results of the evaluation and analysis of the lesson plan data by six teachers.

Limited

standards.

Student worksheet does not display the ability of students toachieve Added ability maps include the student's abilities achievement. Interesting pictures are also displayed onthe competency map. The steps/sections of the worksheet are not well organized to confuse students and teachers. Added ability maps include the abilities that students achieve. Interesting photos are also displayed on the competency map.

meet very practical criteria.

Table 10. Teacher Assessment on Teaching Devices Evaluator The total score for each aspect Syllabus Lesson Plan WorksheetStudent AchievementTest Teacher 1 38 32 37 30 Teacher 2 26 30 41 33 Teacher 3 30 30 32 30 Teacher 4 30 30 30 28 Teacher 5 34 32 40 30 Teacher 6 34 32 40 30 Average 32 31 36,67 30,17 Criteria Practical Practical PraVeryctical Practical

on Table 13, the Anova test has Quranic values because the variance uniformity test shows that the results of the field trial show that the three groups have the same variant (P value = 0.187> 0.05) Useful for testing student response relationships to teaching device applications.

The

Based

109 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Besides, student worksheet student evaluation results were obtained, and the developed achievement test meets very practical criteria. Table 11 shows the results of the evaluation and analysis of the student worksheet evaluation data and the results of the achievement test. Table 11. Student Assessment on Teaching Devices Evaluator Max Score Average Score Category WorksheetStudent 45 39,25 Practical AcivementTest 35 23,5 Practical Table 12 shows syllabuses, lesson plans, student worksheets, and both teacher and student tests for assessing the content of the teaching device Table 12. Content assessment is based on the teacher's opinion and student response Device Type RevisionSource Before Revision After Revision Syllabus EvaluationTeacher The syllabus is good and does not need tobe revised. Lesson Plan EvaluationTeacher The index of the Quranic values is missing, or the index used is incomplete and displays all poems relevant to learning. Added an index of Al Quranic values related to learning activities, although the Index limited to certain mathematics subject materials. WorksheetStudent EvaluationStudentandTeacher

student worksheet is good and does not need to be modified. TestAchievement EvaluationStudentandTeacher

tests are good and do not need tobe modified. Field test result data Table 13. Test homogeneity of variances Student Response Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig. 1.694 2 141 .187

110 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Table 14. Anova differences in student responses Student Response Sum Squaresof df Mean Square F Sig. BetweenGroups 273.515 2 136.758 1.088 .340 WithinGroups 17730.235 141 125.746 Total 18003.750 143

Also, the results of the Anova test confirm differences in student response to the application of teaching device tools using the Quranic values of the three accredited groups. From Sig Table 14. Obtained P value (P value) = 0.340. Therefore, a significance level = 0.05 Ho is accepted, which translates into an insignificant difference in the average score of student responses based on the three accredited groups. Mathematics Teaching devices with Quranic values can be developed at various types of schools, both accredited and non accredited. Besides, the test results show Ho (no difference), so no further tests (Post Hoc Test) will be performed in the next analysis phase. Product revision The revision of the integrated mathematics teaching device, especially Quranic values. First, complete the syllabus, lesson plan, student worksheet, and achievement test according to the advice of the two validation expert. Second, add an index of Quranic values and divide them into five types of Quranic values related to learning goals, learning methods, mathematics subject material, learning activities, and learning evaluations. Third, improve student worksheets and achievement tests according to teacher and student suggestions. Disseminate Mathematics teaching devices integrated with Quranic values can improve students' religious spirituality and mathematical attitudes. Religious spirituality is shown in how a student is respectful, has faith in Allah, and performs the worship he requires. This is in line with the research results of Hammawa & Hashim (2016) that the values contained in the Quran affect a person's spirituality. Other than that Impact of the Quran in the treatment of the psychological disorder and spiritual illness (Saged et al., 2018), the Quran also have an impact on student learning attitudes (Fathi, Ebrahimzadeh, Charati, Rostamnezhad, & Shelimaki, 2017). The religious spiritualities of the students discussed in this study are similar to the religious attitudes described in the strengthening character education (PPK) in Kurtilas (Cahyaningtyas, 2018) Besides, the mathematical attitude of the problem is the mathematical attitude that the student gained when learning math. One mathematical attitude is that students tend to be more thorough and solve problems. Mathematical attitudes are also closely related to strengthening skills (4C) to address 21st century challenges (Falsetti & Rodríguez, 2005)

A mathematics teaching device integrating the Quranic values developed regarding the background findings and the analysis results during the definition

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. phase. Media selection, format selection, and initial product design are performed based on the results of the subsequent analysis. The initial product design is then performed during the testing phase: expert, limited, and hands on testing. At each stage of the test, modifications or improvements are made to the product under development to qualify. The device was evaluated for its feasibility based on three aspects: (a) effectiveness, (b) practicality, and (c) effectiveness. Form learning tools: lesson plan, student worksheet, and developed achievement test meet valid criteria based on content validity by two experts. This condition indicates that the components of the teaching device that have been developed comply with the indicators set for the means of teaching device effectiveness. The teaching devices developed also have a strong theoretical relationship, and there is internal consistency between the components of the device under development (Inglis & Alcock, 2012)

The usability of a teaching device is based on teacher ratings and student ratings (readability). Based on data analysis, it shows that the teaching device developed to fit into practical categories. This condition is shown from the average score of student ratings in the practical category, but the average score of teacher ratings for learning devices is a very practical category.

Teaching device products, lesson plan, and student worksheets meet effective standards. This condition means that there is consistency between the configured training set and the implemented training set, and the configured training set and the goals to be achieved. The efficient criteria are met based on an analysis of student response data from three different types of schools (Accreditation A, B, and C) and show no significant differences. This condition shows that schools with different quality schools can accept and use the teaching Baseddeviceon

The research conducted, namely, the development of a mathematics teaching device integrated with the Quranic values was stated to meet the criteria for validity, practicality, and effectiveness. Therefore, specifically developed

a review of the above three aspects, the mathematics teaching device integrates Quranic values to develop students' spirituality and mathematical attitude and meets valid, practical, and effective standards Can be concluded. This condition shows that the developed device is suitable for learning mathematics. In line with the opinion of (Nieveen, 1999) that state quality aspects of the key considerations of teaching device must pay attention to three aspects of effectiveness, practicality, and effectiveness.

4. Conclusion

Research restrictions As this study is still in its early stages of development, the materials used in the teaching device are still limited to set materials. Besides, the SL QV model used as a concept in this study needs further refinement to make the output clearer. This study is limited to SMP/MTs (middle schools) so that it can be developed at other educational levels.

5. Acknowledgments Thanks to the Indonesian Ministry of Religious Affairs. The study was funded through DIPA IAIN Syeikh Nurjati Cirebon in 2019. References Ahmar, A. S., & Rahman, A. (2017). Development of teaching material using anAndroid. Global Journal of Engineering Education, 19(1), 72 76. Aiken,https://doi.org/10.26858/gjeev19i1y2017p7376L.R.(1980).ContentValidityandReliability of Single Items or Questionnaires. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 40(4), 955 959. Aisyah,https://doi.org/10.1177/001316448004000419E.N.,Samawi,A.,&Untariana,A.F.(2018). Efforts to Improve the Ability of The Teachers in Development Program for Strengthening Character Education (PPK) in Early Childhood Education (ECE) through Workshop Activities. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Early Childhood and Primary Education (ECPE 2018), Malang, Indonesia, 38 41.https://doi.org/10.2991/ecpe 18.2018.9 Akker, J. van den, Bannan, B., Kelly, A. E., Nieveen, N., & Plomp, T. (2007). Curriculum design research: An introduction to educational design research. East, 37, 129. Retrieved from www.slo.nl/organisatie/international/publications

112 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. teaching device is suitable for use in SMP/MTs (middle school) level learning activities. In general, mathematics teaching device integrated into the values of the Quran can be used as a reference for further development of teaching materials and other levels of education. From two experts as verifiers, the syllabus rating scores 210 and 228 met the valid criteria. The lesson plan evaluation scores of 188 and 201 meet the valid criteria. Student worksheet assessment scores of 93 and 103 meet valid criteria. Finally, an achievement test score of 90 and 90 meets the valid criteria. Besides, from 6 teachers as teaching device evaluators, 32 syllabus scores, 31 lesson plan scores, 36.67 student worksheet scores, and 30.17 achievement test scores. Syllabus scores, lesson plan, and achievement tests meet practical standards, and student worksheet scores meet very practical standards. Finally, a P value (P value) = 0.340 was obtained based on the results of the Anova one way F test. Therefore, accept Ho at the actual level = 0.05. Therefore, the conclusion obtained is that there is no significant difference in the average score of student responses based on the three accredited groups. Based on these results, the teaching device can be applied to schools that meet effective standards and have varying levels of accreditation (quality).

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Biographies Widodo Winarso Widodo Winarso is an assistant professor at the Department of Mathematics Education, Institut Agama Islam Negeri Syekh Nurjati Cirebon Indonesia. He is a Ph.D Student in Islamic Education Psychology from Muhammadiyah University of Yogyakarta, Indonesia. His research interests are in educational psychology, mathematical psychology, cognitive psychology, organizational behavior and interdisciplinary research.

Sirojudin Wahid Sirojudin Wahid is a senior lecturer at the Department of Mathematics Education, Institut Agama Islam Negeri Syekh Nurjati Cirebon Indonesia. He teaches mathematics learning media and Kapita Selekta [school mathematics]. His research interests are in mathematics education integrated science and islamic mathematics.

Saba Qadhi, Manal Hendawi, Elham Ghazi Mohammad, Intisar Ghazi, Nasser Al-Dosari and Xiangyun Du QatarDohaUniversity,Qatar

Keywords: novice teachers; professional competence; training programs; preparationprogram; Qatar 1. Introduction Student teachers are challenged to develop the professional teaching competencies needed to demonstrate high level skills while preparing to work in schools. An alarming number of novice teachers do not fully make this transition after they complete their training, but rather leave the teaching profession in their first years of work. This can be explained by a lack of induction plans and professional development designed for new teachers (Fantilli & McDougall, 2009). The study will be significant as it can be used to redesign the teaching program at the university and implement an induction plan in the schools to benefit the students more and, in return, improve the overall education quality in the country. Novice teachers play a critical part in the country’s education system, and their actions significantly influence the state of the education system

118 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 118 135, January 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.1.7

Abstract. This study explored early career teachers’ perspectives on their competencies in professional teaching in Qatar. Using a mixed method researchdesign, thisstudy drew onempirical data fromninetly five survey respondents and ten individual interviews with teachers who were in their first four years of working in Qatari governmental schools. The findings of this study indicate that professional teaching competencies are strongly related to professional training through a teacher preparation program. This study identified a few of the specific challenges that novice teachers encounter and revealed a significant need to address these challenges to maintain their competencies. The study contributes to the literature by investigating novice teachers’ perspectives on their teaching competencies as supported by their teacher preparation program. More efforts to bridge the gaps between programs and schools are needed to prepare teachers in their early careers better

The Impact of a Teacher Preparation Programs on Professional Teaching Competencies –Female Novice Teachers’ Perspectives

While a growing body of studies emphasizes the importance of novice teachers’ self efficacy, and job satisfaction (author, 2017, 2018; Canrinus, Helms Lorenz, Beijaard, Buitink, & Hofman, 2012), little is known about how novice teachers perceive their competencies in managing their teaching work at an early stage in their career. Therefore, it is essential to explore how novice teachers think they have achieved the necessary skills for their teaching profession with the support of teacher preparation plans. It is also required to discuss the challenges that novice teachers have encountered in applying the skills gained through their preparation programs to their teaching training in schools.

One of the most important reasons has been that novice teachers lack confidence in their capabilities and competencies to manage teaching work in practice (Baecher, 2012). Previous studies have identified a considerable lack of self efficacy and presence of anxiety among novice teachers, and their first years of practice are regarded as a time of critical development (Faez & Valeo, 2012) When novice teachers face the reality of the profession’s requirements, they either strengthen their efficacy beliefs or leave the profession (Tschannen Moran & Hoy, 2007). This situation has led to the debate surrounding whether the quality of pre service programs, schools’ organizational cultures, and education policies are truly enhancing teachers’ competencies and helping them to keep up with the changes and workload (Cochran Smith, 2013) Facing global challenges, much of the recent literature has paid attention to the reasons behind many novice teachers’ choice to leave their profession as well as finding potential solutions to the shortage of qualified teachers (Sutcher, Darling Hammond, & Carver Thomas, 2016). Further, more recent attention has focused on the provision of adequate teaching preparation plans to help new teachers better prepare for their work (Ödalen, Brommesson, Erlingsson, Schaffer, & Fogelgren, 2019)

Nevertheless, society is still facing a severe challenge in that it lacks sufficient teachers, particularly qualified teachers (Ahmed, 2018; Ellili Cherif, Romanowski, & Nasser, 2012) To prepare qualified teachers better, it is crucial to know how novice teachers evaluate their competencies related to their profession. Therefore, this study aims to explore how newly graduated teachers perceive their success in achieving the expected skills during their teacher preparation programs. Through a mixed method study, we quantitatively surveyed ninety five early career teachers’ self evaluations of their teaching

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. in the country. Graduates from Qatar University’s teaching program are expected to be ready to discharge their duties immediately. This research described some of the specific challenges that novice teachers face and showed a clear need to tackle these challenges to improve their skills and competencies. The research adds to the literature by exploring the experiences of novice teachers regarding their teaching skills as guided by their teacher training program. Further efforts are needed to bridge the gaps between programs and schools to better prepare teachers for early careers.

120 ©2019 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. proficiencies. Through interviews with ten teachers, we qualitatively explored their insights about how they were prepared for working as a teacher and what challenges they faced 2. Literature Review 2.1 Research on novice teachers According to (Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2005), teachers have a significant impact on student learning than any other factor related to the school system.

2.2 The role of teacher preparation programs

Various studies have focused on the lack of competencies among novice teachers and the challenges they face in the teaching field (Friedman & Kass, 2002; Truchot & Deregard, 2001) Scholars have highlighted various aspects of teacher development related to these challenges; for instance, some studies point out that insufficient knowledge of school organization generates stress, which in turn affects the performance quality of novice teachers (Brackett, Mayer, & Warner, 2004; Lopes, Grewal, Kadis, Gall, & Salovey, 2006). On the other hand, some researchers claim that the formation of stress that stimulates the performance of teachers is backed up by the pressure that has been inducted in them through their educational program (Gavish & Friedman, 2010; Levski, 2003) Novice teachers may also experience particular stress because, since they are a part of an organization, they are assumed to work with the same efficiency and provide quality teaching at the same level as their senior colleagues (Brackett et al., 2004; Zins, 2004).

The crucial role of a preparation program is developing capabilities in novice teachers and enhancing their teaching competency (Azhar & Kayani, 2017)

Another ongoing change in teacher preparation programs is an increased focus on self reflection. The majority of training workshops and professional development opportunities for novice teachers now pay attention to preparation done by the teacher through self study (Goodwin et al., 2014). Similarly, teachers are observed to pay keen attention to their routines and curriculum and

The criticality of teachers to student learning, therefore, demands that they are well trained and adequately prepared to meet the objectives of their country’s education sector (Bettini, Jones, Brownell, Conroy, & Leite, 2018; Glennie, Mason, & Edmunds, 2016; Tait, 2008). It is, therefore, essential to understanding the preparation and retention of novice teachers, defined as those who are new entrants in the field or who have zero to three years of experience Numerous studies have examined novice teachers’ retention, retention problems, and the need to address critical issues within teacher preparation programs (Gold, 1996; Smith & Ingersoll, 2004; Veenman, 1984; Zeichner & Tabachnick, 1981) However, novice teachers themselves have had limited input in determining practical approaches (Bettini et al., 2018). In addition to changing policies and reform models, novice teachers are likely to leave their jobs, mainly due to a lack of administrative assistance (Holmes, Parker, & Gibson, 2019; McLean, Abry, Taylor, Jimenez, & Granger, 2017)

2.3 Teacher education in Qatar

The supremacy of women in education and their omission from specific fields like administration and engineering is aligned with the conventional religious limitations placed on females, and the conventionally acceptable part of females as teachers in Islamic civilization was rapidly strengthened by various influential societies in Qatar (Abu Tineh & Sadiq, 2018) However, changes are underway, both in the gender balance of the teaching workforce and in the training of teaching. In 2001, the Qatari government raised concerns about the outcomes of the education system of Qatar due to the low scores obtained by secondary students in the Program for International Assessment (PISA) study and the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). The administration encouraged to embark on initiatives based on suggestions and recommendations for creating an educational system that would fulfill the changing needs of Qatar (Romanowski, Ellili Cherif, Al Ammari, & Al Attiya, 2013). Since then, studies have paralleled Qatar’s national focus on teacher training plans (Romanowski et al., 2013). In their detailed description of the education program and the aspects in which it lags, these studies have identified several attributes. To begin with, Qatar is now clearly inclined towards a modern form of training and development of teachers (Chaaban & Du, 2017). In 2001, a lack of competency in teachers was found to create obstacles for the students. After the reforms that began at the turn of the century, the development of teachers in Qatar has been viewed as a useful measure in that it is assisting students to be more expressive (Nasser, Cherif, & Romanowski, 2011) Currently, Qatar is still making crucial efforts to improve teacher development, although the traditional

maintain an individualistic focus to develop relative behavior (DeAngelis, Wall, & Che, 2013; Kang & Zinger, 2019). This focus on self reflection is based on the idea that any teacher who lacks self understanding cannot retrieve the behavior of students (Kukla Acevedo (2008) Likewise, according to a stage based model of teacher growth, novice teachers are not able to understand the thinking of students until they can recognize themselves as teachers and understand the classroom practices (DeAngelis, Wall, & Che, 2013). Many teachers work in specialized professional contexts in which they struggle to focus their attention on the classroom routines and curriculum and also struggle to focus on their behavior concerning the thinking of the students. It is crucial to understand and address this struggle because a teacher’s qualification and content exposure have a remarkable effect on their students’ achievements (Kang & Zinger, 2019) However, the practice of teacher training remains neglected due to a small number of educational institutions (Celik, 2011) and to several other factors (Youngs, Odden, & Porter, 2003) To address this lack of adequate teacher training, researchers should investigate the gap between the stimulating filaments of teacher preparation programs and their implementation in education plans.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.

Teacher education in Qatar, as in other Arab Gulf regions, is characterized by a significant proportion of foreign teachers and by a majority female workforce

3.2 Participants

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. training of a pressurized work culture persists in some regions (UNESCO, 2019). Consequently, there is a need for a detailed analysis of the factors that limit the implementation of teacher preparation programs

3.1 Research context

3. Methods

Our review of the related literature has established that teacher preparation programs are essential for the development of novice teachers. However, not all the available educational institutions in Qatar are still implementing such programs The Supreme Education Council’s Schools and Schooling report, which was issued in 2013, emphasized issues affecting performance in a government school; some of this one third of independent school teachers did not have a formal teaching qualification. Another critical point that has been identified from the literature is that teacher preparation programs are essential for the development of teachers as well as students. Also, this process yields opportunities for expert teachers to enhance their capabilities and launch new career opportunities. In response to the problems identified in the literature review, we formulate the following research questions:

2) What challenges have novice teachers met in applying the competencies gained through their preparation programs to their teaching practices in schools?

Q University is one of the leading institutions in the country, and its college of education is one of the essential institutions responsible for producing the country’s teachers. It offers a total of four programs, including early childhood education and primary, secondary, and diploma programs in Arabic, English as a second language, mathematics, science, social studies, and Islamic studies. The programs include four years period of study before the undergraduates can obtain a bachelor of arts degree, and in the fourth year, students have 10 week long internships in schools. On average, 1,000 students (95% female and 5% male) attend this college, and it graduates around 300 students each year. More than half of these go on to work in governmental schools.

1) In which ways do novice teachers think they have achieved the needed competencies for their teaching profession with the support of the teacher preparation programs?

Study participants included early career teachers who completed the undergraduate program study at Qatar University and worked as teachers in governmental schools for less than four years. After receiving ethical approval from the Ministry of Education and Higher Education and the Ethical Committee of Qatar University, the University does not keep official records of the employment situation for each graduate program. Our message asked the schools to forward the email to their newly employed teachers. Ninety five teachers responded to our survey, and of these, ten participated in the interviews. All participants in this study were female. We divided the

Following (Creswell & Clark, 2017), the questionnaire development procedure was as follows: 1) interviews were conducted with four teacher preparation program faculty members; 2) four programs coordinators reviewed an initial draft of the survey; 3) expert validation was conducted by other, senior experts with 10 20 years of experience in teacher preparation programs, followed by minor revisions regarding the phrasing of items 1, 2, 6, 8 and 9; and 4) another expert validation was conducted by statistical experts to review the rate and scale of the questionnaire design. Three rounds of discussion led to the revision of the scales before the research team, and experts reached a final agreement on the current version. After the expert validation, a language professional first performed translation into Arabic. Then back translation was used to examine the validity and linguistic parallelism of the questionnaire (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2013) A few rounds of translation back and forth between English and Arabic were carried out before two other language experts reached a final agreement on its validity. Then the survey was tested by five novice teachers.

3.3.2 Qualitative data sources semi structured interviews

1 = “Not prepared at all, and I am not competent in this aspect”

The individual interviews were conducted to firstly triangulate the quantitative data results and secondly to further explore these teachers’ experiences and challenges. Ten teachers volunteered to participate in the semi structured interviews after they had participated in the survey. Among these, six were first

2 = “Reasonably prepared, and I am confident in demonstrating most of the requested competencies in this aspect”

3 = “Well prepared, and I am highly confident in demonstrating all requested competencies in this aspect”

A questionnaire based survey method was used to gain an overview of the opinions and standpoints of novice teachers. The questionnaire was developed by the research team to align with the curriculum objectives of the teacher preparation program and the national professional standards for teachers in Qatar (Council, 2007). The questionnaire contained ten items inviting participants to respond to the question, “Could you please reflect and report to what levels you were prepared for your teaching job in the following aspects?” using a four point Likert type scale.

3.3 Research design and data generation

4 = “Excellent, and I am highly confident in demonstrating excellence in this aspect”

Explanatory mixed method research was employed for data generation (Creswell & Clark, 2017). Two phases and sources of data were included: first, a questionnaire based survey was used to invite the novice teachers to evaluate their competencies for the teaching profession; second, individual interviews were conducted with ten novice teachers

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. participants into two groups: teachers with one year’s teaching experience or less and teachers with one to three (less than four) years’ teaching experience.

3.3.1 Quantitative data sources a questionnaire based survey

Items Mean DevStd Mean DevStd Mean DeStdv.

1. Providing a variety of opportunities that support student learning and development. 3.14 0.82 3.41 0.62 3.19 0.79

2. Accommodating students’ differences and cultural backgrounds to provide them with 3.04 0.89 3.18 0.73 3.06 0.86

Table 1: Overview of the quantitative data analysis results 1 3 years’ (N=78)experience First (N=17)graduatesyear Total (N=95)

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. year teacher graduates, and four had worked for between one and three years. All the volunteer teacher participants were female, with an age range of 24 30. During the interviews, they were invited to reflect on their work performance regarding their professional knowledge, overall teaching skills, and professional disposition. They were also asked to provide examples demonstrating how their teaching had led to students’ learning gains. Besides, they were invited to relate their current performance at work to the teacher preparation program they had attended and to identify challenges in applying what they had learned to their work. Each interview lasted 30 60 minutes. The interviews were conducted in Arabic and audio recorded, then transcribed and translated to English for content analysis (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009) 3.3.3 Data analysis

The quantitative data from Ninety five surveys were analyzed based on descriptive statistics to examine participants’ responses. We computed the means and standard deviations for each item of the questionnaire. To analyze the qualitative data from the ten interviews, we employed a thematic analysis based on the interview questions and the commonalities in the responses obtained from the interviewees that, helped us to infer meanings with the help of linguistic features in the agreed settings (Cohen et al., 2013) Our analysis also focused on strengthening the meanings expressed by the interviewees, which were then coded for analysis, whereby the concepts revealed through the responses were shortened (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009) 4. Results 4.1 Quantitative data results Fundamental statistical analysis was conducted on the data collected using the questionnaire. The Cronbach’s alpha of the survey is .946, indicating the right scale of reliability of the measure. The means and standard deviations of each item of the survey were calculated to identify the perspectives of novice teachers. We also compared the two groups of teachers: those with one to three years of experience and those who were first year graduates (N=17). The descriptive statistics for the participants’ responses are presented in Table 1, providing an overview of the conclusion of the quantitative data source.

3. Establishing a classroom environment of respect and support that provides a culture for learning. 3.32 0.83 3.47 0.62 3.35 0.80

9. Reflecting on and using multiple resources, such as professional literature and interacting with colleagues, to aid growth as an educator. 3.17 0.86 2.94 0.56 3.13 0.82

4.2 Qualitative data results

The ten interviewees confidently self evaluated their readiness for working as teachers in the aspects of professional knowledge, teaching skills, and professional dispositions. During the analysis, attention was paid to the comparison between those teachers in their first year of teaching experience (T1

8. Providing student centered instruction that is characterized by clarity, variety, and flexibility. 3.10 0.86 3.12 0.70 3.11 0.83

7. Planning integrated and coherent instruction to meet the learning needs of allstudents. 3.08 0.91 3.47 0.51 3.15 0.86

10. Collaborating to ensure learner growthand advance the profession. 3.26 0.81 3.53 0.51 3.31 0.77 Total 3.14 0.74 3.21 0.39 3.15 0.69 Following the scale range of 1:00 1.75 for scale 1, 1.75 2.50 for scale 2, 2.50 3.25 for scale 3, and 3.25 4.00 for scale 4, the overall result of the novice teachers’ self evaluation of their performance at work is positive, with a total mean of 3.15 for the whole survey. That means the participants believed they were prepared for their teaching position. Comparing the two groups, teachers with one to three years’ experience reported M=3.21 for all items, while teachers with less than one year’s experience reported M=3.14 for seven out of the ten items. Although there were three items with means of lower than three reported by teachers with less than one year’s experience, they were still within the range of scale 2, meaning they considered themselves generally prepared. A t test was conducted to compare the two groups (one to three years of experience and first year graduates), and no significant difference was identified between them, either for any of the individual items or for the ten items in total (t = 0.41).

5. Motivating learners and engaging them in critical thinking by teaching a variety of perspectives and concepts. 3.13 0.94 2.94 0.83 3.09 0.92

4. Having sufficient content knowledge in the professional field. 3.08 0.92 3.35 0.61 3.13 0.88

6. Engaging in assessment activities and using the data for instructional decision making and student improvement. 3.05 0.88 2.71 0.77 2.99 0.87

All the teacher participants discussed how their teaching performance contributed to student learning gains. Interestingly, the participants provided contrary evidence in this matter. Four of them (T3, 5, 7, and 9) considered helping students by using diverse teaching strategies to be one of their teaching achievements. As one participant said: I apply a lot of teaching strategies and methods. I also take into account individual differences. I use different visualization strategies, some students are visual, auditory, and some like hand on experiences. Therefore, I use all of that to deliver information and to improve the students’ performances. (T5) Some teachers (T4, 6, 8, 10) referenced increased scores as good evidence of their performance and achievement: I believe the best way to see my teaching outcomes are to prove that students improve their scores. In the past three years, I think my students have made excellent achievements in their grades (T8) The two teachers (T1 and 2) working in the area of early childhood education observed student growth as an achievement in both their teaching and their learning: I have only been here for a month, and I have not managed a class yet. However, I tried to help the shy students who never speak to participate, and interact. A student never spoke when I first got here, but now she does, and she is more social now. (T1)

4.2.2 The link between teaching performance and the teacher preparation program

6) and those with one to three years’ experience (T7 10). Similar to the quantitative results, there was no apparent difference between the two groups of participants. Nevertheless, more individualized opinions were observed regarding different aspects of teacher readiness. Below, we report the interview findings in the following structure: 1) teaching performance and its impacts on student learning gains; 2) link between teaching performance and the teacher preparation program; 3) points missing from the teacher preparation program, and,; 4) teaching learning through work.

The interviewed teachers were generally satisfied with what they learned from the teacher preparation program. They could link the benefits; they gained from the program to their daily exercise of teaching. The most cited benefits of the program included theories that helped develop a conceptual understanding of teaching and learning, a wide range of teaching strategies and skills for classroom management, and opportunities for micro teaching. As they expressed: I am glad I was in that program, and it made a significant influence on me. It made me feel confident at work…. I am used to creating new

4.2.1 Teaching performance and its impacts on student learning gains

4.2.3 Challenges Points missing from the teacher preparation program

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. teaching strategies…. I can see I know quite a lot of strategies that even qualified teachers do not know. (T3)

It (the university program) had a significant influence in the sense that I proficient the situations that I now experience with my students. The experience of managing a class during the internship was highly beneficial, and the university instructors were role models for me at work. (T4)

I have been teaching two and a half years now, and people in my school always say that they chose me because I graduated from the Qatar university program, meaning I am high quality. Moreover, I have proved this to them. This made me quite proud of my program of study (T9)

The interviewed teachers identified a few significant challenges, which were described as points missing from their teacher preparation program First, all the teachers interviewed mentioned that, despite their confidence in their professional knowledge and skills, during their first six months, they experienced a gap between the program and their work life, and sometimes they felt insecure about how to handle specific real life situations. As one of them said: I know the teaching strategies, and I know when to use each strategy. However, my problem is that sometimes I do not know what to do in specific situations. For example, I took the Child Development course, but now I deal with children who are three years old. I cannot give them academic stuff because they should only learn some letters and pronunciation. The strategies that I learned are not very helpful in this situation. (T2)

Nevertheless, T7 pointed out that the quality of teaching was also related to individual factors, including attributes such as responsibility and passion. As she said: I think being a teacher is not about being a graduate from any college. It has more to do with our passion and how we love the profession of teaching. With passion, we can get more engaged in the job and with our students. Without passion, even graduates of the best program may not necessarily make a good teacher…. [It] depends on the individual. (T7)

Besides, half of the interviewed teachers reported knowledge gaps regarding assessment. The quantitative outcomes reflect where the survey question regarding assessment yielded the lowest of all scores from first year graduates (2.71) during their teacher preparation.

In our program, we had a course on assessment, which gave us many techniques for how to assess students; I even got a good grade in that

5. Discussion

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This study aimed to explore novice teachers’ self evaluation of their competencies at work. A mixed method design was used, including quantitative data from the survey findings of ninety five teachers and qualitative data from interviews with 10 participants.

5.1 Novice teachers’ perception of their teaching competency

Further, three teachers (T2, 5, 9) mentioned their lack of preparation for handling students in a classroom setting. As one said: I know a lot about the theories of classroom strategies, but I wish I had known more how to deal with students; in particular, they are so different from each other. I did not know until I was standing in the classroom. It took me two years of struggling with this, and I may have gotten more confident now, but I still have a lot more to learn (T9)

We attempted to evaluate the perceptions of teachers regarding their teaching competencies with the support of teacher preparation programs. Based on the quantitative assessment, we inferred that the teachers were generally confident in their abilities to apply the professional knowledge, skills, and dispositions

All the interviewed teachers expressed positive attitudes about their ongoing learning while working as a teacher and in particular about applying what they learned in their university programs to real life training. As one teacher said: We must continue to learn new things. Although we learned a lot from the university program, it was not enough for me. I still have to learn some things. (T1) Also, three teachers (T4, 7, 9) reflected on the effect of real world experience. As one said: What I learned from the program is meaningful now based on the work experience. The teaching experience makes me learn more comprehensively. (T4) The interviews also identified one missing aspect of teacher preparation, which is that some interviewees struggled with continuous learning in response to real life problems. As one said: When I face situations where I do not know what to do, I am now reading books to search for answers… (T6).

4.2.4 Teacher learning

course. Nerveless, I never learned how to deal with all the issues around assessment in real life. We are only testing students on memorization because we only want good grades. Now I am learning how to use assessment to provide feedback and consider this process qualitatively rather than quantitatively. (T7)

Also, it is worth pointing out that the novice teachers in this study reported a comparatively low level of reflection that drew on multiple resources, such as literature or peer comments. In Qatar, although classroom study and collaborative learning are encouraged, these practices remain limited (Al Kaabi & Hossain, 2018) Collaboration learning, peer review, and assessment are approved in the classroom to increase the students’ reflections in the teaching and learning process. It suggests that teacher training programs should further improve the skills of classroom study and collaborative learning with colleagues. Furthermore, the

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved.

The results of this study also indicated that certain aspects of teacher preparation programs need to be improved; for example, participants reported in the survey that they had the least confidence in their preparation for student assessment, which is in line with conclusion reported in previous studies (Alkharusi, 2011)

targeted by their preparation programs during their work in Qatari governmental schools. This is also consistent with the conclusion of the qualitative analysis, in which all participants confidently evaluated themselves as being ready to perform the part of a teacher in the areas of teaching skills, professional knowledge, and professional disposition. It is noteworthy that these results contradict the findings of (Goh, Yusuf, & Wong, 2017), who found that there is significant variation among novice teachers regarding their perceptions of their competencies and that these perceptions are subject to different situations and the quality of teaching preparation program.

This result suggests a gap between the theories teachers learn in their teacher preparation programs and the practice of teaching in schools, and it more explicitly suggests explicitly that assessment theory is far from the real practice of diverse assessment methods. This aspect deserves more attention in teacher preparation programs in terms of providing student teachers with more chances to understand the reality of work life in schools regarding developing diverse assessment techniques and, in particular, using assessment as a way to encourage student learning. The results of the interview corroborated the quantitative results, further revealed the concern of the participants about developing evaluation methods that promote student learning, and highlighted evaluation techniques as a critical issue among novice teachers, who consider the grades and scores of the students to be the only way to assess their performance. While the evaluation is already recognized as important teaching ability, one suggestion for teacher training programs would be to further improve the effectiveness of teachers in evaluating students in a manner that helps them achieve their maximum potential.

The researchers conducted a study on two groups of teachers by drawing a comparison between teachers with less than one year of experience and teachers with one to three years of experience. No differences were found between these two groups in terms of their perception of their teaching skills following the outcomes of the qualitative analysis. Similarly, the outcomes of the t test in the quantitative analysis also found no differences in the perceptions of the two groups, as all participants were confident in their readiness to teach.

qualitative data revealed the impact of teaching performance on student learning gains, with a variety of evidence provided by the participant teachers. Some of the teachers in this context identified the positive impact of their teaching on student performance based on the scores and grades of the students. However, some of the teachers provided evidence of a positive teaching impact on student performance based on students’ interpersonal skills development. In this regard, one of the respondents found improvement in students’ speaking skills after the end of the year This is validated by the work of (Adnot, Dee, Katz, & Wyckoff, 2017), who found that effective teaching performance tends to have a significant impact on students’ interpersonal skills, as effective teachers increase student confidence and enable them to develop these skills to their full potential. It means that teacher training services already provide student teachers with specific opportunities to improve their communication skills for student teachers to enhance their communication, interpersonal, and teamwork skills so that they can better use those skills to facilitate learning for their students. Moreover, the results of the interviews outline a visualized strategy as an active technique through which teachers can influence the performance of their students. The result is consistent with a study by (Kucher & Kerren, 2015), who found that visual representation of information positively influences students’ performance and helps increase their knowledge of a particular subject 5.2 Points missing from teacher preparation programs

This study also attempted to analyze the challenges that come across by novice teachers while applying their knowledge and skills in their teaching profession.

The responses of the interviewees also highlighted that a lack of experience and ability to cope with different situations is another critical challenge faced by most of the novice teachers. In this context, the outcomes highlighted an instance in which a respondent faced difficulties in dealing with three year old children, as they require a different style of teaching. Similarly, the style and approach of teaching are highly subject to different situations and factors, which implies that teachers are responsible for being adaptable for being able to change their teaching styles as per the requirements (Collie & Martin, 2016). Based on our

The qualitative interview data reported a variety of opinions concerning the problems they had met, and half the participants had experienced the challenge of differentiation, or in other words, the ability of teachers to identify the differences between the students and to fulfill the needs of each student (Coubergs, Struyven, Vanthournout, & Engels, 2017). The responses also indicated that this challenge is mainly due to a lack of focus on differentiation techniques in teaching preparation programs. According to Coubergs, Struyven, Vanthournout, & Engels (2017), the increasing diversity of the student body is raising some severe difficulties for teachers, who often find it difficult completely to understand a student’ s attitude in terms of their concerns, needs, and ways of thinking. Understanding a student’s position ultimately defines the performance of the teacher. Therefore, the findings of this study and the findings of the previous literature suggest that different approaches require more attention in teacher preparation programs.

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Since this study highlighted the significance of training in the field of education for both novice teachers and qualified teachers, it will help to enhance the educational system in Qatar. Skilled teachers will be able to refine their skills, while novice teachers will learn to implement many teaching practices. Moreover, different schools and colleges can enhance their teacher development practices by using the discussed teacher training in their institutional processes.

5.4 Limitations and future research directions of the study

Given the accessibility issues for the researcher, the study was limited to a sample size of ninety five participants. The study was also limited to the geographical bounds of Qatar and Q University. The findings of the study, therefore, remain provisional and have a few limitations. First, the findings are mainly derived from teachers’ views, which could be further validated through a comparison with other perspectives like mentors and colleagues from schools, instructors from the training program, and students. Second, the current study mainly focuses on novice teachers working in governmental schools in Qatar. Therefore, further studies may include novice teachers working in international schools, who usually graduated in other countries, and thus provide an additional perspective to examine the effect of teacher preparation programs in the current study. Third, the outcome of the study may be further enriched by and compared with other sources of data, such as classroom observations and narratives. For future studies, the sample size could be increased, while other methodological techniques could be adopted.

Further, this study divided the novice teachers into two groups: very beginner teachers with less than one year of experience and teachers with one to three years of experience. Neither the quantitative nor the qualitative outcomes revealed differences between these groups. Even the identified difficulties were more individualized as opposed to being associated with a specific group.

The results of this study have the following implications. First, the study contributes to the literature by bringing in novice teachers’ perspectives on their teaching competencies as supported by their teacher preparation program. The study also identified a few of the problems that the novice teachers encounter that deserve attention from both teacher preparation programs and schools. Second, more efforts to bridge programs and schools are necessary to prepare teachers in their early careers better.

Furthermore, the findings of this study on the challenges faced by teachers are also consistent with the findings of the previous literature, implying there is a significant need to address all of these problems to maintain the competencies of teachers.

5.3 Contribution of the study

findings, it can, therefore, be stated that teacher preparation programs must place more emphasis on providing training on how to cope with a variety of situations while maintaining the highest level of teaching.

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The participants selected had given diverse opinions regarding the impact of the development programs preparing them for the future. The novice teachers found the programs significantly growing them in their confidence and self sufficiency to become strong teachers in practice. Moreover, the teachers were able to develop innovative skills to build the learning capability of the students in the future. The overall analysis confirms that teacher preparation programs are necessary to help novice teachers place firm grounds in the educational career. To formulate a strong study in the future, it is suggested the research be backed with valid methods to be used to analyze the impacts. The impact analysis was focused mainly on using the academic administrations and the teachers as participants to assess the worth of the preparation programs. References Abu Tineh, A. M., & Sadiq, H. M. (2018). Characteristics and models of effective professional development: the case of school teachers in Qatar. Professional Development in Education, 44(2), 311 322.

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Keywords: Student Identity; Educational Policy; Bildung; Competence; Compliance 1 Corresponding author: Fred Rune Bjordal, fred.r.bjordal@hiof.no

Abstract. Drawing on a study of five Norwegian white papers from the period 2003 2013, this article illuminates how student identity is discursively negotiated and constructed in educational policy documents in a period of transformation in Norwegian education. By employing discourse analysis using ‘the student’ as a nodal point, the white papers are analysed in four phases: (1) identify identity resources, (2) construct subject positions, (3) cluster subject positions into student identities, and (4) identify the discursive governing of student identities. Our analysis of the documents shows how the policy documents draw on traditional and well known educational discourses, but also how a new discourse, ‘The discourse of compliance’, emerges in this period. In particular, the article discusses possible challenges and dilemmas that might arise, such as the challenge of ‘metonymic transfer’ and ‘the temporal dilemma’, when student identity is negotiated and constructed in the intersection of different educational ideologies and discourses.

136 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 136 158, January 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.1.8

The Discursive Governing of Elementary School Student Identity in Norwegian Educational Policy

2000 2015 Fred Rune Bjordal1 Østfold University College Halden, Norway Gunn Elisabeth Søreide University of Bergen Bergen, Norway

The article also elucidates how ‘The discourse of compliance’ is relevant for the development of the new Norwegian educational reform of 2020. Our findings are of interest for all actors within the educational context and underscore the importance of investigating student identity in policy research. The article also lays the groundwork for several suggested approaches for further research on the topic.

However, a recent study investigating the initiating document of an ongoing educational reform (Reform 2020) in Norway illuminates how neo liberal educational ideas and traditional ideas and values from social democratic, Bildung, and progressive traditions intertwine in Norwegian educational policy (Hilt et al., 2019) Additionally, Skarpenes (2014), Prøitz and Aasen (2017), Helgøy and Homme (2016), and Vislie (2008) show how these traditional values and neo liberal educational ideals intertwine, merge and/or support each other, both in the period before, during and after the development and implementation

This article illuminates and discusses how Norwegian educational policy documents discursively negotiate and construct elementary school student identity in a period of transformation in Norwegian educational policy. The aim of this article is to demonstrate how policy documents construct ‘the student’ and to discuss the possible consequences and dilemmas this construction might cause for schools and students. This article will also show how global, neo liberal educational ideas are incorporated and negotiated in national educational policy (Dale, 1999) where social democratic values, the Bildung tradition, and progressive pedagogy have previously held a strong position.

Introduction and background

The fact that Norwegian pupils performed worse than expected on the first PISA test, combined with a conservative government from 2001 to 2005, paved the way for the 2006 ‘knowledge promotion’ (K06) educational reform (Prøitz & Aasen, 2017; Skarpenes, 2014; Wiborg, 2013), a reform that marks a significant change toward an emphasis on more neo liberal educational ideas in Norway.

From the late 1980s elements of neo liberal educational and governing ideas have been gradually introduced in Norwegian education (Hansen, 2011; Helgøy & Homme, 2016; Hovdenak & Stray, 2015). However, both educational policy and curriculum in Norway has mainly been influenced by a combination of ideas originating from social democratic values, the Bildung tradition, and progressive pedagogy. This strong influence, as well as a cross political consensus in Norway’s parliament on the “public provision of education, organized along comprehensive lines”, (Wiborg, 2013, p. 420) made Norwegian education relatively resistant to neo liberal policies throughout the 1980s and 1990s (Wiborg, 2013). This changed at the beginning of the new millennium, with what has been characterised as ‘the PISA shock’ (Prøitz & Aasen, 2017).

The increased emphasis on neo liberal ideas in the K06 reform resulted in explicit and tangible changes in the Norwegian educational sector, such as an increased focus on the relationship between education and employability and the transition from a curriculum with content specifications to a curriculum stating measurable learning outcomes. The curricular change was also accompanied by an increased focus on outcomes and evidence in the governing of schools, resulting in the implementation of accountability systems and a national framework for quality control (Prøitz & Aasen, 2017). The introduction of educational ideas steaming from neo liberalism in Norwegian educational policy has continued throughout the first decades of the millennium (Hilt, Riese, & Søreide, 2019; Prøitz & Aasen, 2017; Skarpenes, 2014; Wiborg, 2013).

This adoption might also be why Norway’s educational policy framework has been relatively consistent throughout the first decade of the new millennium In 2005 a centre socialist government (Stoltenberg II) replaced the conservative government (Bondevik II). The Stoltenberg II government mainly continued the conservative government’s educational policy trajectory and implemented K06 with only minor adjustments (Telhaug, 2011; Tolo, 2011; Wiborg, 2013)

Although brief, this introduction shows how the development of Norwegian educational policy, in the period 2000 2015, is simultaneously characterised by change of, merging with and stability in educational ideas. As different policy ideas and discourses grant access to different student identities, it is especially interesting to investigate the discursive negotiation of student identities in these periods of transformation. Nevertheless, few studies have explicitly focused on how policy discursively constructs student identity in this period in Norway, although there are a few studies that discuss the relationship between policy and how groups of students are categorised. Skarpenes and Nilsen (2014) discuss how assessment policies might classify and categorise groups of Norwegian students as deviant and in need of special attention and special needs education. Skarpenes (2014) also uses Norway as an example to discuss how the merge of ideas from progressive education and neoliberalism construct a specific form of individuality that underwrites educational policy and practice. This, he claims, has resulted in a focus on self regulation and adaptive education that might alienate and exclude groups of students. In our research we build on the above mentioned research on Norwegian educational policy (2000 2013) and the discussions on how this policy “make up” categories of students. By using a discourse analytical approach our article contributes with more detailed insights into how educational policy documents, in this first decade of the new millennium, draw on both neo liberal and more traditional Norwegian educational discourses in the construction of student identities. However, our analyses also show how a new ‘discourse of compliance’, often associated with neo liberal identity, is introduced in this period. Theoretical framework In this article, we draw on Foucault’s understanding of power as a nonessential, relational phenomenon that regulates meaning and identity (Alvesson & Sköldberg, 1994, p. 303). Based on this understanding of power, we consider white papers to be an institutional act and part of a complex discursive system which controls subjects (Andreasson, 2007) through the construction and governance of identity. Further, our understanding of the construction and governing of identity is framed by discourse theory (Laclau & Mouffe, 2014;

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. of the K06 reform in 2006. Apparently, instead of replacing central, traditional educational values, such as a unified educational system, solidarity and inclusion, neo liberal educational ideology seems to be adapted and adjusted in dialogue with traditions in the Norwegian context (Hilt et al., 2019; Prøitz & Aasen, 2017).

The analysis of the empirical material is inspired by approaches to discourse analysis (Alvesson & Willmott, 2002; Andreasson, 2007; Jørgensen, 2002; Krüger, 2000; Schei, 2007; Søreide, 2007) that are compatible with the theoretical framework described above. In the following sections, we will firstly give a brief introduction of the five white papers that constitute the empirical material before we describe the more specific analytical phases.

Material As described in the introduction, the first 15 years of the new millennium (2000 2015) comprised an especially interesting period when it comes to the discursive

Method

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Torfing, 2003). Discourse theory emphasises discourses’ significance in the construction of identity, as discourses regulate the way we think, speak and act in/about life (Bjordal, 2016). One of the ways discourses construct and regulate identity is by offering identity resources or subject positions. Subject positions are patterns of thought, speech and act. Identity is constructed by the way individuals and groups of people are assigned and/or consciously and unconsciously choose from the accessible palette of discursively constructed subject positions. When subject positions cluster or they are combined in certain ways, they form identities (Søreide, 2007). White papers can, in other words, be understood as a circulating power which implicitly and/or explicitly constitutes discursive patterns of thought, speech and action (Schei, 2007), or student Inidentities.periods of transition and change, several discourses will have access to, and attempt to regulate, the field of education, and educational policy can, in such periods, be defined as a “field of discursivity” (Torfing, 2003). The field of discursivity can be described as a space where different discourses meet and negotiate definitions of elements. This space is neither completely outside nor inside a discourse, but an area that is “… discursively constructed within a terrain of unfixity” (Torfing, 2003, p. 92), leaving a number of discursively constructed elements, such as student identity, open for negotiation. This negotiation between discourses is not to be understood as a fight for existence, but more as a game of domination (Torfing, 2003). The metaphor ‘playing field’ is therefore deliberately preferred in favour of ‘battlefield’ when the ‘field of discursivity’ is described In this playing field, the discursive negotiation over meaning and identity can play out in different ways. If a discourse, or a bundle of discourses, becomes dominant in the definition of student identity, the result is hegemony. However, it is also in the field of discursivity where antagonisms are revealed and most visible. Antagonisms, or conflicts, are necessary for discursive negotiations to exist, and arise when two or more discourses block each other’s definition of elements (Jørgensen & Phillips, 1999; Torfing, 2003). In a later section of this article, we will show precisely how three different discourses negotiate over meaning and identity in the policy documents. First, we will describe the material and the analytical approach.

2) Report No. 16 to the Parliament (2006 2007) “Early Intervention for Lifelong Learning” [Tidlig innsats for livslang læring]: This white paper is a part of the government’s pursuit to reduce social and economic differences in society. Through early intervention and support for students that struggle with their learning, kindergartens and schools must ensure the opportunity for a high quality learning outcome and the completion of basic and upper secondary education for all students. According to the report, these educational measures will enhance opportunities for social mobility and participation in society, working life and lifelong learning.

140 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. negotiation over educational policy ideas and student identities in a Norwegian context. We have therefore selected white papers for analysis that are published in this period. A white paper is a document that reports the Norwegian government’s ideas and policies within a particular field to the Parliament (Norwegian Government Security and Service Organisation, 2016). White papers from the Ministry of Education will consequently represent the current government’s future policy ideas and initiatives for the educational sector. The selected white papers include descriptions of general expectations and goals for all pupils in all elementary and lower secondary schools in Norway. White papers that, for instance, exclusively focus on special needs education or inclusion of pupils from minority language groups were excluded. Based on the above criteria, we selected the following five white papers for analysis:

3) Report No. 14 to the Parliament (2008 2009) “Internationalisation of Education in Norway” [Internasjonalisering av utdanninga]: This white paper proposes a series of measures with the intention to ensure that students on all levels develop the necessary skills to act and interact in what is described as an increasingly globalised world.

1) Report No. 30 to the Parliament (2003 2004) “A Culture for Learning” [Kultur for læring]: As an element of the introduction of a (low stakes) accountability system in the governing of schools, this white paper replaced a content based curriculum with descriptions of learning outcomes/expected competencies for students. The report also introduced five basic skills: 1) oral and 2) written communication, 3) reading, 4) numeracy and 5) digital competencies.

4) Report No. 22 to the Parliament (2010 2011) “Motivation Ability Possibilities” [Motivasjon Mestring Muligheter]: This white paper specifically focusses on lower secondary education and how schools and teachers must work to stimulate and uphold a feeling of mastery and motivation for learning in students grade 8 10. Such motivation is presented as vital for the students’ learning and thereby for their future possibilities in education, society and working life.

5) Report No. 20 to the Parliament (2012 2013) “On the right path” [På rett vei]: The purpose of this white paper is to introduce measures so that comprehensive education in Norway can be better equipped to face pupil’s

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. needs and abilities, as well as the expected future demands of society and working life. Analysis Due to its capacity to investigate text, language and communication processes (Jørgensen & Phillips, 1999) we use discourse analysis as an analytical approach, to analyse the text in the policy documents Discourse analysis also has the capacity to identify how student identity is communicated and discursively constructed in the policy documents. As underscored in the theoretical framework, different discourses use different semantics to conceptualise ‘the student’ in different ways. These conceptions give students access to a variety of identity resources, or subject positions, which again cluster and construct identities. In the analysis, ‘the student’ is therefore perceived as a “nodal point” (Laclau & Mouffe, 2014) that several discourses aim to fill with meaning. The analytical aim is thus first to identify what identity resources, or subject positions, the documents offer students, second to identify how these resources construct student identity and third how student identity is discursively governed and negotiated. The analytical procedures of the documents consist of four main phases, which we describe in the following. The first author conducted the analyses. However, all categories, codes and findings were discussed with the second author, who has extended experience with the analytical approaches and procedures and is familiar with the selected documents. First, expectations and descriptions in the documents of what pupils should know, do, feel, learn, and perform were identified and excerpted. The excerpts were then thematically categorised. These categories constituted the base for the construction of 23 subject positions that were listed, numbered and described (see appendix 1). The numbers representing each subject position were then used to code the policy documents. This second phase of the analytical process illuminated the distribution of accessible subject positions within and across the five documents. The third phase of the analysis identified how subject positions cluster and construct student identities. In total, 10 student identities were constructed and described in this phase (appendix 2). In qualitative analyses transparency in the analytical process is vital, as it enables readers to assess if findings are reasonable given the theoretical framework, the material and the analytical process. To ensure such transparency and reader validity, appendix 3 exemplifies how findings from phase three build on findings from phase two, which in turn are built on the findings from the first phase of the analytical process. Finally, we identified how three discourses govern the 10 student identities in the policy documents. This analytical phase had two theory-informed discourses, namely ‘The Bildung discourse’ and ‘The competence discourse’ as a point of departure. Throughout the analysis, it became evident, however, that a third discourse, termed ‘The discourse of compliance’, was also active in the construction and negotiation of identity resources and student identities. In the following, we will first give a brief description of the three discourses before we show how they govern and negotiate hegemony over the student identities identified in the documents.

The discourses As mentioned above, the final part of the analysis considers two theory informed discourses, ‘The Bildung discourse’ and ‘The competence discourse’, as a point of departure. These two discourses were initially selected based on our historical knowledge of the development and changes in Norwegian educational policy. As described in the introduction, Bildung is a phenomenon which has deep roots in Norwegian education, and the focus on competence and employability are increasingly emphasised in educational policy from the turn of the millennium. In the process of categorising identity resources and identifying student identities, a third discourse, ‘The discourse of compliance’, emerged from the material. In the following paragraphs, we will provide an account of the three discourses along with some examples of semantic indications of their presence in the documents.

In our definition of the ‘The Bildung discourse’, the critical and non instrumental aspects of human existence are underscored. The latter draws on the idea that knowledge, relationships and things we do as humans have an intrinsic value. For instance, learning and knowing are considered important and valuable in its own right, regardless of whether what is learned will eventually result in better grades or better jobs. The critical aspect of Bildung entails the idea that, although it is important to learn as well as adjust to the norms and rules of the society, both learning and adjustments should be done in a critical and reflective way. This definition builds on the concept of paideia (Doseth, 2011; Myhre, 2009; Solerød, 2014), which takes its meaning from the ancient Greeks and refers to an individual’s active and conscious enculturation into society (Doseth, 2011) Adjusting to society requires comprehension and acceptance of the present social structures, but also an awareness of opportunities for evaluating and altering these existing structures (Torjussen, 2011). Consequently, individuals can contribute to both the upholding and the change and development of social rules and structures.

Semantic indications of the presence of ‘The Bildung discourse’ in the empirical material are words such as ‘democracy’, ‘democratic understanding’, ‘cooperative learning’, ‘student participation’, ‘student council’, ‘class council’ and ‘student influence’. These words are connected to qualities of Bildung that encourage a critical approach to and understanding and development of the society. These words are central in the descriptions of the subject positions that construct, for example, the student identity of ‘the democratic student’.

The competence discourse

The more instrumental and performative aspects of education are core to the way we define ‘The competence discourse’. This definition is based on the Latin origin of competence, competentia, which refers to having enough knowledge, sound judgment, skills or strength to perform satisfactorily and attain a requisite outcome (Lai, 1995, p. 17). To perform adequately means to use the things you know in a way that meets the demands of the situation you are in (Gullichsen, 1992, p. 7), whether these demands are explicated as expected educational

The Bildung discourse

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‘The competence discourse’ is also very much future oriented. First, because the skills, knowledge and competences students learn and develop in school should be relevant for their future life as students and employees. Second, and in slight contrast to the former, this future orientation positions the student as a lifelong learner. To be a lifelong learner means to face the demands from an increasingly uncertain future society and working life and to acknowledge the need for continuous learning and development to be employable and able to perform adequately.

Semantic indications of the presence of ‘the competence discourse’ in the empirical material are words such as ‘continuing education’, ‘competence’, ‘competence goals’, ‘career’, ‘labour’ ‘labour market’, ‘entrepreneurship’ and ‘mapping tools’. These words are examples retrieved from subject positions constructing, for example, the student identity of ‘The goal oriented student’. The discourse of compliance In the analytical process, we identified how words, text segments, codes and thematic categories drew on ‘The Bildung discourse’ or ‘The competence discourse’. However, some words, text segments, codes and thematic categories were not completely aligned with either of these two discourses. For instance, some text segments describing students overlapped to a large degree with our definition of ‘The Bildung discourse’, but with a significant lack of key semantic indications such as ‘reflection’ and ‘critical thinking’. In other words, there seemed to be an analytical gap between ‘The Bildung discourse’ and ‘The competence discourse’. In our attempts to understand and frame these semantic indications more theoretically, we turned to the Norwegian philosopher Hellesnes’ (1999) discussions on socialisation. In these discussions, Bildung and a more compliant attitude are characterised separately. In contrast to socialisation as Bildung, socialisation as compliance indicates a non reflective and non critical acceptance of the social conditions of which the individual is a part (Hellesnes, 1999, p. 25). With the above as a backdrop, our definition of ‘The discourse of compliance’ positions the individual as somebody who accept, internalise and submit to the available social frameworks, norms and rules. Education and socialisation are consequently perceived as unilateral enterprises, where the society is active, and the individual is positioned as a far more passive spectator of its socialisation

learning outcomes or tasks to be handled in a workplace. In this discourse, it is consequently not so much the things learners know that are important, but how they now and (in the future, will) transform their knowledge into competencies that enable them to perform adequately. In ‘The competence discourse’, knowledge and competence are therefore valued by their utility to society as a whole, but more importantly to businesses, professions and workplaces (Gullichsen, 1992, p. 7; Nordhaug, 1990, p. 19). Hence, an instrumental or functionalistic understanding of knowledge and education is a crucial feature of the way we define this discourse.

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process. This discourse does not emphasise insight into how power relations govern and control the existence of the individual as a part of education and socialisation. Consequently, students might interpret all difficulties as personal and self inflicted (Hellesnes, 1999, p. 25), as the ulterior and societal causes to the difficulties they encounter are under communicated (Torjussen, 2011).

Student identities

Figure 1: Visualisation of identities and their governing discourses

Student identity 1: The knowledge oriented student Lifelong learning and subject specific knowledge are the core elements of this student identity. The basic skills and subject specific knowledge the student learn, are used as a foundation for the desire to constantly acquire more knowledge. This identity consequently positions the student in a constant and lifelong search for more knowledge. The significance of knowledge and lifelong learning to this student identity can be interpreted as a will to attain enlightenment and a recognition of the intrinsic value of learning and knowledge. It is, therefore, possible to argue that this identity is regulated by ‘The Bildung discourse’. However, lifelong learning is currently closely associated with employability and the ability to adjust to a flexible and changing working life, and thereby also incorporates the instrumental aspects of ‘The competence discourse’. There are few explicit descriptions in the material of precisely what knowledge students should acquire and how this knowledge should be learned It is therefore unclear whether this identity promotes an unreflective reproduction of existing

In this section, we will present the ten student identities we identified in the analysis. Further, we will show (see Figure 1 below) and explicate how these identities are governed by the three discourses presented above. These descriptions are complemented by appendix 1 3.

This student identity positions the student as highly motivated, not only to learn but also to educate herself. She is interested and eager to learn in all situations and highly values all opportunities to access new knowledge. This student is therefore thankful for all learning opportunities and explicitly appreciates the opportunities to learn and access knowledge that education offers.

The process of socialising young people for the world as global citizens with knowledge about languages, cultures and the benefits and challenges of a multicultural and global world, is traditionally closely connected to ‘The Bildung discourse’. However, the significance of language and national and global cultural knowledge in this identity is not framed as important due to its intrinsic value or to stimulate reflection. These competencies are underscored because

This student identity is firmly grounded in a positive attitude towards learning and knowledge, which is an indication that the identity draws on ‘the Bildung discourse’ in its will to attain enlightenment. Importantly, this positive attitude is also clearly directed toward education. This direction, in turn, can be understood not so much as a will to achieve enlightenment, but rather an intention to educate oneself, which is a slightly different undertaking, as it very well might imply a more instrumental attitude towards future employability. Thus, it can be argued, this student identity might also draw on central elements of ‘The competence discourse’. Finally, in the description of the motivated student, a certain submissiveness can be found in the use of words such as ‘appreciate’, ‘thankful’ and ‘opportunities’. This can imply an expectation that students should accept and be grateful for the opportunity to be educated, rather than to critically reflect on their educational opportunities. This final point illustrates how this student identity also might draw on elements from ‘The discourse of compliance’, as well as ‘The competence discourse’ and ‘The Bildung discourse’. In other words, there is room for all three discourses to actively negotiate the more precise meaning of significant elements in both of these first identities. Likewise, the third identity presented below is governed by all three discourses. In this third identity, the dominant position of two of the discourses is more easily identified.

Student identity 3: The global student The global student is positioned as someone who is eager to learn about Norwegian culture and heritage as well as other cultures. She is also focused on learning multiple languages. This student will actively use her language and cultural knowledge as a tool to build friendships and collaboration, bridge different cultures both nationally and internationally, and to ensure that she is well prepared to function optimally in a multicultural and global future society. Although globally oriented, she will also use this knowledge to preserve Norwegian culture, heritage and identity in this future society.

Student identity 2: The motivated student

146 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. they equip the student with useful tools to cope with, function in, and adapt to a future society. Consequently, this identity predominantly draws on the instrumental aspects of ‘The competence discourse’, as well as the significant adaptive element of ‘The discourse of compliance’.

The following four student identities are all governed by two of the discourses, in different combinations. Here it varies to what degree it is possible to identify the dominant discourse in the hegemonic struggle over the identities.

This student is conscious and constantly aware of her learning processes and which study techniques that enable her to learn the best. Consequently, she reflects on and takes responsibility for her learning processes. This makes her an efficient learner, as it enables her to keep the right focus on learning, to utilise all learning opportunities and to maximise her learning outcome throughout her educational career. At first glance, this student identity’s explicit focus on reflection and responsibility seem to draw on central characteristics of ‘The Bildung discourse’. Yet, the equally explicit focus on effective learning situates the reflection and responsibility within a more instrumental frame associated with ‘The competence discourse’. Still, one might argue that ‘effective learning’ can also be conceptualised in line with ‘The Bildung discourse’, if effectiveness is understood as a drive and will to be enlightened and educated. Although this identity draws on both discourses, the way ‘effective learning’ is connected to utilisation of learning opportunities and maximisation of learning outcomes indicates the dominant position of ‘The competence discourse’ over ‘The Bildung discourse’ in the discursive negotiation of this identity.

Student identity 5: The confident and content student

This identity positions the student as someone who thrives at school and considers school to be a secure place to be and to learn. This student flourishes academically and socially. Her academic accomplishments and confidence, as well as her social surplus, enable her to contribute to an inclusive, positive and safe learning environment, where her fellow students also can thrive. Consequently, she has good relations with other students as well as teachers.

This identity is governed by both ‘The Bildung discourse’ and ‘The discourse of compliance’. The former is visible in the central position wellbeing, inclusion, accomplishment, socialisation and good social relationships take up in this identity. To be academically and socially confident and competent is valued as important in themselves. However, there are no semantic indications of critical reflection about how students are socialised into school or the way schooling is done, connected to this student identity. This identity positions the student as someone who thrives under the current circumstances. Students are consequently also expected to acknowledge and adapt to school’s academic and social expectations, traditions and context, rather than to challenge them. In sum, this indicates a dominant governing function of ‘The discourse of compliance’.

Student identity 4: The reflective and responsible learner

The democratic student values cooperation and working in groups. However, she underscores that cooperation and collective processes, both in the classroom and in the society at large, must be framed by democratic principles that ensure participation and enable everybody involved to contribute to the process.

This identity positions the student as someone who strives to perform and deliver results at her best ability. This student is therefore always, implicitly or explicitly, competing against her own and others’ accomplishments to ensure that results and performances are in accordance with expected learning outcomes. For the same reason, she is always eager to have her academic accomplishments assessed and compared to fellow students’ and her previous Thework.focus on performance, learning outcomes and comparison underscored in this identity is in line with neo liberal educational policy ideas that advocate the comparison of individuals’, schools’ and national states’ abilities to perform in accordance with pre defined quality indicators. These educational ideas are also central to ‘The competence discourse’. ‘The competing student’ is, in other words, an identity that draws heavily on the performative elements of ‘The competence discourse’. In the material that constitutes this student identity, the student is positioned as well adjusted and well functioning in a competitive and performative educational context. This indicates that ‘The discourse of compliance’ is also significant in the governing of this student identity. These seven first identities are subject to discursive negotiation over significant elements of the identities. This means that there is a hegemonic struggle between two or all three discourses over these identities. The final three identities presented below are, on the other hand, more clearly governed by one dominant discourse. Student identity 8: The socially well functioning student The socially well functioning student is positioned as law abiding and socially competent. She is concerned with norms, laws and regulations, and considers it

Student identity 6: The democratic student

The collaborative and participative attitude and democratic thinking that characterises this student identity are easily associated with values that are central to ‘The Bildung discourse’. This will, however, presuppose critical reflection as a significant part of the democratic, participatory and cooperative attitude that is so central to this identity. There are no explicit semantic indications of such reflection and critical thinking when it comes to ‘The democratic student’. As already underscored, the lack of reflection and critical thinking will be at odds with ‘The Bildung discourse’ In sum, this might be an indication that ‘The democratic student’ identity is governed in the overlap between ‘The Bildung discourse’ and ‘The discourse of compliance’. Neither of the discourses are dominant. Student identity 7: The competing student

Compliance with the society’s social and juridical laws and rules as well as social competence are vital skills for ‘The socially well functioning student’. The focus is on socialisation and incorporation into society. Although the focus on socialisation might indicate the presence of ‘The Bildung discourse’, the identity’s dominant focus on learning established social frameworks does not really open the opportunity for (re)construction of social, ethical or normative frameworks. Thus, this student identity constructs students who rather adapt to, than critically reflect over, the established norms, laws and rules. Consequently, we can argue for the dominant position of ‘The discourse of compliance’ in the governing of this identity.

This student does her best not to become a socio economic burden, both as a student and as a future citizen. She aims to be an active and economically profitable contributor to society throughout her life. As a student, she therefore consciously makes sound and appropriate educational choices and avoid selecting the ‘wrong’ educational trajectories that might be at odds with future career goals. In addition to being conscious about her educational and professional choices, this student also focuses on living as healthy as possible, both physically and mentally, to avoid being a burden to the welfare state Thissystem.student identity is based on the idea that in and through their educational efforts, all citizens should ensure that they are useful to society, employable and as light a burden as possible. The explicit instrumental, economic and future oriented features of this student identity make it rather apparent that this identity is dominated by ‘The competence discourse’.

This identity positions the student as confident about her future professional career. She consequently uses her education to consciously and systematically discover, develop and improve her talents in accordance with these career plans.

vital for a well functioning society that people know and act in accordance with social and juridical laws and norms. The student is thus interested in learning the social codes that regulate different social situations and relationships.

For the same reason, she also makes school activities as relevant and useful as possible for her perceived future career. Within this student identity, talent development and school activities are valued due to their relevance and significance for the student’s future professional career. The instrumental, functionalistic and future oriented aspects are so strong that it is difficult not to conclude that ‘The competence discourse’ has a hegemonic position in the governing of this identity.

Student identity 10: The socio economically conscious student

Student identity 9: The goal oriented student

The theoretical framework and the empirical findings presented above, creates a backdrop for a discussion about the relationships between the three discourses: are the relationships of an antagonistic nature, are one of the discourses dominant, or do the discourses support and strengthen each other, creating a cooperative hegemony of values, meanings and identities?

The analyses also show how ‘The discourse of compliance’ gains a significant position in Norwegian educational policy in the first decade of the new millennium. Also, this discourse is involved in the governing of a majority of student identities, although its presence is not so explicitly linguistically identifiable as the ‘The competence discourse’. The introduction of ‘The discourse of compliance’ is nevertheless an important element in the policy changes experienced in Norway over the last two decades. The features of ‘The discourse of compliance’ are highly associated with neo liberal educational ideas (Hodgson, 2019). It could, therefore, be argued that the introduction of ‘The discourse of compliance’ and the student identities it regulates, facilitates the emphasis on neoliberal ideas such as self regulation and responsibilism (Hodgson, 2019), that characterises student identity in the current ongoing Norwegian educational “Reform 2020” (Hilt et al., 2019; Riese, Hilt, & Søreide, in Wpress).

hen ‘The discourse of compliance’ regulate identities in tandem with ‘The competence discourse’ the two discourses strengthen each other. As identities that draw on ‘The discourse of compliance’ more easily accept, internalise and submit to available social and normative frameworks, these identities will be more open to the core values of ‘The competence discourse’. It can be argued that the two discourses exist in a complementary, rather than an excluding

To identify and assess the strength of the three discourses in the regulation of student identities is not a straightforward matter. In our analyses, the strength and dominance of a discourse were identified by scrutinising the way values, goals, outcomes, knowledge and competencies, are legitimated in the policy documents. Based on this, we will argue that the governing of the student identities is slightly dominated by ‘The competence discourse’. The instrumental aspects of ‘The competence discourse’ are central in the legitimation of outcomes and competencies in the documents. This situates ‘The competence discourse’ in a dominant position when student identities are governed by this discourse in combination with one or both of the two other discourses. ‘The competence discourse’, either alone or alongside one of the other two discourses, is also involved in the regulation of the majority of the student identities we identified.

The discursive governing of student identity: some issues and dilemmas As Figure 1 (page 144) and the above presentation of identities and discourses show, all three discourses are involved in an ongoing, discursive game of hegemony. In the following sections, we will discuss some issues and dilemmas this regulative game over hegemony has evoked. Antagonistic, dominant or hegemonic discourses?

relationship where the two make up a hegemonic unity that has paved the way for other neoliberal values, such as the abovementioned emphasis on responsibilism and self regulation. Based on our understanding of how the discourses construct ‘the student’, the discursive relationship between ‘The Bildung discourse’ and the two other discourses is much more conflicting and even somewhat diametric. When student identities are governed by ‘The Bildung discourse’ in combination with the other discourses, the struggle over meaning are more a question of either or: Are students expected to critically reflect over knowledge (‘The Bildung discourse’) or are they expected to accept and reproduce what they learn (‘The discourse of compliance’)? The relationships between the ‘The Bildung discourse’ and the two other discourses are, in other words, antagonistic. This antagonism can create tensions, but also opens the opportunity for students to identify with different variations of policy constructed identities.

However, as ‘The competence discourse’ arguably expands and is joined by ‘The discourse of compliance’, the game of defining and controlling how ‘the student’ should be understood is changing. In the analysed documents ‘The competence discourse’, accompanied by ‘The discourse of compliance’, clearly dominates the triadic game of definition. This weakens the governing power ‘The Bildung discourse’ traditionally had over student identity, which again, as we will argue, is an indication of metonymic transfer. Metonymic transfer can be identified when one discourse takes control of a concept previously strongly connected to another discourse, initiating a new and competing definition of the concept (Torfing, 2003). Through this action, the ‘new’ discourse(s) strengthen their antagonistic position. Metonymic transfer is sometimes difficult to identify, as it might be the meaning of the words, and not necessarily the words themselves, that are changed. An example from our analysis where metonymic transfer is visible is in ‘The reflective and responsible learner’. As previously described, this identity draws on central characteristics of ‘The Bildung discourse’, with its explicit focus on reflection and responsibility. Framed by ‘The Bildung discourse’ a reflective and responsible learner reflects on the knowledge she is engaged with and on how this knowledge can make her a responsible person. However, when reflection and responsibility are framed by ‘The competence discourse’ and efficiency, utilisation of learning opportunities and maximising of learning outcomes, the meaning of the words change To be reflective is to be conscious of your learning process, and to be responsible is to utilise this consciousness to maximise your

Metonymic transfer As underscored in the introductory section of this article, Bildung has had a strong at least symbolically position in Norwegian education. Bildung is affiliated with the early stages of institutionalised education and the conception of ‘the student’ is closely linked to this institution. This indicates a hegemonic and robust relationship between ‘The Bildung discourse’ and the Norwegian conception of what a student is.

Concluding comment

Finally, we will discuss a dilemma that is temporal, as it is related to the tension between the present and the future in the policy documents we have investigated. In the documents, the student is partly situated as a child or teenager currently attending elementary school (grade 1 10). Simultaneously, many of the descriptions of expected skills, competencies, behaviours and values concern the students’ future adult identity. The temporal dilemma is especially evident in the many policy statements that describe what the student must learn in school to be prepared for upper secondary school, college and university, employment, or citizenship. There is a tension between a ‘here and now presence’ and an ‘in the future presence’, which indicates that the student must simultaneously concentrate on both states of presence.

The temporal dilemma

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. learning opportunities. In other words, although the words might be unchanged, the focus has shifted from what the students learn and how this can enlighten young people, to how efficient students learn. This example also shows how the policy documents intertwine neoliberal educational values, such as student efficiency and self regulation, with what we can call more traditional values, such as reflection, in the Norwegian educational system.

A dual focus on the present and the future is not unusual in educational policy and curricular texts. It is not controversial to argue that education is intended as preparation for something, implying that school is based on some kind of futurity. Although framed differently, a dual present/future perspective is also not exclusive to either of the three identified discourses. Nevertheless, we will argue that the dominant position of ‘The competence discourse’ and its strong instrumental features that value education in accordance with its usefulness amplify the temporal dilemma in the material we analysed. School becomes a time of transition focusing on the after education life rather than the present and on developing rather than being. Consequently, the student becomes more a “work in progress” (Daniels & Brooker, 2014) and less an elementary school student in his or her own right.

The construction and governing of identities are essential in all public policy initiatives (Béland, 2017; Hodgson, 2019; Mulderrig, 2019). The above presentation of student identities and their regulatory discourses shows how the logic surrounding the K06 reform not only resulted in explicit changes in curriculum and governing practices, but also in specific descriptions of what a student is, what a student should know and how a student should act and perform. Although often idealised, descriptions of and expectations for ‘the student’ in educational policy send very real messages to teachers, school leaders, school owners, parents, and most importantly, the students themselves about how to be a student. As student identities and the discourses that regulate them define normality and deviance, it is crucial to include analyses of identity in research investigating public policy.

Dale, R. (1999). Specifying globalization effects on national policy: A focus on the mechanisms. Journal Of Education Policy, 14(8), 1 17. Daniels,doi:10.1080/026809399286468J.,&Brooker,J.(2014).Student identity development in higher education: Implications for graduate attributes and work readiness. Educational Research, 56(1), 65 76. doi:10.1080/00131881.2013.874157 Doseth, M. (2011). Paideia selve fundamentet for vår forståelse av dannelse [Paideia the very foundation of our understanding of Bildung]. In S. Dobson & K. Steinsholt (Eds.), Dannelse: Introduksjon til et ullent pedagogisk landskap [Bildung: Introduction to a hazy educational landscape] (pp. 13 37). Trondheim: Tapir akademisk forlag. Gullichsen, A. H. (1992). Strategisk kompetanseutvikling eller profesjonsstyrt etterutdanning?: En analyse av opplæringsadferden i et utvalg kommuner [Strategic development of competence or professional development?: An analysis of training behavior in selected municipalities]. Trondheim: Norsk voksenpedagogisk forskningsinstitutt.

Kompetanse Danning Tilpasning: En analyse av hvordan tre diskurser forhandler om elevidentitet i politiske dokument [Competence Bildung Adjustment: An analysis of how three discourses negotiate student identity in political documents] (Master's Thesis). University of Bergen, Norway. Retrieved fromhttp://bora.uib.no/handle/1956/12952

Although we have discussed some issues and dilemmas that our analyses have evoked, what concrete, everyday consequences these policy constructed identities have for students and their teachers lies beyond the scope of this article. However, by this article we encourage further research on this topic. Further research might also explore the interface between policy and practice concerning the dilemmas reported in this study. Another interesting approach should be a comparative analysis of two or more countries’ educational policy documents and their construction and governing of student identities.

We would like to acknowledge the reviewers for their constructive comments and suggestions for improvement. No grants or funding has financed the research. References Alvesson, M., & Sköldberg, K. (1994). Tolkning och reflektion: Vetenskapsfilosofi och kvalitativ metod [Interpretation and reflection: Philosophy of science and qualitative method]. Lund: Studentlitteratur. Alvesson, M., & Willmott, H. (2002). Identity regulation as organizational control: Producing the appropriate individual. Journal of Management Studies, 39(5), 619 644. doi:10.1111/1467 6486.00305 Andreasson, I. (2007). Elevplanen som text om identitet, genus, makt och styrning i skolans elevdokumentation [The individual education plan as text. About identity, gender, power and governing in pupils] (PhD Thesis). University of Gothenburg, Sweden Béland, D. (2017). Identity, politics, and public policy. Critical Policy Studies, 11(1), 1 18. Bjordal,doi:10.1080/19460171.2016.1159140F.R.(2016).

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The student learns to perform and to be focused, persistent and hardworking.

13 The student is law abiding The student learns norms and laws that regulate the members of society

doi:10.1080/03050068.2012.700436 Appendix 1:

The student is oriented towards globalisation

The student experiences school as meaningful The student learns to notice how schoolwork is related to his/her other significant discourses.

10 The student is confident about future career choices The student learns which field of work/study is right for him/her, and thus avoids reselecting work/study.

The student learns to be goal oriented, deliver results and to be judged by the accomplished results

The student learns to master several foreign languages, oriented towards utilising this knowledge in adult life.

The student is motivated for learning

The student is motivated to learn and learns to become motivated to learn. The student is engaged in his/her own learning process

The student is responsible for his/her own learning

The student is oriented towards becoming a benefit to the society The student learns how to contribute for the benefit of the society.

17 The student is an efficient learner The student learns how to maximise his/her educational outcome, and thus avoids individual learning resources going to waste.

The student realises and develop/enhance his/her talent(s) The student learns to utilise latent and/or undeveloped abilities and/or talents.

The student is tolerant and inclusive

Vislie, L. (2008). Lifelong learning: A new framework for education in an era of globalisation? Nordic StudiesinEducation, 28(03), 161 172. Wiborg, S. (2013). Neo liberalism and universal state education: The cases of Denmark, Norway and Sweden 1980 2011. Comparative Education, 49(4), 407 423. Identified subject positions

Subject position Description

The student learns to be tolerant in relation to others’ prerequisites for learning

The student accomplishes and shows results

The student is positive about education

2 The student prepares for a multi cultural society The student learns to use knowledge about different cultures to show tolerance and to build ‘cultural bridges’.

The student scores high on international tests, and thus demonstrates that Norway is a “knowledge nation”.

The student learns basic skills as well as specialised knowledge in every school subject.

The student learns to see the usefulness of education and knowledge

The student acquires specialised knowledge

The student enjoys school The student thrives and feels secure at school.

The student reflects on his/her own learning The student learns to know his/her limitations and potentials for development.

The student is focused on becoming among the best in the world

The student learns to work with others to achieve goals and learns that collaboration is an important key to success

The student learns how Norwegian culture is created and why it is important to continue/develop this culture

The student learns to learn, and learns that learning can/should continue throughout life

The student is socially competent

The student learns different social codes and learns to become a socially well functioning individual.

22 The student is oriented towards lifelong learning

20 The student is oriented and positive towards democracy. The student learns that democracy is an important advantage in Norwegian society and learns how democracy is to be used.

21 The student is focused on preserving and developing Norwegian cultural heritage

18 The student is focused on collaboration and teamwork

The student is financially profitable for society

The student learns to not waste society’s investments in knowledge and to be an efficient student.

The student accomplishes and shows results The competing student

The confident and content student 

The student is focused on becoming among the best in the world 



The global student

The motivated student

The student realises and develops/enhances his/her talent(s)

The student prepares for a multi cultural society The student is focused on preserving and developing Norwegian cultural heritage

The socio economic student

The student is positive about education

The reflective and responsible student



The goal oriented student



The student is responsible for his/her learning The student reflects on his/her learning



The student acquires specialised knowledge 



The student is oriented towards globalisation



The student experiences school as meaningful



The student is focused on collaboration and teamwork

The socially well functioning student



The student is oriented towards becoming a benefit for the society The student is financially profitable for society

The democratic student  The student is law abiding

The student is oriented towards lifelong learning

The student enjoys school

The student is an efficient learner

The student is motivated for learning

The student is confident about future career choices



The knowledge oriented student

The student is tolerant and inclusive



The student is socially competent

The student is oriented and positive towards democracy



The student enjoys school (3) studentandconfidentThecontent s.802006Meld.st.162007,81 “The school should be a place where everyone thrives, feels belonging, and where everyone feels valued as individuals, regardless of family background, faith, ethnicity or cultural background” s.8620Meld.st.30032004, “An inclusive education requires that students with special needs also belong in an inclusive school community, and that they face challenges adapted to their needs and prerequisites”

The student is tolerant inclusiveand(14) s.912012Meld.st.202013, “In an inclusive comprehensive school, students with different backgrounds and different prerequisites meet and receive teaching in a school community” s.672012Meld.St.202013, “Society and working life are more diverse, and the labour market is increasingly characterised by international competition and cooperation”

The student is focused worldthebecomingonamongbestinthe(12) studentcompetingThe2004,30Meld.St.2003s.7 “Norway is well placed to create the world's best school” s.112006Meld.st.162007, “In primary and secondary education, there are both compulsory tests and other artefacts teachers can use to map students' competence and skills”

The accomplishesstudent and shows results (15) s.172010Meld.st.222011, “Students learn best when they understand how work tasks are related to learning outcomes”

Source Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Text excerpt Subject(no.)position identityStudent s.102012Meld.St.202013, “In a positive learning environment, the students contribute and support each other's work and learning”

Pauline Swee-Choo Goh Sultan Idris Education University, Malaysia Perak, Malaysia Norwaliza Abdul Wahab Sultan Idris Education University, Malaysia Perak, Malaysia

Paradigms to Drive Higher Education 4.0

Abstract. This paper discusses two important paradigms that should to be present to fuel the needs of today’s technology driven environment roles of teacher education that must be changed and the eco system of the learning institutions itself. Access to education has moved away from the traditional campus environment to a technology driven platform. New tools and technologies have provided borderless and flexible learning. Change in education is undergoing at an unprecedented speed never experienced before. Teachersare the front argueslinerstowardshelpingchildrenreachtheirpotential,howeverthispaperthatcurrentteachingstaffmaylackthepedagogytoteachinthis

159 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 159 171, January 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.1.9

‘digitised’ world and to be competent to lead their ward into the new era of technology driven experiences. Therefore, reforms in the content and teaching of student teachers become imperative. The second paradigm looks at the institutions of higher learning itself. The paper asserts that these institutions need to move away from the traditional way of imparting knowledge and conducting research to a new way of doing which provides autonomy to educators and learners through technology. Teaching and learning approaches, innovation, and value added student experiences which use technology are all part of the conceptofHigherEducation4.0.

1. Introduction The prospect for higher education to lead and transform teaching and learning in the era of higher education 4.0 (H.E 4.0) in readiness for the evolutionary Industrial 4.0 (I.R 4.0) has been a topic of discussion not only in developed countries, but in all emerging economies of the world (Salmon, 2019). The difference between a developed economy and an emerging economy is that the former may be more ready to adopt processes of H.E 4.0 readiness if compared to other emerging economies (Dadios et al., 2018). These emerging economies

Keywords: Higher education 4.0; concept of ‘readiness’; technology drivenenvironment;highereducationreforms;studentlearning

160 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. may face substantial challenges with evolving technology such as artificial intelligence, Massive Open Online Courses (MOCC), virtual reality (VR) and 'The Internet of Things' all part of the delivery of H.E 4.0, but important concepts to get equipped for the I.R 4.0. For many emerging economies, as it competes in the world arena, the adoption of H.E 4.0 may be lagging and therein arise a ‘digital divide’ between these economies (Prensky, 2001; Shenglin et al., Malaysia,2017). as an emerging economy, intends to be prepared and equipped for the I.R 4.0 through a quality H.E 4.0. The drive towards this aim has been part of the country’s Education Blueprint 2015 2025 and the 2050 National Transformation (TN50) aspiration and the Higher Education 4.0 (H.E 4.0) policies (Rozana, 2017). To achieve the goals of reforming teaching and learning within the Malaysian higher education institutions, there is a need to reach a minimum level of readiness. Readiness is judged by the institutions’ potential to contribute and be involved in new opportunities or directions of learning and teaching in an increasingly networked world (“Readiness for the Networked World”, n.d).

However, complexity and confusion arise within all levels of higher education, thus creating uncertainty about respective institutional capabilities, and adequate strategies to assess the success and readiness of H.E 4.0. These technological advances in H.E 4.0 takes place within individual institutions rather than consistently implemented throughout the higher education institutions in Malaysia. The smaller or newer higher education institutions may be uncertain about their readiness required for implementing new technological advances and the overall impact on their educational objectives. On the other hand, the newer or smaller institutions may experience doubts in transforming their own educational efforts with regards to the I.R 4.0 vision and therefore miss opportunities towards improving or refit curriculum, programs, academic training, projects and technologies (Gaertner et al., 2016). To overcome the growing complexity and uncertainty, new strategies and paradigms are needed to provide guidance and support to help determine H.E 4.0 readiness (and success) (Gaertner et al., 2016). Therefore, this article would like to take a ‘first step’ and look at some of the new perspectives or new ideas that is necessary to meet the changing higher education landscape of today. In addition, the article hopes to provide some suggestions as to how higher education institutions of today can prepare themselves and for their students in readiness for Industrial Revolution 4.0. This paper sets out to discuss some of the paradigms that are needed for higher education institutions to be ready and to remain relevant in the era of rapid changes.

The concept of ‘Readiness’ is not new and has been identified as an emerging trend that education needs to address to be relevant and maybe, even to survive (Ruban, 2017). In “On Track: Redefining Readiness in Education and the Workplace” (Gaertner et al., 2016), describes three approaches to promoting readiness. The three approaches focus on different aspects of readiness careful assessment, actionable interventions, and access. An example of the first approach is the college readiness index which measures both academic

2. Concept of ‘readiness’

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. competencies like GPAs and test scores and “environmental factors” like family circumstances and school characteristics. It gives a big picture of the students’ readiness for higher education. On the other hand, “The Conley Readiness Index” (example of an actionable interventions), evaluates students’ meta cognitive abilities like “Learning Skills” and “Career Transition Skills”, reporting on students’ academic strengths and weaknesses. These profiles enable students to better understand their strengths and to correct weaknesses. To enable students (and potential employees) to understand the strength of their maturity and adaptability when faced with difficulties, the “GRIT Mindset” readiness index was developed (example of access). This index provides access to students and employees to gauge their own adaptability and change accordingly. Nevertheless, it can be argued that there is an oversight towards career success in the new Fourth Industrial Revolution (I.R 4.0). It is transforming human activities: the way things are made; the way resources are used; the way of communicating and interacting as humans; the way a country is governed its speed and scope is something many have not predicted would happen so soon and so fast. Many educational institutions are left unprepared (“The world is changing”, 2018). All through the decades, the industry has somewhat shaped the direction of education. Institutions of learning need to mount greater initiatives to respond to this new era (satiated with artificial intelligence, Massive Open Online Courses, virtual reality and 'The Internet of Things') and to more efficiently utilize their educational resources and strategies to produce future students who are ready to embrace and to enter the realms of I.R 4.0, that goes beyond CGPA, test scores, and the number of A’s (Rozana, 2017). Machado (2007) argues that higher education institutions could lack the ability to create and develop specialists (administrators, students, preservice teachers, educators) for opportunities in the realm of e readiness and information technologies. E readiness is the use of information and knowledge (Machado, 2007).

The measurement of e readiness is generally judged by how advance an institution adopted the use of technology together with its applications (“Readiness for the Networked World”, n.d). E readiness can also be described as an institution that has the necessary physical infrastructure (high bandwidth, reliability, and affordable prices). The school or institution has integrated current technology throughout for student to use in their everyday life and is also a subject taught in schools (“Readiness for the Networked World”, n.d). Preparing students for the information and knowledge society becomes very urgent. Therefore, this paper asserts that higher education must aim towards enriching student experience and support each student’s needs. In this revolutionary era, higher education must strive to align its learning and teaching environment to enrich students’ experiences. This can be done from the day students enter the institutions, providing a conducive learning and teaching environment (no less through technology) and seeing them until their completion. Higher education has two roads to take embrace new technological opportunities and succeed or be complacent, remain status quo and perish. The next section looks at some

suggestions a higher learning institution might need to consider to keep pace with the changing times and the arrival of H.E 4.0.

3.1 The important role of teacher education institutions Malaysia has its education following closely to the British system of education.

3. Paradigm shifts in higher education in the era of H.E 4.0 Any transformation towards a shift in paradigm or doing something differently is never easy and often uneven. Nevertheless, institutions of higher learning in Malaysia must act swiftly and adapt to changes to remain relevant for its own future. The suggestions for this paradigm shift revolves around two elements: a) teacher education; and b) the eco system of the institutions itself. It starts off with the role of teacher education. The authors feel that teachers are at the forefront of education, they are responsible for bringing to the fore the success of every students in school, right to tertiary education. This paper argues that it is these two elements that lay the foundation for the institutions of higher learning in the era of H.E.4.0.

Teacher education in Malaysia had its humble beginning in 1922 and was the first teacher education recorded to prepare teachers in Malaysia. Since then, teacher education has evolved to meet the needs of the country and has made many transformations through numerous policies and strategies. To help in the reforms of teacher education, the National Philosophy of Education was formulated to drive new institutions that formed after 1922. Although, initially, the Ministry of Education Malaysia (MoE) had full control of all the teacher education institutions, when new universities (both public and private universities) began to form, these universities also had their own faculty of education to train new teachers.

The administrators from Britain took over the then named Federation of Malaya which consisted of 11 peninsular states. In around 1956, the leaders from the Federation of Malaya and the United Kingdom came to an agreement that Malaya should be granted independence by August 1957 headed by the late Tengku Abdul Rahman. Malaysia gained independence on 31 August 1957 through peaceful negotiations and talks. Nevertheless, the legacy of the rules from United Kingdom remained till today and has permeated in every area of government, and especially, education. Education starts from the preschool at ages 4 6, and then at age 7, children commence their primary school education. Primary school education runs for six years. Secondary school education has two levels the three years lower secondary education and two years upper secondary level. At the end of five years of secondary education, a common national examination is held. After completion of the secondary school education, students can either take one or two years of post secondary education. These are courses to prepare these students for the university. Some students can also choose the pathway to teacher education either in the teacher education institutions or in the universities which offer the Bachelor of Education.

According to Goh and Wong (2015), teacher education has been slow to embrace and adapt to the rate of change towards learning and teaching. Teachers have increasingly been let down by the preparation they received and thus failed to meet the expectation of various educational stakeholders (Goh & Blake, 2015) Efforts towards improving teacher education have been rather silent although the Malaysian Education Blueprint clearly states the need to advance teacher quality in schools. Concerted effort should also aim to elevate the standard of teacher education. New teacher education curricula which should emphasize the thrusts envisaged in the Malaysian National Philosophy of Education, selection procedure through a common admission test, and evaluation practices have not been upgraded. The baby boomers and Gen Xers who are world leaders now may not be savvy in the use of technology. Instead they are the end users from the creative development of their successive generation the Gen Y, Z and the millennials. Government, through the Ministry of Education, must be aware that the current teaching staff may lack the pedagogy to teach in this ‘digitised’ world and to be competent to lead future teachers into the new era of technology driven environment. Authorities and institutions should prioritize flexible approaches that allow context and discipline specific responses rather than one size fits all solutions (Goh & Blake, 2015; Goh & Wong, 2015).

Although research have shown that teacher education provides the avenue for teachers to learn teaching pedagogies, understanding, awareness of student learning and the readiness to be effective teachers in the classrooms, improvements in teacher education need to happen (Goh, 2019a). A qualitative study by Goh and Wong (2014) of novice teachers in their first three years of teaching find them dissatisfied about the over emphasis on theory of education during their campus learning. These novice teachers have voiced that there should be greater importance in the practical interaction between theory and practice. Student teachers in practicum felt that they were somewhat unprepared to help student learn. Some new teachers are not able to move beyond superficial teaching towards using more sophisticated skills to promote effective learning within the learning environment (Goh & Matthews, 2011).

Student teachers need a wide range of knowledge and experiences and at the same time the ability to incorporate them into their practices in a meaningful way (Goh, 2019b), something not typically found in teacher preparation programs. Students of the classroom today are multi-racial and multi diverse in their learning abilities (Arend, 2014). As such, the approaches to learning and teaching require new skills and pedagogical know how. Handbooks on teacher education reflect the magnitude of that knowledge.

Two different pathways of teacher training exist to this day the MoE, has sole control of the teacher education institutions through its Teacher Education Division (TED), while the universities are given autonomy to develop their own teacher training curriculum, but following closely to the visions and aims of the National Philosophy of Education. The universities confer the Bachelor of Education after four years. These universities also conduct postgraduate studies for those who wish to pursue higher degrees (Goh & Blake, 2015).

3.2.1 The learning environment Learning institutions of the future must move away from a learning environment which provides students with a predictable time frame of completion. Most universities now, including teacher preparation institutions, have a four year duration. Instead, there must be flexibility in the time frame for students, for example, students should be ‘life long’ learners. There exist flexibility for the student to come back and to take courses over many years instead of just the conventional four years. These same students are also sharing their life experiences when they attend classes. There is a symbiotic learning environment among new and returning students in perpetuity. As Prof. Asma, the Vice-Chancellor of Universiti Sains succinctly stated, “There is a rise in “nontraditional” students in the workforce who now want to learn … they have varying levels of education and experience, they cannot afford four years to complete a university degree, want to learn at their own time and pace, and it has to be personalised to their needs” (Menon, 2019).

3.2 Eco-system of the learning institutions

From a sociological point of view, student teachers need experiences that can deepen and broaden their understanding of cultures and the social problems that invade a classroom (Arends, 2014). Beyond cultural and social issues, there is also the need to be aware of the ethical responsibilities of teaching. From the perspective of educational psychology, student teachers must ensure they have the ability to reflect on new research about learning and teaching. New developments in educational psychology offer valuable insights into the conceptions of teaching that are consistent with the more complex view of a learner. No more are learners restrictively viewed from the perspective of their intelligence which has limited the expansion of the learner’s potential and motivation (Gardner, 2011). To ensure that student teachers develop the knowledge that will enable them to represent subject matter in meaningful and powerful ways that challenge their learners, teacher education curriculum must be constructed to integrate content with practice (Goh, Canrinus & Wong, 2019). Student teachers must graduate with the ability to act on their knowledge and evaluate their experiences in terms of their developing visions of their role and responsibilities as teachers (Goh & Canrinus, 2019). It is easier written than done. Although efforts to change and improve teacher education will pose significant challenges for teacher educators, not to do so would be akin to leaving teacher education at the periphery of the Education Blueprint instead of moving it the centre where it should be. For the sakes of future teachers, teacher educators need to explore the many facets of teaching and derive new approaches for learning and teaching. There is a need to embrace innovation in teaching and provide flexibility to allow new approaches to be experimented and formed. The wave of education reforms after the 14th general election in Malaysia and with the re enactment of the Education Blueprint after the 18th general election provide the opportunity to part with the past and begin new chapters in teacher education. However, for the Education Blueprint or any reforms to work the eco system of the institutions of higher learning must be ready.

3.2.2 Employability

Words such as re skill and upskill will not happen if the doors of the universities are not flexible or the admission/enrolment procedures are rigid and static. New ways of learning, through blended learning, flip classroom must also be made accessible to allow distant learning and interaction among students. Institutions of higher learning must evolve to cater to the needs the students’ learning process through technology. The benefits to the institutions are high not only will cost be brought down, the learning institutions can now encompass a wider group of people not restricted to only Malaysia. There is an element of ‘space’ and ‘time’ and a spread of multiple sharing among students of the world.

Yet, with this advent of ODL and modular format of learning, educators need to be maintaining the quality of education through this mode. It is very easy to forget that although students are at a distant, their achievement through thorough assessments is still very important. Industry players must feel the confidence that as universities move away from the traditional face to face monitoring system, the platform for ODL or modular learning remains robust and of high standards (Latchem, 2017). In other words, accreditation bodies (an example in Malaysia is the Malaysian Qualifications Agency) must be even more diligent at ensuring universities do no ‘take a short cut’ but that universities continuously ensure the high standards of learning, teaching and assessment they have always set out to be.

There appears to be a mismatch between what the industry or the outside world needs versus what the learning institution are teaching in Malaysia. This is not a phenomenon that is distinct to Malaysia but to the world (Abdul Hamid, Islam & Noor Hazilah, 2014). Challenges abound for the students who will leave the universities today. According to Altbach, Reisberg and Rumbley (2019), as soon as the students leave the university, the skills that are taught would have changed. Employability or rather germane employability is key for today’s graduates. The University of today must address this crucial challenge.

Malaysia has touted life long learning to allow continuous learning and re learning (Menon, 2015). However, this aim can only be met if institutions of higher learning allow these students multiple entry and exit points in their lives.

More often than note, the traditional way of learning is slowing losing its lustre. There is an advent towards online distance learning or ODL (Phelps & Vlachopoulos, 2019) and modular learning (Karal & Cebi, 2012; Thompson et al., 2010). ODL enables a student to access resources through a synchronous learning with web video conferencing. A note of caution though, universities must be ready with a robust framework for either an ODL environment or modular learning. There must be stringent but impartial and independent assessment of a student’s work. Nevertheless, both ODL and modular learning provides the opportunity for universities to look beyond a traditional classroom and not to be bordered by fixed curriculum (Thompson et al., 2010). Rather, ODL and modular learning provides the avenue for students to select from a basket of programs more suited to their needs and pace.

Graduates upon leaving universities suddenly find themselves unable to obtain employment or many have found that the rapid rise and changes in technology have made them obsolete as soon as they leave the universities. Universities are not keeping pace with what is happening with the fast evolving technology (Altbach, Reisberg & Rumbley, 2019). Could universities have failed to seize the opportunities to prepare their students for the changing working arena? Universities need to have a mind set revolution no more are the static in campus education enough. There must a focus on skills to prepare their students to be solvers, decision makers and analytical thinkers all skills which are necessary to ‘survive’ in the industrial revolution dynamics (Altbach, Reisberg & Rumbley, 2019). Students must be made confident that they are not obsolete or redundant with universities courses more suited for a forgotten era.

With the rapid advancement in technology, government finds themselves grappling with graduates who, upon, completion are unable to find employment (Altbach, Reisberg & Rumbley, 2019). The burden falls upon education of higher learning which have failed to keep pace with the ever evolving technology. Institutions of higher learning are either in denial about the rapid changes happening around them or lack the capability to transform or the will power to reform to current situation. It is not enough for institutions of higher learning to merely provide basic skills for their students but to better prepare their students to be ready for the technology race by being problem solvers, being critical and analytical thinkers. The rate of ‘obsolete ness’ rises with every year an institution

3.2.3 Technology’s role

In an article in The New Straits Times of Malaysia (Mustafa, 2019), Dr Ahmad Shuhaimi Abu Bakar, an academic at the University of Malaya, acknowledges that industry partnership would assist students and even new graduates to develop their competency ‘in situ’. Benefits of industry engagement would also be the sharing of what is actually needed out there versus what in campus learning are offering. Curriculum can be designed and developed together with the institutions of higher learning for programs more specific to the current needs. Students are provided the platform to learn from industry players, assessed by ‘bosses’ of these industries and at the same time get merits for work done in the real world but yet enrolled as university students. The added advantage of two worlds campus learning and corporate learning provide more agility for the students and academics with a rapidly changing technology base, the ‘hunger’ for everything IT, and staying more connected. However, a note of caution. With the excitement of being connected and things IT, there is also the need to be mindful of pitfalls especially with proper monitoring and control over learning. There is a fear that education can get waylaid over IT and how new learning is being conducted that quality of education gets diluted.

Proper assessment and outcomes that can impact society must be part of any new way of learning. Although, some may argue against standardization of assessment, teaching and learning, educators still need to be mindful of maintaining education and not at the expense of monetary gains only (Anane, 2014).

As Schwab rightly comments, the aspirations of students and teaching staff can be met through integrating activities run by technology. A ‘digital framework’ that can facilitate learning and teaching activities from new enrolment, maintaining records, facilitation assessments, right through issuance of students’ certificate all with ease. With the popularity of ‘personalized learning’, it is here that technology can play its most important role (Darling Hammond, Flook, Cook Harvey, Barron & Osher, 2019). One, the traditional learning environment are being overtaken with new program offerings through blended learning, self driven MOOCs and other online courses. These new approaches to learning accord flexible learning time to students. Two, technology allows universities to offer courses that are more varied and are able to enrol students ‘without borders’. There are no constrains to where students come from. The advent of complex, yet easy to use, learning tools has enabled universities to overcome the burden of providing physical classrooms. However, it must be noted that MOOCs and online courses are not competing with campus learning. Rather, MOOCs offer multiple avenues for the universities to plan, complement and supplement what is already there.

For universities to be ready to prepare their students for the future environment, these institutions themselves must be equipped for new knowledge and learning. Universities are the ‘incubation’ centres for innovation and creation of future intelligence. In addition, it is the universities who will be tasked by the government of the country to be the leaders of research and innovation.

3.2.4 Research and innovation

167 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. delays to equip their students with the complex skills needed for the rising industrial Undoubtedly,revolution.technology is here to stay with it playing a very important role in the quick rise towards industrial revolution. Schwab (2015) aptly warns that: “The speed of current breakthroughs has no historical precedent. When compared with previous industrial revolutions, the Fourth is evolving at an exponential rather than a linear pace. Moreover, it is disrupting almost every industry in every country. And the breadth and depth of these changes herald the transformation of entire systems of production, management, and governance.” (Schwab, 2015). Nevertheless, universities should also seize upon the opportunity to harness its use to drive innovation in learning and teaching.

Three, once, where higher learning have been the privilege of the rich and elite, students are now given better choices to obtain higher degree. There are better equity of access to higher education (McCowan, 2016). Lastly, in addition, not only are students accorded more flexibility in time and cost through MOOCs and online learning, they emerge more ready and confident with the real world situation. Knowledge obtained would contain skills that are looked for by employers. Technology has enabled universities to impact learning and teachers and at the same time provide the life skills needed for application in life’s reality (Jackman, 2018).

Malaysia has put in place every avenue to encourage the universities to be competitive in the world arena to take the country into greater heights towards

In summary, the new Higher Education 4.0 is all about the students and these students’ future teachers (the student teachers). These students now have the autonomy to charter their own course of study, they want new experiences to be ready for their future, but more importantly, education to them must be flexible enough to give them room for different learning approaches and to achieve their goals of choice. Technology plays an important role in all this - for the educators and those to be educated. The shift in learning is no more what was experienced by their parents and grandparents. These new generation of students must be ready to adapt to the ever changing work landscape. Technology is part of their everyday lives. However, in any attempt to be ready for H E 4.0, the perspectives of these students and those affected by it must also be sought. They must be involved and have the liberty to voice how they want their learning

4. Conclusion Students today have veered far from the days of television and analogue radio. ‘Streaming’ is a word quite alien to their grandparents and even their parents. This generation of ‘digital connoisseurs’ has gone beyond looking at physical books for information. Instead they are almost perpetually on the internet. They are totally at ease with everything that is digital. With this new generation of ‘digital connoisseurs’ – learning must also change. At almost the same time, these ‘digital connoisseurs’ have rapidly changed the educational landscape with their prowess with Artificial Intelligence, Internet of Things and Analytics. Therefore, no more can higher education take a complacent stance and be left behind in educating this new generation. Because learning is now borderless, institutions of higher learning must also be as quick to transform and move away from more conservative learning models. Instead these institutions must be quick to embrace and work towards a paradigm shift that allows learners the flexibility of gaining knowledge. Higher Education 4.0 is all about preparing these new generation of ‘digital connoisseurs’ the skills, methods, learning and knowledge for the fast paced future they will live in.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. development, innovation and being less reliant on low skilled labour and labour intensive employments (Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013 2025, 2018).

However, Malaysia universities are still falling behind in research and innovative outputs when compared to other developed nations, despite the millions in research grants being given to the universities (Cornell University, INSEAD, & WIPO, 2015). Research must be focused to produce outcomes that can be applied or able to solve challenges related to real problems within the country. It is not to say that theoretical research are unimportant, but such research must have a place in real world settings as universities no longer have the luxury of lounging in slow developmental studies while the world races towards a demanding and exacting environment. It is also no longer a luxury for a university to be isolated and to bask in its own laurel but must work towards networking with other reputable universities. Integrating knowledge and sharing new technological know how is now mandatory for a university to advance and evolve and should be made a mantra for any research being carried out.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. experiences to look like. However, in the end universities must be ready to adapt, to transform, to reform, and to embrace everything technology.

5. Acknowledgement

The paper presented here is a part of a larger research activity looking at the readiness of higher education towards H.E. 4.0, which is supported by the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) from the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia [grant number: FRGS/1/2018/SSI09/UPSI/02/21]. Special thanks go to the Editors of this journal and the Reviewers of this paper who have unselfishly expanded their time to provide helpful comments and suggestions.

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172 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 172 187, January 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.1.10

The Impact of Using Storyboards on Improving Reading skills of Third-Grade Students with Reading Disabilities in Jordanian Context

Keywords: Storyboard; reading disabilities; reading skill; teaching, Arabic 1. Introduction 1.1. Overview Learning disability is a global educational problem that is not related to a specific society or language. Hallahan & Kouffman (2012) defined learning disability as a term used to refer to a group of heterogeneous disorders that

Haitham Abuzaid Al Balqa Applied University Ajloun, Jordan Murad Al Kayed Al Balqa Applied University Ajloun, Jordan Abstract This study aimed to identify the effect of using the storyboard method on improving the reading skill of third grade students with reading disabilities in Jordan. Many Arabic language learners with reading disabilities cannot distinguish between Arabic letters that look similar in the graph but have different pronunciations. The present study investigated the impact of the storyboard method on learning the skill of distinguishing between Arabic letters that look similar in form but those pronounced differently. The sample of the study consisted of (40) students with reading difficulties assigned equally into an experimental and control group. The experimental group consisted of 20 male and female students taught using the storyboard method, and the control group consisted of 20 male and female students taught using the traditional method. The findings of the study showed that the storyboard method improves the ability of students to distinguish between Arabic letters that look similar in written form but pronounced differently better than those involved in the traditional way of teaching. The study also found out that gender did not affect learning reading skills. The researchers recommend the use of the storyboard method in teaching different language skills.

Based on the previous classification it is clear that the students who belong to the third level are classified as having a reading disability (Dyslexia) which was coined by German neuroscientist Berlin (1872). It refers to a phenomenon in which students cannot read at a level of their classmates, cannot learn reading through normal teaching methods, and cannot read letters, words or sentences correctly (Abu Daqqa, 2012; Talafha, 2010; Abu Tammam, 2004). Reading disability is the most common type of academic learning disability. Eighty percent of students with learning disabilities have reading difficulties. (Al Salama, 2017; Al Dahini, 2017; Abdullah, 2013; Jabayib, 2011, Al Kahali, 2010; Saidi, 2009; Ali, 2005). There are many reasons for the occurrence of reading difficulties. Physical factors include neurological functional dysfunctions, problems in audio or visual processing, and genetic characteristics. Psychological factors include linguistic disorders, attention disorders, and cognitive disorders. The socio economic factors include the economic and social level of the student and the relations within the family members. The educational factors include the teacher, teaching

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. appear in the form of disabilities in the acquisition and production of many skills, such as listening, speaking, reading, writing, thinking, etc. These disorders are caused by dysfunction of the central nervous system that occurs during different periods of life. They also may be accompanied by problems in the behaviors of organization, perception and social interaction. Learning disabilities may coincide with other disabilities (sensory, mental or serious emotional disorders) or with certain external influences (cultural disparities or inadequate Readingteaching).skill is considered one of the difficult skill to acquire or learn. Reading is defined as an emotional and mental process that includes the recognition of symbols, words, and drawings received by the reader. Reading requires the reader to link between sounds and letters (Al Batayneh, Al Rashdan, Al Sabailah& Abdul Majeed, 2018; Al Dahini, 2017; Al Salama, 2017; Al Alwan & Al Tal, 2013; Talafha, 2010; Saidi, 2009). Reading skill consists of several basic components that students need to master. The first one is phonemic awareness which is the ability to know the sounds of letters. The second one is phonetics which is learning the association of sounds to written letters. The third one is fluency which refers to the ability to read a text coherently and quickly. The fourth one is the recognition of the meaning of words and their use in the context. The fifth one is comprehension which refers to the ability to understand texts (Dweikat, 2017; Al Salama, 2017; Lerner & Jones, 2014).

Scholars proposed different methods to assess the reading capacities of students using formal and informal tests, such as observation, child profile assessment, tests of silent reading and re narration. After the assessment, students are categorized according to their reading level into three levels. The first one is the Independent Level in which students recognize 95% of the words and answer 90% of comprehension questions correctly. The second level is the Instructional Level in which the students master reading skills up to 75%, which means that they need help. The third level is Frustration Level in which the student reads with obvious difficulties (Al Batayneh et al., 2018; Karima, 2016; Lerner & Jones, 2014; Ghoneim, 2012).

The study aimed at answering the following questions: What is the effect of the storyboard method on acquiring the skill of distinguishing between Arabic letters that look similar in the written form but pronounced differently?, What is the effect of the storyboard method on acquiring the skill of distinguishing between letters that look similar in the written form but pronounced differently in the verbal/oral test?, What is the effect of the storyboard method on acquiring the skill of distinguishing between letters that look similar in the written form but pronounced differently in the written test? And what is the impact of gender on the acquisition of reading skills among students with reading disabilities?

1.3. Aim of the study

1.2. The problem of the study

1.4. Questions of the study

Jordanian students at the first three stages lack competence in reading skills as it is confirmed by the survey conducted by the Ministry of Education in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in 2012. This study found out that only 17% of students can read and solve arithmetic problems. Al Dahini (2017) also found out that (83%) of the second grade students with learning disabilities have a deficiency in identifying letters and relating letters to sounds. These results raise alarm to the fact that much effort should be done to enhance learning skills including reading skills of students especially those who are in the first grades. Any difficulty in acquiring/learning the reading skill is considered a major obstacle for students to succeed in school. It is worth noting that individuals with reading difficulties need special programs because traditional programs are not always effective. Therefore, the present study attempted to investigate the effect of using the storyboard method in improving the reading skill of Jordanian third grade students with reading disabilities by focusing on Arabic letters that looks similar in written form but pronounced differently, as this skill is crucial in improving reading skill in general.

Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. methods, school, curriculum, and problems related to phonological awareness, fluency, and comprehension. There are also reasons related to linguistic structures such as syntactic, semantic and morphological problems (Dweikat, 2017; Al Dahini, 2017; Al Abdallat & Al Smadi, 2016; Talafha, 2010; Lerner & Kline, 2006).

The present study aimed at investigating the effect of the storyboard method on improving reading skills among third grade students with reading disabilities in Jordanian schools. The study concentrates mainly on the abilities of students to distinguish between Arabic letters that look similar in written form but pronounced differently, such as خ[x], ح[7], ج[j], ث[th], ت[t], and ب[b]. The study also design stories for the Arabic letters in question and adopt them in teaching reading skills to third grade students with reading disabilities. It also examined whether gender affected the achievements of students with reading disabilities in reading skills

Scholars distinguished between two types of reading difficulties (dyslexia): auditory dyslexia and visual dyslexia. People with auditory dyslexia have difficulty in remembering and sequencing auditory symbols, whereas people with visual dyslexia have difficulty in distinguishing between letters that look similar in the written form (Kamhi & Katz, 1998). The difficulty of distinguishing between letters that look similar in spelling but pronounced differently, such as خ[x], ح[7], ج[j], or ث[th], ت[t], ب[b] caused by cognitive dysfunction which causes reading words incorrectly (Al Smadi & Al Shamali, 2017; Rabah, 2017; Kanaanah, 2013; Al Khatib, 2009; Lerner, 2000).

1.5. Importance of the study

2.1. Theoretical background Reading disability is the most common type of learning disabilities among school students in general and students with learning disabilities in particular.

The scholars suggested several methods to enhance reading skills which were divided into two parts: the first group focused on decoding and reading symbols, while the second focuses on the perception of meaning (Mercer & Pullen, 2008). Besides, many reading educational programs address three levels of reading. The first level is development reading which focused on the development and sequence of reading. The second level is corrective reading which focuses on correcting errors that may appear in the level of developmental reading. The third level is remedial reading which is based on teaching directly and individually those whose reading level is undeveloped after being subjected to developmental and corrective reading. This level involves therapeutic reading programs to accelerate the student’s reading level (Dweikat, 2017; Al Abdallat & Al Smadi, 2016).

One of the therapeutic reading programs used in this study is the storyboard method. Varvel & Lindeman (2005) states that “storyboards are a means to graphically represent layout, organization, content, and linkages of information to create a conceptual idea of the information, location, meaning, and appearance” (p. 1). Storyboard makes use of words and images to convey the meaning of a story in chronological order (Essley & Rocci, 2008; Doherty & Coggeshall, 2005). This method is based on the multisensory approach which presents the content of storyboard via multiple sensory channels (sight, hearing, touch, and kinesthetic sense). Phonological Awareness is also used in this method to train students on using the phonetic system of letters and syllables. Abraham (2008) proposed that the storyboard method is very beneficial because students learn their lessons in linguistic and visual representations of data.

Theoretical background and previous studies

The present study is very important for many reasons. First of all, students with learning disabilities need educational programs to develop their reading skills to raise their academic achievement. Secondly, it enables teachers in schools to use a new teaching method for third grade students. Thirdly, this study targets a group that constitutes a large part of the students with learning disabilities.

method as a teaching method is very important since it focuses on audiovisual perception and requires the use of more than one sense in the learning process which in turn makes students learn more easily. It also improves verbal abilities and thinking skills and provides a great opportunity for creativity and imagination of students. It also reduces boredom in students' learning situations and improves students’ fluency through re narrating the storyboard (Al Shablawi, 2017; Atili & Nasr, 2015; Mansi, 2015; Lerner & Jones, 2014; Carbo, 2013; Yang, 2011).

2.2. Previous studies

For the success of the storyboard method in the teaching of students, it must be taken into account several things, such as the mental and linguistic level of the student. The content of storyboards must be taken the real situations and they must be formulated in a simple language and presented interestingly. The use of images, sound effects, and body language in an effective way were also taken into consideration in preparing these storyboards (Al Shablawi, 2017; Atili & Nasr, 2015; Al Khatib, 2009).

When reviewing the previous studies in the use of the storyboard method in teaching language skills, the researchers found some studies that showed positive effects of reading storyboards on developing phonological awareness among kindergarten and second and fourth grade students (Rabahah, 2017; Al Juhani, 2015; Bably & Awwad, 2010). Other studies demonstrated a positive impact of using storyboards in developing reading comprehension skills (Tetri, 2016; Morris, 2005), while others demonstrated the effectiveness of the storyboards method in developing some literary skills among fourth grade students (Jaber, 2015). Other studies found out that the storyboard was an effective instrument used in improving the oral competencies of students (Isbell, Sobol, Lindauer & Lowrance, 2004). This method was very beneficial in improving reading and communications skills as it linked meanings and emotions with words (Mokhtar, Abdul Halim & Kamarulzaman, 2010)

Other studies also confirmed the positive impact of the truncated storyboard method on the academic achievement of sixth and fourth grade students in writing skills (Muhy, 2015; Khalaf, 2004). Mohammed (2015) found out that the storyboard method enhanced the development of artistic expression skills of kindergarten children. Al Shablawi (2017) also showed that using storyboards has a positive effect on the linguistic fluency of first grade students. Additionally, Atili & Nasr (2015) found out that teaching narratives in stories improved the imagination skill of fifth grade students. El Zemiti (2013) also

The storyboard is a kind of audio and reading literature and one of the most valuable methods in teaching students because the student listens and reads with enthusiasm and pleasure. Zabel, 1991 states that “Storytelling … is enjoyable, and can be used anywhere and at any time”. Storyboards support reading skills since they motivate students to group words with each other to create a meaningful story. Additionally, stories develop students’ mental abilities such as remembering, imagining and thinking, and language skills (Al Shablawi, 2017; Ghanayem, 2016; Kanaanah, 2013; Al Khatib, 2009; Lerner, The2000).storyboarding

The sample of the study consisted of 40 male and female third grade students with reading disabilities in the schools of the Directorate of Education in the Ajloun Governorate in Jordan. They were divided equally into the experimental group and the control group. gender

Husnin, Din, Karim, Norman & Hamdan (2013) Found out that storyboards are considered authentic and natural data that had a positive impact on student’s creativity and learning. Based on the previous studies, it is clear that a limited number of studies focused on the use of storyboards on enhancing different language skills. Moreover, the researchers did not find any study that investigated the role of storyboard in enhancing the reading abilities of students with reading disabilities in the Jordanian context. Thus, the present study aims to fill this gap by investigating the impact of storyboards which make use of pictures and simple narrations to enhance the skill of distinguishing between Arabic letters that look similar in the written form among students with reading disabilities. Mastering this skill will eventually improve the reading skill of these students. Methods Sample of the study

Table 1 shows the distribution of individuals according to their

177 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. found out that storyboards improved the grammatical competence of students. His study showed that the students who studied grammar using the storyboard method performed better in the post test/grammar test than those who taught traditionally. Maulida, Eliwati & Sumbayak (2017) found a positive impact of storyboard on the ability to read narrative texts. Bruce (2011) found out that storyboards helped students in enhancing their brainstorming skills because it makes think about how they wanted to frame their images. In another study, Naar (2013) used storyboards to help six limited proficient students of English to enhance their reading comprehension of English novels. The findings showed that storyboards affected positively the reading skills of English language learners with limited language proficiency.

and school Table 1: Distribution of participants based on School and gender Group School Gender Total Experimental AMERIA SECONDARY SCHOOL Female 5 Hashemite Elementary Girls Female 5 Ezzedine Osama Elementary Boys Male 5 AinJanna Secondary Boys Male 5 Control Khawla Bent Al Azwar Elementary Female 5 Alkarama elementary school Female 5 King Nasser elementary school for Boys Male 5 Khalid BinAl Waleed Elementary Boys School Male 5

Training Program: The program aims to improve the skill of distinguishing between letters that look similar in the written form and pronounced differently among third grade students who are enrolled in the learning resource rooms in the Ajloun governorate. The program, which is based on a multisensory strategy and the use of the storyboard style, consisted of activities that help students to acquire the skill in question.

The current program meets the needs of students by training them on the skill of distinguishing between letters that look similar in the written form and pronounced differently ( خ[x], ح[7], ج[j], ث[th], ت[t], and ب[b] ) by using the storyboard and suitable teaching activities (worksheets). This program helped them to distinguish between the letters effectively and write them and pronounce them correctly.

The validity of the test: The test was verified by a jury composed of (10) university professors specialized in special education, Arabic language, curricula, teaching methods, measurement and evaluation, educational supervisors of learning difficulties, and Arabic teachers. The final version of the test was prepared after taking into consideration the comments of the jury. Correction of the test: The time of performing the test was 30 minutes. In the first section (the verbal section), the examiner was given one point if he/she circled the desired letter, and thus the highest point was 12 and the lowest was zero. In the written section, the examiner was given two points if the letter heard from the teacher was written. Thus, the highest mark was (12) and the lowest was zero. The total mark of the two sections was 24 points.

The justification of the program: The review of previous studies in the field of improving the reading skill of students with learning disabilities emphasized the importance of using the storyboard method in addressing learning disabilities.

Instruments: The following tools were used in this study: Achievement test: The test was designed to measure the ability of students to distinguish between letters that look similar in the written form and pronounced differently to diagnose the weaknesses in this skill. Both the control and experimental group sat for a pretest and post test to measure whether the new method affected positively learning reading skills among students with reading disabilities. The test consisted of (8) activities divided into two sections: the oral one consisted of (6) activities marked two points for each, and a written section consists of two activities marked 6 points for each. Anyone who got a score lower than (12) points were considered having difficulty in the skill of distinguishing between letters that look similar in the written form and pronounced differently

Content of the program: The program included 30 Training sessions in which the experimental group got involved, five sessions per week. The duration of the session was one class. The training program lasted (6) weeks. Table 2 shows the mechanism of implementation of the program each week in terms of activities and skills. This training program is repeated for six weeks.

3. The experimental and control group sat for the pretest.

1 2 betweenDistinguishingletters that look similar pronunciationin Presenting a box containing objects that begin withthe required letter, making the student guess these objects, and presenting these objects a reward if they know them.

4 Distinguish between letters using touch Activities were givento students to distinguishthe required letter by forming the letter using the sand table, wool threads, shearing, and pasting.

sessionsofNumber Skill Activities carried out inthe session ofNumberclasses

Students did worksheet 2 for the required letter. 1 Validity of the content of the training program: The content of the program was verified by a jury composed of (10) professors who made sure of the relevance of the picture to the subject of the story, simplicity of vocabulary used in the body of the story, the integrity of sentences and linguistic structures, and the suitability of activities, methods, teaching methods and worksheets. Some paragraphs had been amended and deleted in the light of the observations received from the professors.

Table 2: The implementation of the training program per week

Study Procedures: To collect and analyze the data, the following steps were followed:

1. The approval of conducting the study at the schools was obtained

4. The training program was implemented for (6) weeks during the second semester of 2018/2019.

5 writtenDistinguishsimilarlyletters

3 Distinguishing letters that look similar visually Worksheet 1 for the required letter was done inthe first week by the student.

2. The researchers trained the teachers to implement the study by participating in three sessions for three days. In the first session, the storyboard method was introduced. In the second session, the application of the method was explained by presenting a training sample. In the third session, teachers were trained on how to supervise the students and to provide feedback to the students.

1 betweenDistinguishingletters with similar features.auditory Narrating the story of a certainletter, showing pictures, conversing withthe students, and re narrating the story.

6. The post test was corrected and the total marks were extracted for each student. The results of pre and posttests were calculated to extract the results.

To verify the equivalence of the experimental and the control groups before conducting the study, the Independent Sample T Test was used. Consider the following Table: Table3: Results of the experimental and control group in the pre test markTotal Group Mean deviationStandard T significanceStatistical Pre test 24 ExperimentalControl 8.107.55 1.051.37 1.42 0.16 Table 3 indicated that there are no statistically significant differences between the experimental and control group since the p value is more than 0.05. Thus, the two groups had the same linguistic knowledge before conducting the study.

To answer the previous question, Independent Sample T-Test was used to find out whether there were statistically significant differences between experimental and control groups, as shown in Table 4: Table 4: Results of the experimental and control group in the post test Group Teachingmethod Mean deviationStandard T significanceStatistical Control Traditionalmethod 9.15 1.27 20.43 0.00 Experimental Story method 9.75 1.94

5. After the end of the training program, both groups (the experimental and control groups) sat for the post test.

4. Results and discussion

Results related to the questions of the study: 4.1. Results related to the first question: what is the effect of the storyboard method on acquiring the skill of distinguishing between Arabic letters that look similar in written form but pronounced differently?

To answer this question, an independent test T Test was used to investigate whether there were significant differences between the experimental and control groups. Consider Table 5: Table 5: Results of experimental and control groups in the post test (verbal/oral part) Group

4.2. Results related to the second question: what is the effect of the storyboard method on acquiring the skill of distinguishing between letters that look similar in written form but pronounced differently in the verbal/oral section of the posttest?

Teachingmethod Mean deviationStandard T significanceStatistical Control Traditionalmethod 5.25 0.55 24.28 0.00 Experimental Storyboardmethod 10.75 0.85 Table 5 showed a statistically significant difference between control and experimental groups in favor of the experimental group and the difference was less than 0.05. This indicated that students with reading disabilities who taught using the storyboard method showed improvement in the verbal/oral aspect better than the control group who are exposed to the traditional method. These results are expected because of the advantages of the storyboard method in satisfying the needs of students’ imagination and curiosity (Al Shablawi, 2017), and their needs of guidance, love, success, independence and social appreciation. Meeting these different needs contributes to the development of the cognitive abilities of students, and the improvement of their verbal/oral abilities because the storyboard method attracts the attention of students to the correct pronunciation of sounds. The results were in line with other studies, such as Rabahah (2017), Al Shablawi (2017), Al Juhani (2015), and Bably & Awwad (2010). All of the studies showed a positive impact of the storyboard method on the development of phonological awareness and language fluency of students in the first grades

The data in Table 4 revealed a statistically significant difference between control and experimental groups (P value= .00) in favor of the experimental group since the mean of the experimental group is higher than the mean of the control group. These results suggested a positive impact of using the storyboard method on improving the skill of distinguishing between letters that look similar in written form but pronounced differently by students with reading disabilities.

To investigate the impact of the storyboard method on acquiring the skill of distinguishing between letters that look similar in the written form and pronounced differently in the written part of the post test, a t test was used to find whether there are statistically significant differences between control and experimental groups in the post test. Consider the following Table:

4.4. Results related to the fourth question: what is the impact of gender on acquiring the reading skill of students with reading disabilities?

4.3. Results related to the third question: what is the effect of the storyboard method on acquiring the skill of distinguishing between letters that look similar in the written form but pronounced differently in the written section of the post test?

Table 6: Results of the experimental and control group in the post test/ the written part Group Teachingmethod Mean deviationStandard T significanceStatistical Control Traditionalmethod 3.90 1.21 11.73 0.00 Experimental Storyboardmethod 9.00 1.52

To answer this question, Independent Sample T Test was used to find out whether there were statistically significant differences between males and females of the experimental group in their performance in the post test. Consider the following Table:

The data in Table 6 indicated a statistically significant difference between the control and the experimental groups in the post test in favor of the experimental group since the difference was less than 0.05. This indicates that there is a positive impact of using the storyboard method in improving the skill of distinguishing between letters that look similar but pronounced differently among the students with reading difficulties in the written part of the test. These results are expected because of the advantages of storyboards which help students to remember the letter very easily. These results were consistent with the results of other studies, such as Muhy (2015), Mohammed (2015) and Khalaf (2004). All of these studies traced a positive impact of using storyboards on the development of the performance aspect (written) of the students in the elementary stage.

5. Conclusion

The data in Table 7 revealed that there were no statistically significant differences in the post test in the verbal and written sections between males and females in acquiring the skill of distinguishing between letters that look similar in the written form and pronounced differently. This means that gender did not affect learning reading skills. The researchers attribute this result to the fact that the storyboard method draws the attention of all students regardless of gender and motivates them to learn in a healthy and friendly environment.

Written part Male 8.20 1.48 0.99 0.06Female 9.80 1.14

The current study explored the impact of the storyboard method in improving the reading skill among third grade students with reading disabilities in Jordanian schools. The study focused on the skill of distinguishing in writing and speaking between Arabic letters that look similar in the written form but pronounced differently, such as خ[x], ح[7], ج[j], ث[th], ت[t], and ب[b]. The study found out that the storyboard method improved the reading abilities of students by developing the skill of distinguishing between Arabic letters that look similar in written form and pronounced differently. The experimental group who taught using the storyboard method performed better than the control group in the oral and written test. The study also found out that gender did not affect the learning of reading skills of students with reading disabilities. The study came up with many recommendations. Firstly, there is a need to implement the storyboard method to improve the reading skill of students with reading disabilities in Jordan. Secondly, there is a need to reduplicate this study by investigating the impact of storyboards on other language skills, such as writing and speaking. Thirdly, training courses and workshops should be held to train teachers to design and use storyboards in their classes.

Verbal part Male 10.80 0.92 0.26 0.80 Female 10.70 0.82

The test generalin Male 19.00 2.00 1.83 0.08 Female 20.50 1.65

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187 ©2020 Theauthorsand IJLTER.ORG. Allrightsreserved. Appendix 1 Transliteration symbols for Arabic vowels and consonants Arabic alphabet Symbol Example Meaning ء 2 2amal hope ث th Tha3lab fox ج j Jamal camel ح 7 7 ub love خ x Xubz bread ذ dh Dhahab gold ز z zi:t oil ش sh Shams sun ص S s ayf summer ض d d ayf guest ط t t i:n mud ظ TH THuhr noon ع 3 3abd slave غ gh gharb west ق q qalam pencil و w ward rose ي y yawm day )ةحتف(َ a kataba he wrote )ةمض(َ u kutub books )ةرسك(َ i sin tooth ليوط دمى/ا a: ka:tib writer ةليوط ةمضو u: fu:l beans ةليوط ةرسكي i: fi:l elephant Diphthongs ةبكرم ةلع تاوصأ) ) aw mawt death ay bayt house

Keywords: Academic Procrastination; Attribution of Achievement Motivation; Sociodemo graphic variable 1. Introduction Procrastination is a phenomenon that affects people, not recently, as there is evidence that the consequences of procrastination have been known since, even before Christ, but that it has recently begun to be studied with significant momentum and dedication, since this phenomenon causes in the subject, a voluntary delay of the tasks, of any type, to do other trivial activities without

Abstract. The research aims to determine the relationship between the tendency to academic procrastination and the motivational attributions of achievement in students of the seventh cycle of the EBR of the province of Arequipa. The research is divided into two, first the adaptation and validation of the General Achievement Attribution Motivation Scale (EAML G) of Durán Aponte and Pujol (2013) to a secondary level student population, for this, the data are collected from a sample of 72 students, of which 35 were women and 37 men between 15 and 17 years old; the items for the new population were modified; The results show that the adapted General Achievement Motivation Scale (EAML G) is valid and reliable to identify the causal attributions of general performance in secondary level students. The second research was focused on determining the relationship itself, for this the analysis was made in a representative sample of 677 students, aged between 14 and 19 years, with an average of 15.78 years, of which 476 were male and 201 women, it was found that procrastination is inversely related to the attributions to the interest, capacity, characteristics of the task and teacher evaluation, likewise, the relationship between Academic Procrastinationand age isfragile.

Antonio Silva Sprock Universidad Central de Venezuela Klinge Orlando Villalba Condori Universidad Continental, Arequipa, Perú

188 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 188 205, January 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.1.11

Relationship between Academic Procrastination and Attributions of Achievement Motivation

Luis Enrique Quispe Bendezú, Rey Luis Araujo Castillo, José Enrique García-Tejada, Yuri García-Tejada Universidad Nacional de San Agustín de Arequipa, Perú

Wang et al. (2019) determined the predictive role of sensation seeking in smartphone addiction in adolescents was examined and also investigated whether the fear of getting lost (FoMO) and procrastination sequentially mediated the relationship between sensation seeking and smartphone addiction in adolescents, in a sample of 794 adolescents, finding that the partial procrastination partially and sequentially the relationship between the search for feelings and addiction to smartphones in teenagers.

Various studies emphasize the discomfort it causes and the negative consequences it brings, as well as the negative factors associated with Theprocrastination.researchconducted

The result was that procrastination is associated with feelings of discomfort. However, academic procrastinators, have desires to change their procrastinating habits, but do not feel uncomfortable having them, this supports the idea that procrastination can serve as immediate emotional relief, even though it is immediately followed by negative academic results, which causes these students to change their practices.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. any objective, this is harmful to the mental health of the individuals because it brings with it stress and the feeling of guilt for not doing things in time. This in an academic field is better known, since all students go through a similar situation. In the case of teenagers, it is a very recognizable phenomenon.

by Hen and Goroshit (2018) aimed to examine the effects of academic and decisional procrastination on student discomfort related to academic procrastination and the desire to change their procrastination habits, in a total of 373 university students of social sciences in northern Israel.

Constantin, English and Mazmanian (2018) sought to clarify the role of repetitive negative thinking (i.e., rumination and worry) in links between anxiety and procrastination, and depression and procrastination in a sample of 90 undergraduate students. After the research was carried out it was found that procrastination correlates directly with the other variables, more significantly with rumination, concluding, then, that students with higher levels of anxiety and depression participate in more negative repetitive thinking, which may contribute to procrastinating behavior as a result of a concern for depressing or painful thoughts about the past.

Similarly, procrastination is investigated with goals and objectives, indirect relationships that are discovered with research in various samples.

Chen (2017) in his research seeked to examine the relationship between academic procrastination and bedtime and the indirect and moderating effects of

Goroshit, Hen and Ferrari (2018) found in their research that there are strong associations between repentance regarding procrastination and that the Repentance of vital dominance about to procrastination is multidimensional and that is why cultural differences can be found.

examined active and passive procrastination to identify personality traits that affect procrastination and to compare and contrast this relationship between men and women. In this investigation it was found that personality traits play different roles in these two forms of procrastination in different gender groups.

The research prepared by Liu and Feng (2019) proved that the perspective of future time is significantly correlated with procrastination.

Focusing more information on what merits research, procrastination is also associated with the locus of control, that is, the belief that power to change or influence something is internally or externally of each one.

The research found that the relationship is stronger for those students with higher levels of goal disconnection than for those students with lower levels of goal disconnection.

Zarzycka, Liszewski and Marzel (2019), in their research sought to examine the relationship between religiosity and procrastination, with the locus of control and prayer styles playing mediation roles in 196 students, determining at the end of their investigation that religious people can give up internal control, believing that their affairs are in the hands of God. Being subject to the power of God provides them with a form of replacement control, which reduces the problems of self regulation.

Dominguez, Prada and Moreta (2019) in their research seek to determine the existence of differences between men and women regarding the influence of the

Conceming sociodemographic variables, and there is no consensus, as several investigations find some significant with age and sex, but others do not find such a Otherwise,relationship.Zhou(2018)

Sensation search and disconnection of objectives in that relationship in one hundred ninety nine undergraduate chinese students (Average = 19.3 years).

(2019) seeks to identify the relationship between child perfectionism and causal academic self attributions using a dual approach: variable oriented and oriented to the person in a sample of 431 spanish students (49.42% girls) between the ages of eight and 11, the results indicate that non perfectionism scores tend to involve their learning to external causes and not so much to lack of effort.

Other research, developed by Kurtovic, Vrdoljak and Idzanovic (2019) aimed to examine the relationships of academic achievement, self efficacy and perfectionism with procrastination in university students, using a sample of 277 university students, demonstrating that there are negative correlations between academic performance, self efficacy and adaptive perfectionism with procrastination, and a positive relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and Also,procrastination.Vicentetal.

Sirois, Nauts and Molnar (2019) in their research sought to expand previous research on self pity and health behaviors by examining associations of self pity with procrastination before bedtime. This was done in 2 studies, the first with 134 individuals and the second with 646, finding at the end of the investigation that self compassionate people are less likely to participate in the postponement of bedtime, due in part to the use of healthy strategies of emotional regulation that negatively regulate the negative mood. In the research conducted by Zhao et al. (2019), it was sought to determine the influence and mechanism of the management disposition of time and self control about procrastination in a sample of 503 Chinese university students. They finding that procrastination is negatively correlated with the distribution of time management and restraint, while self control moderated the effect of management disposition of time on procrastination. The research concluded that restraint is a variable of capital importance in the research of procrastination and time management.

In the research conducted by Díaz (2018) provide an overview of the research conducted on procrastination in the spanish population organized in the following sections: conceptual framework of procrastination, instruments of measurement, prevalence and differences according to age, sex and occupation, structural models, types of procrastination and correlates (personality styles, temporal perspective, maturity, and mortality). They not concluded nothing about gender and age, because is no consensus in the research. It is therefore worthwhile to make an intervention with the students who procrastinate in their studies. In the face of this problem, research has also been done to determine the most effective ways to approach the phenomenon.

dimensions of personality on academic procrastination in 986 students between 16 and 40 years of undergraduate of two universities in Lima, determines that character explains a significant percentage of the variability of the dimensions of academic procrastination, and that the influence of the dimensions of responsibility and Neuroticism was higher in women.

In the research by Ferrari and Roster (2018) was explored how two types of procrastination (indecision and behavior) contribute to disorder problems in three adult US samples. UU, the three adult samples are made up of three groups, whose average age is 21, 31 and 54 years, finding that general procrastination trends can allow a pattern of lifelong responses to the environment that becomes increasingly misfit throughout the life cycle, which simultaneously delays elimination decisions.

In the research by Celik and Odacı (2017), they analized effectiveness of a psychoeducational group intervention based on reality therapy to treat young people with academic procrastination, in university students of a state university in the eastern Black Sea region in Turkey. It was 10 sessions and affected the decrease of academic postponement behavior of university students.

prepared by Goroshit and Hen (2019), the relationship between academic procrastination and academic performance, and the moderating role of learning disabilities in this relationship, concluding that a high level of procrastination could be more detrimental to the academic performance of these

conducted by Balkis and Duru (2019) focuses on the integrated effect of doubt, rational and irrational beliefs and fear of failure in procrastination in a sample of Turkish undergraduate students (N=293). They determined that doubt, fear of failure and rational/irrational beliefs were essential predictors of procrastination and secondly, doubt as Irrational expectations have direct and interactive effects on fear of failure, concluding then that intervention attempts should focus on modifying irrational beliefs and improving rational beliefs to deal with procrastination. Cerezo et al. (2018) analyzed how training in self regulated learning strategies is related to improvements in the knowledge of those strategies, the self efficacy in the use of these strategies, their perceived usefulness and their effective use in academic learning tasks. For this purpose they used a control group made up of 206 university students and an experimental group made up of 167. They determined that the training in said strategies produced a statistically significant improvement in the knowledge of self regulated learning strategies, which was associated with a significant increase in self efficacy in the use of those strategies.

Katz, Eilot and Nevo (2014) in their research explored the role of motivation in the relationships between self efficacy and procrastination in 171 Fifth grade students. Their results indicate that the average autonomous motivation and moderates the relationships between self efficacy and procrastination, this suggests that procrastination is not reduced by directly addressing self efficacy. Also they should be supported so that they find a more autonomous type of Inmotivation.theresearch

Thestudents.research

1.1 Academic procrastination

Procrastination is a phenomenon present in several aspects of human life, one of them is in the academic field, this type of procrastination is understood as “an unnecessary and unjustified delay of the tasks related to studies” (Rodríguez & Clariana, 2016). Academic procrastination is maintained in the subject because they prefer to do other more pleasant activities that will cause more momentary satisfaction (Tarazona, et. al., 2016). Summarizing the above, it can be affirmed that academic procrastination (PA) is the act of dilating time before starting an educational activity, voluntarily, but that brings subjective unrest. This delay may be due to external factors such as the difficulty of the task or internal factors such as the lack of pleasure that it has for the procrastinating subject (Dominguez, Villegas & Centeno, 2014). That is, in

For the validation of the General Attribution Motivation Scale of Achievement (EAML G), 72 students were taken as a sample for the pilot test, of which 35 were women and 37 men between 15 and 17 years researching in fourth and fifth

Besides another classification was proposed, that of the passive procrastinator, which is the one that delays the academic activities, which expands the time before starting the task and that this is due to a functional and active mismatch, which in the same way, delays the beginning of the job, but that does so voluntarily, because it prefers to work under pressure (Chun & Choi, 2005).

People tend to look for the causes of our actions and that way we will try to determine if we will succeed or fail when we insist on solving a problem. This is reflected very clearly in the cases that take place in school contexts, as students wonder about their failures and their successes, why they obtained a good or bad result, to find an answer they will try many possibilities, among them, internal factors, such as their capacity or effort and external factors, such as teacher or luck, that is the foundation of attribution theory (Gonzales, 1999).

This model aims to determine the dependence between motivation and the causes of the results that have been obtained after carrying out a task (Álvarez, This2012).model indicates that the student attributes his successes or failures to internal or external factors, either one or the other, these factors have dimensions, these are, locus, stability, controllable character and attributional patterns (Durán Aponte & Pujol, 2013).

In this sense, we can find two types of scholarly procrastinators, the sporadic, which refers to some punctual behavior in which some academic activity is delayed in some specific situation and the chronic procrastinator, which is a habit of procrastinating in the educational field (Schouwenburg, 2004).

For the PA to be understood in a more structural way, it is necessary to know that this phenomenon has two distinct components, the first is the core of the procrastination itself, the delay of activities, the second does instead, reference to self regulation, because there are no behaviors that are oriented towards the goals of the procrastinators. There is no capacity to plan those (Steel, 2007).

2. Method 2.1 Population and Sample In this investigation the Proportional Stratified Probabilistic Design was used.

the personal affectation of procrastination there is still much to research to have a homogeneous idea of what produces academic procrastination in students.

1.2 Attribution of achievement motivation

2.2

2.2.3 Data collection and analysis procedure

Authorization was requested from the authors of the adaptation of the EAML G size to adapt it to the secondary school student population. The help of two psychologists and a secondary level teacher was also requested to modify the wording of the items and subsequently the new scale was applied in a pilot test, the appropriate psychometric properties for the investigation was determined.

High school. To determine the relationship, the population corresponds to fourth and fifth year high school students in the city of Arequipa, obtaining a representative sample of 677 students, aged between 14 and 19 years, with an average of 15.78 years, of which 476 were men and 201 women. Also, 339 correspond to the fourth grade of secondary school, while 338 to the fifth grade of six conventions, national and private schools in the city.

The scale has a one dimensional structure, that is, a single factor that explains 23.89% of the total variance of the instrument (Dominguez & Campos, 2017).

2.2.2 Attribution of Motivation to General Achievement Scale (EAML G)

Scale (EPA)

2.2.1InstrumentsAcademicProcrastination

For the measurement of the tendency towards procrastination, the Academic Procrastination Scale (EPA) was used, consisting of 16 closed items that are answered on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (Always) to 5 (Never). Specifically, the adapted version of Álvarez (2010) was used. This adaptation has 16 closed items, “the items are statistically significant, with an internal consistency coefficient Cronbach's alpha that amounts to 0.80, which allows concluding that the EPA presents reliability. The measure of adequacy of the Kaiser Meyer Olkin sampling reaches a value of 0.80, which indicates that the variables have an adequate explanatory potential. Bartlett's sphericity test reaches a value that is significant (Chi square = 701.95 p <.05), which indicates that the correlations between the items of the instrument are high enough to continue with the factor analysis” (Álvarez, 2010).

It was developed by Manassero and Vásquez (1998), the original scale consists of 22 items that are answered on a Likert scale ranging from 1 to 6, but for the research the adaptation of Durán Aponte and Pujol (2013) was taken. It assesses the expectations of success and failure of a student in their overall performance, has a “KMO index (.864) which is close to the unit. Therefore indicates excellent adequacy of the data to a factorial analysis model. Bartlett's contrast, meanwhile, showed a p value of 0.00 which means the existence of a significant correlation between the variables. In the initial solution, the varimax rotation method reaches convergence after eight iterations, resulting in a factorial structure that explains 47.34% of the total variance and allows four factors to be extracted” (Durán Aponte & Pujol, 2013). It was determined that the scale has the appropriate psychometric properties for its application.

3. Results

The EAML G instrument was reviewed and modified with the help of two educational psychologists and a secondary level teacher. They made some observations in the writing of some reagents, once corrected no difficulties were found for the application in the required sample. The construct validity of the adaptation of the EAML G was analyzed by analyzing the factor structure using the principal component analysis. For this the Kaiser Meyer Olkin index (KMO) was obtained, obtaining a result of 0.771, being close to the unit indicates an adequacy of the data to a factor analysis model; Bartlett's contrast showed a p value of 0.00 which means that there is a significant correlation between the variables, these results are shown in Table 1. However, the Anti Image Correlation indicated that one of the items should be eliminated because it had the lowest correlation, in the same way the table of commonalities recommended the elimination of another of the details. After all, it had an extraction value less than 0.4, of which so that the scale was no longer with 18, but with 16 questions. Therefore, the Kaiser Meyer Olkin (KMO) index was obtained again, obtaining a result of 0.816, which, being close to the unit, indicates an excellent adaptation of the data to a factorial analysis model. Bartlett's contrast showed a p value of 0.00 which means that there is a significant correlation between the variables, these results are shown in Table 2.

Table 1: Kaiser Meyer Olkin's test of the original EAML G KMO and Bartlett test Kaiser Meyer Olkin measurement of sampling adequacy ,771 Bartlett's sphericity test Chi square approach 577,032 Gl 153 Sig. ,000

The data are presented in the form of tables and for the processing of the information and the statistical program SPSS in its version 23.0 was used.

Some educational institutions that provide education at the secondary level of the city of Arequipa were chosen, to which an interview with the Director was requested to deliver the letter of presentation of the Faculty of Education Sciences of the UNSA, explain the purpose of the investigation and request access to the classrooms to apply the levels. Once our request was accepted, the schedules for the application of the scales in the school were coordinated with the prior consent of the teachers and the students. Subsequently we proceeded to the qualification, analysis and interpretation of the data obtained.

12 ,761 16

The minimum value is .357 and the maximum is .790. 3. Rotated component matrix of the modified version of the adapted EML G Item Components 2 3 4 9 ,778 ,755 ,711 ,599 6 ,883 17 ,672

One of the deleted items is “How fair are your notes from the previous two month period about what you deserved?” For having the lowest value (0.283), said reagent was part of the “Attribution to teacher evaluation” factor of the original scale of Durán Aponte and Pujol (2013), it refers to all the curricular areas of the previous two month period. In the adaptation the same is sought. Still, it is not applicable to all curricular areas because in some you can have a better recognition of truth and in others not, that is to say that the appreciation of justice varies according to the courses, which prevents the assessment of the whole set of curricular areas of a bimester.

Table 2: Kaiser Meyer Olkin test of the adapted EAML G KMO and Bartlett test Kaiser Meyer Olkin measurement of sampling adequacy ,816 Bartlett's sphericity test Chi square approach 510,758 gl 120 Sig. ,000

Table

In this new version, the varimax rotation method was used that reaches convergence after seven interactions, resulting in a factorial structure that explains 65.37% of the total variance and allows four factors to be extracted. With this new version they were grouped into four components that can be seen in Table 3, for this the Anti image Correlation and the table of commonality were verified, determining that all the values are adequate, the new classification is separate from that of the instrument of Durán Aponte and Pujol (2013).

The other item deleted is “How do you describe your persistence because you have not been able to do a task this two month period?” which only obtained a score of 0.357, for that reason, that item must be deleted. Said reagent belongs to the Durán Aponte and Pujol (2013) original scale to the “Attribution to the characteristic of the task” factor, its low factor load can be explained as the scale values the attribution to a set of curricular areas and the tasks between these can vary, in some they strive to complete the job and in others they leave quickly.

From the resulting factor structure the reliability of the adapted EAML G is calculated, this with the internal consistency index Alpha of Cronbach, gave a value of, 890 for the instrument in general, in such a way it is determined that the device is reliable. In the same way the internal consistency of each factor was calculated, proving to be satisfactory in all cases, for Factor I the coefficient of, 846 was obtained, for Factor II it was, 822, for Factor II it was, 706 and finally for Factor IV it was 616, as shown in Table 4. Table 4. Cronbach's alpha for the total scale and the factors of the instrument Cronbach's Alpha for the Allocational Motivation Scale for General Achievement Adapted Total scale ,890 Factor I ,846 Factor II ,822 Factor III ,706 Factor IV ,616 In this way the instrument is constituted by 16 reagents, the total difference explained indicates that the reagents are grouped into four factors, the factor structure explains 65.37% of the total difference with 16 reagents; where factor I explains 39.24% of the difference, factor II explains 10.20% of the difference, factor III explains 8.56% of the difference and factor IV explains 7.37% of the Itdifference.isthenas

shown in Table 5, likewise also shows the commonalities of the 16 resulting reagents, with a minimum of, 543 and a maximum of, 801.

Table 5. Factorial Structure of the adapted EAML G Factors Commonalities Items Factor I ,663 How much interest do you have in researching this bimester? ,709 How much interest do you have to get good grades? ,613 How much desire do you have to learn this bimester? ,746 How important are good grades for you in this two month period?

From the analysis of the instrument four scales arise, as is the case of Durán Aponte and Pujol (2013). However the distribution of the items is different, since two reagents were eliminated and the delivery of the remaining 16 items changed factor. This is understandable, since in this investigation it was adapted in a different sample to the original. For this reason the four factors of the original scale are maintained. However, some items were changed factor, the four elements make the same reference as in the initial investigation; being these the Attribution to the characteristic of the task, the Attribution to the Effort, the Attribution to the Capacity and the Attribution to the evaluation of the Toprofessors.support

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. ,586 How much effort are you currently making to get good grades in this two month period? Factor II ,801 How much chance of passing the curricular areas do you think you have this bimester? ,603 How often do you complete a task you have started? ,689 How much confidence do you have to pass all curricular areas in this bimester? ,681 How do you value your ability to research curricular areas? ,625 How do you describe your behavior when you make a severe problem in any of your curricular areas?

the construct validity of the Adapted EAML G, a correlational analysis was carried out between the four resulting dimensions, as seen in Table 6. In terms of Attribution to interest/effort and Attribution to capacity, there is a relationship moderate positive (.549). This correlation is significant (p <, .001). This means that the more academic achievements are attributed to interest and effort, the more they are also attributed, those achievements, to the ability of the same student. The same happens with the Attribution to interest/effort and the attribution to the characteristic of the task, since the correlation is also positive and moderate (.465) and significant (p <, .001), that is, the more it is attributed academic achievements to interest and effort, but is also attributed these achievements to the characteristics of the task.

FactorIII ,694 How often do you get bored in the classes of the curricular areas of this bimester? ,585 To what degree do evaluations influence the increase or decrease of the grades you deserve this two month period? ,571 How do you rate the demands that you impose on yourself in the research? ,543 What is the degree of satisfaction you have about your previous two month grades? FactorIV ,735 How do you assess the relationship between the grade you obtained from the previous aimentre and the degree you expected to get? ,618 How much satisfaction does it give you to research the curricular areas of this bimester?

Attribution to evaluationteacher 1,000

The result is similar with regard to the Attribution to the capacity and the Attribution to the characteristic of the task, the relationship between both factors is positive and moderate (, 455) and significant (p <, .001), which indicates that while the more academic achievements are attributed to the ability, the more these attributes are also attributed to the characteristics of the task; About the relationship between the Attribution to capacity factor and the Attribution to Teacher evaluation factor, there is a weak (, 240) and significant (p <, 05) positive relationship, which indicates that although the more the achievements are attributed Academic ability, more is also attributed, such achievements, teacher evaluation, there are other variables involved

Attribution to interest / Effort 1,000 ,549** ,465** ,227

Attribution to characteristicthe of the task 1,000 ,404**

**. The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2 tails). *. The correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2 tails).

Finally, the relationship between the Attribution to the characteristic of the task factor and the Attribution to the Teacher evaluation factor is positive moderate (,404) and significant (p <, 001). This is because both factors are variables external to the student, over which he has no control, this means that the more academic achievements are attributed to the characteristics of the task, the more these attributes are also attributed to teacher evaluation.

Attribution to capacity 1,000 ,455** ,240*

Based on the analysis, it is concluded that the adapted instrument is valid and reliable, which is why the correlations that exist in the variables studied were continued, because the variables did not have a normal distribution, it was used for the analysis Spearman's statistic, showing the results shown in Table 7. Regarding the relationship between the tendency to academic procrastination and Attribution to interest/Effort shows that the correlation coefficient indicates that the value of Sperman's Rho is .522, which establishes a moderate negative correlation, which means that both variables have a moderate and inverse

Table 6. Proof of correlations between factors Correlations toAttributioninterest/Effort Attributiontocapacity characteristicAttributiontotheofthetask Attributiontoteacherevaluation

Finally, between the trend towards academic procrastination and Age, the correlation coefficient indicates that the value of Sperman's Rho is .155, which establishes a very weak positive correlation, indicating that both variables have a very weak relationship and direct, that is, the older the person evaluated, the more procrastination tendency exists. However because the correlation is very weak, there are other variables that influence the propensity to academic

However because the correlation is only modest, there are other variables that influence in the tendency to academic procrastination. On the other hand, the p value is .000 which indicates that the relationship is significant, since it does not exceed .05.

Similarly, the correlation between the tendency to academic procrastination and attribution to the characteristic of the task was analyzed, the correlation coefficient indicates that the value of Sperman's Rho is .528, which establishes a moderate negative correlation, which indicates that both variables have a moderate and inverse correlation, that is, the more success or failure is attributed to the characteristic of the task, the less tendency to procrastination exists.

correlation, that is, the more success or failure is attributed to interest or effort, the less tendency to procrastination exists.

However, because the correlation is only moderate, there are other variables that influence the propensity to academic procrastination. On the other hand, the p value is .000 which indicates that the correlation is significant, since it does not exceed Regarding.05.

On the other hand, regarding the relationship between the tendency to academic procrastination and Attribution to capacity, the correlation coefficient indicates that the value of Sperman's Rho is .457, which establishes a moderate negative correlation, which means that both variables have a reasonable and inverse relationship, that is, the more success or failure is attributed to the capacity, the less tendency to procrastination exists.

the relationship between the tendency to academic procrastination and Attribution to the evaluation of the Teacher, the correlation coefficient indicates that the value of Sperman's Rho is .262, which establishes a weak negative correlation, meaning that both variables have a soft and inverse correlation. That is to say, the more the success or failure is attributed to the evaluation of the Teacher, the less tendency to procrastination exists. However, because the correlation is weak, there are other variables that influence the propensity to academic procrastination. On the other hand, the p value is .000 which means that the correlation is significant, since it does not exceed .05.

However, because the correlation is only moderate, there are other variables that influence the trend towards academic procrastination. On the other hand, the p value is .000 which indicates that the correlation is significant, since it does not exceed .05.

Regarding the correlation between the tendency to academic procrastination and sex, the Mann Whitney U test was used because the sex variable is a categorical variable, as recorded in Table 8 since the p value is .678. It is concluded that, although there are differences, these are not significant, that is, there is no correlation between the age of the students and the tendency towards academic Procrastination.

Considering the research in 6 national, private and agreement schools of the city of Arequipa, it is determined that 179 students obtained scores that are located under the first quartile, considering them at a low level of academic

Table 7. Correlations between EPA and attributions and age Correlations by Rho de Spearman Variables toAttributioninterest/Effort Attributiontocapacity characteristicAttributiontotheofthetask Attributiontoteacherevaluation Age EPA RhoSpearman's ,522 ,457 ,528 ,262 ,155 Sig. ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000

Table 8: Correlation between EPA and Sex Test Statistics AcademicLevelProcrastination U from Mann Whitney 46942,000 Wilcoxon W 67243,000 Z ,416 Sig. (bilateral)asymptotic ,678 a. Grouping variable: Sex 4. Discussion and Conclusions There is an inverse relationship between the tendency to academic procrastination and the motivational attributions of achievement in students of the seventh cycle of the EBR of the province of Arequipa. This correlation is 0.595, which is equivalent to a moderate level. Likewise established a Simple Linear Regression model. There is also a direct relationship between the procrastination and the age of the students, but it is 0.155, which indicates that it is fragile and there is no significant correlation between the levels of procrastination and the sex of those evaluated.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. procrastination, 317, between the first and third quartile, placing them at a medium level of educational procrastination trend and 181 obtained scores that are above the third quartile, which puts them at a high level of aducational procrastination trend.

About the differences of the relationships between internal and external factors with procrastination, since in the investigation, the “teacher evaluation” factor obtained a weaker connection it is ratified by what Klassen, Krawchuk, Lldynch, & Rajani point out (2007), because they suggest that procrastination is explained less and to a lesser extent by intrinsic motivational variables. This is also found by Lee (2005) who indicates that students who are moved more for internal reasons than for external ones are less likely to procrastinate.

Specifically, the results were 188, 323 and 166 students located in the low, medium and high levels, respectively, in terms of attribution to academic achievements of interest or effort. 173, 310 and 194 students are found in the low, medium and high levels, respectively, in terms of attribution to academic performance; 199, 316 and 162 are located in the low, medium and high levels respectively in terms of attribution to the characteristics of the task, their academic achievements and 218, 282 and 177 students are located in the low, medium and high levels respectively in the attribution to the evaluation of the teacher of his academic achievements. The levels were located according to the score obtained by the students evaluated. The results are consistent with those found by Durán & Pujol (2013) the validated scale has the necessary validity to be applied to the population in which it was adapted with statistical values similar to those found by the aforementioned authors.

The results obtained, finally, are verified with those that Howell and Watson (2007) affirm, within the personal characteristics that favor the postponement of tasks are those linked with a low motivation to the achievement, declaring that both variables are negatively related. This is reinforced by García and Silvia (2019), where they indicate the same, that procrastination is associated with low levels of motivation for achievement. Also to them, Wolters, Pintrich, and Karabenick (2003) affirm that academic procrastination is linked to the use of motivational regulation, this, emphasizing academic procrastination. Along the same lines, Matalinares Calvet et al.. (2017) indicates that procrastination is related to low motivation. This is ratified with Steel (2007) when it states that procrastinating behavior is linked to the degree of active commitment to a specific task, this within a motivational process.

Regarding the relationship between age and sex and procrastination, studies such as Pardo, Perilla and Salinas (2014) indicate the same thing that was found in the present investigation, that these sociodemographic variables are not predictors of procrastination in the academic field. The same happens in the study of Álvarez (2010) in which the difference that exists between the levels of procrastination by sex or age is not significant.

Influencia de la satisfacción con los estudios sobre la procrastinación académica en estudiantes de psicología: un estudio preliminary [Influence of satisfaction with studies on academic

Chen, B. B. (2017). Academic Procrastination and Bedtime among Chinese Undergraduates: The Indirect and Moderating Effects of Sensation Seeking and Goal Disengagement. Current Psychology volume, 38, 187 193. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144 017 9605 9 Chun, A., & Choi, J. (2005). Rethinking Procrastination: Positive Effects of “Active” Procrastination Behavior on Attitudes and Performance. The Journal of Social Psychology, 145(3),245 264.http://10.3200/SOCP.145.3.245 264 Constantin, K., English, M. M., & Mazmanian, D. (2018). Anxiety, Depression, and Procrastination Among Students: Rumination Plays a Larger Mediating Role than Worry. Journal of Rational Emotive & Cognitive Behavior Therapy, 36, 15 27.

Persona: Revista de la Facultad de Psicología, 13, 159 177.http://10.26439/persona Álvarez, R. L. Y. (2012). Escala de motivación adolescente (EM1) basada en el Modelo Motivacional de McClelland [Teen Motivation Scale (EM1) based on the McClelland Motivational Model]. Tesis Psicológica, 7, 128 143. Balkis, M., & Duru, E. (2019). Procrastination and Rational/Irrational Beliefs: A Moderated Mediation Model. Journal of Rational Emotive & Cognitive Behavior Therapy, 37, 299 315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942 019 00314 6 Cerezo, R., Fernández, E., Amierio, N., Valle, A., Rosário, P., & Núñez, J. C. (2018). Mediating Role of Self efficacy and Usefulness Between Self regulated Learning Strategy Knowledge and its Use. Revista de Psicodidáctica, 24(1) 1 8. http://10.1016/j.psicoe.2018.09.001 Cerniglia , L. (2019). An exploratory research on adaptive psychopathological risk and problematic use of the web associated with procrastination in university students. International Journal of Developmental and Educational Psychology, 1, 41 48. https://doi.org/10.17060/ijodaep.2019.n1.v1.1382

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942 017 0271 5 Çelik, Ç. B., & Odacı, H. (2017). Psycho Educational Group InterventionBased on Reality Therapy to Cope with Academic Procrastination. Journal of Rational Emotive & Cognitive Behavior Therapy, 36, 220 233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942 017 0283 1 Díaz, M., J. F. (2018). Procrastinación: Una Revisión de su Medida y sus Correlatos [Procrastination: A Review of its Measure and its Correlates]. Revista Iberoamericana de Diagnóstico y Evaluación e Avaliação Psicológica RIDEP, 51, 43 60. Dominguezhttps://doi.org10.21865/RIDEP51.2.04,L.,S.A.,&Campos,U.,Y.(2017).

Finally Dominguez, Villegas and Centeno (2014) in their research indicate that there are no significant differences about to sex. Similarly Cerniglia (2019) suggests that there are no significant differences between the levels of procrastination between men and women or in terms of the age of both. Diaz (2018) indicates that the gap between gender and age groups they are not predictors and they are not determined concerning procrastination, but this is because the ages that are generally taken are those of university students. These ages do not oscillate much and that restriction demonstrates a real trend.

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Pardo, B. D., Perilla, B. L., & Salinas, R. C. (2014). Relación entre procrastinación académica y ansiedad rasgo en estudiantes de psicología [Relationship between academic procrastination and anxiety trait in psychology students]. Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos de Psicología, 14(1), 31 44. Rodríguhttps://doi.org/10.18270/chps..v14i1.1343ez,A.,&Clariana,M.(2016).Procrastinación en Estudiantes Universitarios: su Relación con la Edad y el Curso Académico [Procrastination in University Students: their Relationship with Age and Academic Course]. Revista Colombiana de Psicología, 26(1), 45 60. http://10.15446/rcp.v26n1.53572 Schouwenburg, H. C. (2004). Procrastination in academic settings: General introduction. In H. C. Schouwenburg, T. A. Lay, & J. R. Ferrari (Eds.), Counseling the procrastinator in academic settings (p 3 17). Washington: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10808 001 Sirois, F. M., Nauts, S., & Molnar, D. S. (2019). Self Compassion and Bedtime Procrastination: an Emotion Regulation Perspective. Mindfulness, 10, 434 445. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671 018 0983 3 Steel, P. (2007). The nature of Procrastination: A Meta analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65 94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033 2909.133.1.65 Tarazona, P. F., Romero, A. J. N., Aliaga, C. I. M., & Veliz, R. M. F. (2016). Procrastinación académica en estudiantes de educación en Lenguas, Literatura y Comunicación: Características, modos y factores [Academic procrastination in students of education in Languages, Literature and Communication: Characteristics, modes and factors] Horizonte de la Ciencia, 6(10), 185 194. http://10.26490/uncp.horizonteciencia.2016.10.214 Wang, J., Wang, P., Yang, X., Zhang, G., Wang, X., Zhao, F., Zhao, M., & Lei, L. (2019). Fear of Missing Out and Procrastination as Mediators Between Sensation Seeking and Adolescent Smartphone Addiction. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 17, 1049 1062. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469 019 00106 0 Wenger, E. C., & Snyder, W. M. (2000). Communities of practice: The organizational frontier. Harvard Business Review, 78(1), 139 145. Wolters, C. A., Pintrich, P. R., & Karabenick, S. A. (2003). Assessing Academic Self Regulated Learning. In Moore, C.A., Lipman, L.H. (Eds.). What Do Children Need to Flourish? Conceptualizing and Measuring Indicators of Positive Development WashingtonDC: Springer. Zarzycka, B., Liszewski, T., & Marzel, M.(2019). Religionand behavioral procrastination: Mediating effects of locus of control and content of prayer. Current Psychology (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144 019 00251 8 Zhou, M. (2018). Gender differences in procrastination: The role of personality traits. Current Psychology (2018) https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144 018 9851 5

Liu, P., & Feng, T. (2019). The effect of future time perspective on procrastination: the role of parahippocampal gyrus and ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 13(3), 615 622 http://10.1007/s11682 018 9874 4 Manassero, M. A., & Vázquez, A. Á. (1998). Validación de una Escala de Motivación de Logro [Validation of an Achievement Motivation Scale]. Psicothema, 10(2), 333 Matalinares351., C. M. L., Diaz, A. A. G., Rivas, D. L. H., Segundio, D. A.D., Arenas, I. C. A., Raymundo, V. O., Baca, D. Espinoza, J. U., Yaringaño, L., J., & Fernandez, E. (2017). Procrastinación y adicción a redes sociales en estudiantes universitarios de pre y post grado de Lima [Procrastination and addiction to social networks in pre and post graduate university students in Lima]. Horizonte de la Ciencia, 7(13), 63 81. http://10.26490/uncp.horizonteciencia.2017.13.355

Educative Curriculum Material and Its Impact on the Teachers’ Instructional Performance and Learners’Achievement

Momo Rosbiono Kartamiharja and Wahyu Sopandi

206 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 206 230, January 2020 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.1.12

Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia

(2) Understanding pedagogical and professional knowledge of junior chemistry teachers as ECM users and trained better than senior chemistry teachers who do not use ECM (3) The instructional performance of junior chemistry teachers who use ECM is better than senior chemistry teachers both in their planning and implementation. (4) The learner’s achievement that learns from teacher used ECM increased higher significantly than those who did not. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that the ECM effectively improves on chemistry teachers’ instructional performance and learners’ achievement. Therefore it is recommended that Chemistry Teacher Group Discussion use the ECM Keywords: education; educative; curriculum material; chemistry teacher; learner

Abstract. This research aim is to reveal the components of Educative Curriculum Material (ECM) and its impacts on the chemistry teachers’ instructional performance and learners’ achievement. Thisstudy applied the experimental method with matching only pretest posttest control group design. A total of 36 junior chemistry teachers as the experiment group, and 36 senior chemistry teachers as the control group, and were selected by purposive sampling. The sample of learners is chosen randomly. They consisted of 64 people as an experimental group and 64 people as a control group from different High School. The research instruments were a questionnaire, form of the analysis lesson plan and observation instructional performance, the items of teacher knowledge and learners' achievement. Data were analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively through t tests and Normalization Gain. The research findings indicate that (1) ECM components that effectively enhance knowledge of chemistry teachers are curriculum, chemistry content, instructional strategies, professional development, and academic skills.

The main factors that influence the quality of the success of the education system are teachers, learners, curriculum, management of instruction, facilities, and infrastructure. Among these factors, the teacher is the most crucial element because the teacher can act as the planner, executor, controller, manager, and developer of the educational system. Many experts stated that there would be no change or development in the educational system without any change and improvement in the quality of teachers. Therefore the teacher is a determinant and dominant factor that plays a role in the learning process, where the learning process is at the core of the overall education process (Dharma, 2008; Yusof, Yaakob, Othman, 2019).

Background

The Indonesian National Education System section, 1 and subsection 1 of Law No. 14 of 2005 stated that teachers are professional educators with the main task of educating, teaching, guiding, directing, training, and evaluating students on all levels and types of education (Depdiknas, 2005b). The teacher profession requires certain skills. This job cannot be done by a person who does not have these skills. Based on Academic Qualification Standards and Teacher Competence, professional teachers are teachers who can integrate critical competencies, namely: (1) pedagogical, (2) subject matter, (3) personality, and (4) social, and (5) professionals manifested by their performance (Depdiknas, 2005a). To conduct qualified education, teachers must demonstrate convincing competence in terms of knowledge, skills, mastery of the curriculum, subject matter, teaching methods, evaluation techniques, and commitment to tasks and high discipline. According to the Regulation of the Minister of National Education of the Republic of Indonesia Number 16 of 2007, teacher competencies need to be continuously maintained programmatically and continually through a system of guidance that can improve the quality of professionalism (Depdiknas, 2007).

Teacher professionality in Indonesia is currently considered low. The data states that the national average test scores of teacher candidates for elementary, junior high school, high school, and vocational schools for mathematics studies only (27.67), physics (27.35), biology (44.96), chemistry (43.55), and English (37.57), while mastery of minimum expertise in the field of study of a teacher could teach well is 75 (Sudarman, 2007). Another finding from the Educational Sciences Consortium 2000 states that 40 scores junior high school teachers and 33 of high school teachers teach fields of study outside their areas of expertise (Mustofa, 2007). In terms of performance, it was found that in preparing the instructional program, most teachers did not compile themselves but only used the work product of the Chemistry Teacher Group Discussion (CTGD) The competence of teachers to comprehend the subject matter and classroom management is still low. Teacher reading interest has not been facilitated by resource books as teacher guides, journals, and bulletins. The culture of conducting Classroom Action Research (CAR) is also still low (Ma'ruf, 2009) The teacher professionalization determined through portfolio assessment and

Teacher Professional Education and Training (TPET). The percentage of graduates from the portfolio and TPET graduation only reached 49.60 and 42.89 in 2006 out of 200,000 participants. Thus in 2007, only reached graduation of 40.95 and 50.02 of the total participants of 180,450 people. In 2008 only reached 38.22 and 33.20 of the 200,000 participants. The low competency of the teacher lies in the pedagogical, subject matter, and the process of self development especially writing scientific papers (Dasuki, 2009).

Moreover, it was found that novice teachers who taught at various levels of education and fields of study faced difficulties in finding curriculum material resources that helped them to prepare and carry out their instructional assignments (Kauffman et al. in Grossman & Thompson, 2004). Likewise, the sourcebooks for chemistry teacher guides in Indonesia are still scarce, only in the 1994 curriculum era. Chemistry teacher sourcebooks are available through Open Universities such as the module "Development of Curriculum and Chemistry Learning" (Arifin et al., 2007), the "Renewal in Chemistry Learning" module (Karyadi et al., 2007), and the module "Chemistry Learning Strategies" (Wiryawan et al., 2007). Even though the existence of the sourcebook and teacher's guide is very essential as one of the supporters of improving the quality of teacher professionality. Literature Review Based on its function, educative curriculum material can facilitate the willingness and learning abilities of teachers in improving their instructional practices, especially more effectively by presenting studies of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) aspects that combine instructional content and pedagogy (Scheneider, Krajcik & Marx, 2000). Educative curriculum material designed by applying a heuristic approach is more effective in improving teacher learning. Teachers are ready to follow curriculum changes when they have competence in the curriculum, instructional, content subject matter, curriculum management and teaching, curriculum and instructional evaluation, as well as student understanding. Educative curriculum material is also very supportive for improving the ability of teachers to practice learning, facilitating teachers always to continue learning, so that they have the readiness to carry out their roles as agents for converting and constructing curricula and instruction (Davis & Krajcik, 2005, Krajcik & Delen, 2017).

The knowledge that must be possessed by teachers in educative curriculum materials are knowledge of (1) the subject matter, (2) general pedagogy such as classroom management, (3) pedagogical subject matter, (4) curriculum, (5) learners and their characteristics, (6) the context of the school and society, and (7) the goals and value of education. These seven kinds of knowledge are combined integratively to form the Subject Material Pedagogical (SMP) knowledge By adapting Shulman's view, the integration of all teacher's knowledge components can be called as "Amalgamation Teacher Knowledge" (ATK). Each component that forms the SMP is curriculum knowledge, subject matter, and others must first be found"essential concepts" through the process of analyzing or making concept maps. The integration between essence concepts

Educative curriculum material in the form of resources and teacher guidance should cover the study component of instructions for use, practical curriculum variety, the content of the field of study for teachers and educators (enrichment), general pedagogic, and specialized pedagogical fields of study known as pedagogical content chemistry (PCC). The process of preparing resources and guiding teachers should be based on the principles of usability and adaptability that encourage teachers to be willing and able to learn. It is important to provide teachers about the development of the society in the future and the role of education as the center for character building through the fields of study “education through subject matter,” which is a new paradigm as a modifier of the old model of “subject matter through education.” Thus the interests of society are far more preferred than the benefits of the field of study; in other words, the socio scientific approach is more prominent than the scientific method. The sources and guidelines of the teacher need to be structured in such a way that they have a role in arousing curiosity and want to train themselves. Therefore, on the content side of the field of study, it is necessary to develop

and knowledge curriculum with other knowledge is carried out through a link named "key formula." For example "syllabus component = curriculum component + curriculum design model " (Shulman in Julie, 2008; Rosbiono, 2020a, 2010b)

The educative curriculum material should be compiled by applying the principle of deepening the understanding of concepts (science), instructional strategies, and conformity to the needs of various educational participants. Some types of knowledge that teachers urgently need improvement include techniques to improve instructional such as training or modeling, specific instructional strategies such as prediction explanations, class management, content presentation technology, and inquiry support, and non traditional assessments (Krajcik, Marx & Soloway in Schneider & Krajcik, 2000). Other views suggest that educative curriculum material should teach teachers to think about: (1) enrichment content from concepts accepted by educators, (2) pedagogical foundation, (3) content development and community dynamics into the future, (4) needs of educators, and ( 5) broader community needs (Ball and Cohen in Schneider & Krajcik, 2000).

The educative curriculum material design can also be compiled based on a heuristic approach consisting of Design 1 until Design 9. Design 1 (assisting teachers to educate learners with phenomena) Design 2 (assisting teachers in using representations of scientific instructional) Design 3 (assisting teachers to anticipate, understanding, and responding to learners’ about science). Design 4 (assisting teachers to educate learners through questions) Design 5 (assisting teachers to activate learners by collecting and analyzing data) Design 6 (assisting teachers to activate learners by designing investigations) Design 7 (supporting teachers to activate learners by making explanations based on evidence). Design 8 (helping teachers to activate learners by improving scientific communication), and Design 9 (supporting teachers to activate learners by developing subject matter) (Davis & Krajcik, 2005).

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. content mapping based on the structure of science, problem solving, and socio scientific, which is also called the model of making decisions (Holbrook, 2005).

Some previous studies suggested that (1) the preparation of educative curriculum materials paid more attention to pedagogical content chemistry (PCC) because this knowledge was more effectively used by teachers than separate aspects of content and pedagogy, also could facilitate teacher willingness and learning ability in improving learning practices (Scheneider & Karjcik, & Marx, 2000) (2) The design of educative curriculum material should apply a heuristic approach because it is more effective in improving teacher learning (Davis, & Krajcik, 2005). (3) Educative curriculum material should prioritize an assessment driven process approach and a pedagogical project based science approach (Reiser et al., 2003). (4) Preparation of educative curriculum material should be carried out concerning learning objectives, principles of adaptability and usability so that it can act as a vehicle for reform, effectively used in large classes, and used by teachers in different situations (Schneider & Rivet, 2000). (5) Curriculum material should reveal operational matters accompanied by detailed descriptions because such presentation is felt by many teachers; increasing the quality of the instruction process is very dependent on increasing the knowledge and skills of teachers, school leaders, and educators obtained through the use of sourcebooks (Scheneider & Krajcik & Blummenfeld, 2005) (6) Educative curriculum material should provide training in making teaching plans for beginner teachers, provide opportunities for teachers to develop their ideas and strategies, make new teachers more confident in teaching, laying out basic ideas that can build the ability of teachers to adapt in creating new ways because comprehensive designs (involving content, instructional approaches, valuations, etc.) provide learning opportunities that are strong enough for novice teachers (Groosman & Thompson, 2004). (7) The chemistry education curriculum has tended to focus on the subject by raising internal concepts of the subject's interests so that chemistry learning is unpopular and irrelevant in the views of educators, therefore educative curriculum material should train teacher learning oriented towards the needs of educators (Holbrook, 2005). (8) Educative curriculum materials should be prepared about concerning reform standards, scientific content, teaching strategies, and having content that can develop teacher skills, reviewed by professional staff, and tested in the field (Flores et al., 2004).

In addition to the andragogy model, educative curriculum material is also carried out by applying the ADDIE model (Analysis, Design, Develop, Implement, Evaluation). This model is part of Instructional System Design (ISD), which emphasizes when implementation is carried out through ADIR (Absorbing, Doing, Interacting, and Reflecting) mechanisms. After being given the conditions by providing Educative Curriculum Materials (ECM), the first step for the teachers to do the Absorbing process is to absorb the information or knowledge contained in the ECM by reading, analyzing, summarizing, or making concept maps for each topic so that they find the concept of essence of reading. The second stage of the teachers performs the Doing process, which is to work on completing the work being trained in ECM in the form of

answering questions, compiling syllabus, preparing lesson plans, or conducting optimization experiments on chemistry experiment procedures. The third stage is the Interacting process, which is to do interpersonal relationships with fellow teachers or with educators. Interaction with peer teachers is done through discussion or brainstorming so that the work completed produces a better product. The interaction with participants is carried out through the appearance of learning based on the lesson plan improvement. The fourth stage is doing the Reflecting process, which is analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of the product and work processes that have been produced or displayed. To determine the level of success of the process that has been carried out, then at the reflection stage an internal evaluation or self evaluation or external evaluation is carried out. The weaknesses that have been identified, become a reference for the improvement process in the future (Clark, 2000)

2. What the impact of using ECM on teachers' understanding of pedagogical and professional competencies?

Educative Curriculum Material (ECM) model "Amalgamation Teacher Knowledge" (ATK) as an alternative to improve understanding of pedagogical competencies and teacher professional competence because this model emphasizes the integration of various intact knowledge that must be possessed by the teacher. Even this ATK model encourages an increase in teacher academic performance through the mechanism of "Absorbing, Doing, Interacting, and Reflecting" (ADIR), as an educational process that opens opportunities for the growth of learning independence, so that the increase in professionality of chemistry teachers can run continuously. Because of that, a program to improve the professional competence of teachers is vital to be conducted (Hamdu, Sopandi, & Nahadi, 2018). Teachers' and learners' empowerment also can be improved through connecting the Use of Educative Curriculum Materials to Students’ Engagement in Science Argumentation (Arias, Smith, Davis, Marino, Palincsar, 2017) or use of multimedia (Loper, Katherine, McNeill, González Howard, 2017).

1. What the components pedagogical and professional knowledge to build an ECM that can empower the potential of chemistry teachers?

3. What the impact of using ECM on the ability of chemistry teachers on planning and implementing chemistry instructional?

4. What the impact of chemistry instructional by teachers who use ECM on learners' achievement?

Research Problems Based on the background of the problem that has been raised, the general problem of this research is "What components and impact of educative curriculum material (ECM) on improving high school chemistry teachers’ performance and learner’ s achievement?". In particular, the formulation of the problem of this research are:

Research Purposes The main objective of this study is to produce an "Educational Curriculum Material (ECM)” that effectively improves the understanding and performance

The subject of this study consisted of chemistry teachers and high school learners in XI grade. A total of 36 junior chemistry teachers (have teaching experience 1 5 years) were selected by purposive sampling from the Chemistry M (EG) O1 X O2 M (CG) O1 O2

METHOD Research Design

3. Determine the impact of using ECM on the ability of chemistry teachers on planning and implementing chemistry instructional.

4. Determine the impact of chemistry instructional by teachers who use ECM on learners' achievement.

The testing phase is carried out through experimental studies “The Matching Only Pretest Posttest Control Group Design” with the following pattern: M(EG) =Matching of Experimental Group M(CG) =Matching of Control Group O1 = Pretest O2 = Posttest X = Chemistry Teaching withECM Research Subjects

1. Determine the component's pedagogical and professional knowledge to build an ECM that can empower the potential of chemistry teachers.

2. Determine the impact of using ECM on teachers' understanding of pedagogical and professional competencies.

This study was a type of Research & Development (R & D) Model by Sukmadinata (2007) which consisted of preliminary studies, development studies, and testing studies. The preliminary and development studies have been carried out by Rosbiono (2010a) with the product obtained as an Educational Curriculum Material (ECM). ECM is a chemistry teacher resource book that contains aspects of pedagogy and fields of study (Chemistry) and provides educational aspects to motivate teachers to learn and practice continuously. In this study, analyzed again about the characteristics of the ECM, then continued to the testing phase that uses ECM in the chemistry instruction with acid base material. Acid base chemistry material proposed in this study is based on reasons, namely: (1) this topic is commonly found in natural phenomena so it must be recognized by humans at various levels of education; (2) the material as a prerequisite to other essential concepts in chemistry; (3) the material that is directly related to syllabus of school chemistry; and (4) the material is instructional content which has a wide enough opportunity to build thinking skills and practice skills.

Teacher Group Discussion (CTGD) in Karawang City, Indonesia. Senior chemistry teachers (have teaching experience 6 20 years) as many as 36 people were selected by purposive sampling from the CTGD of Bandung City, Indonesia. Junior chemistry teachers are used as an experimental group that receives training using ECM by researchers for one semester, while senior chemistry teachers are used as a control group, where teaching uses non ECM resources. The sample of students was 2 classes (64 people) from Karawang High School, as a group of experiments. Whereas 2 classes (64 people) came from Cimahi High School, Indonesia as a control group. The sample of students is chosen randomly.

learning

Instruments The relationship between the problem and the instruments used and validation techniques in this study are presented in Table 1 below: Table 1: Research Instrument and Validity Technique Problems Instruments Number questionsof Validation ECM components andQuestionnaireinterview 210 Content validity by Chemistry Education Expert, Chemistry Expert and Chemistry Curriculum Expert Pedagogical knowledge and subject matter chemistry teacher Item reasonmultipletestchoice 100 KRReliabilityCoefficient20=0.8383(Veryhigh) Teaching Plan Form lessonanalysisplan 21 Content validity by Chemistry Education Expert, Chemistry Expert and Chemistry Curriculum Expert ImplementationTeaching Form observationteaching 17 Content validity by Chemistry Education Expert, Chemistry Expert and Chemistry Curriculum Expert Student achievement Item multipletestchoice 50 KRReliabilityCoefficient20=0.6935(High) KR 20 = Kuder Richardson 20 Data Analysis Data analysis of the pretest and posttest values was performed with Normalization Gain (N Gain). N Gain is used to determine the quality of student learning outcomes improvement before and after learning. N Gain can be calculated using the formula: N Gain =

The significance of the means difference between the pretest and posttest scores was done by t test. If the value of the t count is greater than the t table, the null hypothesis (H0) is rejected. This means that there is a significant difference between the understanding of teachers who use ECM or students who learn from ECM users teachers than those who do not. If the t count is smaller than the t table, the H0 is accepted. This means that there is no significant between the understanding of teachers who use ECM or students who learn from ECM users teachers than those who do not. T dependent tests were performed to determine the difference between the pretest and posttest scores in each of the experimental and control groups, t pre(E) post(E) and t pre(C) post(C). While the t independent test was conducted to determine the difference between the experimental control group pretest scores, and the experimental control group post test scores (t pre(E) pre(C) and t post(E) post(C). Thus t independent determines differences in achievement between the experimental group and the control group

214 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. The criteria for classifying N gain results can be seen in the following table 2 (Meltzer, 2002). Table 2: N Gain Value Classification Criteria Achievement of N Gain Criteria Height (N gain) ≥ 0,7 Medium 0,7 >(N gain) ≥ 0,3 Low (N gain) <0,3

. Research Findings and Discussion Components of Educative Curriculum Material (ECM) for Chemistry Teacher The components educative curriculum material for Chemistry Teacher shown in Table 3 below. Table 3: Components of educative curriculum material ComponentsECM Sub Components ECM RespondentsResponse(n=72) Total(%)Agree(%) StronglyAgree(%) CurriculumKnowledge Level and Curriculum Components 34 66 100 Curriculum Design Curriculum Development National EducationStandards Scope of Chemistry Content Syllabus and Chemistry Lesson Plan

215 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. ComponentsECM Sub Components ECM RespondentsResponse(n=72) Total(%)Agree(%) StronglyAgree(%) KnowledgeSubjectsChemistry Chemistry Knowledge Dimension 24 8 74 98 8 Concept Map of Chemistry Content Description of MainConcept of Chemistry ReadingDescriptionChemistryEnrichment,DescriptionContentofPrerequisite,andAppliedConceptsofMisconceptionsResourcesforLearners KnowledgeInstructionChemistryal Model, Approach, and Chemistry InstructionMethods 31 7 67 4 99 1 Instructional Assessments Determining of Minimum Mastery ManagementClassroomInstructionalTeachersPreparationTestCriterionQuestionValidationofLearnersandWorksheetMediaDevelopmentandLaboratory KnowledgeDevelopmentProfessional Development of Teacher Education 20 8 68 4 89 2 Rights and Obligations of Chemistry Teacher’s Social Interactionof Chemistry Teacher’s Self Development of Chemistry ClassroomTeacher Action Research DevelopmentSkillsAcademic Training about Compiling and Analyzing Syllabus 34.2 59.7 93.9 Training about Compiling and Analyzing LessonPlans Training about Drafting and Analyzing Learners and Teachers TrainingWorksheetsabout Making and Analyzing Instructional Media Training about Developing and Analyzing of Learners Book Training about Compiling and Analyzing Items Test Training about Composing Minimum Mastering Criterion

RespondentsResponse(n=72) Total(%)Agree(%) StronglyAgree(%)

Training about Validation of Test TrainingQuestionabout Instructional Simulationdan Reflection Training about Developing A Laboratory Experiment Training about Implementing Classroom Action Research

In 2003 the National Education System Law was launched. The regulation contains eight educational standards namely, Graduates Competency Standards, Content Standards, Process Standards, and Assessment Standards, Educators and Education Personnel Standards, Facilities and Infrastructure Standards, Management Standards, and Budget Standards. The first four standards are related to the learning process in the classroom, while the other four rules are related to the management of school level education. Of course, to increase the insight of chemistry teachers, the essential concepts of all education standards must be contained in an educative curriculum material document. The scope of the material and theories of chemistry essence that must be taught in schools are included in the content standard document, while the syllabus guidelines and unit lesson plans are included in the

Based on Table 3 above to build professional chemistry teachers, it is essential to understand the curriculum, school chemistry contents, chemistry instructional strategies, professional development, and academic skills to carry out chemistry learning well. As a practitioner and curriculum developer, chemistry teachers should know curriculum levels, so that the job descriptions as curriculum developers at the national, institutional (school) to class level are apparent. Based on the laws of the Indonesian national education system, in essence, the curriculum is interpreted as planning and managing for the provision of educational and instruction components. The simplest that the curriculum encompasses the components of the objectives, content, methods, and evaluation. Its component focus is carried out at the class level, while the teacher and education component, facilities and infrastructure, management, and budget are components of the curriculum that are run at the school level. Knowledge of curriculum design and development also really needs to be mastered by chemistry teachers. Since the proclamation of the Republic of Indonesia in 1945, the Ministry of Education and Culture has launched several curriculum reforms, ranging from the subject based curriculum design, turned into a goal-based curriculum, student active learning-based curriculum, and recently in 2013 changed to the competency based and integration based curriculum (Arifin et al., 2007).

ComponentsECM Sub Components ECM

The knowledge taxonomy that has been carried out in Indonesia lately is applying Anderson's view, which is to develop thought processes ranging from remembering to creating, in addition to that, the taxonomy reveals the dimensions of factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge.

By mapping chemistry content into the knowledge dimension, it becomes more apparent the knowledge that chemistry teachers must provide to their learners. Following the characteristics of chemistry, in addition to mapping the aspects of learning according to Anderson, chemistry teachers must also think of the macroscopic, sub microscopic, and symbolic aspects of the chemistry content they taught. Chemistry teachers also need knowledge in making concept maps of hierarchical forms. This knowledge is essential because it can be trained and used as an assessment tool to explore learners' comprehensive understanding of the chemistry concepts they learn (Arifin et al., 2007; Karyadi et.al, 2007).

conventional processes. With the detailed information contained in national education standards, it is conducive for the developers of learner’s books, instructional media, and instructional assessments (Depdiknas, 2007)

Description of the main concepts, prerequisites, enrichment, applied, and misconceptions of school chemistry content is very necessary for chemistry teachers because it provides a comprehensive understanding, so it is conducive to making regular instructional plans, remediation or enrichment. Explanation of enrichment chemistry content is not widely revealed in most high school chemistry books, even though it is very much needed by teachers to provide answers to critical student questions. Chemistry lessons that do not reveal applied concepts in real life will reduce the attractiveness and motivation of learners. Through Vygotsky's social constructivist approach, contextual (real life) instruction of chemistry is essential and is an obligation of the chemistry teacher (Arifin et al., 2007). To increase learners learning motivation and strengthen positive perceptions of chemistry lessons, the chemistry content presented not only reveals the essential concepts but also has to touch the needs of daily life. In this regard, the school chemistry curriculum provided in the Netherlands is implemented in the form of themes such as themes related to fire prevention, marine chemistry, food quality and water quality (De Vos et al., 2003; Gilbert et al., 2003). Likewise, in Western Australia, the school's chemistry content provided is focused on the study of household chemicals, environmental and industrial chemical processes, chemical production, forensic chemistry, and environmental chemistry. Thus the chemistry curriculum provides opportunities for learners to complete their vocational competencies by working in a laboratory. This new proposal is consistent with the educational tendency towards more relevant content, contextual learning, understanding of scientific methodologies, and the development of chemistry literacy for learners. Another thing that is not less important that chemistry teachers still need about Reading Resources for Learners (RRL). Learners can use many chemistry instructional materials but

An understanding of the Model, Approach, and Chemistry Instructional Method and practice skills is one of the characteristics of a professional chemistry teacher. The learning process that applies multi methods will maximize the learning experience gained by learners. The preparation of the Instructional Assessment Tool that is in line with the learning objectives will provide objective information about the learning outcomes achieved by learners. Thus the teacher can determine the Minimum Criteria for Mastery Learning from the material being taught, so the teacher can identify which learners need to be enriched or remediated. Conducting Test Question Validation activities both in determining the validity of the content, the analysis of the severity, the level of difficulty, and the distinguishing power of test questions are essential parts that the teacher should master so that from time to time the teacher can develop and obtain a reliable assessment tool (Karyadi et al., 2007). To correct student worksheets, the teacher must have data generated from laboratory optimization tests. Instructional Media Development activities, either searching through electronic media or developed by the teacher is a crucial part of clarifying learner’s understanding of microscopic concepts. Likewise, a good knowledge of Classroom and Laboratory Management activities can facilitate learners in getting used to being involved in problem solving as one of the primary missions of instructional chemistry.

The data above shows that the chemistry teacher who is a research respondent needs information related to professional development, as indicated by the high percentage of responses that agree and strongly agree with the questionnaire statement submitted. Very extreme is the need for Classroom Action Research and Self Development of Chemistry Teacher. Information related to the Development of Teacher Education in Indonesia wants to know as a basis to get a more practical orientation of their self development. Information associated with Social Interaction of Chemistry Teachers, both with fellow teachers, learners, school leaders, parents, professional institutions, and the government is also needed. It seems that respondents want information about the substance that must be raised in conducting excellent professional communication, so that social interaction takes place more effectively not only lived naturally, as it is.

The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. professional teachers should to identify and even create RRL that better suits the needs of learners. Thus the important thing that can be taken based on the data above is that the curriculum material that must be developed can describe "holistically" chemistry materials that will be presented to learners.

The National Board of Professional Teacher Standards have developed assessment standards and procedures based on five basic principles (Depdiknas, 2005; Dharma, 2008), namely: teachers are committed to learners and their learning; the teacher knows the teaching material they teach and how to interpret the content to learners; the teacher is responsible for managing and monitoring learners learning; teachers think systematically about what they do

Specific training will also be effective, if supported by information sources, in this case, curriculum material that accommodates teacher needs.

Every teacher, including the respondents in this study, is a person who is developing and has a high enough potential to be creative to improve his performance. If this development is given more directed guidance, it will show optimal performance. The development of the teaching profession must also be balanced with other efforts such as establishing a unique library for teachers so that teachers, are not too difficult to find materials and references for teaching in class. Other developments can be done by providing opportunities for teachers to compose their learning materials as additional books for learners, both individually or in groups. This effort can motivate teachers to innovate and develop creativity, which means providing opportunities for teachers to improve their performance. The thing that needs to be addressed and reaped its benefits based on this research data is that essential information relating to the professional development aspects of the chemistry teacher above must become a substance or an integral part of the curriculum material to be developed. This indicates that the curriculum material developed must build "Amalgamation Teacher Knowledge" as required in professional teacher competency standards. Another thing that curriculum material must have the character of "flexibility" is that it can accommodate pre service education needs and in positions. It is no less important that curriculum materials should guide chemistry teachers towards "self reliance" in reflecting on their performance.

There are eleven academic skills in chemistry teachers proposed by respondents to be accommodated in curriculum materials. Researchers observed that the intensity of the prospective chemistry teacher's academic skills training held in the Professional Skills Course and the Professional Course when pre service education was still not enough to build professional chemistry teachers. Therefore, these skills need to be trained intensively and continuously in a variety of teacher coaching activities such as in Teacher Professional Education for pre service education, and Chemistry Teacher Group Discussion activities for in service education. It should be noted that a teacher's academic skills cannot be transferred from a trainer to a participant teacher, so training is a non negotiable requirement, without training yourself, the achievement of becoming a professional teacher is not possible. For training to be more targeted, effective, and efficient, each academic instruction skill that will be trained, teachers must first know and even find a "key formula" that acts as a guide that they can adapt to new conditions. For example, in compiling syllabus components, the teacher obtains a critical formula that

The last two items are not optimal parts that occur in the field, as indicated by respondents in this study. The culture of recording or documenting work done or called reflection is an effort that must be encouraged. With the internalization of Classroom Action Research knowledge, it is expected that instruction will continue to improve. The teaching profession is a position that requires specialized training for a long time. Itis having a code of ethics to explain things that are doubtful or doubtful relating to the services provided.

The Impact of

on Understanding Pedagogical and Professional Knowledge of Chemistry Teachers Understanding Pedagogical and Professional Knowledge of Chemistry Teachers were shown in Table 4. Table 4: Competencies Chemistry Teacher Subject Group(n) Pretest value Posttest value valueNGa b c d a b c d ChemistryJuniorTeacher(15years) Experiment(36) 39 40 33 31 72 66 70 78 35.61 71.60 0.56 (6ChemistrySeniorTeacher20years) Control(36) 49 47 39 37 55 50 51 57 0.19 42.78 53.46 (a) understanding of the chemistry teacher professionalism (b) understanding the high school chemistry curriculum (c) understanding of acid base chemistry in High School (d) understanding of chemistry instructional acid base in High School

"syllabus component = curriculum component + curriculum design model adopted." The curriculum component consists of (1) objectives, (2) content, (3) learning experiences, (4) methods, (5) time allocation, (6) tools, materials, and instruction resources, (7) instructional process, and (8) assessment. If the curriculum design model adopted or implemented is Competency Based Curriculum (CBC), then the characteristics of the curriculum design model are the targets in the form of Competency Standards (CS), EssentialCompetencies (EC), and Indicators of Competency Achievement (ICA). By substituting the CBC curriculum design model characteristics namely CS, EC, and ICA into number (1) the objectives of the curriculum component, the syllabus component in the CBC must be composed of CS, EC, and ICA components, followed by number (2) to number (8) of the curriculum component. Another thing that might be considered new for chemistry teachers is the need to develop Teacher Worksheets (TW). LW contents are similar to the Learners Worksheet (LW). In TW, data must be filled (answer key) as a reference that must be found by learners in their LW (Arifin et al., 2007). In this way, teachers can provide a relatively regular assessment of the performance of learners. If the TW requires laboratory experiment data, the teacher first performs an optimization test of the experimental procedure that will be carried out by the learners. In other words, the teacher is ready to check the data that the learners will lookfor. Based on the needs of the respondents in this study, the educative curriculum material developed must provide a "key formula" as a guide for teachers. Thus educational curriculum material must be "adaptable" to curriculum changes. using ECM

The data in Table 4 shows that in the initial state (pretest), senior chemistry teachers' understanding of teacher professionalism (score 49 out of 100), curriculum (score 47), acid base chemical content (score 39), and teaching strategies (score 37) higher than junior chemistry teachers. Thus the teaching experience factor contributes to the teacher's pedagogical and professional competencies (Vaudroz, Berger, Girardet, 2015). The senior chemistry teacher shows the perspective that teaching chemistry is a task to empower students' self abilities in addition to equipping their chemistry. Junior chemistry teacher still views teaching as a technical work for transferring chemistry (Edge, 2015).

Pre(E)

The results of statistical testing hypotheses about Teachers' understanding of pedagogical knowledge and professional knowledge are shown in Table 5 below. Table 5: Statistical hypothesis test results of chemistry teachers understanding of pedagogical dan chemistry subject knowledge T test dependent T test Independent Post(E) Pre(C) Post(C) Pre(E) Pre(C) Post(E) Post(C) 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 df 70 70 t cal +50.68 +22.45 +0.595 +6.63 t table +1.994 +1.994 +1.994 +1.994

ParametersStatistical

H0 rejected rejected accepted rejected E=Experiment group; C =Control group The data in Table 5 shows that increase teacher understanding in both groups was significant (Ho rejected). Both teachers who use ECM or not. However, if

But when we look at the post test scores, it turns out that junior chemistry teachers' understanding in all aspects of teacher professionalism is higher than senior chemistry teachers. It is suspected that Junior teachers have used ECM and received incentive training by the research team for one semester in the 2018/2019 academic year. By paying attention to the NG value of 0.56 (medium category), it can be said that the use of ECM and its training is effective in increasing the ability of chemistry teachers because ECM is designed to educate teachers to want to learning (Anthopoulou, Valkanos, Fragkoulis, 201; Ibrahim, Yusof, Yaakob, Othman, 2019). In other words, that the increase in learner’s achievement from the experimental group (receiving instruction from teachers using ECM) on acid base chemistry is higher than control group learners (receiving education from teachers who do not use ECM) because these learners get psychological effects from ECM teachers in the form of achievement motives. Because ECM teachers have relatively superior pedagogical and chemical knowledge through intensive training. The excellence that exists in the teacher's persona is an example that is used as an example for learners so that learners are inspired to excel. This phenomenon is in accordance with studies developed by Bobrakov (2014); Magwilang (2016); Krajcik & Delen (2017).

The data in Table 6 above shows an increase in the performance of the experimental group chemistry teachers in making lesson plans (LP) after they use ECM. The performance improvement is categorized high, as stated by the Gain normalization value. The performance improvement is mainly in overcoming the weaknesses done previously in terms of (1) formulating competency achievement indicators, (2) formulating learning objectives, (3) formulating teaching materials, (4) writing laboratory equipment and chemicals, (5) include learning resources, (6) write and choose learning media, (7) formulate learning assessments, (8) the existence of instructional media, (9) optimization of experimental procedures, and (10) preparation of learners' Itreadingshould be noted, that the form of the unit lesson plan used by chemistry teachers is based on the Process Standards document. In the document, the components of the unit lesson plan consist of identity, core competencies, essential competencies, competency achievement indicators, instructional objectives, instructional chemistry content, instructional strategies, instructional media-equipments-resources, instructional steps, and instructional assessment. The identity of the unit lesson plan contains information about the school name, name of the subject, semester, subject matter, sub subject matter, and time allocation. Core and essential competencies are sourced from school

222 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. we analyze based on an independent t test shows that the Ho pretest in both groups was accepted, it implies that the initial ability of teachers from both groups about similar. In contrast to the posttest value, that the Ho was rejected, meaning that the final ability of the Junior chemistry teacher significantly different than the Senior chemistry teacher. (Arias, Smith, Davis, Marino & Palincsar (2017); Barron, Rupley, Paige, Nichols, Nichols, JrLumbreras (2018); Jusuf et al., 2019) Chemistry Teacher Performance in Planning and Implementing Acid Based Chemistry Instruction The performance of chemistry teachers in planning acid base instruction is shown in Table 6 below. Table 6: Chemistry teacher performance in planning for instruction acid base materials LessonPlan ExperimentGroup GN Cat. LessonPlan ControlGroup GN Cat. Initial Final Initial Final LP 1 34 57 0.8 high LP 1 28 38 0.3 med LP 2 34 56 0.8 high LP 2 30 38 0.2 low LP 3 35 57 0.8 high LP 3 25 35 0.3 med LP 4 33 56 0.8 high LP 4 27 37 0.3 med. LP 5 41 60 0.9 high LP 5 25 36 0.3 med LP 6 38 59 0.8 high LP 6 26 36 0.3 med NG=NormalizationGain; Cat. =Category; med. =medium

chemistry syllabus documents that are determined nationally by the education and culture department. Chemistry teachers are obliged to develop indicators of competency achievement that refer to the formulation of essential competencies. To reflect on the instructional strategies to be carried out, the teacher is obliged to develop operational instructional objectives that involve the ABCCD component (Audience, Behavior, Content, Condition, and Degree).

Learning content expresses the label and description of essential concepts. Content knowledge is broken down into factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge, according to Anderson's taxonomy. As the completeness, a map concept, macrostructure and instructional material of the learners is Instructionalattached.strategies

are expressed from the level of models, approaches, methods, techniques to tactics. The policy required by the curriculum is learning that is inspiring, innovative, and empowers learners' potential. This type of instruction is Problem based Learning, Discovery Learning, Project Based Learning, Guided Inquiry, Science Process Skills, instructional 5E (Engagement, Exploration, Explanation, Elaboration, Evaluation), and others that are collected in scientific learning. Instruction media that are highly recommended in instructional chemistry are experiment based or demonstration packed in the form of learner worksheets. Chemistry teachers are required to optimize laboratory work, so teachers have data that is useful for correcting the work of learners. Learning resources included in the unit lesson plan document are teaching materials developed by the teacher or from other relevant authors. Instructional resources must be written based on standard procedures. The instructional steps are written in three phases, namely the opening stage, the core, and closing activities. All aspects are colored by the model, approach, and learning method chosen. The final component in the unit lesson plan is assessment. The assessment revealed the types of instruments used to measure knowledge competencies, skills, and attitudes. Likewise, the overall learning planning document consists of the main document and attachments, which are concept maps, macrostructure, teaching materials, learner worksheets, instructional media, assessment grids, items and answer keys, observation skills, and attitude Chemistrysheets.

teacher performance in implementing acid base instruction is shown in Table 7 below. The data in Table 7 shows an increase in the performance of chemistry teachers in presenting acid base instruction when they have used ECM as a source to improve their instruction plans. Thus an excellent instruction performance depends very much on proper planning. Reflecting on what is shown, also observing and giving an assessment of the appearance of peers turned out to have a positive impact on improving performance.

Impact of Instruction with ECM on Learner Achievement on Acid Base Material

Learner achievement on acid base material is shown in the following Table 8

The findings show that chemistry teacher skills in displaying instruction models require sufficient time allocation so that the frequency of peer teaching needs to be increased. The experience of viewing an instructional model well apparently has a significant impact on the ease of viewing other types of instructional models. Critical feedback from peers and examples of ways of presenting instruction by the mentor, an enormous influence on teacher teaching changes. Therefore, empowering activities in the focus group discussion of chemistry teachers becomes essential. Thus an effort to increase the chemistry teacher's acceleration skills in presenting innovative learning is to restructure the focus of Focus Group Discussion activities towards a more productive direction by producing better curriculum material. Chemistry teachers need to identify their strengths as the basis for developing their expertise so that some focus on fostering expertise in the field of learning innovation, teaching material development, instructional IT media, and evaluation of learning chemistry.

224 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 7: Chemistry teacher performance in implement instruction acid base material Teacher ExperimentGroup GN Cat Teacher ControlGroup GN Cat. Initial Final Initial Final T 1 19 48 0.9 high T 1 22 34 0.4 med T 2 29 51 1.0 High T 2 31 45 0.7 high T 3 28 50 1.0 High T 3 28 44 0.7 high T 4 17 47 0.9 High T 4 20 34 0.5 med. T 5 19 43 0.8 High T 5 18 29 0.3 med. T 6 29 50 1.0 High T 6 29 46 0.6 med NG=NormalizationGain; Cat. =Category; med. =medium

The superiority of learners in answering chemistry questions lies in convergent questions that demand one answer and algorithmic questions. Understanding the factual, and conceptual knowledge of chemistry lessons is relatively better than procedural and metacognitive knowledge. For example learners answers to topic questions (h), (j), and (m) relatively better Instead of the answers of learners who are still low lie in questions that require explanations, alternative thinking, critical and creative thinking, analyzing or higher order thinking skills, procedural and metacognitive knowledge such as the topic of questions (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f), (g), (i), (k) and (l). Therefore in the future learners must be trained to intensively build metacognitive strategy. This phenomenon is in line with studies conducted by Espinosa (2014), and Talin (2016).

posttest

T test dependent T test Independent Pre(E) Post(E) Pre(C) Post(C) Pre(E) Pre(C) Post(E) Post(C) n 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 df 126 126 t cal +38.11 +11.64 +0.446 +13.25 t table +1 979 +1 979 +1 979 +1 979 H0 rejected rejected accepted rejected E=Experiment

resources and other

225 ©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. Table 8: High School Learners Competencies to Content of Acids Bases Chemistry Subject Group(n) Pretestvalue Posttestvalue valueNG HSKarawangStudent Experiment(64) 32.03 69.13 0.55 HSBandungCimahiStudent Control(64) 30.72 42.78 0.17

t (pretest E & posttest E), and the

To confirm the

resources.

Table

was

determine the significance of the difference means between pretest and post for each

between the different means between pretest and

Based on the NG values it can be stated that the increase in learners' achievement in the experimental group is in the medium category, while the control group learners are in a low category. In other words, that the increase in learner’s achievement from the experimental group (receiving instruction from teachers using ECM) on acid base chemistry is higher than control group learners (receiving education from teachers who do not use ECM) because these learners get psychological effects from ECM teachers in the form of achievement motives. Because ECM teachers have relatively superior pedagogical and chemical knowledge through intensive training. The excellence that exists in the teacher's persona is an example that is used as an example for learners so that learners are inspired to excel. This phenomenon is in accordance with studies developed by Bobrakov (2014); Edge 2015); Magwilang (2016); Krajcik & Delen (2017); Bernard (2017). The results of statistical testing hypotheses about learner achievement in acid base chemistry are shown in Table 9 below. 9: Statistical hypothesis test results of learner understanding about the concept of acid base ParametersStatistical group; C =Control group level significance posttest, a test was performed. The dependent test conducted to experimental group control group (pretest C & C). The data in Table 9 shows that increase learners' achievement in both groups was significant (Ho rejected). Both learners learn from teachers who use ECM learning learning

CONCLUSION

This study shows: (1) Educative curriculum materials that are effective in improving the performance of chemistry teachers must contain about the chemistry curriculum, chemistry instructional strategies, school chemistry content, professional development, and academic skills; (2) Junior chemistry teachers' understanding of pedagogical and professional knowledge using ECM and trained better than senior chemistry teachers who do not use ECM; (3) Based on NG value, the teachers’ performance of experimental group shows in drawing up a lesson plan is much higher than that of the control group The performance of the teachers who became the experimental group showed the ability to demonstrate the instructional of acid base chemistry was far higher than that of the control group teachers; (4) The achievement of learners who receive acid base instruction from teachers who use educative curriculum material is far higher than that of learners who receive acid base instruction from teachers who do not use educative curriculum material and differ significantly. Given these above, it can be concluded that the development and implementation of the Educative Material Curriculum Material (ECM) are optimally successful in increasing pedagogical and subject matter knowledge as well as the academic skills of chemistry teachers as well as learners’ achievement

RECOMMENDATION

Since the Educative Curriculum Material (ECM) is effective in increasing understanding of pedagogical and subject matter competencies as well as the academic skills of chemistry teachers, a Teacher Education Program, both pre service and in service Teacher Training Program, should use the ECM. This ECM can be used as one of the substances of Professional Expertise Courses (PEC) or in entering the Teaching Practice Program (TPP). Because the ECM requires the integration of several disciplines, the coach of the PEC course is expected to have technical and practical experience in schools. Likewise, in service teacher institution’ s primarily Chemistry Teacher Group Discussion (CTGD), can adopt and adapt ECM as a filler for their activities so that CTGD activities run continuously and produce products as a professional teacher of chemistry.

However, if we analyze based on an independent t test, namely the t (pretest E & pretest C) the data in table 4 shows that the Ho pretest in both groups was accepted, it implies that the initial ability of learners from both groups about similar. In contrast to the t (posttest E & posttest C), the data in table 4 shows that the Ho posttest in both groups was rejected, meaning that the final ability of the experimental learners significantly different than the control group learners. Reinforced by the data NG (0:55) that learners achievement experimental group is higher than NG (0.16) control group, so it can be stated that the learning achievement of learners learns from teachers who use ECM higher than the learners learn from teachers who do not use ECM. Thus the achievement reached by learners is related to the ability of the teacher's performance (Arias, Smith, Davis, Marino & Palincsar (2017); Barron, Rupley, Paige, Nichols, Nichols, JrLumbreras (2018); Jusuf et al., 2019)

Barron, E. R., Rupley, W. H., Paige, D., Nichols, W. D., Nichols, J., Jr Lumbreras, R. (2018). Middle School Teachers’ Knowledge and Use of Comprehension Strategies in Discipline Instruction. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, (17)10,1 17 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.17.10.1

Arifin, M , Hernawan, A. S., Andriyani, D., Susilana, R., Chandrawati, T., Sanjaya, W. (2007). Pengembangan Kurikulum dan Pembelajaran Kimia. Jakarta: Penerbit Universitas Terbuka. http://repository.ut.ac.id/id/eprint/4618

Since the ECM raises generic aspects of the curriculum, instruction, and professional development of teachers, then there are opportunities for different researchers to try the ECM model on other subjects with adjustments to the content of their issues. For researchers in the field of chemistry education, such models can be developed in other teaching materials besides acid base that was tried in this study. With the research of high school chemistry teaching materials, it is hoped that one day, the ECM model will be intact. Likewise, in terms of practical training on the academic skills of chemistry teachers, there are still wide open opportunities to hold exercises outside the preparation of lesson plans and instructional performance. One of the needs that are considered urgent by chemistry teachers is the practice of preparing Classroom Action Research (CAR) proposals and implementation as well as scientific publications. Eleven skills that must be trained and possessed by chemistry teachers, three of which are skills in making assessment tools, making learning media, and optimizing laboratory experimental procedures.

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Chief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of Editorial Board Dr. Fatima Zohra Belkhir Benmostefa Dr. Giorgio Poletti Dr. Chi Man Tsui Dr. Fitri Suraya Mohamad Dr. Hernando Lintag Berna Dr. Charanjit Kaur Swaran Singh Dr. Abu Bakar Dr. Eglantina Hysa Dr. Mo'en Salman Alnasraween Dr. Hermayawati Hermayawati Dr. Selma Kara Dr. Michael B. Cahapay Dr. Bunmi Isaiah Omodan Dr. Vassiliki Pliogou Dr. Meera Subramanian Dr. Muhammad Kristiawan Dr. Wahyu Widada Dr. Som Pal Baliyan Dr. Reem Khalid Abu Shawish Dr. Froilan Delute Mobo Dr. Mohamed Ali Elkot Dr. Anabelie Villa Valdez Mr. Teody Lester Verdeflor Panela International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open access journal which has been established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, educators, teachers, trainers and other practitioners on all aspects of education to publish high quality peer reviewed papers. Papers for publication in the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research are selected through precise peer review to ensure quality, originality, appropriateness, significance and readability. Authors are solicited to contribute to this journal by submitting articles that illustrate research results, projects, original surveys and case studies that describe significant advances in the fields of education, training, e learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit papers to this journal through the ONLINE submission system. Submissions must be original and should not have been published previously or be under consideration for publication while being evaluated by IJLTER.

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