IATEFL Conference Selections 2023 Harrogate

IATEFL 2023 Harrogate Conference Conference Selections

IATEFL 2023 Harrogate Conference Conference Selections

Proudly sponsored by

iatefl

Edited by Deborah Bullock 1

Proudly sponsored by

IATEFL 2023 Harrogate Conference Selections 56th International Conference 18–21 April 2023

Edited by Deborah Bullock

Editorial Committee: Wendy Chambers, Jennifer MacDonald, Amos Paran

Copyright Notice Copyright for whole issue IATEFL 2024. IATEFL retains the right to reproduce part or all of this publication in other publications, including retail and online editions as well as on our websites.

Contributions to this publication remain the intellectual property of the authors. Any requests to reproduce a particular article should be sent to the relevant contributor and not IATEFL. Articles which have first appeared in IATEFL publications must acknowledge the IATEFL publication as the original source of the article if reprinted elsewhere.

Published by IATEFL, 2-3 The Foundry, Seager Road, Faversham, ME13 7FD, UK www.iatefl.org Disclaimer Views expressed in this publication are not necessarily those of the editor, or of IATEFL or its staff or Trustees.

First published 2024 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Education Deborah Bullock (Ed.) IATEFL 2023 Harrogate Conference Selections ISBN PRINTED: 978-1-912588-48-0 DIGITAL: 978-1-912588-49-7

For a complete list of IATEFL publications including Conference Selections from previous years, please write to the above address, or visit the IATEFL website at www.iatefl.org.

Copy edited by Karen Sigley, Cumbria Designed and typeset by Nathan Hemming-Brown, Bristol Cover design by Ewa Minkowska Printed in Britain by Hobbs the Printers Ltd., Totton, Hampshire

Contents 8

Editor’s introduction 1

2

3

Teaching and learning: language and skills 1.1 Plenary: Translanguaging: removing barriers to English teaching Ofelia García 1.2 4-colour thinking: developing criticality through an interactive, question-based approach Edward de Chazal 1.3 Promoting learner reflection and autonomy through one-to-one dialogues Jo Mynard 1.4 Videoconferencing exchanges: fostering EFL learners’ reflective authentic interaction Lena Barrantes Elizondo 1.5 Lindblom’s theory of hyper- and hypo-articulation: implications for teaching listening Sheila Thorn 1.6 Spoken word recognition for listeners Mark Hancock ESOL, displacement and identity 2.1 Plenary: Sharing words and worlds: ESOL teachers as allies, advocates and activists Lesley Painter-Farrell 2.2 Migrant and refugee children’s language learning across the curriculum Jonathan Ferreira and Lucas Veras 2.3 Plenary: Race as language: displacement, identity and the pleasure of (second) language learning Awad Ibrahim Teaching English for academic purposes 3.1 Interculturalism: Should we be doing more in EAP? Nadia Hards 3.2 Teaching reflection to university students to encourage self-development and growth Sophie Farag 3.3 Fostering criticality and engagement through collaborative online annotation Catherine Mitsaki 3.4 How can a language learning mobile app help academic English learners? Mahtab Chadry 3.5 Translanguaging in the EFL classroom: a case study Cristina Manea Gultekin 3.6 Learner training? Designing an academic preparation course for engineering students Tracie Mac Kenzie and Iona Dawson 3.7 Dynamic teaching and learning through cross-cultural exchange Sanaa Abdel Hady Makhlouf 3

10 19 21 23 25 27

29 38 40

48 50 51 53 56 58 60

IATEFL 2023: Harrogate Conference Selections

3.8 3.9

4

Community of inquiry: the heart of collaborative learning Noha Khafagi ERT at an EAP programme: how did the teachers cope?

Karla K de Lima Guedes

Teaching English for specific purposes 4.1 Plenary: English for the workplace – looking for new answers Evan Frendo 4.2 EAP, science and public engagement meet the UN Sustainable Development Goals Anila R Scott-Monkhouse 4.3 ‘My war’: empowering language learners in times of conflict Maggie Sokolik and Yaroslava Fedoriv 4.4 Glossary building in ESP scenarios: why, when and how Glória Regina Loreto Sampaio

62 64

67 76 77 79

5

Teaching young learners 5.1 Child voice in the EFL class Julie Waddington 83 5.2 Thinking skills and mindsets for young learner sustainable development education Ellen Setterfield 85 5.3 The CLIL wheel as a teacher and teacher trainer tool Aleksandra Zaparucha 87 5.4 Transitions and breaks in the YLT classroom Niki Joseph 90 5.5 Applying principles of Gentle Discipline in the classroom Zahra Zuhair 92 5.6 Dos and don’ts in young learners’ pronunciation lessons Stella Palavecino 93 5.7 Engaging with Shakespeare in the ‘English as a foreign language’ classroom Conny Loder 95 5.8 Integrating machine translation in the lower secondary classroom Brigitte Reber 97 5.9 Who will listen? I have an English phobia Sajan Chaudhary 99 5.10 Talk globally, learn locally: interculturalising the Palestinian English Curriculum through weekly online link-ups Ashraf Kuheil and Nick Bilbrough 101

6

Assessment, feedback and evaluation 6.1 Elicited Imitation Task for assessing English speaking proficiency Arum Perwitasari

4

104

Contents

6.2

Video recordings: a tool to assess speaking in EFL classes Ma. Begoña Aguilar Bustos, Marisol Castillo Rosales, Vanessa Fernández Farías and Yéssica Aguilera Fuentes 6.3 Assessing pragmatics through scenarios in academic contexts Isabelle Gonthier 6.4 Machine translation: friend or foe in graded assessment?

Catherine Prewett-Schrempf and Linda Slattery 6.5 Assessing international business undergraduates’ communication and critical thinking skills Sue Ashley 6.6 Using recorded feedback to enhance collaboration and engagement in the writing process Constance Leonard and Christopher Gras 6.7 Student assessment and use of feedback received: an updated study Isabel Piñeiro Sorondo 6.8 Implementing peer feedback for writing tasks Vahida Berberovic 6.9 E-portfolios: assessing 21st-century skills Laura Laubacher 6.10 Eight formative assessment ideas for teacher education Gabriela Marcenaro Bonsignore 6.11 Developing writing rating scales with trainee teachers Olga Kvasova 6.12 Aligning assessment with the curriculum through the Understanding by Design framework Zhananur Kassimova 6.13 Principles for designing relevant and actionable course evaluation surveys Kim Beadle 7

Teacher education and training 7.1 Advancing teacher education practices: enabling teacher learning Gabriel Díaz Maggioli 7.2 Adventures in WhatsApp Anna Young and Kristina Smith 7.3 Promoting participant and tutor wellbeing on online courses Susi Pearson 7.4 ‘Teaching grown-ups’: building confidence in young or inexperienced CELTA trainees Laura Khaddi 7.5 Finished CELTA. Ready to teach? Amanda Bailey and Alastair Douglas 7.6 Training up as a DELTA Module 2 tutor: lessons observed, lessons learned Jacqueline Douglas 7.7 Moving away from a one-size-fits-all approach when using prescribed ELT materials Susanna Schwab 7.8 Supporting and developing teachers’ employability skills Nicholas Northall 7.9 What is the teacher’s role in increasingly automated online education? Neenaz Ichaporia 5

106 108 110 111 113 115 117 119 121 123 125 127

130 132 134 137 139 140 142 144 146

IATEFL 2023: Harrogate Conference Selections

8

9

Perspectives on teacher development and motivation 8.1

Embodied approaches to ELT professional development Tom Godfrey

148

8.2

How can what teachers really feel help them teach better?

Laura Ferroglio

150

8.3

Are we pronunciation ignorers, entertainers, enthusiasts and/or teachers? Ana Paula Biazon Rocha

152

8.4

Negotiating environments: making the move from teacher to researcher Gareth Luke Scyner

154

8.5

Sustaining Associations of Language Teachers (SALT) – keeping ELTAs alive Beatrix Price

156

8.6

Upskilling ourselves while giving back to the ELT community Marjorie Rosenberg

158

8.7

Managing and motivating teaching teams for excellent results Anju Moses

159

Teacher development in action 9.1

Plenary: Lean on me: stories of coaching, mentoring and teacher resilience Divya Madhavan

162

9.2

Giving back to the ELT profession: a collaborative endeavour Jennifer Schumm Fauster and Ulla Fürstenberg

169

9.3

Improving grammar teaching: exchanging strategies between Mexican English teachers América Bustamante Piedragil

171

9.4

Self-mentoring through enhancement mentoring approach for teacher-research Seden Eraldemir Tuyan

173

9.5

Professional development for teachers in rural areas Eduardo Escalona Pardo

175

9.6

Empowering teachers: a journey from virtual communities to the IATEFL Conference Mohammed Isifan

176

10 Inclusive practices 10.1 Empowering marginalised female teachers: an overview of a sustainable project Motikala Subba Dewan and Bikas Rimal

180

10.2 Sharing passion for technology with female teachers of my community Abigail Ekangouo Awanga

181

10.3 The future of teaching English to the hearing-impaired Martha Ada Onjewu and Mairo Hamid Ipadeola

183

6

Contents

10.4 Practical implications of inclusive education in the mainstream ELT classroom Priscila Riffo-Salgado 10.5 Working towards a more inclusive English-language classroom: students with ADHD Wiktoria Allan 10.6 Easy access to inclusive practices using the UDL guidelines Petra Harder 10.7 Inclusivity for all types of learners in business English teaching Julia Koifman 11 Materials development 11.1 Helping busy students learn regularly with study newsletters Katerina Lanickova 11.2 Incorporating memetic communication into language learning Ciarán Lynch 11.3 Graphic novels in the classroom Evelina Miščin 11.4 Creating context-relevant EFL worksheets for Cameroon secondary schools: lessons learnt Eric Ekembe 11.5 Effective online materials design: what does the evidence say?

Carol Lethaby 11.6 How to create learning materials for social media platforms Claire Bowes 11.7 How to write effective and engaging digital materials Laura Broadbent and Billie Jago 12 Global issues and insights 12.1 The Hornby Trust Scholars presentation: Decentring ELT: insights and explorations The A.S. Hornby Scholars at IATEFL 2023 12.2 Critical environmental education and ELT: a necessary blend Serrana Muniz 12.3 Poetry and Education for Sustainable Development in language classrooms Jason Skeet 12.4 The profit motive: time to problematise capitalism in ELT? Steve Brown 12.5 The Future of English: Global Perspectives Mina Patel, Mike Solly and Steve Copeland

7

185 187 189 191

194 196 198 199 201 203 205

208 212 214 216 218

From the Editor In 2023, the IATEFL Conference and Exhibition returned to Harrogate – one of our favourite venues, with its beautiful parks and gardens, Victorian architecture, spa, teashops, range of independent shops, and surrounded by the dramatic beauty of the Yorkshire dales and moors.

For many of us, this annual event is the highlight of our year, and, once again, we were not disappointed. Over 2,000 of us attended and, thanks to the hard work of our Conference organisers, sponsors, and strategic partner, we were treated to no fewer than 500 talks, workshops, forums, panel and signature events, poster presentations, pop-up presentations, early morning sessions and fun-filled evening events. We caught up with old friends, made new ones, shared our knowledge and experience, learnt from one another, and went home refreshed and prepared for the new challenges that lay ahead. This year, we also bade a fond ‘farewell’ and huge ‘thank you’ to our long-serving Patron, colleague and friend, David Crystal – a truly esteemed IATEFL champion who will be greatly missed.

For those of you who may be new to Conference Selections, you will find in these pages a broad selection of papers reflecting the topics and concerns of the 2023 Conference. These selections give attendees and non-attendees alike an overview of issues and developments in our profession, and highlight key ELT themes of the time.

Included in this edition are reports of plenaries, talks and workshops from 39 countries, reflecting the international diversity and perspectives of our membership.

Our plenary speaker papers report on the topical themes of translanguaging (Ofelia García [1.1]), ESOL in Chapter 2 (Lesley Painter-Farrell [2.1]), Race as language (Awad Ibrahim [2.3]), English for the workplace (Evan Frendo [4.1]) and teacher resilience (Divya Madhavan [9.1]), and a number of individual papers within this edition also take up these themes.

Other individual papers address a range of ELT-related areas, which for the most part reflect the focus of IATEFL’s Special Interest Groups. Interestingly, the chapter with the most papers this year is Chapter 6, Assessment, feedback and evaluation, highlighting the role of technology, the continued shift toward formative and immersive practices, and the importance of feedback. The renewed focus on materials development and exploitation witnessed in last year’s Selections also continues, but with a greater focus on digital or online resources (Chapter 11). As with previous editions, we once again include a large number of papers concerned with English for academic or specific purposes (Chapters 3 and 4), teacher education, training and professional development (Chapters 7, 8 and 9), and young learners (Chapter 5). Two other familiar and recurring current themes are global issues, extended this year to issues and insights (Chapter 12); and inclusive practices (Chapter 10), where you can read about a number of inspiring projects designed to empower women and children in challenging contexts.

Of note, this year’s Selections contains no chapter dedicated to teaching and training

8

Editor’s introduction

with technology; while technological advancements continue to impact all areas of our field, they have become so integral that they permeate the entire issue. And, finally, no Selections would be complete without a focus on language and skills, and this year is no exception, albeit with a clear shift in focus from discrete language and skills to more holistic approaches embracing diversity, inclusion, criticality, communication, autonomy and reflection (Chapter 1).

In short, this Harrogate Conference Selections offers something for everyone and reflects the wealth of experience and expertise associated with any IATEFL Conference.

Finally, I would like to express my sincere thanks to all those who took the time and effort to submit their papers for review – there would be no publication without you!

I also thank my editorial team: Amos Paran, Jennifer MacDonald, Wendy Chambers and Karen Sigley for their invaluable input, and Nathan Hemming-Brown for his work on the design of this edition.

For the 57th IATEFL International Conference and Exhibition in 2024, we will be by the sea in Brighton, and I very much look forward to seeing many of you there.

Meanwhile, happy reading!

Deborah Bullock Editor, IATEFL Conference Selections cseditor@iatefl.org

9

1

Teaching and learning: language and skills

The opening chapter in this 2023 volume of Conference Selections brings together a variety of perspectives on the effective teaching and learning of language and skills.

In her plenary paper, Ofelia García focuses on translanguaging. Ofelia discusses how ideologies surrounding English language and multilingualism have created the greatest barrier to English teaching, and argues for a shift in focus so the full repertoire of resources that diverse racialised students bring into English language classrooms are recognised, and traditional power hierarchies are flattened. Critical thinking is the focus of Edward de Chazal’s paper. Edward outlines a practical question-based approach he calls 4-colour thinking (4-CT), which can lead to rich spoken and written learner output. Jo Mynard’s focus is learner autonomy and reflection. Jo discusses how one-to-one dialogues can be effectively used to promote this, and suggests a number of tools that can facilitate the process. Lena Barrantes Elizondo advocates for the continuing use of a practice commonly used during the pandemic – videoconferencing exchanges to promote authentic interaction. After exploring the theoretical principles behind the approach, Lena describes possible models together with the benefits and challenges. The final two papers explore the need for effective approaches to teaching listening. Sheila Thorn outlines a number of important implications for the teaching of listening based on Lindblom’s theory of hyper- and hypo-articulation, while Mark Hancock focuses on the difficulties of spoken word recognition and practical activities to deal with this.

1.1 Plenary: Translanguaging: removing barriers to English teaching Ofelia García The Graduate Center, City University of New York, US

The ideologies surrounding English language itself, and of multilingualism, have indeed been the greatest barrier in the teaching of English. In this paper I develop this argument further. I then propose that translanguaging could be an instrument to remove the ideological barriers of English so as to teach and learn English and become truly plurilingual.

English ideologies as a barrier

English, as most named languages, is understood by many scholars and laypersons alike as simply a linguistic structure and entity (Lee, 2017). As such, the teaching of English around the world has proceeded as if it could be taught as a static computational system. Linguistic structures are taught and students are expected to get them

10

Plenary: Translanguaging: removing barriers to English teaching

and ‘have’ them. The comparison is then made between the ‘English’ of learners, and that of those who are considered native speakers. This leads to an unfair assessment of the English of these learners and the production of the education gap, leading to feelings of linguistic insecurity among many students of English. This understanding of English as a static linguistic structure possessed by those considered native speakers hides the real nature of English as a language of domination and colonisation.

The focus on the linguistic structure of English silences the sociopolitical role that English has had, and continues to have, on the world stage. First of all, the hegemony of English as the language of white male colonisers in the past, and the language of the global economy in the present, must be acknowledged. Students of English are motivated to learn the language not because of the linguistic structure that educators prioritise, but because of the power that English speakers have had and continue to have on the world stage. It is access to the power of English that learners want.

In the history of the role of English lies the problem for many learners, a linguistic construction meant to racialise and control the world’s ‘other’ population.

Language, as well as race, were produced as categories to mark and separate the colonisers considered ‘human’ from those being colonised as ‘non-humans’ (Fanon, 1952; Wynter, 2003). The construction of the dominant Global North from those oppressed in the Global South was achieved through what de Sousa Santos (2007) calls the abyssal line. This line produced a rupture and abyssal gap that enabled those in the dominant white West to see themselves as the only producers of knowledge and language. The ‘humans’, white, male and dominant, were then considered as the only possessors of true language, English being the most powerful.

The dominance of English as a result of British colonisation processes throughout the world, and of US imperialism, did not abate after the colonisers left the colonies.

In fact, as Peruvian sociologist Aníbal Quijano has remarked (2000), the process of dominance in what he calls coloniality is still with us. This time coloniality continues through categorisations of language, race and gender as inferior, which then produces economic inequalities.

The role of English in the construction of ‘whiteness’ has been important, as it has linked race to being a native speaker. Zuberi & Bonilla-Silva (2008) have referred to this epistemic racism as following a ‘white logic’ through which only white males with institutional power are considered native speakers. In the US, African Americans who are English monolinguals are often robbed of being considered native speakers of English, and the same can be said of the many in Africa, Asia and the Pacific who have been speakers of English from birth but who are then categorised as speakers of less prestigious varieties of English. In fact, the field of world Englishes (Kachru, 1992) has gone a long way towards acknowledging different varieties of English, although these continue to be categorised as inferior to British or American English, considered the language of white dominant people. World Englishes are now not just held in the concentric circles first offered by Kachru (1992), but as plural, with multiple forms (Galloway & Rose, 2018; House, 2003; Seidlhofer, 2013). But it is what Flores & Rosa call ‘raciolinguistic ideologies’ (2015) that continues to represent the languaging of others as local and emitted by visibly racialised inferior people.

11

Chapter 1: Teaching and learning: language and skills

Bilingual ideologies as barrier

In the second half of the 20th century, linguists started calling attention to bilingualism as a field of study. The early studies of Weinreich (1953) and Haugen (1953) went a long way towards acknowledging bilingual lives and the different ways in which they languaged compared to monolinguals. Linguistic phenomena such as loans, calques, code-switching, all seen as the result of contact, influence or interference from the other language, were identified in the subsequent literature. At the same time, the field of sociolinguistics and especially what become known as sociology of language made its entry with the important work of Fishman. Fishman always cast a committed minority view on the ways in which language functioned in bilingual communities (see, for example, Fishman 1989). But yet, the concepts used were those that had been developed through the study of monolingual language use. Thus, the study of bilingualism was shrouded, and continues to be today, in monolingual/monoglossic ideologies, with bilingualism simply seen as the addition of two languages, that is, as additive – the mere addition of an L1 plus an L2 (Lambert, 1975). Stable bilingual societies were those considered diglossic, that is, those in which the two languages had separate functions and were functionally or territorially compartmentalised (Fishman, 1968).

In teaching, the two languages were never to come together, and so the teaching of English as a ‘second language’ was merely monolingual teaching. And even bilingual education was seen as two separate monolingual teachings, with different teachers or different spaces or times (García, 2009). As with the English language, the ideology surrounding bilingualism as simply the addition of two separate linguistic structures hid the lack of understanding in bilingual studies of the linguistic complexity of the world.

The attention towards the addition of two separate languages was modelled after the bilingual learning of elite bilinguals in the West, most often done sequentially after speakers were already living through another language. As Makoni & Pennycook have said (2007), in the colonised Global South different languages were named so by missionaries and linguists. Ways of speaking that were considered in the West as ‘multilingual’ were simply acquired naturally at home and society as people interacted.

In fact, the bilingual scholarship of the time missed the complex dynamic language practices of speakers in the Global South (Tupas & García, 2023), as well as the complexity of language use in those societies.

In the late 20th century, the Council of Europe (2001) coined and developed the concept of plurilingualism, encouraging European states to foster the learning of at least two other languages besides their ‘mother tongue’ to functional degrees. The concept of plurilingualism has done much to disrupt the idea of a balanced bilingual and of additive bilingualism. Yet, plurilingualism concerns mostly the learning of languages considered ‘European’, without much regard for those seen as ‘immigrant’ or even ‘indigenous’ languages. Plurilingualism remains entrenched in the idea of intercultural communication among speakers in the European Union. Support for learning additional languages continues to be seen as leading to the acquisition of influence, goods and economic rewards (see García & Otheguy, 2020).

12

Plenary: Translanguaging: removing barriers to English teaching

Traditional teaching of English

The teaching of English as an additional language occurs in three types of educational programmes: • English as a foreign or world language; • English as a second language; and • Bilingual education.

Although differently named, and purporting to develop bilingual speakers, these programmes have in common a monolingual/monoglossic ideology that then results in monolingual pedagogical practices. In all these classrooms English is taught as separate from the ways in which English is used and understood by many in the Global South, and with relationship mostly to the Global North. English only is used by the teacher and learners are asked to ‘turn off’ their other language so that they can function in English only.

Even in bilingual education programmes, there are strict and rigid English language policies that point to monolingual ideologies. English is used by different teachers, at different times and days, for different subjects, in different classroom spaces.

The object of English language teaching becomes how to create a barrier, a boundary, between English and the other language practices of the students.

Scholars of bilingualism have called attention to the interdependence of the two languages of bilinguals, encouraging teachers in bilingual education classrooms to teach for transfer (Cummins, 1979). Yet, the two languages of bilinguals continue to be seen as separate mental entities with their own grammars. The reference is to language as a computational system of structures that can be ‘had’, even if now there are two separate languages to be had (MacSwan, 2017).

All these English language education programmes, including bilingual ones, cannot simply be regarded as developing bilingual speakers. On the inside, these educational programmes to teach English remain deeply monolingual and monoglossic, protecting through the façade of a linguistic structure the power and dominance as the language of white ‘native’ speakers. The teaching of English then acts as a barrier to control access to the power of English by many Brown and Black people of low socioeconomic status.

Peeking into a classroom of English as a world language in Perú and a bilingual classroom in New York City exemplifies how this is carried out. In Perú, in a community where a few of the students are Quechua speakers, the adolescents in Señor Antonio’s classroom are allowed to speak, read and write only in English. The texts used are in English only and are simple and uninteresting for the very inquisitive teenage students. The students want to know about the role of English in the world, but Señor Antonio keeps them focused on the linguistic structures of English. By demanding that they only ask questions in English, students are restricted from becoming authentic English users. El Señor Antonio keeps them busy with ‘bits and pieces’ of English, emphasising pronunciation. The whole class work that Señor Antonio leads is focused on correction and eradication of what he sees as Spanish interferences. There is little individual or group work in this classroom, for instruction focuses on policing the barrier of English. The students who are Quechua speakers are not acknowledged in any way, instead regarding only Spanish as the other language of the students.

13

Chapter 1: Teaching and learning: language and skills

In New York City, Paco, a six-year-old third-generation Latino, is growing up in a bilingual home where his mother and father often speak Spanish. His mother is a second-generation Latina, and his father learned Spanish in high school and subsequently in his mother’s family. Paco is fortunate because he is enrolled in a ‘dual language’ programme. The term bilingual has been eradicated in United States’ education policy because of its association with the civil rights struggles carried out by Mexican American and Puerto Rican activists in the 1960s and 1970s on behalf of a bilingual education for their children (García & Sung, 2018). During the fifth month of first grade, January, Paco writes in his English journal about his experiences during Christmas. He draws a picture of himself with a Christmas tree and a building, and writes: ‘Me at noche buena for a sleepover at abuela and abuelos house’. Paco has two teachers. One day his instruction is all in English with Ms Stewart, a white monolingual female teacher. The next day instruction is all in Spanish with la Sra Medina, a woman born and raised in Colombia who, although bilingual, has little experience growing up bilingual. Ms Stewart is confused by what she reads in Paco’s journal. She tells la Sra Medina that there are words that Paco does not know in English and then uses Spanish. In fact, she tells her that he mixes Spanish and English and that his Spanish is interfering with his English. She wonders whether Paco might need remediation because he seems to be confused and deficient. La Sra Medina has the same questions about Paco based on his performance in her Spanish-only classroom. Together they raise the following questions: • What is Paco’s first language?

• Is he a learner of English or Spanish?

• Is he a native speaker of English or Spanish?

What is missing in the thinking of these teachers, functioning monolingually in a bilingual education programme, is a true appreciation and understanding of bilingual practices. Paco uses noche buena not because he does not know the word Christmas Eve or Christmas. And he uses abuelo and abuela not because he does not know grandmother and grandfather. He uses those words because for him a Christmas Eve celebration in his other grandparents’ house is not the same thing as Noche Buena in those he calls abuelos. His English-speaking grandparents are of Italian ancestry and they celebrate Christmas Eve with a dinner where they eat seven fishes. In his abuelos’ home, however, Christmas Eve is something different. In fact, it is not Christmas Eve but Noche Buena, where there is family, lots of food including pork and black beans, music and dancing. His abuelos are not his grandparents. The enormous sophistication and linguistic creativity of this child is lost on the teachers, who continue to see language as named linguistic structures and not as the voice that comes from within.

What is important to note here are the consequences of this type of monolingual/ monoglossic teaching of English in different types of programmes. The consequences of viewing language only as a system of linguistic structures is that failure is produced.

Bilingual speakers, and especially racialised bilingual speakers, are rarely seen for their linguistic creativity and criticality. Instead, they are judged by monolingual standards in which they always seem to be deficient. Deficiency is socially produced through the ways that the concept of a named language and English have been constructed as simply a system of linguistic structures. Again, the deficiency in bilingual speakers has been produced through the boundaries created to constrict a language named English 14

Plenary: Translanguaging: removing barriers to English teaching

in order to keep it for the enjoyment of the few. English purity is associated with whiteness and power of its speakers, and bilingual speakers are seen as contaminating it.

Translanguaging as alternative to remove barrier of English

To teach English as an equitable and inclusive linguistic practice, educators in all types of language education programmes must first understand what has come to be known as translanguaging. Translanguaging as a practice focuses on the action of human beings, thus the -ing (Li, 2018). In 2009, García said that translanguaging referred to ‘multiple discursive practices in which bilinguals engage in order to make sense of their bilingual worlds’ (italics in the original, p. 45). Since then, it has been further defined as ‘the deployment of a speaker’s full linguistic repertoire without regard for watchful adherence to the socially and politically defined boundaries of named languages’ (Otheguy et al., 2015, p. 281). Translanguaging emphasises the human factor in communication, with language users actively selecting linguistic/ semiotic/multimodal features from their own unitary repertoire, in relationship to the listeners who are engaged interpreters of the message (García & Li, 2014). That is, all speakers do language with their own unitary repertoire as they assemble (Pennycook, 2004) or orchestrate (Li, 2018), a network of linguistic/semiotic/multimodal features with which they make meaning for their own lives with their own knowledge systems and epistemologies.

Although all speakers engage in translanguaging, racialised bilingual/multilingual speakers are rarely given the freedom to use many of the features in their linguistic and semiotic repertoire. Although translanguaging is the language practice most readily observable in multilingual communities, it is rarely permitted in institutions, and especially in school (García, 2009). As we saw when we discussed Paco, when bilingual students perform using their translanguaging they are then said to be deficient. The difference then between monolinguals and bilinguals is that although most monolinguals are free to use their entire repertoire in state institutions and especially schools, all (or almost all) bilinguals are always asked to linguistically perform using less than half of their repertoire. That is, at least half of the linguistic/semiotic repertoire of bilinguals is seen as socially inappropriate in state institutions. Thus, bilinguals are rarely granted the freedom to engage in translanguaging in the same ways that monolinguals do.

English and bilingualism must be translanguaged in order to remove the barrier that has protected it. The locus of enunciation (García, 2022) must shift to speakers from the Global South, and we must all learn to listen to all speakers ‘doing’ their own English without regard to white monolingual speakers in the Global North. Furthermore, the complex translanguaging behaviour of many speakers must be understood as more than simply going across named languages, as more than code-switching.

Their behaviour must be understood as having the freedom, like other powerful speakers, of drawing from their entire linguistic/semiotic repertoire.

Translanguaging in English education

The recognition of speakers’ translanguaging requires different actions from English educators in classrooms. Translanguaging in education does not imply different strategies of teaching English, but a different epistemological stance towards an English

15

Chapter 1: Teaching and learning: language and skills

education that is socially just for all. In that context, English does not compete with other languages and the solid barrier that has been placed around English is pierced.

To allow all students the freedom to deploy their translanguaging in all types of language classrooms, García et al. (2017) have identified three strands of a translanguaging pedagogy for translanguaging classrooms: • Stance; • Design; • Shift.

The stance refers to the belief that students’ linguistic/semiotic repertoire is built and operates juntos/together. That is, speakers ‘do’ language by weaving a tejido of their entire network of meanings, that is, their repertoire of linguistic, multimodal, social, cultural, biological, psychological and physical phenomena (Varela, 1995).

Thus, teachers have to maximise drawing from the students’ full repertoire and ensuring that the locus of control of language lies with them.

The design refers to opening up translanguaging spaces (Li, 2011) within instruction, even if the classroom seems to function monolingually. Some reasons for opening up translanguaging spaces have been identified by Sánchez et al. (2017): • To scaffold instruction, for learners who might not understand lessons. Scaffolding is done for individual students at certain times, for certain tasks. Teachers know how to put on these translanguaging rings to expand the learners’ zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978). They also know when and why to take these translanguaging rings off.

• To document and assess what students know. Without opening up a translanguaging space, teachers cannot know whether students understand the concept being taught or simply do not have the language to express that they understand.

• To deepen understandings, especially collaborative understandings. During group work, teachers give students the freedom of a translanguaging space where they can express what they can do and know through language, pantomime, drawing, gestures, etc. as they interact with classmates. In doing so collectively, individual understandings are expanded and everyone learns to listen to each other with generosity.

• To transform subjectivities of inferiority and understandings about language. Learners of English, and especially racialised learners, have developed subjectivities of inferiority with regards to white native English speakers. A translanguaging space where students are free to use their entire unitary repertoire transforms understandings. This leads to transformed subjectivities and a renewed critical consciousness.

A translanguaging design is grounded in other important pedagogical practices for collaboration. Project-based instruction, as well as experiential learning, is foregrounded. It is also important that teachers identify the temas/topics that students are interested in, as well as the textos that are pertinent to those temas (España & Herrera, 2020).

Finally, the shift simply means that teachers follow the students’ translanguaging corriente as they language and act. That is, teachers become co-learners (García & Li, 2014). And at the same time, students are given the freedom to act with their own translanguaging corriente.

16

Plenary: Translanguaging: removing barriers to English teaching

Conclusion

English language teaching has often been about policing the language as an autonomous entity itself. Instead, translanguaging does the opposite; it gives students full freedom to act with their entire unitary repertoire. Translanguaging scholars regard English not as a separate autonomous entity, but as performed by speakers of all types.

For too long the teaching of English has reflected, and often has created differences in, power, socioeconomic status, and race throughout the world. Translanguaging gives us an opportunity to teach English while flattening hierarchies of power that a language like English projects. By focusing on the unitary nature of the speakers’ repertoire, translanguaging leaves behind the traditional bi/multilingual concept of two or many named languages. Instead, translanguaging acknowledges the social nature of the concept of a named language like English and the social (and not linguistic) reasons why strict boundaries have been drawn around it. In effect, it is these borders that has kept English out of the hands and mouths of poor racialised people around the world.

De Sousa Santos has suggested that there cannot be social justice without first cognitive justice (2007). For me, cognitive justice starts with questioning what is English, and why we choose to see it as a simple linguistic entity. As educators and scholars, we need to become critically conscious of the reasons why English teaching has traditionally focused on a set of linguistic properties. Translanguaging gives us an opportunity to bring into focus the full repertoire of resources that diverse racialised students bring into English language classrooms, and to utilise this unitary repertoire to teach their own English. As I have said elsewhere, translanguaging gives us a way of designing a new ownership of English (García, 2022). ofelia.garciaotheguy@gmail.com

References Council of Europe. (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge University Press.

Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of Educational Research, 49, 222–251. de Sousa Santos, B. (2007). Beyond abyssal thinking: From global lines to ecologies of knowledges. Review (Fernand Braudel Center), 30(1), 45–89.

España, C., & Herrera, L. Y. (2020). En comunidad. Lesson for centering the voices and experiences of bilingual Latinx students. Heinemann.

Fanon, F. (1952/1986). Black Skins, White Masks. Pluto Press. [translation from French, Peau Noire, Masques Blanc, 1952] Fishman, J. A. (1968). Sociolinguistic perspective on the study of bilingualism. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 6(39), 21–49. https://doi.org/10.1515/ling.1968.6.39.21 Fishman, J. A. (1989). Language and Ethnicity in Minority Sociolinguistic Perspective.

Multilingual Matters.

Flores, N., & Rosa, J. (2015). Undoing appropriateness: Raciolinguistic ideologies and language diversity in education. Harvard Educational Review, 85(2), 149–171. https://doi. org/10.17763/0017-8055.85.2.149 Galloway, N., & Rose, H. (2018). Incorporating global Englishes into the ELT classroom.

ELT Journal, 72(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccx010 17

Chapter 1: Teaching and learning: language and skills García, O. (2009). Bilingual education in the 21st century: A global perspective. Wiley.

García, O. (2022). Designing New Ownership of English: A commentary. TESL-EJ, 26(3). https://tesl-ej.org/wordpress/issues/volume26/ej103/ej103a10/ García, O., Johnson, S., & Seltzer, K. (2017). The translanguaging classroom. Leveraging student bilingualism for learning. Caslon.

García, O., & Li, W. (2014). Translanguaging: Language, Bilingualism and Education. Palgrave Macmillan Pivot.

García, O., & Otheguy, R. (2020). Plurilingualism and translanguaging: Commonalities and divergences. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 23(1), 17–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2019.1598932 García, O., & Sung, K. K. -F. (2018). Critically assessing the 1968 Bilingual Education Act at 50 years: Taming tongues and Latinx communities. The Bilingual Review Journal, 4(4), 318–333. https://doi.org/10.1080/15235882.2018.1529642 Haugen, E. (1953). The Norwegian Language in America: A study in bilingual behavior.

University of Pennsylvania Press.

House, J. (2003). English as a lingua franca: A threat to multilingualism? Journal of Sociolinguistics, 7(4), 556–578.

Kachru, B. B. (1992). World Englishes: Approaches, issues and resources. Language teaching, 25(1), 1–14.

Lambert, W. E. (1975). Culture and language as factors in learning and education. In A. Wolfgang (Ed.), Education of Immigrant Students (pp. 55–83). Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.

Lee, J. W. (2017). The Politics of Translingualism: After Englishes. Routledge.

Li, W. (2011). Moment analysis and translanguaging space: Discursive construction of identities by multilingual Chinese youth in Britain. Journal of Pragmatics, 43(5), 1222–1235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2010.07.035 Li, W. (2018). Translanguaging as a practical theory of language. Applied Linguistics, 39(1), 9–30. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amx039 MacSwan, J. (2017). A Multilingual perspective on translanguaging. American Educational Research Journal, 54(1), 167–201.

Makoni, S., & Pennycook, A. (2007). Disinventing and reconstituting languages. Multilingual Matters.

Otheguy, R., García, O., & Reid, W. (2015). Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages: A perspective from linguistics. Applied Linguistics Review, 6(3), 281–307. https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2015-0014 Pennycook, A. (2004). Performativity and language studies. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies 1(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15427595cils0101_1 Quijano, A. (2000). Coloniality of power, ethnocentrism, and Latin America. Nepantla: Views From the South, 1(3), 533−580.

Sánchez, M. T., García, O., & Solorza, C. (2017). Reframing language allocation policy in dual language bilingual education. Bilingual Research Journal, 41(1), 37–51. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/15235882.2017.1405098 Seidlhofer, B. (2013). Understanding English as a Lingua Franca (Oxford Applied Linguistics).

Oxford University Press.

Tupas, R., & García, O. (2023). Disentangling ‘Bi/multilingualism’ in Education and

18

4-colour thinking: developing criticality through an interactive, question-based approach Language Policy: Southern Decolonial Multilingualism [Unpublished manuscript]. In J. W. Schwieter & J. -M. Dewaele (Eds.), Multilingualism: Foundations and the state of the interdisciplinary art. Bloomsbury.

Varela, F. (1995). Whence perceptual meaning? A cartography of current ideas. In F. Varela & J. P. Dupuy (Eds.), Understanding Origins: Contemporary Views on the origin of life, mind and society (pp. 235-263). Springer Netherlands.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.

Harvard University.

Weinreich, U. (1953). Languages in Contact, Findings and Problems. Linguistic Circle of New York.

Wynter, S. (2003). Unsettling the coloniality of being/power/truth/freedom: Towards the human, After man, its overrepresentation – An Argument. The New Centennial Review 3(3), 257–337. https://doi.org/10.1353/ncr.2004.0015 Zuberi, T., & Bonilla-Silva, E. (Eds.). (2008). White Logic, White Methods: Racism and Methodology. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

1.2 4-colour thinking: developing criticality through an interactive, question-based approach Edward de Chazal Jurassic Academic (www.jurassicacademic.com), Dorset, UK Rationale

Using the analogy of the four colours of a printer (which combine to create any image), 4-colour thinking (4-CT) provides a practical approach for students to develop their critical thinking. Students work across the four roles (colours) in any order, selecting questions to try and answer, leading to an outcome of richly cognitive material which they can integrate into their spoken and written texts.

Yellow: individual

4-CT starts with ‘I’. This role recognises that the individual, i.e. the student, is at the heart of the critical-thinking process. A written or spoken text is not a discrete object but something which is interpreted – by the student, who can draw on questions such as: • What are my purposes in engaging with this text? (e.g. to persuade, critique, develop knowledge/skills/language, find material, be assessed, be entertained, interact socially/academically/professionally) • What is my instant/instinctive response to the text? Why? • To what extent do I agree with the author’s stance? Why? • How can I use this text?

• What have I learned?

• What will I read/listen to/engage in next?

• Where will I find this text/opportunity?

Such questions foster an initial critical approach, which students develop further in subsequent roles.

19

Chapter 1: Teaching and learning: language and skills

Red: social

The social role conceives texts as communicative artefacts created by people amid a cycle of communication. Questions include: • Who are the people (authors, creators) behind the text?

• W hat are their affiliations (e.g. academic, corporate, professional, political, social), research, agendas, achievements, locations, motivations in producing the text?

• What is the author’s stance – where do they stand on the topic? How do you know?

• W hat is included and excluded? What might you expect to find in this text which is not actually there? Why? • Who else is referred to or linked to in the text?

Students can do quick searches to glean author information, such as checking out the author’s Google Scholar page or other public profile. This material then forms part of their critical response, for instance in illustrating the author’s specialisms and influence.

Black: textual

In this role, students notice what the text reveals. Major aspects cover the topic and focus of the text, its main points, text type and organisation. Relating to these, questions can include: • W hat is the topic and focus? How are these developed and evidenced (through citation/support)?

• W hat are the main points or argument(s)? Summarise these.

• W hat is reference for the text (author, date, place, publisher)? How current is it?

• G – A – P: What are the genre, audience and purpose of the text?

• W hat is the map or organisation of the text? This may be a research report with conventional I M R D structure – Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion; or it may be an argument/thesis-led text; other possibilities include problem–solution, review, case study, reflection or simply description. Alternatively the text may be regenred, for instance a research article repurposed as a popular science article.

• What are the main sections? How do they relate and connect?

Blue: linguistic

This role covers all things linguistic, where students notice and process the language of the text through the question, ‘How does the language speak to me?’

• H ow would I describe the style of the text? (e.g. persuasive, objective, emotional, technical, legal) • What are the key words/phrases in the text?

• How do the authors express their voice?

• H ow does the academic and/or technical vocabulary contribute to the meanings in the text?

• L ocate some complex noun phrases – how do these package information?

• W hat about any unusual language such as idioms, metaphors, figurative or marked language?

4-CT process

During the workshop, and having presented the ‘product’ of 4-CT, I then walked through the process using an analysis of an academic text. Using a Financial Times article, ‘Smartphones and social media are destroying children’s mental health’, participants 20

Promoting learner reflection and autonomy through one-to-one dialogues

then formed groups and adopted one role to critically analyse the text. In the feedback stage we shared findings, which included these observations: • Few if any alternative explanations were offered (known as the single cause fallacy).

• There was limited reference to parents and children’s wider family.

• Wider social trends also impact on children’s mental wellbeing, e.g. their parents arranging their social life, risk-averse culture, GDPR, religion, drugs, openness to talking about mental health, trends in education, the economy, etc.

The workshop illustrated how a carefully researched framework, 4-CT, can support and motivate students in their critical-thinking development, leading to a rich output of individualised and potentially original material which is likely to be favourably assessed in students’ subsequent written and spoken output.

Edward@emdechazalconsulting.co.uk

Reference Burn-Murdoch, J. (2023, March 10). Smartphones and social media are destroying children’s mental health. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/0e2f6f8e-bb03-4fa7-8864f48f576167d2

1.3 Promoting learner reflection and autonomy through one-to-one dialogues Jo Mynard Kanda University of International Studies, Chiba, Japan

Each interaction with a student, inside and outside the classroom, is an opportunity to engage them in reflective thinking. This kind of thinking is crucial for developing learner autonomy, i.e. understanding oneself and taking charge of one’s language learning. In this summary, I will briefly introduce the concept of reflection in language learning and share how it can be promoted in practice. One powerful way to engage learners in reflection is through one-to-one dialogues, which help learners to understand themselves and take charge of their language learning. Tools can facilitate this process, and I will share some practical examples.

What is reflection on language learning?

Reflection is how human beings can systematically solve problems. In language education, we tend to refer to the concept of ‘reflective practice’ by Donald Schön, which is a willingness to reflect on action, e.g. to learn from our experiences. This is particularly important in language learning, and reflection in our field can be defined as ‘the process of thinking deeply about one’s language learning to understand the processes with the aim of taking informed and self-regulated action towards language outcomes’ (Mynard et al., 2023, p. 4). Reflective language learners are more aware of their own abilities, understand how they learn best, know which strategies and tasks work best for them, and are more likely to take charge of the learning process and develop self-regulatory skills (Mynard et al., 2023). Based on an examination of the literature, we can make the following working assumption: If reflection is not an integral part of a language course, the hard work teachers and students do in classes may be ineffective.

21

Chapter 1: Teaching and learning: language and skills

In order to develop reflective skills, teachers can raise awareness and provide training and opportunities for reflection in class. This can be done in several ways, for instance, by embedding reflection into regular classroom activities, e.g. by including reflective questions at the end of a task. Alternatively, reflective tasks could be stand-alone activities done in class through the target language, which allows opportunities for language practice in addition to engaging in reflection. Alternatively, reflection can occur outside the classroom in the learner’s preferred language and might be a one-to-one dialogue.

Promoting reflection through dialogue

Advising in language learning (ALL) is a one-to-one dialogue between a learner and a learning advisor (or teacher) that has the purpose of helping learners to think deeply, understand themselves, and take charge of their own language learning (Kato & Mynard, 2016). Although the field of ALL is only about 20 years old, it has become increasingly relevant in language education as we recognise the importance of psychological processes in learning. Advising takes an individualised approach, and through the careful and intentional use of dialogue, advisors/teachers help their learners decide the best course of action regarding their language study. Learners are supported in developing learner autonomy by drawing on their interests, motivations, goals, previous knowledge and experiences, and personalities, while reflecting on the process as they go along.

ALL usually takes place outside the classroom, but advising strategies can be implemented inside the classroom through peer advising, written advising, and other reflective activities that teachers can embed into a language classroom.

Tools for supporting reflective dialogue

Reflective dialogue can be supported by tools such as models, worksheets, activities and games. The tools aid thinking, help learners visualise their progress and do so in cognitively rich yet linguistically simple ways. One example of a visual tool is Gibb’s (1988) reflective cycle (Figure 1.3.1), where a learner can reflect on different aspects of a learning episode and take appropriate action. See Kato & Mynard (2016) for other visual tools that aid reflection, such as guided diaries, motivation graphs, goal-setting pyramids, future planning and imagination activities, questionnaires, viewpoint-switching worksheets and self-evaluation charts.

Figure 1.3.1: Elements Contained Within Gibbs’ (1988) Reflective Cycle 22

Videoconferencing exchanges: fostering EFL learners’ reflective authentic interaction

Tools such as these can be used by individuals working alone, but they are much more powerful if used in dialogue with others. A learner who does not have the opportunity to engage in supportive reflection in this way may not develop the strategies for successful learning or, worse, might encounter problems that lead them to worry, ruminate or give up. Providing opportunities for learners to think deeply and talk through their thoughts, plans and progress with a learning advisor, teacher or peer is an essential way that we support learners in developing lifelong learner autonomy. jomynard@gmail.com

References Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by doing: A Guide to teaching and learning methods. Further Education Unit, Oxford Polytechnic.

Kato, S., & Mynard, J. (2016). Reflective dialogue: Advising in language learning. Routledge.

Mynard, J., Curry, N., & Lyon, P. (2023). Promoting reflection on language learning: Introduction. In N. Curry, P. Lyon & J. Mynard (Eds.), Promoting reflection on language learning: Lessons from a university setting (pp. 3–12). Multilingual Matters.

1.4 Videoconferencing exchanges: fostering EFL learners’ reflective authentic interaction Lena Barrantes Elizondo Universidad Nacional Sede Regional Brunca, San José,

Costa Rica

Background

Looking back at effective practices implemented during Covid-19, English language teachers could move forward and continue to transform learning experiences using videoconferencing tools or platforms. Videoconferencing exchanges were popular during emergency teaching models. Videoconferencing exchanges bring together language learners in geographically distant locations via means of online communication tools, which aim to develop language skills and intercultural competence. These exchanges allow a type of interaction that used to be restricted to those who have the opportunity to study abroad. Fortunately, videoconferencing exchanges of this type promise to transform traditional language learning in contexts where English is not available outside the classroom walls.

Theoretical pillars behind the implementation of videoconferencing exchanges

Under the big umbrella of English language teaching and learning theories, authentic interaction (Pinner, 2014), culture awareness (DeCapua & Wintergerst, 2016), and reflective practices (Bain et al., 2002) are the core pillars behind the proposed model of videoconferencing exchanges. Pinner (2014) proposed an inclusive concept of authenticity in the form of a continuum with various dimensions. This continuum has a contextual axis and a social one. At one end of the contextual axis, there is the

23

Chapter 1: Teaching and learning: language and skills

classroom (a learning-supportive environment); at the other end of the axis, it is the real world (actual use beyond learning). At the same time, at one end of the social axis, it is the speaker/learner who holds needs and reasons for learning; at the other end it is the target language community (people whom the learner intends to interact with).

This conceptualisation of authenticity aligns with the way English is used and taught for international communication.

Regarding culture awareness, DeCapua & Wintergerst (2016) identified core premises which include: learning about oneself; learning about the universal phenomena and specific elements of culture; learning about the interaction between culture and communication; and learning about how to become more observant and more cognisant of cultural factors. Reflective language practices include the reflective process with the 5Rs framework proposed by Bain et al. (2002), which allows learners and teachers to get the most out of those experiences and identify which skills and abilities are stronger and weaker, and which need attention. This framework includes five processes: reporting, responding, relating, reasoning, and reconstructing the experience.

The model: exchange types

Two different types of videoconferencing exchanges suggested are: Virtual Pen Pals and Cultural Exchange Programmes. Virtual Pen Pals is introduced to students taking oral communication courses as the experience where they regularly meet via any videoconferencing platform. The idea of Virtual Pen Pals comes from the old concept of pen pals, who regularly write letters to each other via postal mail. A virtual pen pal relationship helps practise a foreign language and to make friendships. The Cultural Exchange Programme is presented to students taking any culture class to allow students to have exchanges over the course of a semester to encourage the development of speaking skills and cultural awareness.

Phases of the model

This model outlines 5 phases: preparation, asynchronous tasks, synchronous meetings, the log phase, and summative evaluation. The preparation phase requires both teachers from the two different institutions to connect with each other, organise meetings, set the procedures, and pair students. The asynchronous task is the phase when students send introductory emails to each other, record a 5-minute introductory personal video, agree on meeting details and prepare topics and material. The synchronous meetings phase is learners’ space to meet via any videoconferencing platform of their choice. The log phase requires learners to complete their 5Rs reflection journal and record a video where they document their experience. The last phase is the teacher’s evaluation, which includes a rubric to assess learners’ oral and written performance on their logs and video.

Benefits and challenges of implementing videoconferencing exchanges

The implementation of these models resulted in an opportunity to unlock authentic interaction, cultural awareness and reflective practices. Other benefits behind these exchanges are: improving listening and speaking skills by having conversations with other English speakers and meeting people from another country or city to learn about their life and culture. Some of the benefits learners have documented are their

24

Lindblom’s theory of hyper- and hypo-articulation: implications for teaching listening

positive experience, long-lasting friendship that has lasted even after the programme was over, and learners’ awareness of other cultures.

Teachers have documented some challenges of implementation that are worth considering. These include: problem-solving throughout the project extension can be overwhelming; watching videos and reading logs can be a heavy load when teaching large groups; and measuring learners’ authentic interaction and cultural awareness is complicated. lenna.barrantes.elizondo@una.ac.cr / lena.barrantes@ucalgary.ca

References Bain, J. D., Ballantyne, R., Mills, C., & Lester, N. C. (2002). Reflecting on practice: Student teachers’ perspectives. Post Pressed.

DeCapua, A., & Wintergerst, A. C. (2016). Crossing cultures in the language classroom. The University of Michigan Press.

Pinner, R. (2014). The authenticity continuum: Towards a definition incorporating international voices. English Today, 30(4), 22–27. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0266078414000364

1.5 Lindblom’s theory of hyper- and hypo-articulation: implications for teaching listening Sheila Thorn The Listening Business, London, UK The theory

Although Lindblom’s hyper- and hypo-articulation (H&H) theory is not generally well known in ELT circles, it goes a long way towards explaining the huge differences in speaker articulation in different settings. Lindblom states that in a situation where two people know each other well (and are consequently familiar with each other’s vocal ranges and settings), and they are speaking spontaneously about a familiar topic in a location where there is little background noise, neither speaker will feel the need to articulate clearly. In this situation, the principle of minimal effort, or hypo-articulation, applies. However, if one of the speakers introduces an unfamiliar topic, or there is marked background noise, or a stranger joins them, then the first speaker will automatically begin to hyper-articulate, that is articulate more clearly. H&H theory explains why there is a marked tendency for speakers in a formal public setting, for example when they are reading aloud a speech, to hyper-articulate to ensure that they communicate their message effectively. It also explains why learners find it so challenging to follow informal spontaneous speech in the L2 between close friends using their L1. This is because unless the L1 speakers make concessions to the L2 listener, by articulating more clearly or using markedly simpler language, their hypo-articulation results in a huge amount of reduction and the L2 listener will struggle to recognise even very familiar words in the stream of speech due to their reduced forms.

During my presentation, I demonstrated H&H theory in action by using various recordings of authentic formal public spoken English and informal spontaneous spoken English. The first recording featured the late Queen reading aloud a speech 25

Chapter 1: Teaching and learning: language and skills

to mark her 21st birthday to an audience of millions. This short speech contained all the features of formal, planned public speech that one might expect, including hyperarticulation, pauses at commas and full stops, marked prominences on key content words and an absence of contractions.

The next two recordings featured a BBC reporter announcing the discovery of a new species of lemur. Although this was a formal public setting, in the first report the reporter spoke spontaneously, i.e. not from a script, with markedly less careful articulation and a number of reduced forms, including an’ and ’cos, linking and contractions. In the second report, some hours later, the reporter was clearly reading aloud from a script, and all the features of formal planned speech were apparent, most markedly hyper-articulation.

The final recording featured a good friend of mine speaking spontaneously about her work and included numerous examples of hypo-articulation, together with ers and ums, linking and contractions.

Implications for the classroom

Most coursebook recordings are designed specifically to teach the target language, rather than to train learners to listen more effectively in the L2. For this reason, the scripts are graded in terms of lexis and grammatical structures and are read aloud by clearly articulating actors in a recording studio with no background noise. The recordings therefore resemble far more closely formal planned public speech than informal spontaneous spoken English. While these recordings are ideal for teaching the target language, they do not prepare learners for the real-world English they will undoubtedly encounter outside the ELT classroom.

To teach L2 listening effectively, learners need exposure to recordings of different types of authentic speech, ranging from read aloud, i.e. planned formal spoken English, to informal spontaneous speech.

Five key goals of teaching listening (see Thorn, 2021) should be borne in mind when exposing learners to authentic recordings, namely: • t o build up learners’ confidence by setting achievable tasks; • t o increase learners’ automaticity (their ability to decode quickly, accurately and effortlessly); • to increase learners’ lexical knowledge (aural and orthographic); • t o encourage learners to work out for themselves the meaning of unfamiliar lexis; and • t o train learners to focus on prominent words in a stream of speech.

The teacher should also use a variety of activities, above and beyond the traditional listening comprehension approach. These should include meaning-building activities, where, rather than using a written comprehension task, the teacher acts as a facilitator, helping small groups of learners to construct meaning together while listening.

In addition, the recordings should be used for decoding practice. For example, short extracts from a recording can be used as the basis for mini-dictations or gap fills, where the teacher gaps frequently occurring words that have been subject to marked reduction in the stream of speech. Finally, learners should be given a transcript of the recording, enabling them to match the acoustic signal to the words in front of them. sheila@thelisteningbusiness.com

26

Spoken word recognition for listeners

References Lindblom, B. (1990). Explaining Phonetic Variation: A Sketch of the H&H Theory. In W. J. Hardcastle & A. Marchal (Eds.), Speech Production and Speech Modelling (pp. 403-439).

Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-2037-8_16 Thorn, S. (2021). Integrating Authentic Listening into the ELT Classroom. Pavilion.

1.6 Spoken word recognition for listeners Mark Hancock PronPack Books, Chester, UK

Unlike the written word, the spoken word is different every time you hear it – think of all the different voices and accents in the world. How do listeners ever recognise these various versions as being the same word? This crucial aspect of the listening skill is known as ‘spoken word recognition’. In this paper, we look at some of the difficulties involved in this, and some of the things we can do in the language class. The analysis is divided into four parts, which I call spelling, storing, priming and processing.

Spelling

According to Field (2008), the written forms of words tend to stick in the memory more strongly than the spoken forms. Unfortunately, in English, the written form is often misleading and often leads to mispronunciation. For example, many learners pronounce ‘comfortable’ as ‘come for table’.

But what about the consequences for listening? The problem is this: if the learner expects words to sound like their written form, they may not recognise them in speech.

We should bear this in mind when teaching. Encourage learners to make some kind of note of words which are pronounced very differently from their spelling. If possible, give them guidance about spelling rules. For example, make sure they are aware of vowel reduction: the letter ‘a’ in ‘comfortable’ is not pronounced as it is in ‘table’!

Storing

When we hear a word, we compare it to words which are stored in our memory and look for a match. However, words don’t have only one form. Field (2008) gives the example of ‘actually’. If you’re speaking really carefully, this may have four syllables, but said quickly it may come out as only two, as ‘ashley’. Field proposes that instead of storing a single form of a word, the listener stores multiple versions (or ‘exemplars’) of it. To help learners build up their repertoire of stored exemplars of a word, we need to expose them to more variety. We can assemble multiple examples of the same word in different contexts, and, for this purpose, the online tool YouGlish is very useful.

YouGlish is like a search engine of video material. You type in the word (or phrase) you want to hear, and it gives you thousands of examples in different voices, accents and speeds. In order to give learners a sense of how the spoken form of words like this vary, we can use YouGlish in class or encourage learners to make regular use of it at home.

27

Chapter 1: Teaching and learning: language and skills

Priming

Listeners do not hear neutrally. We are primed to pay attention to features which are important in our language, while ignoring features which are not. For example, if word stress is important in your first language, you tend to notice it; if it is not, then you tend to be what Cutler calls ‘stress deaf ’ (2012, p. 349). With our learners, we somehow need to prime them to pay attention to features which may not be common in their L1, but which are common in English. One approach is to use texts which have a high density of certain common patterns in English, such as word endings. For example, I have designed this rhyme to draw attention to the ending ‘able/ible’: They’re comfortable and durable They’re lovable, adorable Fashionable but sensible To me they’re indispensable You can make short texts with lots of examples for yourself. Try using ChatGPT: Instruct it to write a brief text containing… and then give a list of words with the suffix you want to focus on.

Processing

Listeners have to process what they’re hearing in real time. According to Field, ‘listeners may need to form tentative matches on the basis of the available evidence and to confirm or change them as they hear more and more of the utterance’ (2008, p. 164).

In the examples below, after hearing the first part of a sentence, the listener understands a), but then after hearing the ending, they must change their interpretation to b): a) It’s a fish... b) It’s official. a) Pay a ten... b) Pay attention. a) It’s a nun... b) It’s an onion.

Expert listeners do this all the time; learners on the other hand tend to stick with the first interpretation, no matter how bizarre. We can use dictations like the examples above in class to raise awareness of this. Read out a) first and ask learners to write what they hear. Then read out b) and ask them to correct and complete what they wrote. mark@hancockmcdonald.com

References Cutler, A. (2012). Native Listening: Language Experience and the Recognition of Spoken Words.

MIT Press.

Field, J. (2008). Listening in the Language Classroom. Cambridge University Press.

28

2

ESOL, displacement and identity

In the words of Lesley Painter-Farrell, ESOL teaching and learning has been sidelined for too long, but featuring ESOL as the topic of a plenary talk at the IATEFL Conference served to put this ELT context centre-stage, at what could be argued ‘high time’ considering the unprecedented movement of people around the globe today. In this opening paper, Lesley clearly portrays the challenges that ESOL practitioners, and their learners, face on a day-to-day basis against a backdrop of growing antiimmigrant rhetoric in many ESOL contexts, and explores how best to prepare and enable teachers to work in such complex contexts. In the second paper, Jonathan Ferreira and Lucas Veras also write about the challenges of displacement, focusing on migrant and refugee children. Based on their recent work with newcomers in Western Canada and an online-based project with young learners in Northeast Brazil, they argue for an inquiry-based approach across the curriculum to sustain migrant and refugee-background children’s languages and identities. In the final paper, ‘Race as language: displacement, identity and the pleasure of (second) language learning’, plenary speaker Awad Ibrahim begins by examining how race works like language.

Awad then goes on to expand the notion of language before introducing his work with continental African youths in high schools in Canada, linking the rhizome of Blackness to second language learning, identity, investment and Hip-Hop.

2.1 Plenary: Sharing words and worlds: ESOL teachers as allies, advocates and activists Lesley Painter-Farrell Westchester Community College, State University of New

York, US

Introduction

ESOL teaching and learning have been sidelined in the field of English language teaching for too long. Indeed, the plenary at the Harrogate 2023 Conference was one of the first times ESOL had been a topic. It was, therefore, essential that the plenary raised awareness of the many challenges ESOL teachers and students face and, in some small way, ensure this context is more visible.

The challenges practitioners face when working in this context, i.e. working with immigrants, people seeking asylum, refugees and migrants, are many. They include a lack of appropriate materials for the complex and very specific needs of ESOL learners: in addition, teacher training for ESOL teachers is typically piecemeal and often not specific to the realities that such teachers face in the classroom. In addition, ESOL

29

Chapter 2: ESOL, displacement and identity

teachers’ pay is low, job insecurity is rife, and programmes usually depend on capricious funding. All of these challenges are foregrounded by growing anti-immigrant rhetoric. It is therefore a complicated field for reasons that reside both inside and outside the classroom, and are entrenched in (or from the lack of ) educational policy, politics and public opinion.

This article aims to examine the ESOL context, especially in the United States, although, as will be clear, the areas covered in this article pertain to the context in general. In many ways, this article summarises the teacher training I have been doing for many years, especially in a course I designed called ‘Shared Worlds and Shared Words’, which specifically prepares teachers for the ESOL field.

The context

According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), over the past couple of decades there has been an unprecedented movement of people around the globe due to war, poverty, gang violence, climate change and persecution (UNHCR; Warriner, 2007). As a result, an estimated 100 million people were forced to flee their countries in 2022, and the Pew Research Center (Budiman, 2020) states that an estimated one million immigrants arrive in the United States each year.

In response, the number of English language classes has grown exponentially. Not surprisingly, they are considered vital to aid newcomers in integrating into their new countries. Indeed, low English proficiency is a significant predictor of post-migration stress in adults (Salvo & De C Williams, 2017; Alemi et al., 2014) and heavily impacts a person’s legal status in the new country (Aspinall & Hashem, 2011). In addition, newcomers themselves see learning English as a vital part of establishing themselves in the United States, navigating their new homes, finding employment, and ultimately establishing a voice (Warriner, 2007), which most newcomers embrace as a fundamental requirement for acceptance and participation in an English-dominant world.

I currently work at a state university in New York, where over five thousand ESOL students are enrolled every year. It is the largest English language institute in New York State. The students are primarily from South and Central America, but other significant groups include students from South Korea, Afghanistan and Poland. Additionally, there is a growing body of asylum seekers from Venezuela and Ukraine. I work in the Gateway Building, which was built specifically for the English Language Institute. The name explains the Institute’s aim, i.e. to be a gateway to newcomers and immigrants, but also the design is two wings, which are meant to represent open and welcoming arms.

The students are diverse; often, ESOL students are described as super-diverse (Vertovec, 2007) with different cultural, socioeconomic and linguistic backgrounds.

Many have experienced trauma depending on where they have come from and why they have left their countries. Many are alone and have left their families behind.

Their linguistic needs are ostensibly basic or survival. They need to be able to find work, access housing and medical care, understand how to navigate the subway system, know the best stores for specific items, know how to buy medications, and, of course, access education, which in turn suggests that an ESOL curriculum should be both relevant and responsive to these very practical needs in order for students to become self-sufficient. My own curriculum, for example, includes health, food,

30

Plenary: Sharing words and worlds: ESOL teachers as allies, advocates and activists

shopping, apartment renting, work, etc.

However, while these students are trying to learn English, they are also trying to integrate into their new country and culture, a culture that may be in conflict with their own cultural values. They are trying to find their space and place and renegotiate their identity. They are in a juxtaposition of leaving one place and arriving in another (Suarez-Orozco, 2001). This is often compounded because the students may not have a home to return to. If they are undocumented, it may be years before they can consider going home. The backdrop to this is the growing anti-immigrant rhetoric which is at times extreme. It others, vilifies and excludes (Warriner, 2007). The media is saturated with it and, sadly, it has become normalised. Indeed, the subject of migration, with a particular focus on refugees and people seeking asylum is rarely out of the public eye (Hubbard, 2005). So the very things our students are trying to do, i.e. fit in and build a sense of community, is exponentially made more difficult.

For many reasons, immigration generates uncomfortable public opinion and debate (Brader et al., 2008; Warriner, 2007). It is not simply about the movement of people from one place to another; it is tied to racism and ableist ideas which construct immigrants as ‘other’; it is about exclusion and about being territorial, all based on fear. It is not about integration, belonging or equity, but rather assimilation. It does not embrace difference; it rejects it. Because immigrants may not be able to speak English, they are considered less and not able. In other words, people have a deficit mindset towards them, which is not new. In 1919, the then-President of the United States, Theodore Roosevelt, said the following: We have room for but one flag, the American flag, and this excludes the red flag which symbolizes all wars against liberty and civilization just as much as it excludes any foreign flag of a nation to which we are hostile. We have room for but one language here and that is the English language, for we intend to see that the crucible turns our people out as Americans, and American nationality, and not as dwellers in a polyglot boarding house; and we have room for but one soul [sic] loyalty, and that is loyalty to the American people. (Boundless, 2017)

What is startling about this is that it could have been said this year, so little has changed. Roosevelt’s message is about maintaining unity; diversity means disunity. It promotes the language as a problem construct (Ruiz, 1984), in other words monolingualism is the ideal for nation-building (Hult & Hornberger, 2016). This has been the mainstay in both policies and politics ever since because one language means national unity, security and identity (Skutnabb-Kangas & García, 1995). Becoming ‘Americanised’ is equated with learning English. Olsen (2010) said the actual act of learning English is seen to be a loyal, patriotic thing to do.

A few years after Roosevelt’s speech, Henry Ford created an English school to teach English to the immigrants that he was hiring for his assembly lines. At the school’s graduation ceremony, students walked into ‘a pot’ in their traditional homeland clothes. Then they came out of the pot wearing American suits and waving American flags. The message was clear: diversity was not welcomed; in order to live in America, people needed to negate their previous cultures and languages and assimilate. The idea of different people with different cultures coming together who held onto their

31

Chapter 2: ESOL, displacement and identity

nationalities or identities was seen as a growing threat to national identity and national unity. This needed to be curtailed and controlled; establishing a dominant language appeared to achieve both. Language was foregrounded as a prerequisite for belonging, inclusion and patriotism, which became interconnected. Those who spoke English, especially native speakers of English, held power (Liggett, 2014).

However, isn’t the very beauty of any country its diversity? Learning a new language should not mean losing another. It is an additive process. Sadly, the seemingly straightforward task of students being in a classroom with the goal of acquiring a new language is weighed down with social and political complexity, and learning English is at the centre of a national debate over what it means to be a diverse society (Crawford, 1992). In the middle of this are ESOL teachers.

How do we prepare teachers for the ESOL classroom?

In a survey I conducted before the plenary with ESOL teachers, which centred around their experiences working in the field, most said they did not feel adequately prepared for the complexities of the ESOL classroom when they started working with ESOL students. When I started teaching in the ESOL context, I had no idea how complex the context and classroom really were. I strongly believe we need to do more to support teachers. Teachers take on many roles in the classroom, from ally to advocate, to eventually activist. Each role helps to quieten the noise from outside the classroom and support the students in multiple ways. The teachers’ roles are complicated and often exhausting.

So what should we include in the teacher training of ESOL teachers? Firstly, it is helpful to remember that there is a lot that teachers cannot control in terms of what students experience outside classes. However, there are things that teachers can control and do, to help in some way to ensure their linguistic success, and, hopefully, help to negate the negativity that they experience around their status. These things include: 1 M aking connections; 2 C urriculum; 3 P ositionality and power; 4 B elonging, membership and cultural responsiveness; and maybe 5 A spirationalism and international mindedness.

Let’s explore each one.

Only connect

One thing that is vital in the ESOL class is community and the security of knowing that everyone is working together to reach specific goals. We often use the word ubuntu with our teachers-in-training to describe what community in the classroom means.

Ubuntu is an ancient African word that means ‘I am because we are’. In other words, if I succeed, it is because of the support of others or my community, and, if I succeed, we all succeed. Community begins with making connections; indeed, connections come before class content. It is a simple premise: if teachers and students make connections, it not only means developing empathy towards one another but also developing a deep awareness of people as whole beings and an understanding of lived experiences even if they are very different from our own. It includes understanding and appreciating each

32

Plenary: Sharing words and worlds: ESOL teachers as allies, advocates and activists

other. This is important because our ESOL students may feel largely ignored outside our classrooms. Incidentally, the plenary was originally going to be called invisible people because I often think immigrants are. People often do not want to see them, but they serve our food at restaurants, babysit our children, and clean our schools.

The epigraph of Howards End by E. M. Forster (1910) is ‘Only Connect’, a sentiment that resonates with any ESOL classroom and the facilitation of community. In part, it means valuing and developing human relationships, which, as teachers, we all know is critical. It also means listening to people and their stories and considering their position in contrast to our own. In the New York teacher-training courses, time is set aside for the teachers-in-training to listen to their students. These sessions are called ‘Sharing Words’. The teachers-in-training actively listen to their students’ stories about something they want to share. The students are often surprisingly open about their experiences, and the teachers-in-training are always moved by what they hear because, typically, the discussions move to living in the United States, why the students are here, what drove them to come here, their experiences, and so forth. The stories are usually very personal and, in many cases, difficult to hear. The idea of these sessions originated from an experience I had had years earlier.

The first time I taught in an ESOL class in New York, a man came to class alone.

I soon discovered his name was Juan, and he was from Mexico. Juan told me about his experience coming to the United States. He was originally from Mexico. He had been forced to leave Mexico because of the growing gang violence there. He had paid someone to get him to the border, and then he had had to walk for five days. He eventually got a train to Philadelphia and then reached New York. When he first told me the story, I could not believe it. I had not heard anything like it before. Prior to this, I had only taught in private language institutes in Asia and Europe. I had not met anyone who needed to do something like this. I could not imagine what would make me take such a treacherous and risky journey to New York. He shared his story matter-of-factly. He told me that he was lucky, and that others he was with had not been as lucky. He then asked me why I was in the United States because though he knew little English, he could hear that I had an accent. I told him I had been travelling and teaching abroad for a long time. He looked at me in astonishment and asked, ‘Why would you want to leave a good country and your family?’ I realised that he was as shocked by my story as I was by his. I also realised that our connection was that we had both left our countries, but where we differed was that I could return, whereas he could not. At that moment, I felt extremely privileged. I have felt this subsequently many times. Awareness of one’s positionality compared to someone else’s is essential when working in the ESOL field. It is easy to make assumptions and consequently make mistakes.

Storytelling is critical as it means keeping our identities and history alive. While some people may be trying to forget their past, especially if it involves traumatic experiences, telling stories of the things they love about their homeland can help separate good memories from challenging memories. Our stories are part of our identities – we can choose which stories we tell and what we do not want to tell. In other words, it is part of negotiating an identity in a new situation – remembering what you want to and not talking about what you do not.

33

Chapter 2: ESOL, displacement and identity

The curriculum responsive, relevant and reflective

Once teachers-in-training have made connections with their students, they can begin to work on the content of their classes. The curriculum needs to be relevant and responsive, as mentioned earlier.

Teachers-in-training need to consider what the students need in order to be able to function in New York, which means they need to understand their students’ living and working situations and conditions. Last summer, for example, many students at the English language institute where I work wanted to work at Dunkin Donuts. They were hiring and surprisingly little English is needed to be able to work successfully there. All summer classes worked on the Dunkin Donuts menu and the functional language needed to serve there. This was a diversion from the planned class content but was in response to the students’ requests. Making the change illustrated the partnership that the students and the teachers-in-training engage in when building a curriculum. It is about agency and collaboration. It is also about understanding positionality – both the students’ and the teachers’. It also evidences that the classroom is a space of equals. Again, this is critically important when the students may be feeling a lot less than equal after seeing what is in the news, or listening to certain political rhetoric surrounding immigrants and immigration.

Creating a space of equals also means being aware of whether the language used in class is inclusive, that the topics in class and materials are diverse, and, as mentioned earlier, understanding how both may be impacted by both the students’ and the teachers’ positionality and possible unconscious biases. This is why reflection is a critical part of the curriculum and the pedagogy in an ESOL classroom. Last autumn, for example, a teacher-in-training brought up the topic of Black Friday in class. Black Friday is the day after Thanksgiving in the United States when all shops and stores typically have sales. The students were excited. It is an excellent day to get great deals on electronics, phones, etc. There is a mall near the college that was planning on great sales. It is a favourite with all of the students. Instead of asking what they were going to buy, the teacher decided to tell them about a mall that she thought was better.

It had expensive stores and what she thought were better restaurants and less noisy.

She had not listened to what the students wanted and liked. They liked the noise, and the stores were familiar and within their budgets. They liked the restaurants and food. After the class, the teacher talked about how they had not been as responsive as she had expected them to be once she had mentioned the better mall. Our reflective discussion explored her positionality, her awareness of the students’ needs and wants, and about being careful of making assumptions. In other words, she had to reflect on her reaction and theirs.

The reflective part of the classroom content is complicated. It is not simply about the topics covered in class but also about being critically aware of whether we are perpetuating or disrupting certain tropes as teachers. This can happen in the language we use or our ingrained unconscious attitudes, as witnessed above. Teacher language as simple as correcting a student’s language by saying ‘we do not say that here’, can be alienating, and be far from inclusive.

Interestingly, a study by Lund et al. (2014) of pre-service teachers participating in a service-based learning project in immigrant communities in Canada supports the role

34

Plenary: Sharing words and worlds: ESOL teachers as allies, advocates and activists

of sociopolitical awareness in teachers’ orientations toward students. In pre-project interviews, research participants expressed orientations toward language-as-problem, with statements that indicated a belief that immigrants’ limited English proficiency made them less Canadian. Teachers-in-training need to continually ask themselves, am I disrupting certain tropes or perpetuating them and then, finally, the toughest question: Would I like to be taught by me?

Power

So considering one’s positionality also means being aware of the power dynamics within classes. Delpit explains it as follows: Issues of power are enacted in classrooms. These issues include: the power of the teacher over the students; the power of the publishers of textbooks and of the developers of the curriculum to determine the view of the world presented; the power of the state in enforcing compulsory schooling; and the power of an individual or group to determine another’s intelligence or ‘normalcy’. (1988, p. 283)

We need to question: Who decides what is normal and of course who holds the power. Warriner (2007) contends that teaching English is not neutral; the teaching of a language which has power and prestige is substantially influenced by a variety of cultural, social, economic and political factors. Again this has huge implications in terms of how teachers for this field are being trained.

Belonging and cultural responsiveness

As has been mentioned earlier, the students we have in our classroom are trying to build a life in a new country. A large part of this is feeling a sense of belonging.

Baumeister & Leary (1995, p. 497) define belonging as ‘a transformative, meaningful experience through which people derive both their identity and an emotional connectedness to their social and physical world. Belonging references a basic psychological need to have a social place in the world to which one belongs’.

Without this sense of belonging, rejection sets in, which leads to ‘intense negative feelings of anxiety, depression, grief, jealousy, and loneliness’ (Osterman, 2000, p.

327).

One way to prevent the feeling of both othering and rejection is to ensure that classes are culturally responsive. Cultural responsiveness is ‘the intentional leveraging of students’ home languages and community practices and linguistic resources as assets’ (Lucas et al., 2008). Instead of negating different cultures, we celebrate them.

We also appreciate that both students and teachers bring their cultural identities into the classroom (Guy, 1999). In the training classes we regularly have cultural sharing events, such as artefact lessons in which students bring something from their own cultures into class. This does not simply mean an object, it can be a dance, music or food. The aim is to illustrate that being different does not mean being deficient.

One of the English language students is from Peru. He has lived in the United States for over twenty years and yet he is still at the beginner level. Clearly, learning English is challenging for him. He walked to the United States from Peru, he lives in one room, his family are back in Peru, and he sends money to them monthly. He

35

Chapter 2: ESOL, displacement and identity

is determined to learn English, but a lot has happened to him in the United States.

He has struggled and regularly talks about having issues with his boss. It is therefore important that we teachers ensure that anything he feels outside class does not weigh him down inside class. Wonderfully, he is an expert Salsa dancer and so he often shows us certain Salsa steps, plays music he likes, and laughs. The last part is very important.

Elevating our students in the classroom maybe goes in some small way to quieten the anti-immigrant noise outside the classroom. It should also be evidence to the students that they unconditionally belong in class. This folds into the next construct which may seem aspirational.

International mindedness

A very hopeful direction that we should go towards is the construct of international mindedness, which has been taught in international baccalaureate schools for many years. International mindedness is a view of the world in which people see themselves as connected to the global community and assume a sense of responsibility towards its members (International Baccalaureate, Chicago Schools). It is an awareness of the interrelatedness of all nations and peoples. It encourages the recognition of differences and similarities, celebrating them, and supports making connections.

Conclusion

Being an ESOL teacher is not easy. There are many challenges, both inside and outside the classroom, for both teachers and students. To navigate these complexities, teachers must consider their positionality and the power dynamics in the classroom, consider how to be culturally responsive, understand what it means to belong and how to encourage international mindedness. They need to be reflective and self-aware. Most importantly, they must meet their students’ needs, connect with them, respond and share. It is an incredible juggle. As Gay (2010, p. 52) states, teachers working in this context with super diverse students enter ‘an ethical, emotional, and academic partnership…, a partnership that is anchored in respect, honor, integrity, resource sharing, and a deep belief in the possibility of transcendence’.

I applaud all ESOL teachers. lesleypainterfarrell@gmail.com

References Alemi, Q., James, S., Cruz, R., Zepeda, V., & Racadio, M. (2014). Psychological distress in Afghan refugees: a mixed-method systematic review. Journal of Immigrant & Minority Health, 16, 1247–1261.

Aspinall, P., & Hashem, F. (2011) Responding to minority ethnic groups’ language support needs in Britain. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal 30(2), 145–162.

Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497.

Boundless. (2017, August 7). Boundless. https://www.boundless.com/blog/roosevelt/ Brader, T., Valentino, N. A., & Suhay, E. (2008). What Triggers Public Opposition to Immigration? Anxiety, Group Cues, and Immigration Threat. American Journal of Political Science, 52(4), 959–978. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25193860

36

Plenary: Sharing words and worlds: ESOL teachers as allies, advocates and activists Budiman, A. (2020, August 20). Key findings about U.S. immigrants. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2020/08/20/key-findings-about-u-s-immigrants/ Crawford, J. (Ed.). (1992). Language loyalties: A source book on the official English controversy.

University of Chicago Press.

Delpit, L. (1988). The Silenced Dialogue: Power and Pedagogy in Educating Other People’s Children. Harvard Educational Review 58(3), 280–299.

Forster, E. M. (1910). Howards End. Edward Arnold.

Gay, G. (2010). Culturally responsive teaching (2nd ed.). Teachers College Press.

Guy, T. C. (1999). Culture as context for adult education: The need for culturally relevant adult education. New Directions for Adult & Continuing Education, 82, 5–18.

Hubbard, P. (2005). Accommodating Otherness: Anti-Asylum Centre Protest and the Maintenance of White Privilege. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 30(1), 52–65. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3804529 Hult, F. M., & Hornberger, N. H. (2016). Revisiting Orientations in Language Planning: Problem, Right, and Resource as an Analytical Heuristic. The Bilingual Review/La Revista Bilingüe, 33(3), 30–49. https://repository.upenn.edu/gse_pubs/476 Liggett, T. (2014). The mapping of a framework: Critical race theory and TESOL. The Urban Review, 46(1), 112-124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-013-0254-5 Lucas, T., Villegas, A. M., & Freedson-Gonzalez, M. (2008). Linguistically Responsive Teacher Education: Preparing Classroom Teachers to Teach English Language Learners.

Journal of Teacher Education, 59(4), 361–373.

Lund, D., Bragg, B., Kaipainen, E., & Lee, L. (2014). Preparing Preservice Teachers Through Service-Learning: Collaborating with Community for Children and Youth of Immigrant Backgrounds. International Journal of Research on Service-Learning in Teacher Education, 2, 1–32.

Olsen, L. (2010). Reparable Harm Fulfilling the Unkept Promise of Educational Opportunity for California’s Long Term English Learners. Californians Together. https://web.stanford. edu/~hakuta/Courses/Ed330X%20Website/Olsen_ReparableHarm2ndedition.pdf Osterman, K. F. (2000). Students’ need for belonging in the school community. Review of Educational Research, 70, 323–367.

Ruiz, R. (1984). Orientations in language planning. NABE Journal, 8, 15–34.

Salvo, T., & de C Williams, A. C. (2017). “If I speak English, what am I? I am full man, me”: Emotional impact and barriers for refugees and asylum seekers learning English.

Transcultural Psychiatry, 54(5–6), 733–755. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461517746315 Skutnabb-Kangas, T., & García, O. (1995). Multilingualism for all – general principles? In T. Skutnabb-Kangas (Ed.), Multilingualism for All (pp. 221–256). Swets and Zeitlinger.

Suarez-Orozco, M. (2001). Globalization, immigration, and education: The research agenda Harvard Educational Review, 71(3), 345–365. UNHCR. Refugee Data Finder. https://www. unhcr.org/refugee-statistics/insights/explainers/100-million-forcibly-displaced.html Vertovec, S. (2007). Super-diversity and its implications. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30(6), 1024–1054. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870701599465 Warriner, D. (2007). Transnational Literacies: Immigration, Language Learning, and Identity.

Linguistics and Education, 18(3–4), 201–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2007.10.003

37

Chapter 2: ESOL, displacement and identity

2.2 Migrant and refugee children’s language learning across the curriculum Jonathan Ferreira University of British Columbia, Vancouver, CA and Lucas Veras Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil Introduction

The world has recently seen a staggering increase in forced displacement due to political turmoil, armed conflicts and natural disasters. Fleeing to Western countries, migrant and refugee-background children, some of them with little or interrupted formal schooling, are met with adversities upon arrival in mainstream classrooms, namely racism and a general scepticism about their academic success. Specifically, in content-area classrooms, another challenge is the close attention devoted to the accumulation of specialised vocabulary and abstract concepts, and less so to the language learning needs of recent newcomers. To respond to these issues, this paper presents an inquiry-based approach that sustains migrant and refugee-background children’s languages and identities as invaluable assets to their language learning across the curriculum. The argument shared in this paper derives from our recent work with newcomers in Western Canada and our online-based project which adapted the curriculum of British Columbia to teach English to young learners in Northeast Brazil.

Inquiry-based approach

An inquiry-based learning (IBL) approach can be a powerful tool to value children’s identities as they learn English across the curriculum. Short & Burke (1996) assert that ‘at the heart of inquiry is personal and social knowing – the knowledge that learners bring from their personal experiences of living in the world and being part of specific cultural groups and social contexts’ (p. 101). Different from other ELT methods, IBL follows a fluid teaching and learning cycle, and its stages are iteratively shaped by students’ investigation (Wilhelm & Wilhelm, 2010). To plan an inquiry unit of study, teachers can consider the following steps: a) Articulating the essential question; b) Proposing culminating written, multimedia or social action projects; c) Activating and building on students’ prior knowledge and personal connection; d) Overtly developing language skills by designing tasks through which students can emulate disciplinary ways of knowing (i.e. conducting an experiment, corroborating evidence, developing an argument, retelling a story); e) R eading a variety of materials as a whole group, in small groups, or individually to generate meaningful and critical discussions; and f) E ngaging in activities that deepen conceptual understanding, with students employing language and disciplinary knowledge to respond to real problems and complete culminating projects.

Ultimately, by engaging in inquiry, the goal is not the accumulation of disciplinary knowledge; it is instead the meaningful and in-depth, real-world application of this knowledge.

38

Migrant and refugee children’s language learning across the curriculum

Picturebooks and scaffolding resources

Forging deep, real-world connections in IBL may happen through storytelling, and picturebooks can be useful resources to integrate language and disciplinary learning. In storybooks, illustrations are contextual cues, and content-heavy knowledge is transformed into engaging stories that create ideal circumstances for learners to make text-to-self and text-to-world connections. Furthermore, as the result of authors’ commitment to equity, inclusion, diversity and decolonisation goals, there are increasingly more multilingual and anti-racist books available, and stories depict non-Western characters and diverse ways of knowing and being in the world. ELT teachers can certainly utilise these books to teach English and discipline-specific knowledge while promoting critical discussions about social issues. Coupled with storybooks, teachers can support migrant and refugee-background children’s language across the curriculum by reading other textual genres, designing graphic organisers, playing languageinformed games, and proposing projects through which learners can authentically and creatively apply their content knowledge.

Example

With a small group of Grade 7 Brazilian students, Lucas completed a KWL (knowwant to know-learned) chart about evolution, engaged in whole-group aloud activities with the book Sapiens: Our human evolution (Becker, 2018) and other online openaccess resources such as satirical pieces and videos related to the topic. Using graphic organisers and online games, he overtly presented and practised narrative tenses, the passive voice, causative verbs, as well as conjunctions. Learners later used this language to write an opinion letter to an author, create their own Kahoot! quiz, and plan and deliver an argumentative Prezi presentation, responding to guiding questions such as Why is nature so diverse? and How does science shape the ways we think about ourselves and the world? Across all activities, the children foregrounded their prior knowledge and lived experiences to deepen their understanding of evolution.

Conclusion

An IBL approach to English teaching across the curriculum challenges ELT teachers’ content-area knowledge and shifts classroom power relations. However, we believe IBL to be a powerful and more socially equitable type of language teaching approach, because it places students’ identities and lifeworld stories at the centre of their learning process, and it is better aligned with a learner’s natural inclination for curiosity, exploration and experiential learning. jfeitosa@student.ubc.ca; lucasnveras@gmail.com

References Becker, J. R. (2018). Sapiens: Our human evolution (1st edition). Imaginarium Press, LLC. Short, K. G., & Burke, C. (1996). Examining our beliefs and practices through inquiry.

Language Arts, 73(2), 97–104.

Wilhelm, J. D., & Wilhelm, P. J. (2010). Inquiring minds learn to read, write, and think: Reaching all learners through inquiry. Middle School Journal, 41(5), 39–46. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/00940771.2010.11461738

39

Chapter 2: ESOL, displacement and identity

2.3 Plenary: Race as language: displacement, identity and the pleasure of (second) language learning1 Awad Ibrahim University of Ottawa, Canada Race works like a language, and signifiers … gain their meaning not because of what they contain in their essence, but in the shifting relations of difference which they establish with other concepts and ideas in a signifying field. Their meaning, because it is relational and not essential, can never be finally or transhistorically fixed… That is, there is … always something about race left unsaid. (Stuart Hall, 1997)

In the Saussurean linguistic tradition, to argue that, ‘race works like a language’ is to presuppose that race has a syntactic structure, grammar, morphology, phonology, message, speaker and receiver (Kristeva, 1974). And although Stuart Hall in his quote is interested in the excess of race – that which cannot be neatly formulated in language, the left over, the unsaid – I on the other hand am interested in race as language, specifically in the phonology of race: how we speak it, what we ‘say’ through our bodies, and what our bodies ‘say’ to others. Clearly, we do not have control over what our Black bodies say, they are open for different readings, translation and interpretation.

As such, we speak race as much as it speaks us.

So, in what follows, I set myself an agenda of three objectives. First, I want to focus on the link between race and language. Indeed, my first agenda is to argue that race, specifically Blackness, works like a language. Indeed, I will conclude, race is language.

Situating my arguments primarily within sociolinguistics, to argue that race works like a language, then Blackness speaks, it minoritises, and in a place like the UK, the US or Canada (among other Western countries), it controls. This argument is particularly significant in a post-George Floyd moment where Black Lives Matter.

In a post-George Floyd moment, I am arguing, we came to realise that language also mythologises and creates monsters who need to be controlled. Because if you don’t control the monster, the argument goes, then you are calling for chaos. Here, tangentially I will argue that no one is born White and that Whiteness is a language White people speak (as much as no one is born Black and Blackness is a language Black people speak).

To fully grasp this idea that race works like a language, my intention, second, is to expand the notion of language and move it away from its strict classic Saussurean notion of language and bring it closer to semiotics and semiology where the Black body is a language with its own phonetic and syntactic system. Third and finally, I will introduce my work, where I link the rhizome of Blackness to second language learning, identity, investment and Hip-Hop. A version of this paper was presented at the 2023 IATEFL Conference, Harrogate (UK), under the title: What Exactly has Race Got to do With a Very Nice Organization like IATEFL? Intersecting Race, Displacement, Identity and the Pleasure of (Second) Language Learning. The current written version is out of the oral presentation and was accompanied by this Prezi show: https://prezi.com/p/ zn18vtldchpr/?present=1.

1

40

Plenary: Race as language: displacement, identity and the pleasure of (second) language learning

So, succinctly, what does it mean to argue that race works like a language? Since it is the kernel of my research and hence this article, I will focus on Blackness; thus turning the question into: What does it mean to argue that Blackness works like a language?

It means at least eight things: 1 Race in general and Blackness in particular is an empty signifier, a concept with no set and inherent meaning. This is because, as Stuart Hall (1997) has contended, objects do not mean, people do put meaning onto them. In this sense, Blackness is whatever we think it is as a society (positive, negative and in-between). If this is the case, then Blackness is a symbolic capital whose meaning and value can only be determined within a particular market, within a signifying economy of exchange.

If we take the UK, the US or Canada as symbolic markets of linguistic exchange where people define what things mean, then Blackness is the marked signifier while Whiteness is the unmarked, the transcendent and the universal signifier. In this sense, Whiteness becomes the ‘signifying-subject’ (the one that writes and determines what things mean) while Blackness becomes the ‘signified-Other’ (it is defined by and in relation to Whiteness, mostly negatively and outside the norm).

2 Blackness is not a possession; it is not something we have. It is relational. That is to say, Blackness is meaningful only in relation to other racial categories (Whiteness, Brownness, etc.), on the one hand, and in relation to other identity categories like gender, class, sexuality and ability, on the other. This is the intersectional reading of race/Blackness, where the latter is meaningful only in a complex and complicated relation between races and identity categories. Put simply, there is no abstract category of Blackness, Blackness is always-already gendered, classed, sexualised, abled, etc. and if it is not read in this intersectional way, then it is reified, essentialised, made uni-dimensional.

3 If Blackness is not a possession, that is to say something we own (like a shirt or a pair of sunglasses), then Blackness is a discursive category, a social script and an unofficial but firmly expected role we play, a plot, a representational language that is beyond our individual control and since, as Wittig (2003, p. 159) has argued, ‘there is no nature in society,’ it is a historical, political and social product. In this sense, Blackness is a performative category, a language we speak every day in how we dress, how we walk, talk, in our hair, our make-up, etc. Put otherwise, Blackness transcends the individual. It is a norm, a language we enter, as it were, at birth, and through repetition, (re)citation, identification, marking, and everyday compulsory and normative acts, one eventually becomes Black.

4 If this is the case, and if you accept my argument that race works like a language, then no one is born Black, one becomes Black. We are born. Period. But because we are born into a society, a language, we embody that language as our own. It becomes our mother tongue. This is how we become Black. We become Black by speaking Blackness as a mother tongue. A Black person is a Black person because she speaks Blackness from birth. Here, language forms as much as it performs identities. That is, we represent ourselves and identities in and through language, but as we are doing that, we also form those identities. Language then has the double task of representing and expressing identities as well as forming and performing identities.

41

Chapter 2: ESOL, displacement and identity

Again, if no one is born Black, then no one is born White and one becomes White.

Here, Whiteness is a language White people speak from birth as a mother tongue, it is a language that has its own syntax, morphology and phonology. A question for another article at another time is this: given the historical moment in which we live, especially in a post-George Floyd moment, as a language, what is the history of this language of Whiteness, how is Whiteness spoken and what is being said in and through it? White people might be better qualified to answer these questions than I, so for now, I raise them as questions more than offer an answer.

5 Back to the question of identity, we do not just perform our identities, our Blackness (for example) as we wish. Because it is a historically and socially produced category, Blackness is not a totally free-floating signifier. Power intervenes to close the meaning of the object, as Foucault (1979) has argued, so Blackness becomes a closed canvas, an already signified signifier. It is significant to note that, when power intervenes and closes the meaning Blackness, three things happen: a) Blackness finds itself sealed into objecthood, where its meaning is closed, and its multi-ethnic, multi-national, multi-cultural and multi-lingual nature is negated. Blackness is no longer a free-floating signifier, or a multiple and contested site of meaning. It becomes, instead, a one, whose meaning is and is already known. b) When power intervenes and closes the meaning Blackness, Blackness is defined and hence treated as a lack, a negative symbolic capital, an Other: that which is not White (the transcendent). The ironic thing after the George Floyd murder, White people discovered how they think. The only way out of this way of thinking, I would suggest, is for White people to take their ignorance seriously. c) When the meaning of Blackness is closed, then the body of this writer no longer represents only itself, but becomes responsible for a whole race and ancestors.

6 To argue that race works like a language is to expand the meaning of the very category we are dealing with, language. We need to take language away from Saussure and bring it closer to semiotics. With semiotics, the least of what people say and speak is through the verbal utterance. Language is more than what people say, that is, most of what we communicate is non-verbal: through our bodies, clothes, hair, make-up, etc. Barthes (1983) calls these ‘signifiers,’ which in turn constitute ‘texts’ that are open for different interpretation dependent on the context, the message, the sender and the receiver. In a semiotic sense, language does not work in mimesis; that is to say, like a mirror, where the faithful correspondence is one-to-one between language and the so-called real world (Minh-ha, 2011; Rose, 1991; Woodward, 1997). Here, language does not work by simply reflecting or imitating the truth that is already out there and fixed in the real world. This is because meaning does not lie in the object, person or event. ‘Things don’t mean’, Stuart Hall (1997) argued, ‘we construct meaning, using representational systems’ (p. 25, original emphasis). If this is so, where then does meaning lie? I want to contend that meaning is produced at the borderline between two interdependent yet dialectic entities: language system (or any other representational system) and social actors (those who create, use and make meaning of that system) (see also Beneviste, 2000).

7 F rom a sociolinguistics perspective, this is how Blackness should be approached 42

Plenary: Race as language: displacement, identity and the pleasure of (second) language learning

and understood, as a signifier whose meaning lies at the borderline between language system and social actors. To explain, let us take George Floyd’s murder as an example and link it to our discussion on language. George Floyd was killed, I want to argue, precisely because White social actors – the eyes and the writers of power in North America – closed the meaning of Blackness. Blackness is no longer an empty signifier open for different interpretations. It is a closed one and it is closed mostly in a nihilistic and negative sense. Blackness is now a narrative, a mythology and a monster in need of control. Just compare the reaction of the police and FBI in relation to the Black Lives Matter protest vs the 6 January insurrection in the US capitol. In the latter case, White protesters were allowed to arrive all the way to the US capitol while with the Black Lives Matter protest, people were pepper-sprayed miles before they approached the US capitol.

When Blackness is not understood at the borderline between language and social actors, a Black person no longer represents only him or herself but a whole racial group. A Black person is now a mythologised narrative, mostly negatively. Once you create a mythologised narrative around the person, their bodies are part of that mythologising. In the case of George Floyd and Breonna Taylor and so many others, this mythologised narrative has created an out-of-control menace, a semiotics of a violent body that needs to be imprisoned or otherwise taken out of society by murdering it. Just watch the video of the murder of George Floyd and you will see a faceless physically menacing body of a Black person who needs to be controlled.

If the Black body is not controlled, you will never be sure what it will do. This is what I am calling the mythologised, the semiotic narrative of the monster. Here, it is worth noting that the Black body points to the présence africaine, the African presence in the West, the history of the Middle Passage, slavery and colonialism, a history that a lot of people prefer not to deal with or at least put under a rug. After all, how much for example of the UK, the US, Canadian or Australian violent, murderous, colonial and enslavement history is taught or talked about? I am just sayin!

8 Finally, to summarise, if meaning does not lie in the object, Blackness then is an empty signifier, unless it is perceived, acknowledged and situated within a historical, social, political, symbolic and signifying system. This system is performed in the grammar of the everyday and its meaning is both unconsciously internalised and fixed through an exercise of power. Outside this grammar, Blackness is stripped of any market value. This is precisely the reason why the emphasis in my research is not on race per se, but on racialisation – the processes of becoming Black (and becoming White) – and on racism. In fact, according to my research, only within this signifying economy can Blackness gain any value; and given its performative nature, this value is ever changing. To sum up, read as language, Blackness then is a complex syntactic, morphological, phonological and semantic system that is forever dual: conscious and unconscious, forming and performing, constructing and representing.

I now turn to my work which is ethnographic in nature and was published in two books (Ibrahim, 2014, 2020). So, what follows is a very sketchy summary of these two books, which of course are highly recommended for the interested.

43

Chapter 2: ESOL, displacement and identity

Enters my work where Africans become Black

In North America, I have argued for close to 20 years, Blackness is an all-encompassing figure, a colossal umbrella. So, when the population I have been researching (Black immigrants, namely continental African youths) come to North America (both in Canada and the US), they are subsumed under the umbrella of Blackness. In other words, they fall under the narrative of Blackness. However, when they first arrive, they have no full conception of what it really means to be Black in North America, and here I am talking about the everyday experience of what it means to live one’s life under the mythological narrative of Blackness; so they enter the process of ‘becoming Black’. They start this process by understanding the narrative and the mythology that is created around Blackness, so psychically they find themselves caught between their cultural and linguistic background, on the one hand, and their encounter with Blackness, on the other. They end up creating a third space that does not fully belong to either North America or to Africa, but the two combined.

Put otherwise, the psychic process of identity formation that continental African youths go through ends up creating what I am calling the ‘rhizome of Blackness’.

The rhizome are the roots of the tree which we cannot see. Black immigrants might look Black (in front of the mythology and the law of Blackness), but their Blackness is more complicated than what the eye can see. In the case of Black immigrants, I am arguing, the rhizome of Blackness calls for a more complex, complicated, multidimensional, multi-cultural, multi-lingual and multi-national category of Blackness.

The rhizome of Blackness disrupts the uni-dimensional, the mythologised notion of Blackness. It argues that Blackness has always been multiple.

To operationalise these ideas, I conducted three ethnographic studies (1998, 2007, 2011) in the province of Ontario, Canada. The studies took place in three high schools (two English-language high schools and one French-language high school) and focused solely on continental African youths. These youths came from across the continent and spoke at least two languages (their mother tongues and a colonial language: English and/or French). The three studies asked the following questions: 1 F irst, what are the roads taken by African youths in their journey of integration in Canadian society, the journey of becoming Black?

2 What is the role of race and racism in their identity formation?

3 H ow are continental African youths positioned and constructed in and out of school?

4 W hat are the implications of this construction in youths’ social identity formation? and 5 What are the outcomes of this journey?

To answer these questions, I developed a methodological approach which I called elsewhere (Ibrahim, 2014) hanging out methodology. This is a methodology which contends that the best way to understand these youths’ everyday experience is to hang out with them on a daily basis, both inside and outside the classroom, i.e. inside and outside school. The intent here is to investigate how they perform, or ‘speak’, identities, desires and investments; how they dress, walk and talk. This investigation includes not only what the youths do, but also how they understand and verbally articulate these performances. A kernel element of the hanging out methodology is

44

Plenary: Race as language: displacement, identity and the pleasure of (second) language learning

an ongoing conversation with the youths; that is, once I observed something, I had a conversation with them about it and what it meant to them.

In all three studies, extending at least six months, I was almost living in these schools. I was there from the time they opened until they closed and most of the time attending after-school activities. I hung out so much with the kids that they forgot that I was conducting research. The main contention of the research was that African youth were not too familiar with the politics of Blackness in North America; that is, the everyday sustained and emotional subjection of what it means to be Black in North America. Once in North America, I contended, these youths were faced with a social imaginary in which they were already racialised as Blacks. This social imaginary was directly implicated in how and with whom they identified, which, in turn, influenced what they learned, linguistically and culturally. What they did learn was what I called Black English as a Second Language (BESL), which they accessed in and through Black popular culture (see Ibrahim, 2011). They learned by taking up and repositing the Rap linguistic and musical genre and, in different ways, acquiring and rearticulating Hip Hop cultural identities.

In summary, the conclusions of my research are (please refer to Ibrahim, 2014, 2020): 1 There are no Black people in Africa. In Africa, we are Wolof speakers, Camerounais, Zulu or Dinka. However, once in North America, all of these adjectives, these descriptors are subsumed under the umbrella of Blackness. You are seen as Black, therefore you are Black!

2 But, Black immigrants have little understanding of Blackness; they have little understanding of the grammar of Blackness and how to speak it. So, when they arrive to North America, they enter the process of becoming Black. That is, they translate and make sense of what it means to be Black while negotiating their sense of self. In doing so, they complicate the category of Blackness, they make it rhizomatic.

3 Becoming Black means learning not the standard ESL but BESL. But they are learning Black English as a Second Language precisely because they are becoming Black. So, it is a vicious circle.

4 Here, identity is directly implicated in what we learn, how we learn it and why we learn it. In the case of Black immigrants, they are learning Black English as a Second Language, which they access in and through Hip Hop and other Black pop cultural forms, precisely because this is where they see themselves mirrored, represented. That is, when you are locked out of public space, where you cannot see yourself reflected, you look for spaces where you see yourself represented and mirrored. In the case of Black immigrants, it is in Blackness, in Hip-Hop identity and in Black pop culture in general where they invest their identities. Hence the journey of becoming Black and learning BESL. So, I am concluding that our ESL students are not learning English in our ESL classroom but in and through pop culture, especially music, films and TV series, and social media. If this is the case, then the pedagogical question we need to ask as ESL teachers is: What exactly are we doing in our ESL classroom, especially if you are teaching these Black immigrant youths? For full discussion of these questions, see Ibrahim (2021).

45

Chapter 2: ESOL, displacement and identity

5 W hen it comes to curriculum, Black pop culture and Hip Hop in particular emerges as a curriculum site, a site of learning.

6 I mmigrants are not refugees. A resident of Hong Kong who decides to move to Canada for example with more than 250,000 dollars is an immigrant, while an Ethiopian who comes ashore to the Italian island of Lampedusa with an unmarked boat is a refugee. She didn’t leave home, she had to flee home. WORD! aibrahim@uottawa.ca

References Barthes, R. (1983). Elements of semiology. Hill & Wang.

Beneviste, E. (2000). Subjectivity in language. In P. du Gay, J. Evans & P. Redman (Eds.), Identity: A reader (pp. 39–43). Sage.

Foucault, M. (1979). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. Vintage Books.

Hall, S. (1997). Race: The floating signifier [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=PodKki9g2Pw Hall, S. (Ed.). (1997). Representation: Cultural representations and signifying practices. Sage Publication.

Ibrahim, A. (2011). When life is off da hook: Hip Hop identity and identification, BESL, and the pedagogy of pleasure. In C. Higgins (Ed.), Negotiating the self in another language: Identity formation in a globalized world (pp. 221–238). Mouton de Gruyter.

Ibrahim, A. (2014). The rhizome of Blackness: A critical ethnography of Hip Hop culture, language, identity, and the politics of becoming. Peter Lang.

Ibrahim, A. (2020). Black immigrants in North America: Essays on race, immigration, identity, language, Hip-Hop, pedagogy, and the politics of becoming Black. Myers Education Press.

Ibrahim, A. (2021). The new normal: English language learning, pop culture, and the politics of investment. In V. Werner & F. Tegge (Eds.), Pop culture in language education: Theory, research, practice (pp. 257–268). Routledge.

Kristeva, J. (1974). La Révolution du langage poétique [Revolution in Poetic Language].

Lautréament et Mallarmé.

Minh-ha, T. (2011). Elsewhere, within here: Immigration, refugeeism and the boundary event.

Taylor & Francis.

Rose, T. (1991). “Fear of a Black Planet”: Rap music and Black cultural politics in the 1990s.

The Journal of Negro Education 60(3), 276–290.

Wittig, M. (2003). One is not born a woman. In L. Martín Alcoff & M. Eduardo (Eds.), Identities: Race, class, gender, and nationality (pp. 159–164). Blackwell.

Woodward, K. (Ed.). (1997). Identity and difference. The Open University.

46

3

Teaching English for academic purposes

The opening paper in this chapter by Nadia Hards reports on the first phase of a longitudinal study on how to better support international students during their university studies in the UK. Results indicate that changes to input during induction impacted positively on the process of becoming interculturally competent. In the second paper, Sophie Farag describes a project-based integrated skills course designed to develop reflection, critical thinking and self-expression with learners from traditional rote learning backgrounds in Egypt. Sophie also describes a number of activities that were successfully used in the explicit teaching of reflection. Catherine Mitsaki reports on the first phase of a study – incorporating collaborative online annotation in an MA TESOL context. The aim of this project was to explore student perceptions of their learning experience, and results have helped to identify several factors that can influence student engagement. In the next paper, we turn to mobile apps and how they can help academic English learners. Mahtab Chadry describes the creation of a skills-based app course for Busuu and concludes that there is great potential for learning technologies to enhance EAP learning. Translanguaging is the focus of Cristina Manea Gultekin’s paper. Cristina reports on a case study which explored how translanguaging works in a higher education context in Turkey, focusing on learners’ attitudes, effective strategies and some of the translanguaging pedagogyfocused activities that worked. Next, Tracie Mac Kenzie and Iona Dawson describe how they designed a pilot academic preparation course for engineering students, applying a self-determined heutagogical approach to help students develop a sense of self-efficacy. Learning through cross-cultural exchange is the focus of the next paper

by Sanaa Abdel Hady Makhlouf. Sanaa outlines the project approach, outcomes, challenges and rewards, concluding that such projects can usefully break down students’ preconceived ideas of others’ cultures. Noha Khafagi then shares how Community of Inquiry (CoI) and collaborative learning activities can help freshman students enhance their communication, critical thinking and reading skills. In addition to enhancing skills, Noha found CoI increased student engagement and developed a sense of classroom community. The final paper here is Karla K de Lima Guedes’ report on a study into how well EAP practitioners coped during Emergency Remote Teaching with the support of online Communities of Practice (OCoPs). Despite the many challenges, practitioners expressed overall positivity regarding the support and value of these OCoPs.

47

Chapter 3: Teaching English for academic purposes

3.1 Interculturalism: Should we be doing more in EAP? Nadia Hards University of Northampton, UK Introduction

This paper reports on the first phase of a longitudinal study being undertaken at the University of Northampton to explore how international students could be better supported during their studies. This initiative is predominately to alleviate the effects of the ‘three shocks’ labelled by Ryan (2005, pp. 149–151) as academic shock, language shock and culture shock. In recent decades, extensive research has been carried out to determine how these three shocks impact academic sojourners, but very little research has concluded precisely what steps would need to be taken. A significant amount of literature points towards employing an intercultural or transcultural approach; therefore, this research project aims to demonstrate how that would look in practice.

The initial phase focused on enhancing the support provided during the induction process to students joining the Pre-sessional English Programme. This was selected as the most appropriate first step in light of research carried out by Quan et al. (2013), who found that learners struggled with mental health issues due to stress and anxiety, and the most difficult period was during the first three months of matriculation.

Key definitions

Interculturalism refers to expanding one’s knowledge of self and others, whilst applying skills to relativise, interact and learn to value the beliefs and behaviours of others.

This can be further broken down into the 5 savoirs, as outlined by Byram (1997).

Transculturalism, on the other hand, extends the idea of intercultural competence by implying that change takes place from said interactions. In other words, interculturalism is learning about other cultures, whereas transculturalism is learning from and being influenced by them.

Context

Pre-sessional programmes are courses run by universities in order to prepare international students for higher education. It is essential to note that these are often considered to be high-stakes courses too, as successful completion is often a condition of enrolment onto university degree programmes. At Northampton, we run 6-week and 11-week courses during the summer and autumn. The participants involved in both surveys had studied online only due to Covid restrictions; therefore, this eliminated some of the difficulties that would have otherwise been targeted, such as settling into a new environment abroad. The students themselves were predominately from East and Southeast Asian countries, with a large majority being Chinese.

Research method

Initially, a quantitative survey was carried out with 21 former pre-sessional students, to establish what they felt was missing from the induction process. This resulted in multiple enhancements being made to the induction materials and, consequently, an extension of the event from one day to three. Then, a pilot induction and an

48

Interculturalism: Should we be doing more in EAP?

additional survey were carried out with the next new cohort (n=31) to examine how successful the changes were. The data from both surveys were compared.

Results

Former pre-sessional students’ survey Previously, the induction itinerary consisted of talks from the IT, Library and Learning Technology teams, with a few sessions where learners were able to meet subject specialists and their new tutors. Whilst all these talks are necessary, they did not prepare learners for dealing with a new academic environment in a foreign language with unfamiliar customs. The survey alarmingly found that only 32 per cent reported fully understanding what they needed to know during the course, by which point learners would have already started taking summative assessments. A large majority of participants felt the suggested input would be ‘quite’ or ‘very’ beneficial.

Autumn 2022 pilot pre-sessional students’ survey The suggested input consisted of various topics that would enable learners to be more aware of expectations and local systems, such as how the UK grading system works, using academic databases, talking to former students, and comparing general and academic English, as well as academic practices between different cultures. The survey results showed that 95 per cent of participants felt the induction process had helped them to feel more prepared for UK education, and 90 per cent reported that everything they needed to know was clear before the course had started.

Conclusion

The process of becoming interculturally competent takes time, but making those gradual changes is what will allow for the progression from intercultural to transcultural awareness to occur at institution level. The results clearly highlight the benefits of interculturalism, but, as came up in discussions with the Conference audience, there are numerous challenges and limitations that need to be addressed. As this study evolves, every effort will be made to maximise a university-wide impact and communicate the progress with the academic community.

languagewithnadia@gmail.com

References Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Multilingual Matters.

Quan, R., Smailes, J., & Fraser, W. (2013). The transition experiences of direct entrants from overseas higher education partners into UK universities. Teaching in Higher Education, 18(4), 414–426.

Ryan, J. (2005). The student experience: challenges and rewards. In J. Carroll & J. Ryan (Eds.), Teaching International Students: Improving Learning for All (pp. 147–151). Routledge.

49

Chapter 3: Teaching English for academic purposes

3.2 Teaching reflection to university students to encourage selfdevelopment and growth Sophie Farag The American University in Cairo, Egypt Background

Metacognition is the ability to reflect on one’s own performance and that of others, to identify strengths and points to work on, and to set a plan for future development.

Developing this skill helps students learn how to learn. Research on reflection has shown that these skills do not come naturally to students and must therefore be taught explicitly (Tanner, 2017). Teaching students to think deeply about their experiences helps them become more deliberate in their actions and allows them to set realistic goals for the future to help them grow and develop their skills (Shea, 2021).

Students at the American University in Cairo are expected to have high levels of English proficiency in addition to strong skills, such as critical thinking, self-expression and reflective skills. However, the students on the Intensive English Program (IEP) come from school backgrounds where rote learning is stressed and very little time is spent on activities that promote critical thinking and reflective skills. They also lack confidence in self-expression. As a result, the IEP introduced a project-based integrated skills course that focuses on developing teambuilding, communication, problem-solving skills and reflective skills.

Teaching reflection

Initial attempts at teaching reflection resulted in students including a lot of description and general statements in their reflections, with very little feeling or personal insight. In an attempt to improve the students’ reflections, a series of activities was introduced to teach this skill: 1 Whole class reflective discussions Students engaged in a variety of group activities, such as a campus scavenger hunt where students had to locate different places on campus, and a teambuilding activity where students had to build a tower using paper and tape. Then the instructor led the students in reflective discussions related to the group work to make learning conscious and deliberate, and asked questions, such as what happened, what worked well, what could be improved, what did you learn, and what would you do differently next time. These discussions helped model what was required for a reflection.

2 Individual reflective writing tasks A series of individual reflective writing tasks was introduced to help students reflect on their learning and performance. These reflections started with short activities, requiring short answers to a few questions, and gradually became longer and more complex as students developed their reflective writing skills and language control.

Students watched video tutorials on reflective writing, and the DIEP model (The University of Melbourne) focusing on Describe, Interpret, Evaluate and Plan was introduced to help them develop their paragraphs. To practise, groups were given scenarios describing problematic group work situations showing poor communication, disengagement, etc., which they discussed with possible solutions.

50

Teaching reflection to university students to encourage self-development and growth

They then worked together to write a reflection on the scenario using the DIEP model. This activity was followed by several more individual reflection assignments following the same format. The goal of these assignments was for students to analyse their own behaviour and that of others, and to realise how their own behaviour can impact others. Working in groups can be challenging for our students, and understanding that they can influence the way the group functions can be very empowering. The students received feedback on their reflections using a rubric focusing on depth and evidence of critical thinking, in addition to language use.

3 Goal setting for personal growth The students were encouraged to set personal goals and monitor their progress towards achieving them, to help them take responsibility for their learning and maintain focus and motivation throughout the course. They started by completing a self-assessment of skills, such as self-motivation, reliability, flexibility, willingness to listen, etc. Then they set SMART goals (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Timely) to work on the skills that they identified as needing improvement, and they broke down the goal into manageable steps to be able to monitor their progress in achieving it.

Feedback and reflections

A self-evaluation survey was administered to students at the end of the course to assess their acquisition of metacognitive skills. The results were very positive, as students reported that the course helped them improve their ability to: reflect on their performance and that of others; reflect on the impact their actions have on the people around them; better understand their emotions and the things that influence the way they feel; learn more from their experiences; set a plan for action to improve their skills; and set goals and monitor their progress in achieving them. sophiemf@aucegypt.edu

References Shea, A. A. (2021, July 13). Teaching young students how to reflect on their learning. Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org/article/teaching-young-students-how-reflect-their-learning Tanner, K. D. (2017, October 13). Promoting student metacognition. CBE-Life Sciences Education. https://www.lifescied.org/doi/10.1187/cbe.12-03-0033 The University of Melbourne. (n.d.). Reflective writing. https://students.unimelb.edu.au/ academic-skills/resources/developing-an-academic-writing-style/reflective-writing

3.3 Fostering criticality and engagement through collaborative online annotation Catherine Mitsaki University of Northampton, UK Introduction

Annotating texts while preparing for a lecture or an assignment is a common practice that helps more in-depth engagement with a text by: focusing on the most relevant

51

Chapter 3: Teaching English for academic purposes

and important information; identifying links to previous knowledge; leaving memory prompts; and raising questions that would demand further research or thinking. This is a longstanding practice for effective readers and is further enhanced by discussing these ideas with other students and/or instructors in seminars or study groups. Collaborative online annotation refers to this process hosted online, on platforms that allow for cooperative learning through public annotations and discussions within a group of learners and the instructor (d’Entremont & Eyking, 2021). From a social constructivist perspective, this is a form of collaborative learning that can provide space and means for deeper understanding of texts and creative discussion, and foster the co-creation of a knowledge base that is critically explored and enhanced as discussions move forward.

According to d’Entremont & Eyking (2021), this differs from cooperative learning in that it does not involve learning negotiation, and, unlike forums, it is grounded on the document so there is no need to reconstruct or explain the context (Porter, 2022).

Collaborative online annotation had been used and researched long before the forced switch to online teaching due to the pandemic. Renewed interest mostly focuses on quantity and quality of engagement on the platform and student perceptions of the learning experience. It has been shown that student-text and peer-to-peer interactions increase with greater use, a sense of community and a shared knowledge base can be formed, making the experience the closest to a face-to-face classroom in terms of tracing student thinking (d’Entremont & Eyking, 2021; Porter, 2022). However, effectiveness largely depends on the choice of texts, the nature of assignments, timely feedback, and scaffolding the student experience, using not only instructions and examples but also macro- and micro-scripts (de Boer & Spoelstra, 2021).

Method

This paper reports the findings of the first phase of action research on incorporating collaborative online annotation in an MA TESOL context at the University of Northampton. The aim of the project was to explore student perceptions of their learning experience. Social annotation was integrated as more ‘targeted’ reading in preparation for seminars. The readings were short and focused on the seminar questions: 2–5 pages from essential reading sources, and 1–2 prompts by the instructor to initiate discussion. The social annotation tool used was Perusall as it has been positively evaluated as user-friendly in the relevant literature. Students were automatically divided into smaller groups and anonymised.

Research design involved qualitative data collection tools (focus groups), since the aim was an in-depth analysis of students’ experiences and views. All students (n=11) participated in the process; however, only volunteers (n=5) participated in the focus group discussion. Thematic analysis was used for data analysis. The themes included: usefulness of interaction, engagement, challenges, and views on improvement. Quality of annotations was not within the scope of this study.

Results and discussion

The participants agreed that the social annotation tool was easy to use and there were no technical challenges. The positive aspects of the learning experience mentioned are consistent with the literature. Most participants appeared to understand the value of peer interaction and found the experience useful, as it was more focused: ‘So we- we

52

How can a language learning mobile app help academic English learners?

know that we should like focus on those information and we have to answer those questions … before the class’ (S2). However, the instructor’s comments and reactions were highly valued, which shows high dependence on the teacher as a source of learning and less confidence in students’ own views and independent learning practices.

Unlike research claiming that anonymity on the social annotation platform can result in higher levels of participation (d’Entremont & Eyking, 2021), the most important finding is that the medium does not weaken cultural challenges – face-saving processes may still inhibit creative discussion and effective collaborative learning: ‘… also have the, you know, the- the personal issue with Perusall because normally I don’t wanna write anything and many people can see it’ (S4). ‘… because we normally just read and then observe the- the knowledge, we don’t like put questions to others’ (S2). Finally, in terms of pedagogies, the participants identified the need for more scaffolding and more student involvement in building up their annotation skills.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the findings showed that scaffolding the learning experience, with clear links to existing pedagogies, and taking into consideration possible cultural barriers, can have considerable influence on student engagement with collaborative online annotation tools.

Catherine.Mitsaki@northampton.ac.uk

References de Boer, V., & Spoelstra, H. (2021). The effects of collaboration scripts on the number and quality of student interactions in a social annotation tool. In 7th International Conference on Higher Education Advances (HEAd’21) (pp. 967–974). Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/HEAd21.2021.12862 d’Entremont, A. G., & Eyking, A. (2021, 14 June). Student and instructor experience using collaborative annotation via Perusall in upper year and graduate courses. Proceedings of the Canadian Engineering Education Association (CEEA). https://doi.org/10.24908/pceea. vi0.14835 Porter, G. W. (2022). Collaborative Online Annotation: Pedagogy, Assessment and Platform Comparisons. Frontiers in Education, 7, 221–241. https://doi.org/10.3389/ feduc.2022.852849

3.4 How can a language learning mobile app help academic English learners?

Mahtab Chadry Busuu, Madrid, Spain The efficacy of mobile learning

Almost every student in your classroom has at least one language learning app installed on their phones.

Though mobile language learning currently takes up just 5 per cent of all language learning spaces, studies have reported an overall positive attitude and higher

53

Chapter 3: Teaching English for academic purposes

retention rates among learners towards mobile learning programmes (Wang & Shih, 2015), as well as a significantly enriched vocabulary learning experience through appbased learning when completed in tandem with classroom learning (Ahmad et al., 2017). Further, a study by Krause et al. (2015) found that gamified mobile learning significantly improved average test scores among MOOC students by 25 per cent.

This number increased to 40 per cent among students who had participated in social game elements. Thus, mobile language learning – when not considered a substitute for teacher-to-student interaction, but rather a supplementary aid to it – is seen to enhance motivation, retention, engagement and even assessment performance.

Unfortunately, academic educators and learning providers have somewhat minimal or outdated technological tools designed to specifically support competency-based specialist courses within academic English. Unlike general or exam-preparatory courses that have a mobile app counterpart, there appears to be a gap in the market for mainstream academic skills development and support. As a result, institutions tend to rely on pre-2010 tools and platforms for learning management (like Moodle) and references (e.g. Flax library).

Designing app-based lessons

Results from internal primary research conducted on registered Busuu users into the nature of mobile learning found that learners behave differently in an asynchronous app-learning environment than they do in the classroom. In fact, app lessons that commit to popular classroom pedagogy were not as well received by users. These findings informed the following priorities when developing an app-based learning course: • B ottom-up processing and pre-taught lexis prior to reading or listening are preferable to prevent increased affective filters and the desire to translate unfamiliar vocabulary.

• L essons that were longer than eight minutes felt laborious as attention span tends to be lower in part due to the circumstances surrounding the learner when logged onto an app (e.g. learning while commuting).

• L earners preferred more controlled practice throughout the lesson as well as recycling of new language throughout the course.

• I nteractive controlled practice with a feedback element gives learners a sense of accomplishment (e.g. posting a reply to a prompt and being corrected).

Considering these behaviours, I created a 42-lesson, skills-based course for Busuu targeted at B1-level users (the usual entry point for mainstream EAP courses) that focused on a breadth of disciplines and introduced a set of skills by progressive level of difficulty. Below is a snapshot of the scope and sequence for a chapter on critical thinking and how it is aligned to formal curriculum frameworks (e.g. BALEAP) to reinforce what is being taught in a typical EAP classroom.

54

How can a language learning mobile app help academic English learners?

Chapter

Lesson

Skill

Lesson outcomes

Critical thinking

Critiquing a text

Reading

Synthesising sources

Writing

Defending your thesis

Listening

Learn how to identify strengths and weaknesses Discover how to compare and contrast texts Learn how to defend your stance

Discussing conflicting views

Speaking

Learn how to discuss conflicting perspectives in a debate

BALEAP competency Evaluate source materials and ideas Synthesise information Engage in ‘Socration’ dialogue with supervisors Tell other people when they are wrong

Table 3.4.1 Extract from Busuu’s English for Academic Studies curriculum

Each lesson took a more bottom-up approach to language instruction by introducing the language and facilitating controlled practice before applying the language via a comprehension text. End-of-chapter lessons include an exercise where learners are prompted to post a response to a question to the wider community of Busuu users for feedback.

Future considerations

I collated feedback from six users who completed all 42 lessons of the Busuu app course.

These learners were studying an EAP course at different UK institutions. Overall, the asynchronous and bite-sized nature of learning complex skills was well received, with some commending that it helped them better engage with their classroom learning and understand terminology like a thesis statement and synthesising sources. However, not all lessons were applicable to students of departments where reflective writing was not among their assessment types.

Overall, these responses highlighted a great potential for learning technologies to enhance EAP learning and improve academic skills. There is scope for academic practitioners to exploit the exponentially-trending gamification model of language learning and meaningfully foster asynchronous self-study in tandem with tutor-supported lessons. mchadry@chegg.com

References Ahmad, K. S., Armarego, J., & Sudweeks, F. (2017). The impact of utilising mobile assisted language learning (MALL) on vocabulary acquisition among migrant women English learners. Interdisciplinary Journal of e-Skills and Lifelong Learning, 13, 37–57. https://doi. org/10.28945/3703 Krause, M., Mogalle, M., Pohl, H., & Williams, J. J. (2015). A Playful Game Changer: Fostering Student Retention in Online Education with Social Gamification. In L@S ’15: Proceedings of the Second (2015) ACM Conference on Learning @ Scale (14 March 2015,

55

Chapter 3: Teaching English for academic purposes pp. 95–102). Association for Computing Machinery Digital Library. https://dl.acm.org/ doi/10.1145/2724660.2724665 Wang, Y. -H., & Shih, S. K. -H. (2015). Mobile-assisted language learning: effects on EFL vocabulary learning. International Journal of Mobile Communications, 13 (4), 358–375. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMC.2015.070060

3.5 Translanguaging in the EFL classroom: a case study Cristina Manea Gultekin School of Foreign Languages, Gaziantep University,

Turkey

Introduction

Translanguaging is based on the understanding that multilingual students do not learn languages in isolation, but rather draw on their entire linguistic resources to make meaning. This paper reports and explores how translanguaging strategies help learners with metatalk (talk about the talk), metacognition (talk about the task), and writing (García & Li, 2014) in a higher education context. It also aims to provide educators with an in-depth understanding of translanguaging and its potential in enhancing the English language learning experience for students.

Defining our terms Translanguaging pedagogy is an approach to teaching that recognises the linguistic diversity of learners and leverages their linguistic and cultural resources to create more equitable, engaging, and meaningful learning experiences using multiple languages and modalities to facilitate communication, learning, and the construction of knowledge.

(García et al., 2017, p. 2)

Content

In addition to defining terms, it is also important to define the differences between translanguaging and code-switching: translanguaging views languages as holistic, whereas code-switching sees them as separate; translanguaging emphasises heteroglossic ideologies but code-switching stresses monoglossic; translanguaging shows practices as path to meaning making and identity formation, while code-switching suggests practices as indicators of language dominance or proficiency (Goodman & Tastanbek, 2021).

The research questions I used to explore how translanguaging works in a higher education context were: 1) What are the learners’ attitudes towards translanguaging? 2) What are some translanguaging strategies that work?

The 32 participants who took part were 18–25-year-old Turkish, Syrian, Somali and Iraqi learners (all proficient in Turkish) enrolled in the English Language Preparatory Program at the School of Foreign Languages, Gaziantep University. Their level was A2– B1 level and the course was general English.

The data were collected through individual interviews, lesson observations with a focus on the use of learners’ L1 in pair work and group work, audio and video recordings and questionnaires.

56

Translanguaging in the EFL classroom: a case study

The findings showed that: • L ow-level learners consider translanguaging strategies useful to learn: grammar (21), vocabulary (16), reading (5), writing and speaking lessons (4).

• 1 learner thinks that using just L2 is beneficial.

• 17 learners think that feedback should be given in L2.

• 17 learners feel comfortable using L1 in the classroom.

• Translation, clarification of terminology, graphic organisers, clarification of instructions and discussing exams procedures in L1 are preferred by this group of learners.

There is no single best approach to translanguaging, as learners’ needs vary. Learners prefer to receive feedback in the language they are learning, as this can help them improve their skills. Learners find certain tasks challenging in L2, and using L1 can help them complete them.

Note: 6 learners think that the teacher should know L1 and explain the grammar in both L1 and L2.

Applications

Translanguaging pedagogy-focused activities that worked with the participants during the research are the following: 1 Bilingual reading and writing This activity involves giving students a bilingual text (such as a story or article) and asking them to read and write about it in both languages. This activity can help students to see how languages are connected and to build their vocabulary and language skills in both languages.

2 Cultural exchange This activity involves sharing cultural practices and traditions with each other, using home languages as needed. For example, students could bring in a dish or artefact from their culture and share it with the class, explaining its significance in their home language. This activity can help to build cultural awareness and understanding among students, while also valuing the linguistic and cultural diversity of the classroom.

3 Multilingual debate Students engage in a formal debate in multiple languages, arguing for or against a particular position. For example, students could debate a topic related to social justice, using both English and their home language to make their points. This activity can help students to develop their critical thinking and argumentation skills, while also building their language skills in English and their home language.

Conclusion

Translanguaging could be implemented successfully through educators’ professional development, curriculum development, parental involvement, shifting language ideologies and collaborative learning. The talk ended with some questions to be discussed further, such as: How does one learn to practise translanguaging? Is it enough to provide translanguaging spaces in schools and communities where learners develop this expertise?

Do schools need to leverage translanguaging practices to develop ‘standard’ language practices for academic contexts? (García & Li, 2014). mcristina.gultekin@gmail.com

57

Chapter 3: Teaching English for academic purposes

References García, O., & Li, W. (2014). Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education. Palgrave Macmillan.

García, O., Johnson, S. I., & Seltzer, K. (2017). The translanguaging classroom: Leveraging student bilingualism for learning. Caslon.

Goodman, B., & Tastanbek, S. (2021). Making the shift from a codeswitching to a translanguaging lens in English language teacher education. TESOL Quarterly, 55(1), 29–53. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.571

3.6 Learner training? Designing an academic preparation course for engineering students Tracie Mac Kenzie Franklin University Switzerland, Lugano, Switzerland and Iona Dawson SUPSI & Franklin University Switzerland, Lugano, Switzerland Theoretical underpinnings

Students entering university must deal with many new things simultaneously – living independently, new social and academic expectations – causing what Permzadian & Credé (2016) term ‘entry stress’ and contributing to high first-year dropout rate.

Study skills courses therefore address a real need.

These courses focus on academics and student attitudes and behaviours while fostering a sense of community and institutional loyalty, which is vital for retention (Permzadian & Credé, 2016). The learning context is layered, but there is often a disconnect between students’ and teachers’ knowledge and expectations. We need a ‘... greater awareness of the conflicting perspectives of privileged members and novices and of learners as members of many other communities ... [including] communities they dream of joining’ (Belcher 2006, p. 137).

According to Wernersbach et al. (2014), self-efficacy is one of the strongest predictors of academic success; courses which engage the learner in the community and promote autonomy and self-efficacy are the most motivating. A self-determined heutagogical approach, where students negotiate their own learning direction and draw on their past experiences and environment, is therefore highly desirable.

Applying the heutagogical approach, we offered a 20-hour pilot pre-sessional course to incoming electrical engineering students at Italy’s Polytechnic University of Milan (PoliMi). The relevance of each skill to the students’ engineering studies was highlighted: recognising hierarchy of information in lectures; reading peer-reviewed articles; making connections between concepts for successful navigation of exams. All content and tasks related to the theme of ‘Learning and Knowledge’.

Course organisation and content

The table below is a brief summary of each day’s heutagogical focus (Column 1), the related skills (Column 2) and the accompanying tasks to reinforce those skills (Column 3).

58

Learner training? Designing an academic preparation course for engineering students

Day & theme 1 Learning as a process

Skills Notetaking • Identifying key ideas • H ierarchies of information

Tasks Lecture with slides, no conclusion,

by Politecnico professor on Neuroscience and learning Take notes. Create concluding slide

Follow-up task Day 2: Match evaluations to concluding slides Task 1: Academic article jigsaw (Italian text) Task 2: News article jigsaw (English text) Task 1: Analysis and synthesis of Analysis & synthesis • M ental models and articles on concept mapping (in Italian) concept maps Present oral synthesis of two • I dentifying and naming connections academic articles on concept mapping and learning between ideas Task 2: Create concept map of a TED Talk Task: Preparation of Group lecture Source evaluation Using minimum 3 sources, prepare a • B ibliometrics and 15-minute lecture with slides. Topics reliability ratings chosen from list of current and past • S ource types: open access, peer reviewed research at PoliMi (echoes task from Day 1, but with the students as (+ peer review ‘lecturer’) process) • Evaluation criteria Further preparation and delivery Tying the skills of lecture together Oral evaluation and feedback • Notetaking • Evaluating sources • Identifying relations • Summary • Synthesis

2 Efficient approach to Critical reading reading • Reading as a process • Stages of reading • Role of information 3 Representation and modelling

4 Research and evaluation

5 Tying it all together

Table 3.6.1: Daily course breakdown Evaluation and reflection

Each task incorporated that day’s skills focus and built upon those previously addressed. Overall, the tasks achieved their intended goal: students saw them as relevant, engaging and informative. There were some exceptions. The second jigsaw task on Day 2 was less successful than the first due to text genre (non-academic) and language (English, not Italian). In future, we will use an academic text in Italian, the primary language of study in the first year. The concept mapping task was more

59

Chapter 3: Teaching English for academic purposes

challenging than anticipated. Training in evaluating and creating concept maps comprised a significant part of the task preparation, but students struggled to articulate the relationships between ideas. In future, this task will be preceded by modelling the making of a concept map.

This academic preparation course helped the students become more heutagogical learners, expanding their previous understanding of the skills addressed and how to apply them to their new academic environment. Students became more aware of the demands of studying engineering. When matching slides to the evaluations during Day 2’s follow-up task, students realised they had not reached the expected level, ‘resetting’ their evaluation of their own academic readiness. Participation in the course, and the structuring of the work entirely as group tasks, created cohorts, connecting students to their new community. Overall, it helped the students develop a sense of self-efficacy: student feedback indicates they embarked upon their studies at PoliMi as more competent learners with more confidence in themselves and their ability to navigate the challenges they were about to face.

References

tracie.mackenzie@gmail.com; iona.dawson@supsi.ch

Belcher, D. (2006). English for Specific Purposes: Teaching to Perceived Needs and Imagined Futures in Worlds of Work, Study and Everyday Life. TESOL Quarterly, 40(1), 133–156.

Permzadian, V., & Credé, M. (2016). Do First-Year Seminars Improve College Grades and Retention? A Quantitative Review of Their Overall Effectiveness and an Examination of Moderators of Effectiveness. Review of Educational Research, 86(1), 277–316.

Wernersbach, B. M., Crowley, S. L., Bates, S. C., & Rosenthal, C. (2014). Study Skills Course Impact on Academic Self Efficacy. Journal of Developmental Education, 37(3), 14–23 & 33.

3.7 Dynamic teaching and learning through cross-cultural exchange Sanaa Abdel Hady Makhlouf The American University in Cairo, Egypt Introduction

This paper reports on a cross-cultural exchange during the spring semester of 2023 between freshmen students enrolled in The American University in Cairo, Egypt, and freshmen enrolled in Tompkins Cortland Community College near Ithaca, New York.

The former were enrolled on an intensive English language programme focusing on developing academic reading and writing skills as well as speaking, critical thinking and communication skills; the latter were enrolled in an intercultural communication course. The objective of this collaboration was to help students explore alternative cultures, examine their cultural identities, discuss some stereotypical misconceptions and visit their overall worldviews. Therefore, this cross-cultural exchange investigated students’ cultural similarities and differences, specifically surrounding topics related to identity, stereotypes and gender.

Background information

During the Covid pandemic that had affected all realms of life in 2022, both instructors had previously engaged in various online teaching using Zoom and Padlet, among 60

Dynamic teaching and learning through cross-cultural exchange

other platforms. Therefore, there was no need to spend time and effort in exploring alternative applications since it was appropriate, convenient and effective to use these platforms for our collaboration. The students, too, were comfortable using Zoom and Padlet.

Preparing the instructional materials

Each instructor selected the materials that were aligned with their curriculum and suitable for the collaboration. For example, learners at the American University in Cairo had been assigned readings related to their course themes of gender, sociology, and other readings focusing on the concept of stereotypes and their effect on individuals and culture. Learners in Tompkins Cortland Community College read articles focusing on cultural identity, stereotypes, people’s perception of others, and gender socialisation. It was vital that both instructors abided by their course learning outcomes, yet incorporated readings that lent themselves to engaging and meaningful collaboration.

Student learning outcomes

After several synchronous Zoom meetings between both instructors, it was agreed that there would be four main learning outcomes for this collaboration: 1 S tudents would engage in discussions with international partners who may hold different perspectives on topics related to culture.

2 S tudents would reflect on and articulate insights into their own culture and perceptions of their own culture by others through online discussion with students in the partner class.

3 S tudents would demonstrate increased intercultural awareness through reflective journalling and effective and appropriate online communication using Padlet and Zoom as their main platforms for both synchronous and asynchronous communication.

4 S tudents would submit a reflection paper at the end of the module focusing on the challenges and rewards of the cross-cultural collaboration.

Assessment

Each teacher had designed her own assessment framework. Grades were given for students’ regular participation in the Zoom meetings, weekly Padlet posts and their final reflection papers. One class completed a satisfaction survey at the end of the module.

Assessment was clearly communicated to each class separately.

Designing the Padlet

Designing and assigning the Padlet consisted of 3 steps: Step 1: Both instructors worked together to design the Padlet and prepare the weekly topics.

Step 2: Both instructors initiated each post with their contributions for students to model.

Step 3: Students were asked to post their selected images on the Padlet and write a few lines explaining their posts and responding to others’ posts.

Note: During Zoom classes, students shared their posts and responded to each other’s questions.

61

Chapter 3: Teaching English for academic purposes

Challenges and rewards

The first challenge facing both instructors and students was the time difference of six hours between New York and Cairo. It was sometimes challenging for some students to meet on Zoom or to have synchronous conversations. The second challenge was that, initially, students were apprehensive about asking questions about the other’s culture, gender roles, gender equality, rights of women and other similar topics. With time, students felt more at ease about communicating and clarifying many misconceptions. Hence, the rewards of this collaboration far outweighed the challenges.

Conclusion

Cross-cultural collaboration definitely breaks the monotony of any class, and adds a new dimension to teachers’ and students’ growth during their learning process.

Students from the Western culture had preconceived ideas about those in the Arab culture, and vice versa. After the collaboration, their perception of ‘the other’ had changed to a more realistic viewpoint, and it became evident that similarities more than differences existed between them when they discussed their favourite dishes, music, movies, sports, celebrities, travel destinations and other similar topics. It is recommended that teachers engage in similar collaborations which add much information not only to the students’ repertoire and general knowledge but to that of the teachers’ as well.

sanaaam@aucegypt.edu

3.8 Community of inquiry: the heart of collaborative learning Noha Khafagi The American University in Cairo, Egypt Introduction

The aim of this paper is to share how Community of Inquiry (CoI) and collaborative learning activities helped freshman students on an academic English course enhance their communication, critical thinking and reading skills. I demonstrate how I successfully implemented a (CoI) framework to build a community of learners through the application of collaborative learning activities that are embedded within the CoI framework. CoI and collaborative learning are symbiotic. They both require the creation of an effective learning environment where students feel a connection with both the learners and the instructor, and engage in well-designed collaborative learning activities.

What is CoI?

CoI is a concept first introduced by philosophers C S Pierce and John Dewey concerning the nature of knowledge formation and the process of scientific inquiry (Garrison et al., 2000). It came to the forefront during Covid when educators and administrators wanted to save the educational process by making full use of the online experience. The main principle of CoI centres on the nature of knowledge formation, epistemology, and the process of scientific inquiry. CoI is based upon an interactive

62

Community of inquiry: the heart of collaborative learning

approach which utilises students’ individual abilities actively and collaboratively to construct meaning from the teaching and the materials.

Characteristics of a CoI classroom

Garrison et al. (2000) view collaborative learning as an educational approach to teaching and learning that involves groups of students working together to solve a problem, complete a task, create a product, negotiate meaning, agree, disagree and even refute ideas. Cognitive presence comprises the content of the course, the learning objectives, the classroom activities and the assessment tools. It also has to do with students being aware of and reflecting on their own learning processes and to use this to assess how successful these processes are, expanding and adjusting them to improve their learning and understanding of what they are being taught. The teaching presence refers to the ways in which a teacher works to facilitate, foster and promote the cognitive presence in her students. How the teacher plans, conducts the activities and gives feedback are important features of the teaching presence. The social presence concerns the community of the class. The teacher is responsible for building a community in the class by getting the students to engage with one another, working in groups, forming their identities and building a sense of belonging when working as a group. This model is very successful, especially when utilised in a face-to-face context, provided that the teacher uses compelling content, creates rapport and successfully builds a community of learners.

Characteristics of a collaborative learning classroom

According to Gerlach (1994, p.8) ‘collaborative learning is based on the idea that learning is a naturally social act in which the participants talk among themselves. It is through the talk that learning occurs’. Students can learn an enormous amount from each other, especially when they process the information as a group.

When CoI and collaborative learning approach meet

Through the elements of CoI (cognitive, teaching and social presence), the teacher facilitates the materials and the students work collaboratively to construct meaning from the teaching and the materials, while also individually reflecting on how well they are achieving this. During my presentation, I shared how the materials and strategies used in an Academic English for the Liberal Arts course kept the students engaged, while at the same time allowing me to assess them through their reflections on the materials, and the inquiries they made as part of the CoI technique. Three CoI and collaborative strategies, namely investigative journalism, design thinking and students as content creators, contributed to the successful combination of the two approaches. The application of these inquiry-based activities supported the course content and helped students participate in meaningful problem solving, while also developing their communication, critical reading and critical thinking skills through exposure to compelling texts.

Conclusion

Students and their teachers should be able to feel a sense of belonging, of coming together and a common goal – successful and meaningful learning. In my experience, 63

Chapter 3: Teaching English for academic purposes

CoI was found to increase engagement and build a sense of classroom community.

Additionally, the integration of collaborative and problem-solving techniques was found to significantly improve the students’ critical reading and critical thinking skills, as evidenced in both the classroom activities and the students’ written reflections. Sadly, students could still use AI for this. Aspects that would prevent students cheating in this way would be to get them to vocalise individually or in groups, without prior notification, how they would solve problems related to themselves and/or the world.

nohakhaf@aucegypt.edu

References Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education model. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2–3), 87–105.

Gerlach, J. M. (1994). Is this collaboration? New Directions for Teaching and Learning, Autumn 1994, 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1002/tl.37219945903

3.9 ERT at an EAP programme: how did the teachers cope?

Karla K de Lima Guedes University of Southampton, UK Introduction

In March 2020, UK Higher Education (UKHE) institutions underwent a transition to Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT) due to the Covid pandemic (Hodges et al., 2020). This sudden shift to online teaching presented new challenges and stress for many educators. Experienced teachers found themselves facing a steep learning curve in the virtual classroom, experiencing anxieties similar to those of pre-service teachers.

However, many educators rose to the occasion by adapting their teaching approaches, re-evaluating their beliefs about teaching, learning and assessment, while supporting each other and developing new digital and pedagogical skills. This situation provided an opportunity to explore the support mechanisms that teachers used to navigate this rapid transition to remote teaching.

Context

The context of this study focused on EAP practitioners who were employed in a UKHE pre-sessional programme that was conducted online for the first time in 2020.

Pre-sessional programmes are intensive EAP courses designed to prepare international students who speak English as a second language, and who have not met the minimum language requirement for their intended degree. Many of these teachers reside and work outside the UK but temporarily relocate to teach EAP during the summer.

Participants and instruments

Participants consisted of 25 qualified and experienced EAP practitioners working at an online pre-sessional programme at a UKHE institution. These practitioners had

64

ERT at an EAP programme: how did the teachers cope?

no prior experience of teaching EAP online before 2020. Data were collected through practitioners’ involvement in discussion forums and semi-structured interviews conducted between 2021 and 2022.

Findings

The practitioners sought support from four main sources during ERT: programme, institutional, external and experiential support (Figure 3.9.1). The first source of support involved participants seeking assistance within the pre-sessional programme.

This included support from i) the leadership team; ii) the course design; and iii) peers.

The next level of support sought by the participants extended beyond the programme but remained within the department and institution. These practitioners availed themselves of university-level sessions and services to facilitate their adaptation to online teaching. The third layer of support entailed tutors actively seeking external assistance. They explored online courses, webinars and instructional videos covering various aspects of online teaching, including strategies, digital tools and pedagogical research. The final layer involved tutors using a combination of support sources, with a primary focus on trialling and testing digital tools and pedagogies in the online teaching environment. This hands-on approach aligns with the principles of experiential learning (Kolb, 2015).

Figure 3.9.1: Novice online teacher support sources

Despite the range of support mechanisms discussed by the participants, some reported encountering challenges and experiencing a lack of support during ERT, such as insufficient practical training in online teaching, limited emotional and wellbeing support, and inadequate institutional and leadership assistance. This led them to create and join in different online Communities of Practice (OCoPs). Communities of Practice consist of individuals who share common concerns, interests, expertise or professions, and they come together to collaborate, learn and enhance their knowledge and skills in a specific domain (Wenger, 1998). OCoPs can play a pivotal role in offering teaching support within the field of education.

In this programme, the establishment and nurturing of OCoPs occurred through a combination of top-down initiatives led by coordinators or team leaders, as well

65

Chapter 3: Teaching English for academic purposes

as bottom-up efforts initiated by practitioners themselves. While some OCoPs were formally established, most were informal, small-scale communities formed organically by the practitioners. These communities primarily utilised platforms like MS Teams and WhatsApp and served as networks for educational exchanges, social interactions, supportive connections and fulfilling transactional needs.

Engaging in OCoPs allowed practitioners to collaborate with peers, exchange experiences and knowledge, learn from one another and provide support. The practitioners expressed appreciation for the OCoPs they participated in, acknowledging the significant impact on their teaching practices, collaborative efforts, innovative approaches and communication, and for fostering a sense of unity, inclusivity and mutual support. However, challenges such as heavy workloads, time constraints, limited spontaneous interactions and building rapport online were identified in establishing and sustaining OCoPs within the programme.

Conclusion

Results indicate that throughout ERT, practitioners actively sought various forms of support from both internal and external sources to address their technical, pedagogical and emotional needs. They recognised the importance of seeking assistance in these areas and used different support mechanisms, including OCoPs, to enhance their teaching competencies during ERT. Despite encountering challenges and experiencing anxieties during this period, practitioners expressed overall positivity regarding the support they received and the value of the OCoPs they participated in. They acknowledged the critical role of these communities in their online professional development and wellbeing.

K.De-Lima-Guedes@soton.ac.uk

References Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., & Bond, A. (2020, March 27). The Difference Between Emergency Remote Teaching and Online Learning. EDUCAUSE Review. https:// er.educause.edu/articles/2020/3/the-difference-between-emergency-remote-teaching-andonline-learning Kolb, D. A. (2015). Experiential Learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.

(2nd ed.). Pearson.

Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity. Cambridge University Press.

66

4

Teaching English for specific purposes

In the opening paper of this chapter, plenary speaker Evan Frendo discusses and exemplifies the nature of modern workplace English. Drawing on perspectives of language training from outside ELT, primarily learning and development and human resources, Evan then goes on to consider the implications for language teaching professionals if they are to remain relevant. Next, Anila R Scott-Monkhouse describes a project undertaken with STEM doctoral students in Italy to extend English for science talk to (self-)reflection, critical thinking and mediation while contemplating the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). By exploring Gender gap in STEM and its connection to the SDGs, students realised that they have an active role to play not only in furthering science, but also in improving the world by fighting stereotypes.

Maggie Sokolik’s and Yaroslava Fedoriv’s paper describes the introduction of an innovative approach to the English curriculum of an ‘English for Journalists’ course in Ukraine. The ‘My War’ project not only demonstrates the significance of responsive and contextually relevant language materials during times of conflict, but also highlights the transformative potential of language learning in the face of adversities.

Finally, Glória Regina Loreto Sampaio explores when and how to work with glossary building in ESP contexts, suggesting a methodological approach with examples from Biomedical Sciences in Brazil. Glória ends her paper by considering the benefits that glossary building can bring.

4.1 Plenary: English for the workplace – looking for new answers Evan Frendo Freelance, Berlin, Germany Introduction

Many years ago, so the story goes, Einstein set a test for his students. His assistant politely pointed out that he had already used the same test the previous year. Einstein’s response? The questions may be the same, but this year the answers are different.

In many ways this is similar to what has been happening in language teaching for the world of work. The basic task is the same as it has always been, to help people become more effective at their jobs, but the way we do it has changed enormously in recent years and is continuing to change.

This talk was divided into three parts. First I looked at the nature of workplace English, looking at examples from a variety of industries and contexts. I then discussed perspectives from outside the world of English language teaching, focusing primarily on what people in learning and development (L&D)/human resources (HR)

67

Chapter 4: Teaching English for specific purposes

departments are saying about the way they see language training and learning in the modern workplace. I finished by discussing what these perspectives might mean for language teaching professionals, and suggested three key areas which may need to be considered if we are to remain relevant in the future.

Part one: What is English for the workplace?

The first example looked at language used in a maritime context and came from data provided by the Korea Institute of Maritime and Fisheries Technology (KIMFT). It consisted of a short recording of a conversation between Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) in a South Korean port, and a vessel reporting an incident. (VTS operates a little like air traffic control, but in ports).

Vessel VTS Vessel VTS Vessel VTS Vessel VTS Vessel

Busan VTS, Busan VTS, Topaz Ace, three person people make the fall, okay?

Yes … three person [unintelligible] fall?

Motor vessel er … Topaz Ace, er … yes sorry after … we saved one small boat which er capsize. [unintelligible] Topaz Ace. This is Busan VTS. Say again.

Yeah Busan VTS this is Topaz Ace. Er just want to report there is one er … small vessel on my astern which er capsized, over.

One small boat on your astern, okay, thank you.

Yes, and I can see that there is also another one boat now er … wandering er distance. Er she is rescuing er … the crew onboard of the capsized vessel.

Please er rescue the crew and please time that er keep her, over.

Uh … there is a little ship [unintelligible] on another one small er … motor vessel er picking up the crew.

The example demonstrated the reality of English in this context, with issues like quality of the radio transmission, interactants’ language competence, and the stress of the situation all contributing to the success of the communication. The conversation is highly context- and situation-specific, but does not contain much technical vocabulary; most non-experts would understand what was happening and what was being said. The key point I made was that these people are users of English, not learners of English – they are using English as a lingua franca to get the job done, and that these sorts of challenging conversations, while not that common, are nevertheless important to get right. Further examples from the VTS data looked at routine conversations, which while not necessarily grammatically accurate, would nevertheless be sufficient to do the job. A typical crew on board a vessel might be made up of people from very different language and cultural backgrounds, but would still be required to communicate.

An example from the construction industry came from Oswald et al. (2015), whose research reported on how many construction workers have similar communication 68

Plenary: English for the workplace – looking for new answers

challenges, and how a foreman reported that ‘to overcome communication barriers, a funky chicken dance was used’ (p. 589). This example highlighted the fact that people will use all the resources they have in order to communicate. I discussed how language brokering can be quite common in contexts such as construction sites, where teams may have people from very different language and cultural backgrounds, and where a team will ideally include at least one person with the skills to mediate between the different languages and cultures present in the team. A similar thing has been reported in other industries too, such as in the health industry, where immigrant children may mediate for their parents in a medical consultation with a doctor, for example.

Another example came from the oil and gas industry, where pipeline inspection gauges are known as PIGs, and how technical jargon like this becomes part of the language of the local community, and how creative uses of language become the norm (e.g. pipelines can be pigged). An example from the financial industry, specifically the language used in earnings calls, showed how the word ‘color’ seems to have taken on a meaning related to ‘additional information’. Frendo (2020) gives the following examples: Any color there would be helpful To add a little more color I have no real color to add I guess I’d add just a little bit of color You’ve given some good color on how you think the markets will If you could provide some color on Could you talk about what sort of color Appreciate the color Thanks for the color I then looked at examples of language used in international meetings, contrasting utterances produced by non-native speakers, which might be judged as nonstandard, but which nevertheless do the job, with examples in the same meetings by native speakers of English, highly competent at using their own language in their own context, but who might produce utterances which are unintelligible or incomprehensible to other participants in a meeting with non-native speakers.

I used the before reference I ask for a quick glance for this paragraph Ok I note it. We will think later on Any idea where is?

Can I get back to you later? I need more thoughts for that I would like listen comments from experts here Table 4.1.1: International meeting – examples of ‘non-standard’ English

69

Chapter 4: Teaching English for specific purposes

I don’t want to grapple with I think we should go the whole hog All the other guff we have already deleted Do we really want to be down in the weeds?

You’ve hit the nail on the head It sort of knocks the nail on the head, out of sight Table 4.1.2: International meeting – examples of ‘standard’ native-speaker English

This is not to say that all native speakers use these types of utterances, but when they do, problems may ensue.

These sorts of examples are common in research into English as a business lingua franca (BELF), which looks at how English is used in workplace contexts. Ehrenreich’s (2010) research, for example, which looks at English language use in a German multinational, includes quotations from managers who said, ‘conformity with standard English is seen as a fairly irrelevant concept’ and ‘I don’t actually care whether something is correct or incorrect. As long as the meaning is not distorted’ (p. 418).

BELF can be defined in many ways, but this definition by Kankaanranta et al.

(2015), is often cited: ‘BELF is perceived as an enabling resource to get the work done.

Since it is highly context-bound and situation-specific, it is a moving target defying detailed linguistic description’ (p. 129). This ‘moving target’ is a challenge for teachers, who are often expected to provide learners with some sort of linguistic description, while at the same time acknowledging the reality in the workplace. Traditionally, ESP teachers have used a needs analysis approach, which analyses the language that needs to be taught, before designing and delivering a suitable course. Such an approach may not be particularly useful when used in the sort of specific contexts which have been looked at so far, i.e. where the aim is simply to communicate and get the job done.

An additional issue is the concept of proficiency, which, as the CEFR explains, ‘encompasses the ability to perform communicative language activities (“can do…”)’

(Council of Europe, 2020, p. 30). The problem, as we have seen in the examples above, is that it is very difficult to discuss proficiency in a specific context without discussing job performance. To someone in the workplace the two are inextricably linked.

An example from aviation helps to make this clear. Kim (2018) asked three practising pilots and three air traffic controllers to comment on a 17-minute extract of a recorded conversation between a Russian pilot and a Korean air traffic controller. He reports: Analysis revealed that although the Russian pilot was viewed as having limited English proficiency, the strategies he used to make himself understood were evaluated positively as fulfilling the requirements of the professional role. In contrast, the Korean air traffic controller, although not evaluated as having limited proficiency, was criticized for his lack of professional knowledge. (p. 403)

This issue is already being tackled in some areas of ELT. The Occupational English

70

Plenary: English for the workplace – looking for new answers

Test (OET) (2018), designed specifically for the health industry, bases its results not only on linguistic criteria, but also clinical communication criteria. For example, relationship building includes criteria like ‘an attentive and respectful attitude’. These are not typical criteria in most tests in ELT. This is not to say that there is no space for the big, standardised tests; if an HR manager needs to test 20,000 employees, then such a test may be able to provide a rough idea of their language proficiency. The problem, as already mentioned above, is that these tests do not say very much about a person’s ability to do the job.

In the South Korean VTS context discussed above, assessment is increasingly being carried out by a team which includes an English teacher, an experienced VTS operator and a legal expert. The English teacher alone, however experienced, is no longer seen as having the ability to assess what needs to be assessed.

Part two: What is the perspective from outside ELT?

So far I have looked largely at an ELT perspective of what we mean by English in the workplace. People working in areas such as learning and development (L&D), or human resources (HR), might have very different priorities.

Dillon (2022), writing about the modern learning mindset, lists six points which reflect what is happening in many international workplace contexts: • M ake learning an essential part of the work(flow).

• T ake advantage of the full ecosystem.

• A pply data to accelerate decision making.

• P rovide a personal experience at scale.

• D rive clear business impact.

• F oster persistent organisational agility.

All these point to an approach to learning which seems at odds with the way many professionals in ELT think about learning. For example, making the learning part of the workflow suggests that learning a language in a classroom somewhere may no longer be considered effective as learning in context. Likewise, assessing business impact is one which has been very difficult for ELT professionals to do, largely because English learning has traditionally been seen as something managed by ELT professionals, separate from the workplace, rather than something which needs to be done in close collaboration with L&D. Agility is another key area of focus, with organisations requiring much more flexibility in course design and delivery, and demanding a methodology which can react quickly to change, rather than one which has traditionally aimed at producing nice orderly syllabuses, clear learning outcomes, and a predefined number of hours.

Unsurprisingly the results of such an approach depend on the context. For Duncan Bölting, a project manager at Systematic, learning English is no longer something which he has to worry about when he is hiring new employees, stating that in his context: We don’t really do formal English training in the company. Yes, we are international, and yes, people need to know English. Yes, some people arrive with very poor English skills. But I have found that they learn it relatively quickly by themselves because they need and use it daily at work. They are very motivated. We do not need to organise anything. (Personal communication, March 30, 2023)

71

Chapter 4: Teaching English for specific purposes

For Katarzyna Ścibor, a Cluster Training Manager at Electrolux, the situation is not quite as clear cut. In her situation employees are ideally recruited with an appropriate level of English, although the company does make training available where necessary.

She argues: From my experience the days when English was taught in companies are gone (CEE, EMEA and South America included). International companies release e.g. product/ service specifications, brand booklets, marketing materials in English and cluster staff just has to be able to understand and use them. When recruited people need to have the expected B2 level otherwise they won’t qualify for the job. When onboard they are offered opportunities to polish off their language skills (B2/B2+ levels) but these are optional programs. Practically all the in-company jargon has to be learnt on the go anyway. In a nutshell, English is nowadays taken for granted, just like e.g. operational knowledge of MS Office. (Personal communication, March 15, 2023)

These perspectives are backed up by research. In a 2020 report on the future of jobs, the World Economic Forum points out that ‘94% of business leaders report that they expect employees to pick up new skills on the job, a sharp uptake from 65% in 2018’ (p. 5). Ehrenreich (2010), working in the context of large multinationals, argues that, ‘Learning … seems to happen most effectively in business communities of practice rather than in traditional English training’ (p. 408). And Takino (2019), researching how people become BELF users in a Japanese business context, tells us that she ‘illustrated how heavily their learning was sourced from their own experience of using English at work, rather than from a systematic study of English’ (p. 260).

This evidence seems to suggest that traditional English learning, with formal courses designed and run by ELT specialists, may be on the way out. Instead, people seem to be learning English in ways which are outside the traditional classroom approach, which might be loosely described as ‘informal learning’. These include coaching from peers, microlearning, learning on the job, translation apps, social media, gamification, and so on. The implication here is that the traditional role of the ELT specialist may be changing. Owens & Kadakia (2020) put it like this: ‘Instead of designing one training program per capability gap, L&D needs to shift to designing multiple assets and connecting learners with the learning assets they need’ (p. 35). They explain the notion of learning touchpoints, i.e. instances where learners come into contact with learning content, and argue that traditional formal learning is only one such touchpoint. Many more touchpoints may be needed. L&D professionals may be under increasing pressure to provide access to immediate learning, delivered precisely when it is needed, as well as access to social learning. In such an approach one of the tasks of the ELT specialist may be to curate learning assets, rather than simply create them.

Nadeya Rusak, director of language training at EPAM systems, has been using this approach in her company, and indeed reported on it at the IATEFL BESIG Conference in November 2022. Unlike the approaches described by Bölting and Ścibor above, Rusak’s company does employ trainers. However, these are not trainers brought in from a local language school, but full-time employees who become experts on the company’s needs and have access to company resources.

72

Plenary: English for the workplace – looking for new answers Trainers require a lot of support to operate in this sort of environment. We invest a lot in teacher training. It’s continuous learning with feedback and knowledge sharing from inside the company. Our own experts such as HR, Project Managers, or Account Managers help teachers adapt the content to the corporate context. (Personal communication, January 18, 2023)

This focus on specialisation is reiterated by Seunghee Miriam Choi, Executive Director of the APEC Seafarer Excellence network, who has worked in the South Korean VTS context for years. She predicts that, ‘Language teaching will become more specific. Because general English, there are millions of videos on YouTube for general English. But there is no one who can teach VTS English for Busan port, for Incheon port, for Masan port’. She also mentions the role of technology, adding that, ‘With AI that kind of specific area of teaching can survive, but other areas like the general English classroom will die’ (Personal communication, March 15, 2023).

This shift towards informal learning is also discussed in the ELT literature, with Dressman & Sadler (2020) going so far as to suggest that ‘new opportunities for language learning are … challenging relations between what used to be considered the unavoidable work of “mastering” another language, and what learners often experience as the joyful play of interacting with others’ (p. 3), and ‘The evidence … suggests that the entire edifice of language education around the world today could be in jeopardy’ (p. 11).

Clardy (2018), writing from an HR perspective, argues that, ‘the formal-informal learning distinction needs to be retired and … HRD should be oriented towards designing and providing all manner of structured learning experiences’ (p. 154) and ‘… what is needed is a catalog of the full variety of potential learning contexts and processes in the workplace and integrating them into designed and managed – or structured – development experiences’ (p. 169).

Rob Szabo, Vice President of Learning Sciences at Learnship, a language training provider, describes how attitudes are changing. He explains, for example, how important it is to adapt to the client’s perspective: We can tell a story about KPIs, and impact. We speak the client’s language. As far as ROI goes, we get the learners to self-report, we survey the line managers, which means we can then show the client the benefits of the training. Measuring how long courses take, who attended etc. is largely irrelevant. These are effort indicators, not outcome indicators.

He goes on to argue that: Classroom training was very good at replicating real life conversations. But now for many people most work conversations are online, computer mediated. So it makes sense that we teach using the same technology. Trainers need to be aware of the fact that work is changing, communication is different. So the lessons need to be different. Teams just emerge - like for a project - and they’re much more agile. In my life I just have new counterparts all the time. Different location, different culture, different way of doing things. We’re constantly adapting. (Personal communication, January 18, 2023)

73

Chapter 4: Teaching English for specific purposes

What he says is not far from Dillon’s (2022) description of the modern learning mindset (see above), but is probably quite a way from what many in the ELT profession see as their job.

My aim in the first two parts of this talk was to show how learning English in the workplace is changing. This table provides a summary of the key trends discussed.

Traditional language learning English course as main resource English teacher as expert L&D/school/teacher in control Language proficiency based Learning evaluated out of context Learners in lockstep Learning prescribed (push) Technology as add-on Learning management systems Content is created

New English course just one of many resources English teacher as one of many experts Learner in control Performance on-the-job-based Learning evaluated in context Personalised learning Learning on-demand (pull) Technology mainstream Learning Content Management Systems Content is curated

Part three: So what?

What does all this mean to ELT professionals? There are three main conclusions to be drawn.

First, to remain relevant we need to learn a lot more about how people in the workplace learn English. There seems to be very little research published in the ELT literature on this topic, which is somewhat surprising seeing how important a part of the ELT industry workplace English learning actually is. Basturkmen (2021) is of a similar opinion, arguing that there is ‘… a need for research of naturalistic learning of specific purpose language … how specific purpose languages (registers of English) are acquired in real world settings (not in ESP classrooms)’ (p. 9).

Second, to remain relevant we need to change the way we think about teacher training, education and development. Cole et al. (2005) describe the process of ‘marinating teachers’ who teach English in the maritime context, which basically means training the teachers in the environment which they will be operating in. This is rarely, if ever, done in normal ESP teacher qualifications, which tend to focus much more on theory and far less on understanding the workplace.

Third, to remain relevant we need to learn to use the new technologies. For example, the recent introduction of generative AI seems to be on everybody’s lips, but there is still a lot of discussion (and fear?) about the impact such technology will have on the ELT context. I showed an example of materials I developed for a VTS training course, replicating the VTS conversation we discussed at the beginning of the talk, and demonstrated just how simple they are to produce. We ignore AI at our peril. evan.frendo@e4b.de

74

Plenary: English for the workplace – looking for new answers

References Basturkmen, H. (2021). ESP Research Directions: Enduring and emerging lines of inquiry.

Language Teaching Research Quarterly 23, 5–11.

Clardy, A. (2018). 70-20-10 and the Dominance of Informal Learning: A Fact in Search of Evidence. Human Resource Development Review, 17(2), 153–178.

Cole, C. W., Pritchard, B., & Trenkner, P. (2005). The professional profile of a maritime English instructor (PROFS): an interim report. In D. Nielsen (Ed.), Maritime Security and MET. Proceedings of the International Association of Maritime Universities (IAMU) Sixth Annual General Assembly and Conference (pp. 65–71). WIT Press.

Council of Europe. (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR) Companion Volume. Council of Europe Publishing.

Dillon, J. D. (2022). The modern learning ecosystem: A new L&D mindset for the ever-changing workplace. Association for Talent Development.

Dressman, M. (2020). Introduction. In M. Dressman & R. W. Sadler (Eds.), The handbook of informal language learning (pp.1–12). Wiley Blackwell.

Ehrenreich, S. (2010). English as a business lingua franca in a German multinational corporation: Meeting the challenge. Journal of Business Communication, 47(4), 408–431.

Frendo, E. (2020). ‘If you could just comment on what you are seeing?’ Some thoughts on the teaching of conditionals and the use of data-driven learning with business English learners.

ETAS Journal, 37(2), 31–32.

Kankaanranta, A., Louhiala-Salminen, L., & Karhunen, P. (2015). English in multinational companies: implications for teaching “English” at an international business school. Journal of English as a Lingua Franca, 4(1), 125–148.

Kim, H. (2018). What constitutes professional communication in aviation: Is language proficiency enough for testing purposes? Language Testing, 35(3), 403–426.

Occupational English Test. (2018). Speaking assessment criteria and level descriptors (from September 2018) (public version). https://prod-wp-content.occupationalenglishtest.org/ resources/uploads/2018/08/22102547/speaking-assessment-criteria-updated-2018.pdf Oswald, D., Smith, S., & Sherratt, F. (2015). Doing the ‘funky chicken’ to communicate on multinational projects. In A. B. Raidén & E. Aboagye-Nimo (Eds.), Proceedings 31st Annual ARCOM Conference, 7–9 September 2015, Lincoln, UK (pp. 589–598). Association of Researchers in Construction Management.

Owens, L. M. D., & Kadakia, C. (2020). Designing for modern learning: Beyond ADDIE and SAM. Association for Talent Development.

Takino, M. (2019). Becoming BELF users: the learning process of business users of English and its conceptualization. Journal of English as a lingua franca, 8(2), 235–267.

World Economic Forum. (2020). The future of jobs report 2020. https://www.weforum.org/ reports/the-future-of-jobs-report-2020

75

Chapter 4: Teaching English for specific purposes

4.2 EAP, science and public engagement meet the UN Sustainable Development Goals Anila R Scott-Monkhouse Dip. Ingegneria e Architettura, Parma University, Italy Introduction

In 2021, a project was developed on an EAP course at Parma University that encompassed the three missions of university (higher education, research and public engagement). It involved doctoral students of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) in activities that extended English for science talk to (self-)reflection and critical thinking, while contemplating the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The experience can lead to a closer interaction between EAP, non-linguistic subjects and public engagement.

Public engagement

The mission of universities comprises education, research and public engagement, i.e. the sharing of the ideas and activities of higher education and research with the public. Its highlight is the European Researchers’ Night, when universities open up to citizens. The 2021 Parma edition exhibited a presentation and posters based on an EAP session in which STEM doctoral students explored gender gap in STEM and its connection to the SDGs. Gender gap in STEM

Young scientists at Parma University critically investigated through English an issue that is related to their field, yet distant from those they deal with daily in their research. This was to engage them intellectually and emotionally through a relatable topic, while sparking their creativity. In doing so, the familiar lingua franca of science assumed a new role and became the language of opinion, discussion and reflection.

The students first anonymously expressed their agreement to stereotyped sentences on men and women via a Google form. After this warm-up came a lead-in discussion to activate vocabulary and previous knowledge (Which jobs are typically considered men’s, and which women’s? Why might the opposite sex not do a certain job?) in preparation for the following reading tasks based on an article about why there are few women in science, and another about the International Day of Women in Science.

The students first anticipated the content, then checked their predictions through gist reading. They then read the texts more closely and summarised each paragraph to practise the skills they need for their own studies. Finally, their critical thinking was triggered through questions which led to further discussion, expression of opinions and suggestion of solutions (Are there any facts you find surprising? Why? Do you agree with the reasons given? Why? What could be done to change any of the situations described here?).

The next step consisted of a video input (the controversial Science, Its a Girl Thing EU campaign to attract women to science) (Marsartists, 2012), with the students again stating their views (How effective might it be in encouraging women to take up science? Why? If you had the opportunity to speak to the advertising agency, what changes

76

EAP, science and public engagement meet the UN Sustainable Development Goals

would you suggest? Why?). Finally, the SDGs were introduced through a web search to identify the goals that might be reached by promoting the presence of more women in science. The students initially focused on Goals 4 (Quality Education) and 5 (Gender Equality), and during the ensuing discussion also suggested Goal 13 (Climate Action) and Goal 3 (Good health and Wellbeing) by referring to the ‘Women Defenders of the Amazon’ and the ‘Afghan All-girls Robotics team’.

Finally, a written assignment led the students from abstract argumentation to reflection on their personal experience (Who is your role model? Why?) and their experience within their field (If you were a member of the opposite sex, how might your professional life be different?), to global reasoning (To what extent do you feel society expects men and women to fulfil different roles?). By expressing their thoughts through (self-)reflection, the students engaged in an internal dialogue, and developed their own voice in English, i.e. moved from the language of facts and data to the language of personal feelings and reasoning through critical thinking.

Conclusions

Exploring the cross-curricular content and inter-connected issues of the SDGs can provide higher education in STEM with wider scope, opportunities for collaboration across subjects, new challenging purposes for EAP, and an opening to transferable skills. Indeed, within this project, English became the language for critical thinking, (self-)reflection and mediation – an unusual domain for these students, who generally see English as the lingua franca of science. At the same time, thanks to their increased awareness of discrimination, through English the students voiced the values underpinning the UNESCO Global Citizenship Education (2015), and realised that they have an active role to play not only in furthering science, but also in improving the world by fighting stereotypes.

Acknowledgement

My thanks go to biophysics professor Aba Losi for suggesting the topic of gender gap in STEM and helping develop the project. anila@unipr.it

References

Marsartists. (2012). Science, Its a Girl Thing [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=iuJ1zp-QT8o UNESCO. (2015). Global Citizenship Education: Topics and Learning Objectives. UNESCO.

4.3 ‘My war’: empowering language learners in times of conflict Maggie Sokolik University of California, Berkeley, US and Yaroslava Fedoriv

The National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, Kyiv, Ukraine

Introduction

The field of English as a Second Language (ESL) has long debated the neutrality of language materials and the need for critical engagement in language learning. In

77

Chapter 4: Teaching English for specific purposes

1993, Benesch challenged the notion of politically and ideologically neutral ESL materials, and, since then, scholars have supported the idea of contextual relevance in language instruction. Specifically, Nelson & Appleby (2015) emphasised the importance of equipping teachers to facilitate critical and creative engagement with English in relation to broader sociopolitical realities, including the implications of conflict for language learning.

In 2022, in response to the ongoing war in Ukraine, a local university introduced an innovative approach to the English curriculum, allowing students to submit ‘My War’ stories instead of traditional academic reports. This report discusses this methodological approach and explores its impact on language learners’ motivation in times of conflict in the context of a course in English for Journalists.

The ‘My War’ project and curriculum design

The initial curriculum of the ‘English for Journalists’ course consisted of ten units developed by educators from Central and Eastern Europe. These units covered various topics in journalism, providing learners with a comprehensive understanding of the field and its societal impact. Themes included Citizen Journalism, Media Trends, The Roles of Journalists, Sports Journalism, Science and Technology, Inclusive Journalism, Global vs Local, Free Speech, Humour and Satire, and Ethics in Journalism. This diverse range of themes aimed to foster critical thinking and contextual understanding among journalism students.

Students’ motivation and performance, however, has been profoundly affected by the war. Its impact on education, as highlighted by Lavrysh et al. (2022), manifests as displacement of students and teachers, disruption of educational institutions, psychological trauma, fear, stress and low motivation to study, violation of social justice, brain drain, limited access to educational resources, and decreased academic hours. As a response to adversities, the ‘My War’ project was initiated to offer alternative assignments, encouraging students to create stories reflecting their experiences during the conflict. This approach enabled students to engage critically with the events around them and use English in a meaningful way. The project emphasised addressing sensitive subjects directly, empowering students to express their thoughts and emotions objectively and professionally. It provided a platform for language learners to navigate the complexities of conflict and develop their language skills simultaneously.

Tools for educational progress in times of conflict

During times of extreme disruption, educational progress faces significant challenges.

To support language learners during conflict, the ‘My War’ project incorporated various tools. Journals, video and written blogs, and context-dependent vocabulary development played crucial roles in sustaining educational progress and providing learners with a means of self-expression. The project adapted to the circumstances by implementing blended learning approaches combining synchronous and asynchronous modes, adjusting class schedules to accommodate air raid alerts, facilitating online forum discussions, and recording and sharing class discussions for absentees. Vocabulary selection addressed war-related topics while maintaining neutrality. Deadlines were adjusted, and the learning process was gamified to enhance student motivation.

78

Glossary building in ESP scenarios: why, when and how

Further development and future implications

The principles and materials of the ‘My War’ project have the potential for broader application beyond the war in Ukraine. The report suggests that the students’ stories and the supporting materials can form the basis of a new unit of instruction to be integrated into an existing free online course English for Journalists, available globally.

This development would enable learners worldwide to engage with the transformative approach and learn from the experiences of individuals living in conflict zones.

Conclusion

The ‘My War’ project demonstrates the significance of responsive and contextually relevant language materials in engaging language learners during times of conflict.

As the project suggests, by addressing sensitive subjects directly and professionally, providing alternative assignments, and utilising relevant tools, educators can foster critical engagement and meaningful student participation.

The project results encourage educators to explore alternative approaches and highlight the transformative potential of language learning in the face of adversities. Thus the impact of the project extends beyond the war in Ukraine, serving as an inspiring example for educators globally. msokolik@berkeley.edu; yar.fed@gmail.com

References Benesch, S. (1993). ESL, Ideology, and the Politics of Pragmatism. TESOL Quarterly, 27(4), 705–717. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3587403 Lavrysh, Y., Lytovchenko, I., Lukianenko, V., & Golub, T. (2022). Teaching during the wartime: Experience from Ukraine. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 1–8. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/00131857.2022.2098714 Nelson, C. D., & Appleby, R. (2015). Conflict, Militarization, and Their After-Effects: Key Challenges for TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 49(2), 309–332. https://doi.org/10.1002/ tesq.187

4.4 Glossary building in ESP scenarios: why, when and how Glória Regina Loreto Sampaio Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo,

Brazil

Preamble

Glossary building stands for multipurpose compilations of specialist or technical words, terms or abbreviations, accompanied by their definitions and, at times, by examples of use and other features of interest, related to a specific discipline or field of knowledge.

Glossary building in ESP settings

In ESP contexts, glossary building is a most valuable tool in intra/interlingual pedagogical and/or professional scenarios, where it serves a series of crucial purposes

79

Chapter 4: Teaching English for specific purposes

regarding terminological research, clarification of concepts, enrichment of general knowledge, vocabulary expansion, (more) competent use of lexical items, and refinement and precision in general English oral and written expression.

In translator/interpreter training, glossary building is a highly recommended and essential resource to address specialist terminology (legal, medical, technical and scientific) and difficulties in ‘deciphering’ particularly complex text segments, thus paving the way for informed decisions regarding the use of specific jargons, and correspondent/equivalent forms.

When to include glossary building in the ESP classroom

Glossary building ought to be introduced in the classroom routine whenever the need arises (quite often), either at the teacher’s discretion (almost always) or ‘on demand’, that is when learners ask for it (more rarely).

How to work with glossary building in ESP contexts

Depending on pedagogical objectives and prospective use, glossary building can vary a great deal in terms of content and format (monolingual, bilingual, multilingual; simpler or more detailed entries and so on).

A point to be made is that dictionary and glossary entries generally differ considerably since glossary building is usually tailor-made to meet particular needs, and the entries therein are quite often highly topic-specific and narrowed down to special pedagogical circumstances, limits and horizons. It is argued that in certain translation projects ‘glossaries are to replace traditional dictionaries’ (Soukenik, 2023).

A methodological pathway

In the context of a Biomedical Sciences Translation class on a Translator Training Course, a suggested methodological route to effective glossary building would include: resorting to parallel texts (working languages); searching, compiling and sorting out terms; clarifying concepts (intralingually); looking for correspondent or equivalent forms of expression (interlingually).

Classroom dynamics and glossary building strategies would ideally encompass: working cooperatively (small groups); highlighting the differences between general X text-specific glossaries (pros and cons); scaffolding throughout the process (teacher guidance, examples of glossary types and models); indicating print or digital sources of information; including links related to the data collected and examples of use concerning each glossary entry, so as to promote research and ensure data reliability; providing quality assessment (verifying precision, consistency and adequacy); comparing and commenting on glossary submissions, and proper evaluation of their scope and applicability.

Example of a ‘pedagogically-desirable’ glossary entry

In an English-Portuguese biomedical sciences class, glossary building done cooperatively by translation students could possibly take this format:

80

Glossary building in ESP scenarios: why, when and how

Term + Segment Definition SL in SL* + Link

Translation in TL**

Definition in TL + Link

O AVC decorre da alterAVC (Acidente Stroke is a ação do fluxo de sangue ao Vascular disease that cérebro. Responsável pela Cerebral). affects the Those in work arteries leading Aqueles em uni- morte de células nervosas units with the da região cerebral atingida, most downsizing to and within dades de trabalho com maior o AVC pode se originar de suffered twice the the brain. redução de cus- uma obstrução de vasos sandeath rate from guíneos, o chamado acidente heart attack and https://www. tos sofreram o stroke.org/en/ dobro da taxa de vascular isquêmico, ou de stroke. mortalidade por uma ruptura do vaso, conabout-stroke ataque cardíaco hecido por acidente vascular e AVC (Acidente hemorrágico.

Vascular https://bvsms.saude.gov.

Cerebral). br/avc-acidente-vascularcerebral/ Stroke

*SL = Source Language / **TL =Target Language

Final considerations

It should be borne in mind that in glossary building, information is necessarily processed in many ways (researching and clarifying concepts; reading and copying the definition of the terms in the working languages; providing examples of their use in the field, and so on), and this potentiates improved learning (Vanier College, 2023).

In other words, glossary building may go far beyond learning the meaning of terms, to embrace a series of other purposes as previously pointed out above.

A complementary benefit of glossary building is that it fosters intellectual curiosity, research, inferencing, identification, and judging relevance, which are some basic skills related to critical thinking (Wooll, 2022).

All in all, glossary building can make ESP learners (and future translation professionals) more capable of and competent in: formulating crucial questions; extracting, selecting and applying information; considering the implications of the choices made; and exploring other possibilities, that is to say, learners are bound to become more creative and resourceful. gloria_sampaio@hotmail.com

References Soukenik, P. (2023). The Glossary: An Essential Translation Tool. LocalizationLab. https:// localizationlab.com/the-glossary-an-essential-translation-tool/ Vanier College. (2012, April 23). Teaching Tip: Glossaries? What Glossaries? Why Glossaries?

Where Glossaries? Pedagogical Development Office, Vanier College. https://www.vaniercollege. qc.ca/pdo/2012/04/teaching-tip-glossaries-what-glossaries-why-glossaries-where-glossaries/ Wooll, M. (2022, March 14). Critical thinking is the one skillset you can’t afford not to master. BetterUp. https://www.betterup.com/blog/critical-thinking-skills

81

Chapter 5: Teaching young learners

5

Teaching young learners

The opening paper on the theme of teaching young learners comes from Julie Waddington, who explores the extent to which child voice is recognised and incorporated in EFL contexts. Beginning with an overview of practices and concerns in general education, Julie then moves on to EFL contexts, and shares the results of a study in Catalonia which demonstrate the benefits of integrating child consultation in the EFL classroom. In the next paper, ‘Thinking skills and mindsets for young learner sustainable development education’, Ellen Setterfield provides practical examples of how practitioners can build and develop resilience, thinking skills, global empathy and future thinking with young learners of all ages to progress towards a more sustainable world. The focus of Aleksandra Zaparucha’s paper is the CLIL wheel as a teacher and training tool for effectively integrating content and language in everyday teaching practice. Aleksandra exemplifies the use of the wheel using a history lesson in English, but points out that this tool can also be usefully applied with other languages and for subject teaching. Niki Joseph’s paper deals with the importance of transitions and breaks in the YLT classroom for managing learners and maximising learning. Niki highlights two key areas where this could happen, different types of transitions and brain breaks, and how these can be included in lesson plan writing.

Zahra Zuhair’s paper also deals with classroom management issues by looking at the principles of Gentle Discipline. In response to behavioural challenges from students, Zahra has developed her own approach ‘LURNA’, which she describes in detail in the context of the ELT classroom. The next paper concerns pronunciation teaching with very young learners. Stella Palavecino from Argentina addresses the fears that non-native speaker teachers may have when it comes to pronunciation, and suggests some age-appropriate practical activities teachers can use with very young learners based on how they like to learn. The final four papers focus on secondary learners.

Conny Loder outlines reasons for using Shakespeare, and suggests practical activities to authentically engage higher-level learners. Brigitte Reber describes a strategy training programme which integrated machine translation into existing course materials to enhance learners’ skills in the lower secondary classroom. Learner feedback suggests that machine translation can be of benefit, if used effectively. Then, Sajan Chaudhary reports on his experience of teaching secondary students in Nepal, where he found English language anxiety levels to be high. After implementing some positive steps to address this, Sajan concludes with some recommendations for teachers in similar circumstances. The final paper by Ashraf Kuheil and Nick Bilbrough describes how online link-ups can promote personalised and meaningful communication about topics in the curriculum, while enabling young people from different cultures to become more culturally aware.

82

Child voice in the EFL class

5.1 Child voice in the EFL class Julie Waddington University of Girona, Catalonia Introduction

Advances in educational research have helped promote the inclusion of child voice in decision-making processes from classroom to general policy level. This matters in terms of recognising and valuing children’s views, as well as aligning educational practice and policy with their unique perspectives and experiences. In this paper, I explore the extent to which child voice is recognised and incorporated in EFL contexts.

Consultation and participation in general education

Child voice has been promoted in general education as part of the drive to make education more meaningful and relevant for children. Consultation involves talking with children about things that matter to them at school, and may include: conversations about teaching and learning; seeking advice from pupils about new initiatives; inviting comment on ways of solving problems that are affecting the teacher’s right to teach and the pupil’s right to learn; inviting evaluative comment on recent developments in school or classroom policy and practice (Rudduck & Flutter, 2003; Rudduck & McIntyre, 2007). Harnessing student voice can go some way towards: recognising young people’s capabilities and insights, thus affording them a different standing in the school environment; protecting and nurturing children’s rights as established in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child; improving students’ experiences of learning; and developing the skills needed to flourish in democratic societies.

Concerns about conceptualisations and applications

In general education, doubts have been raised about the possibility of achieving full and authentic participation, and research has highlighted particular concerns in relation to: the potential for oversimplifying and possibly diminishing the impact of the UN Convention; the challenges of engaging and finding ways for children with specific needs to participate fully; problems of representativity when some students speak on behalf of others. On this last note, one of the pioneers of early child voice work (Ruddock & Flutter, 2003) stressed that consultation processes assume a degree of social confidence and linguistic competence, with initial studies suggesting that students who ‘speak the language of the school’ (often middle-class pupils) tend to dominate conversations. One of the main strengths of consultation is that it provides opportunities to hear from silent – or silenced – children and to understand why some disengage from learning experiences and what could help them get back on track.

Concerns in EFL

The concerns mentioned in relation to general education are exacerbated further in EFL contexts in which children can have even less opportunity to express their views. Restrictions can be related to: limited time available; the exclusion of children’s L1 from the classroom when applying target-language only approaches; and social and linguistic competences being stronger in children who have access to private/

83

Chapter 5: Teaching young learners

extra-curricular tuition in English, thus magnifying the social class concern identified

by Ruddock & Flutter (2003).

Results from child voice studies in EFL

Studies are needed within EFL contexts to address the concerns raised above and to develop measures that could help integrate child consultation into EFL practice.

This could be particularly beneficial to gain children’s advice about new initiatives or any aspects that affect their learning. Here, I share the results of a study carried out in a primary school setting in Catalonia, which explored children’s views on the use of video recordings in their English classes. The study had been designed and conducted in response to teacher perceptions that some children seemed uncomfortable when viewing recordings of themselves and to evaluate the effects this could have on their learning and development. The study (Waddington, 2022) was carried out over a three-year period with 10- to 12-year-old children, using varied data collection procedures, including self-reporting questionnaires, in-depth classroom discussions, and classroom observations, all of which were integrated into classroom practice and conducted in a combination of English and the children’s first language.

The results confirmed the teachers’ initial concerns and provided concrete evidence of the negative effects of video recordings on the learning process. The consultation process had a profound impact on classroom practice, prompting teachers to change the video-recording procedure, while also providing teachers with valuable insights into students’ attitudes and beliefs about their own language learning.

Conclusion

The results of the study presented confirm the benefits of introducing child consultation into the EFL classroom. Consulting children about issues that matter to them is a crucial step to promoting more socially just classrooms in which all children have a voice. It is also a highly effective way of evaluating existing practice and adjusting it in line with children’s needs. julie.waddington@udg.edu

References Rudduck, J., & Flutter, J. (2003). How to improve your school: listening to pupils. Continuum Press.

Rudduck, J., & McIntyre, D. (2007). Improving Learning Through Consulting Pupils.

Routledge.

Waddington, J. (2022). ‘We are people, you know’: children’s views on the use of video recordings in the EFL class. Cambridge Journal of Education, 52(4), 495-517. https://doi.org /10.1080/0305764X.2022.2040953

84

Thinking skills and mindsets for young learner sustainable development education

5.2 Thinking skills and mindsets for young learner sustainable development education Ellen Setterfield National Geographic Learning, Andover, UK

The 2030 target for the UNESCO Sustainable Development Goals is seven years away.

This may seem unachievable and unrealistic, but it leaves us with a choice: to give up, or to persevere.

We are in a uniquely privileged position – our work in education means that we are part of what former Director-General of UNESCO Irina Bokova describes as the most ‘powerful transformative force’ (UNESCO, 2015, p. 4), while teaching languages means that we are ideally positioned to teach respect for diversity, international solidarity and intercultural communication.

Timetable or syllabus constraints, lack of confidence in our subject knowledge or our ability to present such a serious topic in an age-appropriate way often leads to a reluctance to engage with teaching sustainable development. Despite this, there are many ways we can incorporate teaching the skills and mindsets our young learners will need to work towards sustainable development into our usual classes, without requiring specialist knowledge.

Building resilience in our young learners

Resilience is a key life skill. It’s what helps us overcome illness or adversity, and persevere in the face of difficulty. It will also help our young learners overcome challenges, be they personal, academic, or when they leave education and enter the workforce. But how can we build and develop it?

Firstly, there is a significant crossover between how we build resilience and how we develop social and emotional learning. With our youngest learners, we can start by teaching them the vocabulary they need to talk about their emotions, for example by using a feelings wheel. We can also use simple sentence frames to help students explore their responses to emotions: ‘I felt [emotion] when [situation]’ ‘When I feel [emotion], I [action/response]’.

Teaching problem-solving skills also builds resilience, for example by using a simple process as outlined below. This can be applied to activities such as project work, as well as more practical challenges like academic problems or difficulties in relationships with peers.

Figure 5.2.1: Example of a problem-solving framework

Developing thinking skills

Once we’ve built our learners’ (and our) resilience, what other skills should we be working towards? There are a series of ‘new ways of thinking’ that we need in the 21st century and beyond (Berners-Lee, 2019, p. 185). Three that I think are particularly pivotal, and 85

Chapter 5: Teaching young learners

that also lend themselves to inclusion in our ELT classrooms and exploration with young learners, are global empathy, big picture thinking, and future thinking. But what practical activities can we do with our young learners to help them develop these skills?

Global empathy

Global empathy can be developed by teaching our learners to accept differences and look for common ground with people from other countries and cultures. Activities such as ‘Same, Different, Connect, Engage’ thinking routine from Project Zero (2022) help children to compare and contrast. Alternatively, we can support young learners’ thinking by using a Venn diagram to help them see what’s the same, and what’s different.

Big picture thinking

The challenges our planet faces mean we cannot live and act as though we exist in isolation – we are all interconnected. Helping our young learners understand the different spheres in which they live and have a role to play forms the first step in developing these thinking skills.

Figure 5.2.2: Spheres of influence

Once established, this can support other thinking routines such as Project Zero’s ‘The 3 Whys’ (2022). It can also help teachers provide a framework to support their learners to take action, showing them that not all positive actions need to take place on a global scale, and that small personal or local actions still have a valuable part to play.

Future thinking

The final thinking skill we want to develop is future thinking. This considers the impact of our actions across time rather than across geography. Using a timeline, we can encourage learners to explore the history of an event (for example the invention of the car) before plotting their ideas about how things will evolve in the future. We can similarly ask our learners to use their knowledge of the past and present to brainstorm ideas about future possibilities or changes. This employs their critical thinking skills, but also provides a safe space for them to predict positive outcomes or suggest taking positive alternative actions.

To conclude, progress towards a more sustainable world begins with the small changes we can make every day. Incorporating activities into our classrooms designed to build our young learners’ resilience and develop their thinking skills is an important yet accessible way of taking this step. ellen.setterfield@cengage.com

86

The CLIL wheel as a teacher and teacher trainer tool

References Berners-Lee, M. (2019). There is no Planet B: A Handbook for the Make or Break Years. Cambridge University Press.

Project Zero. (2022). Project Zero’s Thinking Routine Toolbox. Harvard Graduate School of Education. https://pz.harvard.edu/thinking-routines UNESCO. (2015). Rethinking education: Towards a global common good? UNESCO Digital Library. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000232555

5.3 The CLIL wheel as a teacher and teacher trainer tool Aleksandra Zaparucha CLIL Matters, Toruń, Poland [Trinity College London

Teacher Trainer Scholarship]

The CLIL wheel

A key condition for a successful CLIL programme is teacher training, which should include strategies for effectively integrating content and language into everyday teaching practice.

A highly practical yet relatively simple tool CLIL practitioners may use is the CLIL wheel (Zaparucha, 2019). It is based on the 4Cs of CLIL (Coyle et al., 2010): Culture, which forms the wheel’s outer ring, and Content, Communication and Cognition in the centre.

These latter 3Cs are matched with the 10 CLIL parameters (Ball et al., 2015): four related to Content and four to Communication, one bridging Content and Communication, and one related to Cognition. For teachers, the CLIL wheel may provide lesson preparation support, while for trainers a training backdrop. To test the CLIL wheel in those two roles, a sequence of activities on the history of Canterbury Cathedral for primary is used.

Figure 5.3.1: The CLIL wheel, https://clilmatters.com/ 87

Chapter 5: Teaching young learners

CLIL history: Canterbury Cathedral

The CLIL history lesson starts with activating prior knowledge by brainstorming information on Canterbury, organised in a simple mind map. The location of Canterbury and three slides showing the cathedral set the lesson background.

Following this introduction, learners (school students or teacher training participants) work in groups and match seven pictures with appropriate names and terms.

During feedback, the educator (CLIL teacher or teacher trainer) should elicit additional explanations, e.g. what makes a Viking different from a Roman.

Figure 5.3.2: Pictures illustrating the history of Canterbury Cathedral (correct order)

The next task is to hypothesise on the chronological order of the events. The correct chronology is then based on listening to seven sentences in the appropriate order.

Figure 5.3.3: Sentences describing the history of Canterbury Cathedral (correct order)

Next, learners number the pictures and distribute them among themselves. During the next listening, they add information about their pictures (e.g. dates). This stage is repeated, with the learners working on different pictures. Now they can retell the story using visual support with their own notes.

Next, learners put the pictures away and put the sentences in order. To check, learners match the sentences with the pictures. Now it is time to construct a timeline using flipchart paper.

88

The CLIL wheel as a teacher and teacher trainer tool

Figure 5.3.4: Example poster with the Canterbury Cathedral timeline (teacher training session)

In the final stage, learners do a writing task: three versions of the gapped text, each time with more words missing.

Testing the CLIL wheel

To examine the practicality of the CLIL wheel, the above lesson plan is analysed for the compatibility of the 10 CLIL parameters with the lesson stages. All of them are reflected throughout the lesson. Although this lesson is a one-off, there is an activity activating prior knowledge related to the topic (sequencing). The content and the task dictate the language, and the visuals guide the students’ understanding of the text.

All of the above reflect the Content parameters in the CLIL wheel. The parameter bridging Content and Communication (the 3 dimensions of CLIL) is realised through adjusting the content, language and procedure support according to student needs.

The Communication parameters include: clear instructions; dealing with key language through scaffolding and embedding; student-to-student interaction on multiple occasions; and supported output (a timeline). Finally, the Cognition parameter is realised through tasks requiring, for example, matching pictures with given terms and ordering them before listening to the text.

Summary

In light of the above analysis, it is clear the CLIL wheel is a practical tool for primary and secondary teachers, whether involved in ‘hard’ or ‘soft’ CLIL, as well as for teacher trainers. Teachers may approach it before lesson planning, or cross-check their existing lesson plans, and if any of the parameters are missing or not pronounced strongly enough, adjust them accordingly. For teacher trainers, on the other hand, the CLIL wheel offers a training tool which can be used in a variety of ways. For example, groups of participants may first try to deal with 2–3 parameters themselves, answering the questions: What do we do? Why do we do it? and How do we do it? In the next stage, based on Internet research or reading the selected excerpts from the source material (Ball et al., 2015), teachers may go back to their own notes and expand them, finally presenting their findings to other participants. It would then be useful to conduct a

89

Chapter 5: Teaching young learners

model lesson, after which participants analyse it as described above.

The CLIL wheel can be utilised in other languages as the medium of instruction and in teaching subjects through learners’ L1. Every learner would benefit from clear instructions, careful knowledge sequencing, and guided multimedia input, just to name a few of the 10 CLIL parameters. ola.zaparucha@gmail.com

References Ball, P., Kelly, K., & Clegg, J. (2015). Putting CLIL into Practice. Oxford University Press.

Coyle, D., Hood, P., & Marsh, D. (2010). Content and Language Integrated Learning.

Cambridge University Press.

Zaparucha, A. (2019). The what, why and how of CLIL. Humanising Language Teaching, 21(1).

5.4 Transitions and breaks in the YLT classroom Niki Joseph Eflwriters, Northern Rivers, NSW, Australia Background

The workshop I delivered at the Conference was inspired by three things that happened within a week of each other in 2022. As a remote trainer and consultant, I observe videos of filmed classes. I received a video in which the teacher moved from activity to activity, from interaction pattern to interaction in exactly the same way: Now we’re going to… I wanted to help the teacher vary this way of moving from activity to activity to increase the efficacy of these words. Secondly, a Facebook challenge about behaviours and beliefs in the young learner and teenager (YLT) classroom led me to an interesting piece of research entitled ‘Brain breaks: Help or Hindrance?’

(Weslake & Christian, 2015) in which the time that children need to refocus after a brain break was examined, with some interesting results. Thirdly, a horse-riding lesson focused solely on upward and downward transitions: walk to trot to canter and back down. Smooth transitions on horseback are important because a horse can only transition smoothly when it is balanced, and when it is balanced it is relaxed. With our young learners (YLs), we strive to ensure that they are ‘with us’ as we move from one activity to the next. The workshop aimed to highlight two key areas where this could happen, different types of transitions and brain breaks, and how they could be actively included in lesson plan writing.

Transitions – some considerations

The workshop began with participants considering their own ideas about transitions.

There are several different ways that transitions can happen in the YL classroom: moving from one activity to another; moving from a physical space to another; changing a teaching style; changing the skill; changing groups; and groups changing activity.

But transitions are more important than this. The act of carrying out the transition

90

Transitions and breaks in the YLT classroom

correctly can make or break a YL lesson. An ineffective transition will likely result in disruption, whereas an effective transition will maximise instructional time and maintain optimal learning conditions.

We then looked at how to make a transition effective by suggesting it be divided into two parts. Firstly, the cue is given and then the instruction is given. In this way, YLs are alerted to the fact that a transition is about to happen. This is the point when it is vital that they are listening to hear the instruction that follows. Participants were invited to reflect on this and to suggest different ways to give this cue.

Let’s take a break!

Everyone needs a break from time to time. But why? Generally speaking, YLs can concentrate for the amount of time of their age plus two minutes. There are theories which indicate that movement during this break time can increase retention rates.

Many participants were familiar with physical brain breaks, e.g. stand up and imagine you are surfing. Participants were then encouraged to share their own ideas for physical, creative and breathing brain breaks, and then created several brain breaks based on a dice number. In the classroom, learners would roll the dice to determine the break.

Rolling a four might result in getting into groups of four, and thinking of four ways to walk, for example.

But while brain breaks are fun, the time it takes YLs to refocus is important to consider. In a 50-minute lesson, a brain break which lasts three minutes, but which requires ten minutes for YLs to settle down afterwards, may not be the best use of the limited classroom time.

Rethinking lesson plan writing

Due to the absolute importance of these moments in the class, the workshop looked at ways to include cues, transitions and breaks into our lesson plans. By writing these moments down, we can ensure that they happen and that they are varied and appropriate. Besides noting down the type of cue/transition and/or break, it is also an idea to monitor how long it takes the YLs to settle after each transition/break. In this way we can see which are the most effective for each class.

Conclusion

Like so many aspects of the YL classroom, planning and practice are key. Writing these down into the lesson plan can provide a helpful reminder for the lesson. Afterwards, they can be used as a reflection point, which will inform choice of further transition and breaks. But it is the execution that will determine the relative success. The more that these transitions and breaks are practised, the more familiar both teacher and YLs will become with them. Consequently, by streamlining these ‘bits in between’, the more they will serve as essential links in the overall lesson plan. niki@eflwriters.com

Reference Weslake, A., & Christian, B. J. (2015). Brain breaks: Help or Hindrance? TEACH COLLECTION of Christian Education, 1(1), 38–46. https://research.avondale.edu.au/ teachcollection/vol1/iss1/4

91

Chapter 5: Teaching young learners

5.5 Applying principles of Gentle Discipline in the classroom Zahra Zuhair British Council, Bahrain Background

When Gentle Parenting began trending on TikTok a few years ago, Gentle Discipline came back into focus as a disciplinary approach based on compassion and empathy. Following some research into the young brain (Faber & Mazlish, 2001) and a year’s worth of classroom experimentation of the application of the principles of Gentle Discipline in the ELT classroom, I developed LURNA as a guideline for teachers to Listen, Understand, Regulate, Negotiate and Act, in response to behavioural challenges from students.

The young brain

The brain has two components to be considered in the light of Gentle Discipline. These are the upstairs brain, associated with rational and logical thinking and responsible for emotional regulation, which importantly is not fully developed until the age of 20, and the downstairs brain, also known as the reptilian brain, which is more reactive (Siegel & Bryson, 2016). The brain is also changeable and trainable in nature (Siegel & Bryson, 2016). This gives teachers the opportunity to use the neuroplasticity of the brain to train students to name their feelings, regulate their emotions, and come up with positive solutions to address the circumstances causing their behaviour, speaking to the upstairs brain, as a long-term disciplinary strategy. An approach that leans more towards addressing the cause of a behaviour and communicating the need that stems from that cause lends itself well to the classroom environment, where maintaining trust is crucial to creating a safe learning environment.

Punishments

While Gentle Discipline promotes a calm response to negative behaviour, it also questions the use of punishment. Punishments such as the ‘naughty corner’ and other more aggressive enforcements of rules not only produce short-term results, but have other long-term consequences (Ockwell-Smith, 2017). The ‘naughty corner’, for instance, suggests to a child that they are not worthy of inclusion unless they comply with a specific behaviour. It also takes away from the child the opportunity to train their brain to communicate their need and regulate their emotions successfully (Ockwell-Smith, 2017).

In the ELT classroom

Disciplinary strategies were then adapted for classroom use, bearing in mind the differences between the teacher-student relationship and the classroom environment on the one hand, and the parent-child relationship and the home environment on the other.

These strategies follow, with some flexibility, the LURNA approach, with the teacher making space to Listen to students’ perspectives, Understand where they are coming from, Regulate the child’s emotions, Negotiate a solution with the child and Act towards these solutions in collaboration with the child. When a student misbehaves, the teacher or teaching assistant addresses the student, and asks them to share their feelings, and thoughts, helping them name their feeling, should they have enough language to do

92

Applying principles of Gentle Discipline in the classroom

so. The teacher can then reflect on the need that has gone unmet in that moment.

This may be the need for some downtime, further support, some encouragement, etc.

Remembering that the student is either too young to know how to communicate their need or has simply not been taught to communicate their need, the teacher or teaching assistant leads the student to communicating the need successfully, breathing through their thoughts, and thus helping them regulate their emotions. Once the student has got past the negative feelings, solutions can be thought about together with them, either in that moment, or later, depending on the intensity of the situation, and the teacher moves forward, acting and allowing the student to work towards the decided solution.

This may be a change in materials, routines, etc., or simply turning to a decided means by which to communicate the need in the future.

Challenges

The approach itself can be quite challenging to use in some classrooms because of the cultural background of the students. In some cases, students respond more positively to threats of punishment as this is what they are accustomed to, rather than sitting down with the teacher to think about and name feelings, a skill many adults do not possess and a practice many adults find too challenging to face. This is especially the case with teens. Additionally, students may need some training to think of solutions.

Conclusion

Discipline has always taken a short-term approach in mainstream education, one that has little considered the long-term behaviour of the child. In adopting the LURNA approach, and allowing students the space to process feelings and identify solutions, teachers are speaking to the upstairs brain of the student, thus training and developing the functions associated with it, namely emotional regulation, situation analysis, problem solving and decision making.

Zahra.Zuhair@britishcouncil.org.bh

References Faber, A., & Mazlish, E. (2001). How to talk so kids will listen and listen so kids will talk. Piccadilly.

Ockwell-Smith, S. (2017). The Gentle Discipline Book. How to raise co-operative, polite and helpful children. PIATKUS. Siegel, D., & Bryson, T. (2016). No Drama Discipline. Bantam Books.

5.6 Dos and don’ts in young learners’ pronunciation lessons Stella Palavecino IES en Lenguas Vivas ‘Juan Ramon Fernandez’, Buenos Aires,

Argentina

Pronunciation is one of the building blocks of learning languages. It is essential for listening and speaking, and it has remarkable benefits in the realms of reading and writing. If it is so vital, why do many EFL teachers fear teaching pronunciation?

One of the reasons why teachers are not confident when teaching pronunciation

93

Chapter 5: Teaching young learners

may be the ‘overwhelming’ metalanguage associated with it. As students, we are taught to master the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), a thorough description of vowels and consonants, the organs of speech, and so forth. The problem appears when it comes to teaching: we simply cannot transfer all this knowledge in the same way to our EFL classes.

We know that every time we teach vocabulary or grammar the pronunciation of words should be taught as well and, usually, young learners are spontaneously aware that English feels and sounds different from their mother tongue. In accordance with this, we show them how to articulate a sound by, e.g., saying: ‘Put the tip of the tongue on the little mountain behind your teeth and say /d/’. Moreover, we use the IPA to illustrate this. Through this technique, our learners cannot be any further from the acquisition of any sound. Their brains quickly become overloaded and blocked by the metalanguage we use (Schmidt, 1993).

Children learn when they make sense of the tasks they perform and are physically active. Thus their brains release hormones like dopamine, serotonin and endorphins, which can improve concentration and focus. Therefore, we need to follow an approach that is compatible with the way children learn when we teach pronunciation. It is at this point that phonics seems to fit in, as it trains learners to hear sounds in words without resorting to any form of metalanguage – so the letter ‘A’ is /æ/ and not /eɪ/ and so on. Phonics could be the most appropriate approach to teach pronunciation and spelling to young learners because it works with stories, fantasy characters that make the sound-spelling relationship memorable, as well as songs and games. Yet there is a downside to it: this technique has been created for native speakers of English, who already know how to produce these sounds.

The major problem for non-native speakers is that they need to acquire the targeted sounds first. For example, a Spanish speaker will make no distinction between /v/ or /b/. So, ‘very’ is ‘berry’ (and vice versa), and herein lies the much-needed ‘missing link’. For the non-native speaker, phonics is another pointless procedure if it is conducted in the way it is presented to native speakers of the language. It logically follows that a child will simply not develop any phonological awareness if s/he keeps saying ‘ban’ instead of ‘van’, or ‘berry’ for ‘very’.

Here goes my suggestion: If stories are so powerful because they connect the narrative to emotions, we might as well use stories not only to make the sound-spelling noticeable, but also to teach a new sound that non-native speakers do not have. Let me introduce the reader to ‘Emo-pron stories’, which address the ‘missing link’ (Palavecino, 2022). This entails the use of a teaching tool that fosters acquisition of new sounds naturally. Children will remember what is anchored in laughter, fun and emotion. For example, the /v/ sound can be introduced through the story The Elves’ Magic Moves (Palavecino, 2023). Through fantasy characters, children learn to make magic moves. By hugging the upper teeth with the lower lip, the Elves make magic moves to bring people together magically. The conflict is presented when the villain Dwarfs make the Elves fall and lose their upper teeth: the magic is lost. The magic move ‘vat a vat, vet a vet, vest a vest’ turns into ‘bat a bat, bet a bet, best a best’. In the story, the Tooth Fairy works his magic and sends the teeth back to the Elves’ mouth, and the magic is back. The Elves’ magic moves make more people join the move and they

94

Engaging with Shakespeare in the ‘English as a foreign language’ classroom

are happy. In the end, they forgive the villains and end up making the ‘V’ moves all together. In this way, children will notice and naturally remember the place of articulation of both /v/ and /b/, and they will also remember the basic /b/-/v/ distinction.

After the acquisition of a new sound, teachers can go on with the activities to relate sound to spelling, such as the ones introduced by phonics. But the ‘missing link’ has been unveiled. inst06@gmail.com

References Palavecino, S. (2022). An EFL phonics approach to teach pronunciation to Young Learners. ‘Emopron’ stories. https://emopronstories.com.ar Palavecino, S. (2023). The Elves’ Magic Moves. Buenos Aires English House ELT Editions.

Schmidt, R. (1993). Awareness and Second Language Acquisition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 13, 206–226.

5.7 Engaging with Shakespeare in the ‘English as a foreign language’ classroom Conny Loder European School Munich, Germany

Drama games provide numerous benefits not only for language acquisition, but also for soft skills, thereby boosting learners’ confidence, collaboration skills and creativity (Almond, 2005). Allowing learners to actively engage with Shakespeare’s plays will not only deepen their linguistic and cultural insights, but also foster their sense of literary appreciation. As Stredder points out, practical work on drama offers ‘every individual student personal contact with the plays’; moreover, it ‘requires learners to be … responsible for the work that goes on in the classroom’ (2012, p. 6). During my workshop, we explored this classroom work with several examples of Shakespearebased activities suitable for secondary learners at B2–C1 level.

The icebreaker

This activity focuses on learners becoming comfortable with articulating Shakespeare’s language. Small text units activate all learners at once and allow them to practise pronunciation, intonation and stress patterns. Shakespeare’s insults constitute the appropriate length of text unit for this task (see The LitCharts Blog (2017) for examples).

Learners form a circle, with each person standing behind a chair. One person enters the middle of the circle (person A) and their chair is removed so that there is one chair fewer than the total number of participants. Person B (random) steps into the circle, addresses person A (i.e. reads out their insult). Person A, the addressee, reacts by reading their insult, then sits down on any random chair. The person behind that chair enters the circle (person C), reads out their line, person B responds with their line, leaves and sits on a chair. Repeat until all chairs are occupied.

This activity instantly creates a positive atmosphere in the classroom. The witty

95

Chapter 5: Teaching young learners

repartees exchanged between learners as they playfully insult each other result in much laughter and, as such, are an ideal starter activity to allow everyone to become comfortable with actively using Shakespeare’s language.

Be the director

The ‘Be the director’ activity shifts the focus to productive language use. Learners should be familiar with the text and have a basic understanding of the theatrical means and creative choices that actors and directors employ to bring a character alive on stage: how do voice, movement, body posture and gestures support the actor in portraying a character’s specific age/mood/constitution, etc.? One classic scene for this activity is the first scene of Macbeth, where the three witches discuss their plot to ensnare Macbeth, as this is a short scene with exchanges of equal length.

Ask learners to form groups of six. Three learners take over the roles of the three witches, three other learners each direct one learner in how to read their lines. In this activity, the directors should stand closely behind or next to ‘their’ witch so that they can whisper the directions into their ears. A positive side-effect of this activity is that it offers risk mitigation for shy learners, as it relieves them from having to complete two tasks at the same time – reading and interpreting – and yet it gives all learners the chance to ‘own’ the text through the collective output.

Walk the line (with Lady Macbeth)

When learners encounter Shakespeare’s longer speeches, most of which are soliloquies, they often feel overwhelmed by the length, density of vocabulary and context.

Most methods to approach such speeches focus on a didacticised amendment of the speeches, breaking them down into smaller sections for learners. The ‘Walk the line’ activity shifts the focus of this breakdown to the learners and encourages them to experience the text through rhythm. The result is a multisensory experience of the speech in which learners decode the text via kinaesthetic activities. Any soliloquy in verse can be used for this activity (such as Lady Macbeth’s initial speech).

Ask learners to read the soliloquy. Each learner walks at their own pace through the room, reading the soliloquy aloud, making a change of direction after every line, then after every punctuation mark, and finally when a new thought or idea is introduced.

After each progression, encourage learners to give feedback on how their movement affects the way they render the speech. Which progression is the most natural way to deliver the speech? Once they have walked through their speeches, you can encourage learners to experiment with different tones, expressions and gestures. Since all explorations of this speech will be personal, this activity offers each learner their own individual access to the speech.

Taking the text from the page to the stage, this classroom work transforms students from learners into actors and directors ‒ thereby offering the most authentic way to engage with Shakespeare. cornelia.e.loder@gmail.com

96

Integrating machine translation in the lower secondary classroom

References Almond, M. (2005). Teaching English with Drama. Pavilion Publishing.

Stredder, J. (2012). The North Face of Shakespeare: Activities for Teaching the Plays. Cambridge University Press.

The LitCharts Blog. (2017). The Top 87 Shakespeare Insults of all Time. The LitCharts Blog. https://www.litcharts.com/blog/shakespeare/top-shakespeare-insults-of-all-time/

5.8 Integrating machine translation in the lower secondary classroom Brigitte Reber PHBern, Bern, Switzerland Introduction

The integration of technology in education has brought both benefits and challenges.

This is true of the use of machine translation (MT). Although it is a useful tool for foreign language reception and production, learners, especially those below B1 or B2, often lack the necessary pre- and post-editing skills to use MT effectively (Carré et al., 2022). In the German-speaking part of Switzerland, English is taught as a second foreign language after French in lower secondary schools. Learners typically reach the A2 level for productive skills and the B1 level for receptive skills. Hoping to avoid overuse of MT and to prevent learners from submitting noticeably MT-translated texts that exceed the expected level of proficiency, many teachers ban the use of MT or allow its use only for single-word translations (Raaflaub & Reber, 2022). To date, no classroom practice has been established that integrates a reflective use of MT. Integrating MT in existing course materials

To address this issue, a strategy training programme was developed to enhance learners’ skills in the effective use of MT tools. The project, carried out at the Bern University of Teacher Education, covered two units of the compulsory coursebook. These materials were developed before satisfactory machine translation tools were available and therefore do not address the use of MT. In Unit 1, seven of the fifteen activities were redesigned to include strategies for effective MT use. In Unit 2, the activities were left unchanged, but learners could use MT at any time.

Three examples illustrating the redesign of the material can be found here: https:// phbern.padlet.org/brigitte_reber/translation-machines-in-the-lower-secondary-classroom-lrltqkrjn3q511rw. Example 1 increases the complexity of the given activities to facilitate the meaningful integration of MT. A set of pre-tasks involves critical analysis of a sample presentation created using MT. To teach pre-editing skills, the activities focus learners’ attention on the importance of correct spelling, grammar and text structure when entering text into the machine. Example 2 focuses on promoting language awareness across languages. Learners use MT to compare question tags in English, German and French. Example 3 illustrates the modification of the assessment criteria for the endof-unit task, to emphasise the importance of texts being appropriate for the intended audience (classmates), thus avoiding the production of texts beyond the learners’ level.

97

Chapter 5: Teaching young learners

Learners’ perspectives

The redesigned material was tested in six different classes and data were collected through focus group interviews and questionnaires. Of the strategies for effective MT use, clicking on a word to see its variants was mentioned as beneficial by most learners.

Slightly less often, but still frequently, various pre-editing strategies were identified as helpful (see Figure 5.8.1).

Figure 5.8.1: Strategies mentioned as being most helpful (N=90)

Some learners did not express a preference for any strategy or indicated that they had not used MT. Instead, they mentioned that they relied on their own ‘brain’, implying that they knew enough English not to need MT. Nevertheless, there was no significant correlation between self-reported language proficiency and the frequency of MT use. Overall, learners did not significantly increase their use of MT when it was permitted at all times. In addition, some learners experienced less anxiety when they knew they could rely on MT for support.

After the strategy training, certain learners reported increased engagement in pre- and post-editing when using MT. These learners also believed that they could learn while using the machines. Increased attention during pre- and post-editing may indeed promote language awareness. On the other hand, some learners believed that MT hindered their learning process because they were just copying translations. In the interviews, these individuals talked about the language learning tasks as jobs to be done rather than learning opportunities.

Conclusion

Despite teachers’ fears, learners in the six classes did not overuse MT, nor did they use it blindly, even when they were allowed to use it at any time. What did become clear, however, was that for there to be learning gains while using MT, learners should not just be doing tasks, but should be engaged in language learning and using appropriate strategies. When this is the case, MT tools can complement the teacher and act as a learning partner (Gimpel et al., 2023), they can scaffold learners’ language, promote language awareness, and alleviate anxiety.

98

Who will listen? I have an English phobia

Acknowledgement

This project was conducted in collaboration with my colleague Meike Raaflaub at PHBern, Switzerland. brigitte.reber@phbern.ch

References Carré, A., Kenny, D., Rossi, C., Sánchez-Gijón, P., & Torres-Hostench, O. (2022). Machine translation for language learners. In D. Kenny (Ed.), Machine translation for everyone: Empowering users in the age of artificial intelligence (pp. 187–207). Language Science Press.

Gimpel, H., Hall, K., Decker, S., Eymann, T., Lämmermann, L., Mädche, A., Röglinger, M., Ruiner, C., Schoch, M., Schoop, M., Urbach, N., & Vandirk, S. (2023). Unlocking the Power of Generative AI Models and Systems such as GPT-4 and ChatGPT for Higher Education: A Guide for Students and Lecturers. University of Hohenheim. https://digital.uni-hohenheim.de/fileadmin/ einrichtungen/digital/Generative_AI_and_ChatGPT_in_Higher_Education.pdf Raaflaub, M., & Reber, B. (2022). Übersetzungsmaschinen im Englischunterricht des Zyklus 3. Babylonia Journal of Language Education, 1, 42–49. https://doi.org/10.55393/babylonia. v1i.141.

5.9 Who will listen? I have an English phobia Sajan Chaudhary Shree Janata Secondary School, Sunsari, Nepal Introduction

Nepal is a multilingual, multiracial, multicultural and multi-ethnic country in South Asia. According to the census of 2022, Nepal has 124 recorded languages along with English, which is taught as a foreign language. His Majesty’s government of Nepal formally started teaching English to the general public in 1951 BS (Bikram Sambat calendar used in Nepal, equivalent to 1895 AD) during the Rana regime. However, Rana Prime Minister, Jung Bahadur Rana, launched English education in his palace for his offspring after returning from Britain in 1850 BS (1794 AD). The influence of English has been growing ever since, from what was once a royal and standard language to what is now a common demand by the general public.

Context and background of the problem

Foreign language anxiety is a universal phenomenon that is not just found in English language classrooms (Ay, 2010), and this article highlights the anxiety of English among low-achieving students in a Nepalese EFL setting, where English has become a burden for the average student. I have been teaching English with difficulty to Grades 8 to 12 in a government school since 2005. Generally, students in government schools face anxiety in the EFL classroom because of their low linguistic capital, performance, and English phobia, i.e. uneasiness, worry, nervousness, and fear and apprehension in learning or using English is common.

So, I decided to assess the anxiety levels of a group of Grade 10 students at Janata Secondary School, students who were back benchers with low marks, and I designed a

99

Chapter 5: Teaching young learners

questionnaire to find out their anxiety levels: 1 What is English for you?

2 Why don’t you like English?

3 What will encourage you to learn English?

4 Do you feel fear to learn and speak English when your English teacher engages you in classroom activities?

5 Why do you feel hesitation to take part happily in the English classroom?

Measures and results

A non-experimental descriptive research design was adopted. The sample size recruited for the study participants was n=72. The tool used to measure xenoglossophobia was the FLCAS (Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale). Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to test the hypothesis. The findings of the study revealed that the majority of students experienced moderate (42%) to severe (47%) fear with only (11%) of students experiencing mild fear of learning English.

Young (1991, p. 426) states, ‘From a careful examination of the language anxiety literature, six general sources of language anxiety can be discerned and numerous suggestions for reducing it can be identified’. In light of this, I introduced significant changes using the following techniques to overcome xenoglossophobia: • Choose speaking activities that provoke less fear.

• Choose comfortable language partners.

• Develop methods to get calm: o Take deep breaths. o Use positive self-talk. o Challenge negative thoughts.

• Replace ‘I don’t know English well enough’ with ‘I can know English if I try’.

After implementation, a post-test revealed that those feeling severe and moderate fear dropped to 40% and 23% respectively, while those experiencing mild fear increased from 11% to 37%.

Reflection

Wichadee & Orawiwatnakul (2012, p. 93) state, ‘Previous research indicates that cooperative language learning doesn’t only improve learners’ language skills, but also creates a supportive learning environment’. This classroom-based research suggests some pedagogical strategies to mitigate the anxiety level of the students and provide possible solutions to increasing learners’ participation in the EFL classroom. I found that English learning can be less stressful by using favourable measures.

Conclusion

The results offer some recommendations for teachers, teacher educators and curriculum designers in understanding their crucial role by a) promoting a conducive learning environment for students and b) promoting self-paced learning rather than pressurising students for meritorious results. For every problem, there is a solution; however, this depends on the implementer. I truly believe that teachers are the change-makers for their students if they try their best, but nothing will happen if they remain indifferent. sajanchaudhary74@gmail.com

100

Talk globally, learn locally: interculturalising the Palestinian English Curriculum through weekly online link-ups

References Ay, S. (2010). Young Adolescent Students’ Foreign Language Anxiety in Relation to Language Skills at Different Levels. Journal of International Social Research.

Wichadee, S., & Orawiwatnakul, W. (2012). Cooperative Language Learning: Increasing Opportunities For Learning in Teams. Journal of College Teaching & Learning (TLC), 9(2), 93–100. https://doi.org/10.19030/tlc.v9i2.6903 Young, D. J. (1991). Creating a Low-Anxiety Classroom Environment: What Does Language Anxiety Research Suggest? The Modern Language Journal, 75(4), 426–439. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1991.tb05378.x

5.10 Talk globally, learn locally: interculturalising the Palestinian English Curriculum through weekly online link-ups Ashraf Kuheil [The Simon Greenall Hands Up Project Scholarship] and Nick Bilbrough The Hands Up Project, The Palestinian Territories

Localised coursebooks for the teaching of EFL in state secondary schools facilitate the learning of the language by using familiar contexts and therefore easily accessible content. Such coursebooks are often organised with the principles of the communicative approach in mind and include personalised speaking activities that are designed to give young learners the opportunity to use their developing English in meaningful ways.

Here is an example activity from English for Palestine, Grade 8, p. 6 (Macfarlane, 2013).

However, our experience working with teachers of large classes (around 50 students) in The Palestinian Territories suggests that such activities are often skipped by classroom teachers. There may be three reasons for this. Firstly, teachers are under pressure to cover the curriculum and prepare for the entirely accuracy-focused written exams, and such activities may be seen as wasting valuable time. Secondly, it is almost impossible to monitor 25 different pairs taking part in such an activity at the same time to make sure they are on task. Thirdly, it may not be motivating for teenagers to talk in English about daily routines, their homes, etc. with people who share the same L1 and who they’ve known all their lives.

The Hands Up Project (https://www.handsupproject.org/) has researched the impact on motivation of doing similar coursebook-based activities through online intercultural link-ups with a remote volunteer in another country (the results of this will be published elsewhere later). Over a period of eight weeks, two classes of Grade 8 female students (aged 13–14) and two classes of Grade 8 male students of the same age, at two Ministry of Education schools in Gaza, attended weekly 40-minute 101

Chapter 5: Teaching young learners

online Zoom sessions with Nick Bilbrough (Artistic Co-ordinator, Hands Up) connecting remotely. His image was projected onto the classroom wall and his voice amplified through a speaker, but he could only hear the voices or clearly see the faces of students who came up to the computer webcam to interact with him. The regular classroom teacher was in the room with the children throughout all the sessions and was able to facilitate any interaction with him. There were 48 to 50 students in each class and the 40-minute sessions (equivalent to one lesson) took place once a week (that is one lesson out of a total of five English classes per week). To exemplify how intercultural link-ups can add meaning and motivate learners, here is a summary of what happened in Weeks 2 and 3. These link-ups relate to the coursebook unit ‘How to be healthy’.

Week 2 link-up For 5–10 minutes at the beginning of class we linked to a similar-aged girl or boy in Bosnia, Germany, and/or Romania and they asked each other questions about their lifestyles. Some students performed or read out stories that they had prepared, relating to an unhealthy/healthy day and, whilst reading, mimed actions to go with their stories. In some cases, the students read out the story while Nick simultaneously mimed actions to represent what was being said. The class ended with Nick showing them three sentences about himself in the present perfect continuous tense. Two were true and one was a lie. A few students came up to the webcam and asked him questions to try to work out which sentence wasn’t true.

Week 3 link-up The students had created and memorised paired dialogues on the theme of giving advice about lifestyle. In the session, they took it in turns to perform them to Nick and prizes were awarded for the best acted ones. We played ‘two truths and a lie’ the other way around (students took it in turns to come to the webcam and read their own prepared present perfect continuous sentences). By asking questions, Nick tried to work out where the lie was. He got a point if he guessed the lie correctly and the student team got a point every time he failed!

Here is a reflection from a boy who participated (kindly translated from Arabic by Haneen Jadalla): Before the first session, I felt that it would be pointless to do this because I wouldn’t be able to understand anything. I don’t like the act of learning English because it is the language of the people who brought the occupation to us. After doing the link-ups, I started to feel that there is goodness in this world and not all those people are evil. I also started to feel much more comfortable. I loved the competitions and the activities were very motivating. This has fostered confidence in me to believe in my own ability to speak to people from outside. I’ll also never forget that we beat him in the game!

To conclude, online link-ups have not only proved to be effective in promoting personalised and meaningful communication about topics in the curriculum, they have also enabled young people from different cultures to become more culturally aware. ashraf_kuhail@hotmail.com; info@handsupproject.org

Reference

Macfarlane, M. (2013). English for Palestine, Grade 8. Macmillan.

102

6

Assessment, feedback and evaluation

The first three papers in this chapter concern the assessment of speaking. Arum Perwitasari discusses elicited imitation in assessing speaking proficiency from theoretical and pedagogical perspectives, and provides recommendations for its use in the classroom. In Chile, Ma. Begoña Aguilar Bustos, Marisol Castillo Rosales, Vanessa Fernández Farías and Yéssica Aguilera Fuentes look to self-video recordings to assess speaking skills, and, equally important, to reduce levels of anxiety. They report on the use of a new task-based speaking activity guideline for university students and learners’ opinions of this. The third paper by Isabelle Gonthier is concerned with the large-scale standardised assessment of pragmatics through scenarios in academic contexts. Isabelle describes the development, administration, rating and challenges of a pragmatics task for an online academic English proficiency test. In the context of business English courses in Austria, Catherine Prewett-Schrempf and Linda Slattery report on the use of machine translation. Results attested to clear benefits, resulting in it being officially endorsed as an aid in graded assessment. Sue Ashley, Netherlands, also reports on assessment in a business English course context, but focuses on communication and critical thinking skills. Moving on to the use of feedback in assessment, Constance Leonard and Christopher Gras report on the benefits and disadvantages of using screencasting and audio recordings for writing feedback. Their paper reminds us of the need to stay up-to-date with technological developments which enhance feedback, and the need for further research into student perceptions of these. Then, Isabel Piñeiro Sorondo reports from Uruguay on the perceptions of secondary students who were exposed to multiple forms of feedback during a cycle of collaborative classroom inquiry. Results of the study have implications that will be of interest to practitioners in a range of contexts. The focus of Vahida Berberovic’s paper is peer feedback. Vahida reports on peer feedback implementation during an online academic English course, together with some useful insights into what can be done to support students unused to this. Laura Laubacher draws on her experience of e-portfolios to assess the 21st-century skills of business students to offer practical tips for setting up, using and marking e-portfolios. The next paper by Gabriela Marcenaro Bonsignore relates to formative assessment within teacher education. Gabriela outlines eight practical formative assessment ideas, which could also be applied to teaching. Also related to teacher education is Olga Kvasova’s paper on developing writing rating scales with pre-service teachers in Ukraine. Olga begins with a rationale before going on to describe the methodology, procedure and outcomes of the training. In response to educational reforms in Kazakhstan resulting in a more flexible English secondary curriculum, Zhananur Kassimova describes how it is now possible to focus on learning outcomes and units of study aligned to assessment, resulting in more meaningful lessons. To end this chapter, we turn to course evaluation and Kim Beadle, who identifies five principles for designing course evaluation surveys to ensure they are fit-for-purpose and elicit quality actionable data for improvements.

103

Chapter 6: Assessment, feedback and evaluation

6.1 Elicited Imitation Task for assessing English speaking proficiency Arum Perwitasari ETS Global, Amsterdam, Netherlands

Elicited Imitation Task (EIT), also known as sentence repetition, requires L2 learners to listen to a series of stimuli and repeat them verbatim, word-for-word (Underhill, 1987). EIT is claimed to be adaptive to both general second language (L2) and test preparation classrooms due to its flexibility and simplicity in task development and administration (Van Moere, 2012). It is a useful measure of L2 learners’ overall spoken fluency, grammatical knowledge, lexical development, pronunciation, articulation and the correct use of word stress. Little is known about how the pedagogical implications of EIT for assessing spoken L2 proficiency are used in a classroom.

This article aims to shed some informative light on EIT in assessing speaking proficiency from theoretical and pedagogical perspectives. The key concepts of EIT and the design considerations of EIT in ‘Listen and Repeat’ task type will be discussed.

The article also provides recommendations on how teachers can use EIT in their classrooms.

Key concepts of EIT

The EIT and the efforts that learners spend in implementing the activity are often underestimated. It is not just about doing the same thing repeatedly in the same boring way. It requires a strong ability in the target language.

The key in a successful EIT involves three abilities where L2 learners have to: 1) comprehend the meaning and the form of the sentence; 2) process the meaning and form through their internal language system; 3) articulate the sentence accurately and intelligibly (Van Moere, 2012). Accurate repetition from L2 learners reflects a welldeveloped internal language system, which enables them to fully process the task input.

The EIT is not a simple memory task and the process is rooted in cognitive science.

For an average person, short term memory (STM) capacity can only retain between 5 and 9 pieces of words at one time. For L2 learners, besides the limited STM capacity, new words are heard as fragments. The EIT becomes more difficult if the sentence contains unfamiliar vocabulary or new grammatical structures beyond the learners’ current level in the target language. As the learners progress and acquire more L2 grammar and vocabulary, their ability to listen and repeat increases and the sentence that they can repeat becomes longer.

EIT involves two psycholinguistics concepts: 1) automaticity – a stage where learners comprehend and produce the spoken language with ease; and 2) working memory – a temporary storage necessary for complex cognitive abilities including comprehension and production (Van Moere, 2012). Since EIT involves memory, teachers need to consider certain aspects of the stimulus sentence when creating an EIT, e.g. the sentence length (measured in syllables).

Using EIT in the classroom

When considering the cognitive skills involved in an EIT, teachers should help students practise thoughtful repetition. In this concept, learners should not repeat sentences passively and mechanically but actively and meaningfully. The concept can

104

Elicited Imitation Task for assessing English speaking proficiency

help teachers and learners make the most of the listen and repeat activity. Teachers can also combine it with other more communicative tasks (e.g. virtual interview) for positive washback.

One way to incorporate an EIT in the classroom is through the ‘Listen and Repeat’ task. During the task, a series of random sentences are presented within a scenario in an academic or daily life setting in audio format. In some cases, teachers can also provide a visual representation of the setting (see Figure 6.1.1). Each sentence corresponds to a visual illustration on the screen followed by an audio-recorded input.

Prior to repeating each sentence, teachers can allow a brief pause of 2 seconds. Learners then repeat exactly what was said in the audio. Sentences get progressively longer and more complex as learners progress through the scenario.

Figure 6.1.1: Listen and Repeat Speaking Task from Davis & Norris (2021)

Davis & Norris (2021) found that the length of input sentence on an EIT was strongly associated with test-taker performance, with shorter stimulus sentences being easier. They also found that most test-takers in their study scored perfect or nearly perfect ratings on items up to 9 syllables in length.

To conclude, EIT can be a good measure of learners’ language ability, because L2 learners are able to accurately repeat longer sentences as their language proficiency level increases. Teachers should consider using contextual and visual cues when using an EIT in the classroom, such as the ‘Listen and Repeat’ task (Davis & Norris, 2021), and adhere to certain sentence length limits. aperwitasari@etsglobal.org

References Davis, L., & Norris, J. M., (2021). Developing an Innovative Elicited Imitation Task for Efficient English Proficiency Assessment. TOEFL Research Report. RR-96. ETS RR-21-24.

105

Chapter 6: Assessment, feedback and evaluation Underhill, N. (1987). Testing Spoken Language: A Handbook of Oral Testing Techniques.

Cambridge University Press.

Van Moere, A. (2012). A psycholinguistic approach to oral language assessment. Language Testing, 29(3), 325–344. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532211424478

6.2 Video recordings: a tool to assess speaking in EFL classes Ma. Begoña Aguilar Bustos, Marisol Castillo Rosales and Vanessa Fernández Farías Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María, Viña del Mar, Chile, and Yéssica Aguilera Fuentes, Universidad Técnica Federico Santa

María, Concepción, Chile

Why use students’ self-video recordings to evaluate an oral task?​

In Chilean universities the level of English is diverse. The Chilean educational system includes English as a mandatory subject from middle school and students have only three hours of English a week, which decreases to two hours in high school. A ​ lso, most of our students have never had the opportunity to speak in English, due to the following reasons: the number of students is 30–45 per class, which affects interaction; there is a lack of audio-visual material to support the classes; the students’ only model is the teacher, because only few students have contact with the English language outside the classroom (and if they do, it is mainly through activities like gaming and listening to music); and students experience high anxiety levels when they are asked to speak in front of the class. So, as teachers, we considered these issues and adapted the evaluation process to avoid high levels of anxiety and promote speaking in class. To do this, we searched for literature about new tools or strategies to assess oral production in English.

Tools to assess speaking

In recent years, several technological tools have been incorporated in the language teaching–learning process, e.g. audio-visual support, Mp3, Mp4, mobile phones and Zoom (Belshaw, 2011). The literature also shows that self-video recordings can offer several benefits while strengthening students’ speaking skills (Sumardi et al., 2020; Du, 2009). We evaluated these benefits and any possible disadvantages.

The benefits and disadvantages of video recordings

The main benefits are: • Students have experienced the use of technology from a very early age.

• Th e use of social media has decreased in-person social interaction, making it much less stressful for a student to talk via chat, short video or reel.​ • W ith the use of videos, students’ stress levels decrease by not having to face their teacher and classmates in the classroom.

• S tudents can work on their presentation at their own pace (write the script, correct it, practise it, look for pronunciation of words, and rehearse it).

106

Video recordings: a tool to assess speaking in EFL classes

• N ot speaking live helps students feel more relaxed and confident. According to Du (2009), students who have high levels of self-confidence will be more successful and will communicate better when speaking in a second language. People with low self-esteem tend to make mistakes in the second language, which makes effective communication difficult.​ • Technology helps teachers to evaluate.

The disadvantages include: • A uthenticity of students’ work – for example, learners might receive help from a third party to write their script or they might copy the video format from another platform.

• W orking alone without peers might prevent collaborative learning, peer evaluation or co-evaluation from happening.

• S tudents with special needs or subject to social threats might be prevented from developing the desired effective communication skills.

A new speaking guideline

After weighing up the benefits and disadvantages of video recordings, a new taskbased speaking activity guideline was presented to our university students who are learning English as a foreign language and whose English proficiency level is low (true beginners: pre-A1 and A1). The speaking guideline presents a model which integrates teacher-student interaction and the students’ feelings and self-reflection process. This guideline was created according to a communicative-friendly approach which promotes the performance of speaking tasks in friendly and engaging environments.

Students are asked to give an oral presentation using video recordings of 1.5–2.5 minutes, and they can also choose the topic of the presentation based on the units studied in class. The teacher shares the evaluation rubric in advance and the students have a clear deadline to send their video to the teacher.​ Finally, teachers check students’ progress according to the oral production assessment criteria.

Students’ opinions about the use of video recordings

After working with video recordings, students were asked, via a questionnaire, about the advantages, disadvantages and the importance of using self-video recordings as a communicative strategy to improve their oral production skills. They mentioned that it helped to reduce some obstacles such as anxiety and stress as emotional oppressors.​Some of the students’ answers about the advantages were that they could record several times until they felt happy with their performance, they felt calmer, more comfortable and less nervous.​As for the disadvantages, students said that they missed the opportunity to receive immediate feedback from the teacher. maria.aguilar@usm.cl; marisol.castillo@ad.usm.cl; vanessa.fernandez@usm.cl; yessica.aguilera@usm.cl

References Belshaw, D. (2011). What is digital literacy? A pragmatic investigation. Durham University.

Du, X. (2009). The Affective Filter in Second Language Teaching. Asian Social Science, 5(8), 162–165.

107

Chapter 6: Assessment, feedback and evaluation Sumardi, S., ’Adzima, R., & Wijaya, A. (2020). Digital Video Project: An Authentic Assessment to Assess Students’ Speaking Skills. Indonesian Journal of EFL and Linguistics, 5(1), 57–72. https://doi.org/10.21462/ijefl.v5i1.217

6.3 Assessing pragmatics through scenarios in academic contexts Isabelle Gonthier PSI Services, Quebec, Canada Background

Pragmatics has been widely recognised as a key component of second language (L2) communicative competence. As defined by Bardovi-Harlig (2013), the study of pragmatics is concerned with understanding ‘how-to-say-what-to-whom-when’ (p. 68). In academic contexts, L2 learners are often required to deliver their meanings accurately, appropriately and effectively when interacting with a variety of interlocutors, such as professors/lecturers, peers, tutors/advisors and administrators. However, the assessment of pragmatics has not been widely implemented in large-scale assessment contexts (Issacs, 2016).

Description of the pragmatics task

In this study, we introduced a pragmatics task for an online-delivered academic English proficiency test. The pragmatic task has three scenarios, with each scenario representing a particular speech act. The proficiency levels of the target test takers range from CEFR B1 to C2, though the language used in the scenarios is accessible to CEFR B1 test takers. The structure of each scenario includes a context statement describing the situation (e.g. ‘You can’t access the Internet on campus, and you need to finish some work urgently.’), a description of the ‘interlocutor’ (e.g. ‘Talk to a technology support staff member at your university.’), and three bullet points providing information on how to achieve the communicative goal (e.g. ‘Describe what the problem is./Explain how it is affecting your work./Say what they can do to help.’). Test takers are instructed to ‘think about the situation carefully and respond using appropriate language’, and they have 15 seconds to think and 45 seconds to respond.

Data collection

During our data collection, 62 test takers completed the pragmatics task. The test takers were at least 18 years old, with most of them being university students located in Italy, China, India or Mexico. Their proficiency levels ranged from CEFR B1 to C2.

All responses were rated based on two criteria: 1) communicative achievement, and 2) intelligibility and delivery. Each criterion was rated on a 0–5 scale for a total of 10 points. Linguistic elements, such as grammar and vocabulary, were not part of the rating criteria because this pragmatic task focuses on eliciting content meaningfulness and response appropriateness. After the rating, the responses were ordered according to their scores and grouped into high- (scores 8–10), medium- (scores 5–7), and low- (scores 0–4) performers. Each response was transcribed and analysed to detect any patterns within each group.

108

Assessing pragmatics through scenarios in academic contexts

The pragmatic profile of high performers

In general, test takers in the high-performer group produced responses that were highly relevant to the scenario with sufficient elaboration. Test takers were able to respond to the pre-determined interlocutor and showed consideration of the social roles they ‘played’ in the scenario. Further, test takers at this level employed a wide range of linguistic resources that portray appropriateness, including context-relevant vocabulary word choice and prosodic features.

The pragmatic profile of medium performers

Responses of the medium performers were mostly relevant to the scenarios. However, the content was sometimes repetitive or slightly off-topic. While these test takers knew to address the pre-determined interlocutor, they did not always show awareness of the social roles and would rely on a neutral tone regardless of the situation or the role of the interlocutor. Consequently, it was often observed that test takers at this level did not fully utilise prosodic features to portray appropriateness.

The pragmatic profile of low performers

Test takers in the low-performer group mostly borrowed words from the bullet points in the scenario without much elaboration or consideration of the scenario. They also did not always address the pre-determined interlocutor, and there was a lack of utilisation of proper linguistic resources to portray content meaningfulness. As a result, there was limited evidence that these test takers were aware of what it means to ‘respond appropriately’.

Conclusion

While this study showed that the pragmatics task functioned as designed, we did encounter several challenges. First, given that the test was delivered online, a human interlocutor was not possible, hence limiting the authenticity. Second, the nuances of pragmatics are usually displayed as the interaction unfolds, which is difficult to operationalise in large-scale, standardised assessments. Finally, in order to elicit speech samples of a decent length, the scenarios usually depict a ‘dispreferred’ situation, which is not ideal in a testing context and may not be comfortable for some test takers due to personal characteristics or cultural backgrounds. Considering the challenges, it was decided that the pragmatics task would serve best as a learning module rather than as part of a large-scale, standardised assessment.

Acknowledgement

Many thanks to Heidi Banerjee who was a main contributor to the study. isabelle.gonthier@psionline.com

References Bardovi-Harlig, K. (2013). Developing L2 pragmatics. Language Learning, 63, 68–86. https:// doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2012.00738.x Issacs, T. (2016). Assessing speaking. In D. Tsagari & J. Banerjee (Eds.), Handbook of second language assessment (pp. 131–146). De Gruyter Mouton.

109

Chapter 6: Assessment, feedback and evaluation

6.4 Machine translation: friend or foe in graded assessment?

Catherine Prewett-Schrempf and Linda Slattery Competence Center for Business

English, FHWien der WKW University of Applied Sciences for Management & Communication, Vienna, Austria

Context

The Covid pandemic sparked widespread discussion on the unauthorised use of artificial intelligence (AI) in remote, open-book assessment settings. Yet, given the ever-increasing ubiquity of technology inside and outside the classroom, the question no longer seems to be whether such technologies should be used, but which ones, when, and how (O’Neill, 2019). Thus, we conducted action research focusing on the use of machine translation (MT) by stakeholders in our Management & Entrepreneurship and Tourism & Hospitality Management study programmes. The project was administered with 130 students and 20 lecturers during two English courses focusing on intercultural communication at B2/C1 CEFR level. Data were collected on our stakeholders’ general experience of using MT. Subsequently, we investigated their experience of using MT during a guided in-class email writing activity designed to identify culturally inappropriate use of English. Finally, we collected data on stakeholder opinions and experience following a graded writing assignment. The latter was administered in a digital, open-book format.

General experience of machine translators

We determined that the most frequently mentioned machine translators used by students and lecturers were DeepL and Google Translate and that most students used these for translating on a word level. Although 85% of lecturers stated they use MT for personal, non-academic purposes, only 10% integrated MT in their business English courses. Moreover, 90% of the lecturer participants reported that they did not explicitly prohibit MT use. Regarding their beliefs about student use of MT tools, 95% of respondents agreed that MT plays a useful role in assignments and at the workplace, with 75% agreeing that there are benefits of using MT in the classroom.

Using MT to translate emails

Following the in-class email-writing activity, 86% of our students reported that this exercise had significantly helped to increase their awareness of how the text they had translated with a machine translator could impact the target reader. The activity also helped students to notice L1 and L2 linguistic differences, reflect on their style of expression, tone and level of politeness in both their L1 and English, and become more aware of the quality of MT-generated texts. The lecturers perceived the guided email task as having helped students to engage with MT more critically, with three-quarters indicating a wish to use and develop similar MT-mediated tasks in other business English courses.

Using MT in open-book exams

98% of students reported that they believe the testing mode for written text production should be open book, stating this mirrors real-life situations, reduces the need to

110

Machine translation: friend or foe in graded assessment?

memorise facts and vocabulary, reduces nervousness and boosts exam performance.

When asked more specifically about their use of MT in graded assessments, almost half the students surveyed reported that they had used MT to translate individual words, and 72% felt that it had helped them to write a more polite email. On the other hand, 75% of the lecturers believe that student use of MT for formative assignments does not equate with cheating, with the same percentage indicating that they would support student use of MT in graded assignments. However, for an exam setting, more than two-thirds of lecturers stated that they would generally not support student use of MT. 50% of lecturers also stated that they felt that the open-book mode had not been appropriate for the assessment of intercultural communication.

Our conclusions

We have concluded that an open-book exam, particularly due to the current capabilities of generative AI, is not the way forward. However, as our results clearly attest to the benefits of using MT, and DeepL is the preferred online translator, we plan to officially endorse its use as an examination aid in graded assessments in the upcoming academic year. To ensure academic integrity in this respect, such graded assessments will be administered digitally using on-campus computers where the safe exam browser has been installed. Second, we have concluded that as access to MT can significantly boost linguistic accuracy and range, this has necessitated a need to revisit our teaching focus and assessment criteria and place more emphasis on audience, purpose and relationship.

Through a clearly communicated policy in this respect, we aim to increase our lecturers’ buy-in of MT as a friend. Third, our findings clearly show that guided in-class learning activities can help students to engage with the potential and limitations of MT more critically before the graded assessment setting. Thus, we have seen an ongoing need to develop and integrate such activities across our business English course curricula. catherine.prewett@fh-wien.ac.at; linda.slattery@fh-wien.ac.at

Reference O’Neill, E. M. (2019). Training students to use online translators and dictionaries: The impact on second language writing scores. International Journal of Research Studies in Language Learning, 8(2), 47–65. https://doi.org/10.5861/ijrsll.2019.4002

6.5 Assessing international business undergraduates’ communication and critical thinking skills Sue Ashley HU University of Applied Sciences Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands

So that international business undergraduates can develop the knowledge and skills that they will need to function effectively in professional life, Dutch universities of applied sciences currently base international business modules on 24 programme learning outcomes. These learning outcomes include business communication and critical thinking skills. The Dutch universities of applied sciences define these two learning outcomes respectively as, ‘Communicate (business) messages effectively and persuasively using

111

Chapter 6: Assessment, feedback and evaluation

advanced English to an (un)informed audience’ and ‘Use the process of thoughtful evaluation to deliberately formulate a reasonable conclusion’ (Sijben et al., 2017, p. 36).

One first year module we teach at the HU that is designed to develop and assess students’ business communication and critical thinking skills is Analytical Writing.

Students write essays for this module because they need essay writing skills for future study abroad and for master’s programmes, and because essays are effective in eliciting high level skills (Ashley et al., 2017). For Analytical Writing, students write an argumentative essay on a business-related topic with at least three scholarly sources. Essays must include an introduction, clear thesis statement, three supporting arguments with evidence and examples, one or two counterarguments with rebuttals, a conclusion, and an APA-style reference list.

Rubric criteria

We use a rubric for Analytical Writing because rubrics are suitable for assessing complex learning outcomes (Ashley et al., 2022). Our current rubric contains five criteria to assess business communication and four to assess critical thinking. The business communication criteria are: 1 C an present a clear topic that is sharply defined as a thought-provoking and arguable thesis statement.

2 C an focus consistently on the thesis statement/main idea throughout the entire text.

3 C an use academic/formal register and vocabulary that suit the purpose of an argumentative text (B2/C1 level of English).

4 C an use proper English grammar, sentence structure, spelling and punctuation at B2/ C1 level.

5 C an organise and structure an argumentative text effectively, making use of proper transitions and coherence between ideas and paragraphs.

The audience’s suggestions on these criteria during the workshop in Harrogate focused on improving clarity. One audience member suggested removing ‘thought-provoking’ from the first criterion since students can find it difficult to know when something is thought-provoking. Another felt that register (tone or voice) need not necessarily be formal in business writing, that it depends on the audience. One other member suggested that ‘proper’ was a misleading term and suggested using ‘well aimed at the target audience’ instead.

The four criteria on critical thinking in our current rubric are: 1 C an organise and structure an argumentative text effectively, making use of proper transitions and coherence between ideas and paragraphs.

2 C an apply critical thinking skills by providing relevant and appropriate evidence (e.g. details, examples, data) in support of claims made, and by drawing logical and valid conclusions.

3 C an carry out effective academic research and refer to more than three relevant quality sources.

4 C an apply APA format and can cite correctly.

The audience had one suggestion for improvement here. They proposed changing ‘can carry out effective academic research’ to ‘shows evidence of business appropriate research’. They felt the improved wording would be more useful and relevant for assessment.

112

Using recorded feedback to enhance collaboration and engagement in the writing process

Artificial intelligence (AI) assessment challenges

Recently, the possibility for students to use AI to generate text has become an issue for high schools and universities. Newspaper headlines around the world warn that assessors are having to find new ways to combat AI-assisted plagiarism. Because we noticed that AI-generated essays tend to score high on vocabulary and grammar, my colleagues and I recently changed criteria weightings in our rubric. The nine criteria had been weighted equally, but we downgraded weightings from 11 to 5 per cent for vocabulary and grammar, while increasing weightings from 11 to 15 per cent for writing an arguable thesis statement, focusing consistently on the thesis statement, and structuring text coherently throughout the essay. The audience supported this action. My colleagues and I asked what else we could do to ensure accurate assessment of students’ skills in the era of AI. One major suggestion from the audience was to use other assessment approaches instead of hand-in essays. Besides a return to paper and pen exams (or computer exams without Internet access), one alternative suggested was oral presentations during which students’ knowledge could be questioned. One other alternative proposed was to assess mediation steps in which students demonstrate knowledge by critiquing other students’ writing. Finally, an audience member suggested focusing assessment on the essay writing process rather than the outcome. sue.ashley@hu.nl

References Ashley, S., Schaap, H., & De Bruijn, E. (2017). Revealing conceptual understanding of international business. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 42(5), 690–704. https:// doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2016.1178212 Ashley, S., Schaap, H., & De Bruijn, E. (2022). Illustrating conceptual understanding in international business undergraduate writing. Research Papers in Education, 38(4), 499–519. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2022.2030394 Sijben, G., Stoelinga, B., Molenaar, A., & Ubachs, M. (2017). Framework International Business. National Platform International Business. https://www.vereniginghogescholen. nl/system/profiles/documents/000/000/224/original/international-business.framework.2018. pdf?1518520108

6.6 Using recorded feedback to enhance collaboration and engagement in the writing process Constance Leonard and Christopher Gras United States Air Force Academy,

Colorado Springs, United States

Introduction

Have you ever spent hours responding to student writing with detailed thoughtful comments only to discover your feedback is largely ignored with the student only interested in their grade? If so, you might consider using recorded comments or a combination of

113

Chapter 6: Assessment, feedback and evaluation

recorded and written comments. While traditional direct written feedback and conferencing has been the norm in English for academic purposes (EAP) courses, utilising a combination of emerging feedback alternatives such as screencasting and audio recorded feedback is proving promising. Evidence shows that the synthesised approach to writing feedback, which screencasting provides, more effectively meets the diverse needs of contemporary students (Bitchener et al., 2005). In this brief article, we explore the benefits and challenges of using these forms of feedback and highlight the need for a change in the way we approach the writing feedback process.

Advantages and disadvantages of recorded feedback

One of the main advantages of using screencasting and audio recordings for writing feedback is that they provide more detailed and targeted feedback. According to Cunningham (2019), audio feedback was more engaging and motivating for students, allowing for a more personalised and supportive relationship between students and instructors.

The authors also found that screencasting feedback was effective in improving students’ writing skills, particularly in grammar and vocabulary. Screencasting allows instructors to highlight specific parts of the text, explain grammar or vocabulary issues, and suggest revisions, while showing the student where these changes should be made. Audio recordings provide a more personal and conversational form of feedback that allows instructors to engage in a dialogue with the student. Bush (2020) provides further evidence for the advantages of screencasting, and cites current research which indicates that ‘negotiation and personalisation in the feedback process contributes to writing improvement’ (p.

482). Bush’s findings suggest the student participants in his study preferred screencasting to either recorded or written corrective feedback. Furthermore, participants who watched the screencast several times and took notes increased their learning and engagement with the assignment (Bush, 2020). The study’s instructor and students also reported a closer connection and the ability to better meet their learning goals using screencasting.

As a caveat, some screencasting software can be time consuming; therefore, depending on the number and length of papers that need corrective feedback, recording and writing brief comments with the option of conferencing might be a good solution for those with limited time. However, in addition to providing more detailed and targeted feedback, newer screencasting software can be recorded relatively quickly and easily, and, because they are more comprehensive, students may require fewer rounds of feedback, further reducing the time required for revision. These collaborative approaches have been well received and have increased student participation in the learning process in our context at the United States Air Force Academy, a 4-year undergraduate military institution that prepares cadets to become officers.

Future directions for technology

As technology continues to advance, it is essential for English language educators to stay up to date with the latest tools and software to provide the most effective feedback possible. Future recorded writing feedback promises to be less time-consuming to produce and more personal, with options for seamless video incorporation (Cunningham, 2019).

Advances in machine learning algorithms and natural language processing could be used to automatically identify errors and suggest potential revisions for educators to include in recorded feedback. Used in conjunction with screencasting, artificial intelligence and

114

Student assessment and use of feedback received: an updated study

machine learning could drastically improve both the quantity and quality of feedback provided to learners. Moving forward, educators need to consider the challenges and limitations of emerging technologies to create a more effective writing feedback process that promotes learning and growth.

Future directions for research

As suggested by Bush (2020), further research needs to be conducted on student perceptions of screencasting. The long-term effects of screencast feedback need to be studied, as positive student responses may be due to the novelty of this approach. However, most respondents felt this was a more personal and engaging approach. Another gap in research highlighted by Bush (2020) is how students processed their screencast feedback.

The researcher noted that some participants repeatedly reviewed their video-recorded feedback and even took notes. Further research is needed to better understand how screencast feedback is processed by students compared to written comments.

The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the U.S. Air Force Academy, the U.S. Air Force, the Department of Defense, or the U.S. Government. PA#: USAFA-DF-2023-390 constance.leonard@afacademy.af.edu; chris.gras@afacademy.af.edu

References Bitchener, J., Young, S., & Cameron, D. (2005). The effect of different types of corrective feedback on ESL student writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 14(3), 191–205. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2005.08.001 Bush, J. C. (2020). Using screencasting to give feedback for academic writing. Innovations in Language Learning and Teaching, 15(5), 473–486. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2020.1 840571 Cunningham, K. J. (2019). Student perceptions and use of technology-mediated text and screencast feedback in ESL writing. Computers and Composition, 52, 222–241. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.compcom.2019.02.003

6.7 Student assessment and use of feedback received: an updated study Isabel Piñeiro Sorondo UCU, Montevideo, Uruguay Introduction

Feedback in ELT and education has been widely reflected on (Lyster & Ranta, 1997).

However, Covid circumstances have reshaped students’ perceptions of it, bringing to the spotlight new feedback preferences on their behalf. This paper reports on a smallscale qualitative study using action research. Its aim was to collect the perceptions of 29 students who were exposed to multiple forms of feedback during a cycle of collaborative classroom inquiry (Quinn et al., 2020). The subjects integrated were literature,

115

Chapter 6: Assessment, feedback and evaluation

English language (at B2 level) and robotics. The context was an urban bilingual private secondary school in Uruguay. The learners’ input is novel to academic reflection on feedback, in a largely unexplored context on the topic, as is Latin America. It is relevant to other teaching contexts in which content learning is ensured through collaborative activities, focused on a textual approach, leveraged digitally and where English language acquisition is a priority.

Feedback’s effectiveness as scaffolding for learning is undeniable, especially after the impact of emergency remote teaching. A stronger influence is achieved if it is teacher- and self-provided, both orally and in written form, with metalinguistic features for advanced learners and corrective feedback focus on grammar and content for beginners. The time explicit feedback’s uptake required to guarantee deep learning is long-term, especially when students learn from each other, and the feedback given becomes visible in the assessment results. Within a sociocultural approach where textual genres are focused on, and writing for learning is possible, feedback needs to be explicit and provide a performance rationale, following Mahboob & Devrim’s (2011) ‘carrying’ parameter.

Method

For 12 weeks, in two weekly 80-minute lessons, a collaborative classroom inquiry was modelled integrating teacher-generated, team and peer feedback, online and face-toface, in oral and written forms. The first five weeks were online, the remaining seven were hybrid. There was a focus on grammatical correctness and formative feedback as a scaffold for content learning. Teams of students found inspiration in sci-fi story fiction, planned cinema scripts on themes derived from the plot, and converted them into digital dialogues programming with Scratch. Each team of students showcased their work to a relative whom they interviewed on their liking of the final project product.

At the beginning and at the end of the process, focus group interviews to collect feedback data were carried out with the participant students (qualitative coding), their work was assessed (document analysis), and the literature teacher-researcher submitted her interpretations of their perceptions to the English and robotics teachers who acted as critical friends.

Findings

Students prioritised oral informal feedback over formal interviews, and confirmed Lyster & Ranter’s (1997) observation that recast is the most used form of corrective feedback. They criticised feedback given to the class in general because individuals might suffer peer pressure and feel exposed. Providing specific feedback on form and content jointly on the writing of only one paragraph proved advantageous, as opposed to unfocused feedback over a longer piece. The use of rubrics was enhanced by concluding comments – even more when the criteria diction was slightly abstract for students – or when it took the form of a special adaptation by providing a paragraph enumerating the pupil’s strengths and weaknesses. Explicit feedback was preferred over coded metalinguistic feedback, even in the case of more proficient students. Pupils preferred a combination of feedback modalities in any of its forms (Quinn et al., 2020), written feedback following oral to make a record of mistakes, with teacher and

116

Implementing peer feedback for writing tasks

peer feedback seen as complementary. Preview feedback created awareness of fossilised mistakes and, added to the study of samples, it improved performance by decreasing the attention devoted to correcting language inaccuracies. The preferred layout for feedback presentation was open-ended questions, and simple, straightforward bullet points. Online and asynchronous feedback were vastly rejected since the affective tone of feedback was more difficult to perceive.

Conclusion

There is a shift from the ESL corrective feedback approach on language to a more integrated collaborative classroom inquiry consideration of the affective and contextual components necessary to provide personalised feedback on content and language jointly. moodleigcselit@gmail.com

References Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1997). Corrective feedback and learner uptake: Negotiation of Form in Communicative Classrooms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19(1), 37–66. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263197001034 Mahboob, A., & Devrim, D. Y. (2011). Providing Effective Feedback in an online Environment. SPELT Quarterly, 26(3), 14.

Quinn, J., McEachen, J., Fuller, M., Gardner, M., & Drummy, M. (2020). Dive into Deep Learning: Tools for Engagement. Corwin Press.

6.8 Implementing peer feedback for writing tasks Vahida Berberovic UTS College, Sydney, Australia Introduction

Teachers usually provide extensive feedback to their students but are often frustrated when little of that is applied in later drafts. This is mostly due to teacher feedback falling outside the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (Vygotsky, 1978) – the area of development where learners are ready for new stages of learning. Peer feedback, however, is within that ZPD, and students are more inclined and capable to apply that feedback (Lundstrom & Baker, 2009). I, therefore, conducted an action research project investigating peer feedback and its application in the classroom.

Context and participants

UTS College is a pathway college delivering academic English (AE) and diploma courses, articulating into the university undergraduate and graduate courses. The AE5 student cohort in the two cycles of this research consisted of students from Southeast Asia, Saudi Arabia and Russia. One of the students was a PhD candidate, eleven were master’s students and thirteen progressed into undergraduate courses. The platform used for course delivery was Canvas, and lessons were conducted via Zoom.

117

Chapter 6: Assessment, feedback and evaluation

Research focus and data collection

Endeavouring to better understand students’ hesitation and provide more engaging content, I posed the following questions: 1 W hat are the main obstacles to student engagement in the peer feedback process?

2 W hat systems can be put in place to support students when applying peer feedback?

I conducted the action research project over two 10-week cycles, developing a number of activities based around peer feedback, including model scenarios, checklists and other supporting material.

Data were collected via a short survey at course commencement and course completion, supplemented by semi-structured interviews. In addition, the students videorecorded some of their peer feedback sessions. I kept a journal where I noted the students’ behaviour and comments after each session. To allow strengthening of data, I analysed student writing samples prior to and after the intervention, and facilitated end-of-course reflections.

Findings

At course commencement, only 80 per cent completed the survey, but by course end all students had. They initially expressed apprehension about peer feedback, but at course conclusion students were more positive, with one student stating: ‘I had to do it to believe it’s useful’.

The student-recorded peer feedback sessions yielded very little useful information during the first few weeks. They spoke little, and most interactions focused on the technicalities of the activity to be completed. Some had their camera switched off and uttered only a few words. The tide turned in week six when students displayed more interaction, interpersonal engagement and actual critique of the writing. All cameras were on; there was even an occasional smile.

My journal entries show similar observations. Most students avoided making negative comments, restricting them to the occasional ‘overwhelming’ and ‘I’m not an expert’. From week six, they became quite vocal and happy to express how they identified their own mistakes while looking at their peer’s writing.

The triangulation process revealed an improvement in clause structure and word form, but it was unclear whether this was related to peer feedback. However, that relationship was more obvious in improved referencing. I facilitated referencing activities as I had done in previous courses but observed a noticeable improvement in the students’ work.

The second triangulation exercise of collecting end-of-course reflections seemed the most insightful. The video-recorded reflections took place in week ten, and the responses could be summarised by the comment ‘peer feedback is very useful’. Some chose to elaborate, and their answers could be classified into three categories. The first group mentioned their insecurity when activities were of a general nature and recommended that all activities should be clearly structured, with a narrow definition of the desired outcome. The second group recommended more lessons dedicated to practising language used for feedback. The third group suggested having more, but shorter, peer feedback sessions, focused on one specific aspect.

118

E-portfolios: assessing 21st-century skills

Conclusion

Although this research project involved a small group of students, and the findings cannot be generalised, it is possible to answer the research questions: 1 Th e main obstacles are teacher-induced, giving vague instructions without clearly defined outcomes, and student-generated, based on students’ lack of confidence and avoiding taking risks.

2 T eachers need to give clear instructions, with clear outcomes and expectations.

Students build confidence when a safe environment is created, where students trust their teacher and peers.

Further research is needed before ascertaining any generalisations. However, I feel confident enough to conclude: 1 Th e most important aspect for study success is creating an environment of trust and safety.

2 W hen students are expected to achieve more, they will.

Vahida.berberovic@utscollege.edu.au

References Lundstrom, K., & Baker, W. (2009). To give is better than to receive: The benefits of peer review to the reviewer’s own writing. Journal of Second Language Writing 18, 30–43.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.

Harvard University Press.

6.9 E-portfolios: assessing 21st-century skills Laura Laubacher University of Greenwich International College, London, UK

In ELT, incorporating 21st-century skills into teaching has become increasingly important. Definitions of 21st-century skills vary but literature often refers to the 4 Cs: Communication, Collaboration, Critical Thinking, Creativity, and may be expanded to include digital literacy, self-reflection, employability skills, soft skills, and a range of other personal attributes like growth mindset, leadership, perseverance, and organisation skills (Soulé, 2020).

In an informal survey conducted with my teaching colleagues and some IATEFL participants, although the majority agreed that these skills are important for our learners, fewer felt that these were teachable and even fewer felt these skills could be easily and objectively assessed (see https://padlet.com/eltlaura1/21CenturySkills). However, I found e-portfolios could be a motivating way for students to develop and showcase these skills while also providing a means of assessment. Here are some practical tips for setting up and marking e-portfolios based on my experience using them with foundation business students studying a Personal Learning and Thinking Skills (PLTS) module at a British university in London.

119

Chapter 6: Assessment, feedback and evaluation

What to assess?

The first thing is to decide what activities to include in the portfolio. Creating the portfolio itself helps students gain 21st-century skills, but which skills should be explicitly included? Should students include everything or just a sample of their best work? How many components? The fewer, the easier to mark, and it’s helpful to give students templates to follow. For the PLTS course, I broke these into three main types of tasks: 1 problem-solving tasks and group presentations; 2 skill audits and goal-setting; and 3 self-reflection.

The first are similar to typical TEFL task-based activities, but with a shift of focus from language to problem-solving and self-reflection. For skills audit and goal-setting tasks, my students struggled to generate ideas or talk about themselves, but this could be overcome by giving them frameworks. There are many common business acronyms which could be used, like STAR (Situation, Task, Action, Result), personal SWOT (Strength, Weakness, Opportunity, Threat) analysis, and setting SMART goals (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-bound). Self-reflection was the hardest for my learners, but two ways to scaffold them was through using images and recordings rather than just writing, and using Gibbs Reflective Cycle (1988) to encourage analysis and evaluation rather than just description. These frameworks were also helpful when giving feedback because missing stages could be highlighted.

Which platform?

Next, it’s important to choose a platform and get students using it straight away. The two we used were Padlet and Bulb, both of which I’d recommend. Padlet is easy to set up and add documents to, and, most importantly, it’s free. Bulb was my students’ favourite because it looks more professional, includes a CV/résumé function, is intuitive, and can be used easily on smart phones. From a teacher’s perspective, it is easier for managing a class, and includes a time-stamp archive (essential for not making changes after the submission deadline), but, unfortunately, is not free. Regardless which platform, it is important to get students working directly on it from the beginning so everything is saved in one place, and they don’t waste time gathering and assembling the different components right before the deadline.

How to assess?

I’d also recommend choosing a marking scheme and planning how to give feedback from the start, especially as the marking load can be daunting and much heavier than other forms of assessment. Two things to consider are whether to mark it as a whole portfolio or individual components and whether to use a holistic or an analytical marking scheme. Holistic gives students an overall band score whereas analytical focuses on individual elements of their performance. I used both and found the holistic scheme much easier in terms of marking time, but also for students and other teachers to understand. Another way to cut down on the marking load is to simplify everything. Incorporate the requirements of the marking scheme directly into

120

Eight formative assessment ideas for teacher education

templates. Set drafts and give feedback throughout the course, so that when it comes to marking their final portfolios most things have already been read and assessed.

Finally, don’t forget to ask for permission to share student portfolios. It’s helpful to have a bank of good student examples so students understand the requirements.

Conclusion

Implementing e-portfolios requires preparation, but the rewards are worth it. After seeing my students’ progress, and receiving positive feedback from them, it reinforced my conviction that 21st-century skills could indeed be successfully taught and assessed through e-portfolios. laura_laubacher@hotmail.com

References Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods. Further Education Unit.

Soulé, H. (2020). 21st Century Skills – an Overview. In R. Finnie (Ed.), 21st Century Skills in the ELT Classroom - a guide for teachers (pp. 14–27). Garnet Education.

6.10 Eight formative assessment ideas for teacher education Gabriela Marcenaro Bonsignore Instituto de Profesores ‘Artigas’, Montevideo,

Uruguay

Introduction

One of the most challenging aspects of formative assessment that teacher education has faced has been its honest implementation across all courses. No matter how incorporated into the theoretical field its principles are, formative assessment is not often seen as a permanent constituent of the assessment cycle.

The eight activities

The eight activities shared here cater for the evaluation of prior knowledge, content, social strategies and feedback.

1 Pecha Kucha presentations A Pecha Kucha presentation consists of a six-minute talk supported by 20 slides, while the presenter develops their ideas. Its Japanese origin dates from 2003 and it has spread worldwide in Pecha Kucha nights and in educational circles. Its versatile format allows learners to focus on questions or debate scenarios. A rubric, collectively designed and agreed, can be used during the feedback phase.

2 L earners designing their own tests Learners designing their own tests has been one of the most rewarding experiences in the implementation of authentic formative assessment within teacher education.

The idea is to ask learners to create a test which complies with the basic principles of assessment (validity, equity, washback, reliability and authenticity), as well as

121

Chapter 6: Assessment, feedback and evaluation

tallying with the regulations and modes of the course. Creating a test in groups is an extremely worthwhile task. Inspired by David Perkins’ (2003) idea on visible thinking, this activity brings together a complex network of connections about teaching and learning modes within the wider topic of assessment and evaluation.

3 M aking introductions through pieces of art This activity invites learners to introduce themselves by choosing a work of art. It involves a personalised introduction and it offers a wide range of cultural explorations. Any artefact can be used, though the most common ones are paintings or sculptures.

4 G ames Games, which can then be used by other classmates to revise for their tests, have been a rewarding activity. Their favourite one was Kahoot!, but, since it was banned, alternative creative games have been designed. New versions of Snakes and Ladders, Tic-Tac-Toe and crossword puzzles have gained popularity.

5 & 6 New versions and creative writings These activities involve the creative updating of bibliography. Respecting authors’ rights, learners are given hypothetical situations for some materials to be updated or expanded. Adding a new chapter to a book, creating a glossary, or incorporating technological ideas can serve as examples. The most valued one has been creating a new activity bank for a book, incorporating the ideas of neuroscience.

7 C artoon change Cartoons have always served as motivational springboards. In this case, they are to be adapted, so as to be suitable for rooting a new idea or some educational principles.

Illustrating this activity with an example is worth the picture.

Look at this cartoon picture and reflect on its content regarding the concepts of validity, authenticity and wash-back effect. Then, provide an adaptation or free version of the cartoon to reflect your understanding of fair assessment.

Figure 6.10.1: Example of adapted cartoon

8 The feedback chain The feedback chain consists of creating groups who will give feedback on the feedback. This is achieved by reading and making comments at different stages. Below is a specific activity which was assigned to a group studying didactics.

122

Developing writing rating scales with trainee teachers

I have read all the assignments and I invite you to continue working on them.

We are going to focus on two aspects: language use and content.

Regarding language use, I would like you to choose three language mistakes and give written feedback to the author of the work you are asked to read. Then you will write a paragraph which summarizes your view of the reflection. This paragraph can be addressed to the reader or written in an impersonal style.

I hope you find the activity as rewarding as I found my reading of your very thoughtful reflections.

Figure 6.10.2: Example of instructions for feedback activity

Conclusion

Formative assessment has gained a solid and sound relevance both in the fields of assessment and teaching, and assessment and learning. The unforgettable saying, ‘Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I remember. Involve me and I learn’ applies to perfection when learners can put into action what they have learned in a meaningful task.

Never should we forget that feedback matters. When learners get involved, they can experience hope, optimism and change. Without these, learning lacks its most important aspects. Assessment that does not foster transformation should not be regarded as such. gabymarcenaro@gmail.com

Reference Perkins, D. (2003). Making Thinking Visible. Harvard Graduate School of Education. https:// pz.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/MakingThinkingVisible_DP.pdf

6.11 Developing writing rating scales with trainee teachers Olga Kvasova Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Ukraine [IATEFL

TEASIG Scholarship]

Introduction

Language assessment literacy of in-service university teachers in Ukraine has been a focus of professional development activities of the Ukrainian Association for Language Testing and Assessment (UALTA) since its inauguration in 2015. When testing reception skills (oral and written), teachers frequently resort to ready-made test tasks available in teacher’s books for their courses, or attempt to construct effective reading and listening tests themselves. When it comes to testing production skills, teachers need to rely on rating scales and criteria, which cannot be readily adopted from

123

Chapter 6: Assessment, feedback and evaluation

standardised tests, since their construct may be altogether different from the curricular requirements in each particular university setting.

In 2018, a survey, aimed at gauging the writing assessment literacy of 104 teachers, helped identify the challenges that they face when conducting assessment of writing.

Along with the need to conduct special training to enhance the writing assessment skills of in-service teachers, it became clear that more attention should be paid to the development of such skills at pre-service level. This paper will reveal the methodology, procedure and outcomes of training student teachers in developing writing rating scales in the context of Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Ukraine.

Training methodology

A detailed analysis of training practising teachers in writing scale design (Kvasova et al., 2022a) had led me to the understanding that teachers experience a lot of difficulties when they are asked to understand and utilise the criteria imposed on them, so I decided to adopt a different approach. In this, teachers start by identifying their needs related to the curricula and then develop a rating scale aligned with these curricula (Kvasova et al., 2022b). Since this approach appeared effective, I modified it to training pre-service teachers and offered them the opportunity to do a team project.

The first stage consisted of theoretical input, during which the trainees were involved in discussing such questions as: ‘How to assess writing?’ and ‘What are the types of rating scales?’. They then compared and contrasted existing rating scales, and discussed advantages and disadvantages of analytic and holistic scales. During this stage they became familiar with the key concepts of rating scale design, and, in terms of language acquisition, they gained the relevant testing terminology to utilise in the process.

Next, the team received tasks to develop analytic writing rating scales for classroom use, namely to rate a descriptive essay based on a local curriculum at level B1–B2.

The trainees proceeded to the implementation phase, working independently from the trainer but guided by detailed guidelines for rating scale designers. This began with brainstorming the question, ‘What quality of written text do you expect your students to produce?’, which required them to refer to CEFR descriptors and a specific curriculum. During subsequent steps, the teams 1) studied the existing rating scales, the criteria they included and, specifically, what each criterion meant; 2) chose their own criteria and developed their detailed descriptors; 3) chose the number of bands and agreed on the scores for each criterion; 4) completed their rating scale; 5) piloted the rating scale by rating several scripts given to them by the trainer; 5) finalised the rating scale improving the inconsistencies; 6) rated another batch of descriptive essays to make sure the awarded scores had a minimal variance between scores awarded by different raters; and 7) presented their rating scales to the class.

Findings and discussion

The rating scales developed contained the criteria that were quite typical for writing rating scales (task achievement, coherence and cohesion, vocabulary and grammar) with insignificant variations in terms and order. In the majority of cases, the criteria were worded quite tersely (e.g. ‘All points are mentioned and elaborated’; ‘Quite full

124

Aligning assessment with the curriculum through the Understanding by Design framework

coverage of all points’). All scales but one contained a minimal number of bands – three or four. The team who initially offered nine bands also limited their number to a more practical four, after piloting. However, progression in the ‘per level’ descriptors was very well observed. The comparison of scores evidenced quite an insignificant variance in the awarded scores.

Conclusion

Can we claim that their rating scales were effective? Without carrying out certain analysis we cannot. However, the purpose of the project was to engage student teachers in a real-life professional task that they will have to perform in the future. The trainees were agents who coped with a meaningful task, experienced success and/or pitfalls, felt motivated while collaborating on the rating scale design, and are most likely to replicate the process drawing on the insights gained. olga.kvasova.1610@gmail.com

References Kvasova, O., Kavytska, T., Osidak, V., & Green, A. (2022a). Development of a writing rating scale for culture and context-specific educational setting in Ukraine. ARS LINGUODIDACTICAE, 9, 25–39.

Kvasova, O., Hnapovska, L., Kalinichenko, V., & Budas, I. (2022b). Implications of training university teachers in developing local writing rating scales. Studies in Language Assessment 11(1), 37–63.

6.12 Aligning assessment with the curriculum through the Understanding by Design framework Zhananur Kassimova Nazarbayev Intellectual School of Biology and Chemistry,

Karaganda, Kazakhstan [Trinity College London Language Examinations Scholarship] When it comes to learning and teaching English, we often spend more time thinking of the latter. In my context, we are lucky to have a wide range of textbooks, readymade lessons and various resources available to assist our instruction. However, do they suit students with diverse cultures and language levels? Do they align with the curriculum and assessment?

New educational reforms have taken place in my country over the last ten years; as a result, the English curriculum has become flexible in terms of textbook and resource selection. The curriculum includes learning objectives and themes. Teachers are given the freedom to select standards for each unit and term assessment. However, many teachers neglect learning objectives and assessments and search for textbooks covering a particular topic. They may find several resources that contain a similar topic, but become overwhelmed by too many choices.

Another concern is that teachers tend to cover every single topic in the textbooks,

125

Chapter 6: Assessment, feedback and evaluation

and, as a result, students become overwhelmed with excessive content, which may lead to gaining superficial knowledge. Yet, we are living in an era of information flow, and it is the teachers’ job to prioritise the content that needs to be covered in class.

I used to be one of those teachers who spent hours planning lessons that included various activities and exercises from textbooks. However, when my students showed poor results in summative essays, I realised that not all my lessons were meaningful to their learning. Students learned a lot of grammar but they did not use it in their essays.

Planning incoherent lessons did not have a lasting effect on their learning. However, my understanding of lesson planning changed dramatically in 2016 when international colleagues first introduced the Understanding by Design (UBD) framework as a part of school CPD training.

This framework shifted me from planning lessons to designing units and allowed me to stay focused on learning outcomes. The UBD framework, also known as ‘backward planning’, involves starting with the end outcome and working backwards. In this three-stage process, instructors first define the learning goals for the course and subsequently develop assessments aligned with these objectives (Wiggins & McTighe, 2011).

After identifying what knowledge and skills students need to acquire, based on the criteria, teachers consider different methods and resources to help students learn.

While English is a skill-based subject, and developing reading, speaking, listening and writing is the focus of instruction, grammar and vocabulary can be referred to as knowledge that needs to be obtained by learners. However, it does not mean that a student’s general knowledge of the world is not important and it should not be assessed. The UBD framework encourages educators to teach big ideas and essential questions that lead to an enduring understanding of content. Therefore, at the first stage, teachers not only identify the knowledge and skills students need to acquire to succeed in exams but also incorporate big ideas and values they want to teach to students. Table 6.12.1 shows a unit designed for the first stage of the UBD framework: Unit: Natural Disasters

Term: 3 Grade: 7 Stage 1: Desired result Established goals: Writing a story Learning Objectives: W2 write with some support about real and imaginary past events, activities and experiences on a limited range of familiar general topics and some curricular topics Essential questions: Students will understand: • how natural disasters impact locals. What are natural disasters? Why do natural • the importance of empathy. disasters happen? How can we prevent them? Why do people tell stories about natural disasters?

126

Principles for designing relevant and actionable course evaluation surveys

Students will know: • plot structure.

• linking words.

• narrative tenses.

• types of disasters.

• v erbs to describe disasters (break out, blow, clouds gather).

Students will be able to: • d econstruct the story by using the plot diagram.

• plan their story.

• set the scene (place, characters, and time).

• use narrative tenses to set the scene.

Table 6.12.1: Unit designed for Stage 1 of the Understanding by Design framework

The evidence of assessment is that students write their own stories. By answering essential questions, students will understand the importance of feeling empathy for people.

In conclusion, this approach requires careful consideration of all the aspects of curriculum and assessment at the planning stage, which at first glance may seem timeconsuming. However, the comprehensive design of the whole unit allows teachers to avoid planning meaningless lessons. zhananur.kassimova@alumni.nu.edu.kz

Reference Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2011). The Understanding by Design guide to creating high-quality units. ASCD.

6.13 Principles for designing relevant and actionable course evaluation surveys Kim Beadle British Council, Tarragona, Spain Why we should be reviewing our survey design

In our increasingly competitive and diversifying industry, providing quality learning experiences is crucial for sustainability. Quality doesn’t just happen; it must be systematically monitored and evaluated.

Surveys are the most popular and often only tool for evaluating courses, and taking a principled approach to designing this important tool seems obvious. However, whilst researching for my dissertation on this topic, I found that, like myself, many in the industry tend to follow outdated generic guidelines, such as using questions that elicit vanity metrics (Ries, 2009), which make us look good, but are not actionable, i.e. providing clarity on what is working or not and giving insight on how to do it.

I then came across research-based publications by Will Thalheimer on what he calls smile sheets (Thalheimer, 2016; 2022), which offer a fresh perspective on survey design. Inspired by this, and my further research in this area, I identified five principles for designing better course evaluation surveys which I’d like to share here.

127

Chapter 6: Assessment, feedback and evaluation

1 It should require minimal effort to complete

The longer the survey takes, the more likely respondents are to lose interest. There is no agreed number of questions, but time spent should be no more than ten minutes.

Moreover, providing different response methods is found to improve response rates, as does providing completion time during a course. The questions should be easily answerable. Don’t make them cognitively challenging (How much did you learn?) or ask for comments on technical areas such as training methodology, on which they may not have expertise. Finally, include optional questions. Making all questions mandatory can cause resentment, leading to incompletion.

2 It should measure things that matter

Identify priority feedback areas for your course (e.g. personalisation opportunities) and only ask about these. Don’t ask about things you don’t intend to change. Feedback is redundant if you are not prepared to act upon it.

3 It should ask clear, specific questions

Avoid using Likert or numerical rating scales. They don’t provide a clear distinction between answer choices (e.g. agree-strongly agree), creating indecision and cognitive fatigue. Respondents may tick one option throughout, rendering the data ineffective.

Furthermore, scales usually respond to positive statements (I achieved my objectives), preventing respondents from making their own decisions. Favour descriptive answer choices instead. For example: To what extent was the content at the right level of challenge? a)The content was generally too difficult. b) Some content was too difficult. c) The content was at the right level of challenge. d) Some content was too easy. e) The content was generally too easy.

While descriptive answers may take longer to write, they take the same response time as other scaled questions. Avoid using compound statements (e.g. the training was engaging and useful) as responding to two things creates confusion for the respondent and the data analyser. If including a Net Promoter Score (NPS) question, avoid asking for a general recommendation. This can elicit generic, irrelevant and unactionable feedback. Make it relevant to the survey focus (e.g. Would you recommend this course to someone wanting to improve their language for…?).

4 It should have a principled structure

A question’s positioning can bias responses, so ordering questions randomly can avoid the respondent answering in a similar way throughout. It is also useful to ask for overall satisfaction levels towards the end; studies found that when asked about overall satisfaction at the beginning, levels were far lower. Reminding respondents of content, such as providing an overview of topics or objectives, also acts as a useful prompt, enabling better completion.

128

Principles for designing relevant and actionable course evaluation surveys

5 It should enable useful reporting

When using descriptive answer choices, a standard of acceptability (e.g. traffic light colours) should be assigned to each answer choice indicating if it is an area of excellence, for monitoring or for action. This allows results to be presented efficiently, making it clear where successes and failures are. Additionally, including open questions boosts the quality of data. Capturing participant’s own words adds validity to results and can be used as testimonials to promote future courses.

Call to action

While the focus here is on course evaluation, these principles can be applied to designing feedback surveys for any product or service. So, before reaching for your go-to course evaluation survey, ask yourself if it’s really fit-for-purpose. Are you collecting only vanity metrics to make the course look good? Or does it collect actionable data for improvements? A few tweaks can make a big difference in the quality of data you collect. kim.beadle@britishcouncil.org

References Ries, E. (2009, May 19). Vanity Metrics vs. Actionable Metrics. The Tim Ferris Show. https:// tim.blog/2009/05/19/vanity-metrics-vs-actionable-metrics/ Thalheimer, W. (2016). Performance-focused smile sheets: A radical rethinking of a dangerous art form. Work-Learning Press.

Thalheimer, W. (2022). Performance-focused learner surveys (2nd ed.). Work-Learning Press.

129

Chapter 7: Teacher education and training

7

Teacher education and training

Gabriel Díaz Maggioli opens this chapter with an introduction to his ENABLE framework, designed for initial language teacher education and development with the aim of contributing to the development of a pedagogy of teacher education. In the next paper, Anna Young and Kristina Smith report on their experiences of training teachers in Guinea on the British Council PRELIM 2 project via WhatsApp. They conclude with a number of tips to those new to training via WhatsApp. Susi Pearson then reports on a small-scale research project designed to investigate how well trainers promote wellbeing on online courses. Participant feedback provided a number of suggestions for action. The next two papers relate to CELTA. Laura Khaddi focuses on building confidence in young or inexperienced CELTA trainees and presents ideas to support them. In ‘Finished CELTA. Ready to teach?’, Amanda Bailey and Alastair Douglas report on an evaluation into the impact of a CELTA course with undergraduates, and their directors of studies, after teaching a summer course. Adjustments will be made to the course to better prepare trainees to teach as a result. If you are considering training as a DELTA tutor, Jacqueline Douglas’s paper may be of interest as she shares her own and colleagues’ experiences – the struggles and successes – of the training. The chapter ends with three papers that give food for thought on what may be lacking in teacher education. Susanna Schwab reports on how primary school teachers use prescribed textbooks in Switzerland, and goes on to discuss the implications of these practices for pre-service teacher education and professional development programmes more generally. Nicholas Northall discusses the need for a greater focus on employability skills in both initial teacher training courses and in-service programmes. And, to close the chapter, Neenaz Ichaporia addresses a topic of concern to many practitioners – the teacher’s role in increasingly automated online education. After examining three prevalent views on this, Neenaz discusses the need for teachers to be better equipped to participate in technological development and adoption.

7.1 Advancing teacher education practices: enabling teacher learning Gabriel Díaz Maggioli Institute of Education, Universidad ORT Uruguay,

Montevideo, Uruguay

Introduction

This paper presents a framework for initial language teacher education (ILTE) and development that brings together research and practice, with the aim of contributing 130

Advancing teacher education practices: enabling teacher learning

to the development of a pedagogy of teacher education (Loughran, 2006).

Teacher training/education today

I start by differentiating between two kinds of programmes. Curriculum-centric programmes tend to focus on concepts and skills, promoting a linear, additive approach to learning to teach, which affords student teachers (STs) almost no mediation by the teacher of teachers (ToT). This is because these programmes promote standardisation and are built around traditional, seldom questioned content.

In contrast, pedagogy-centric programmes bring together core concepts, skills and dispositions for teaching, adopting a complex and situated approach to ILTE, which allows for multiple forms of mediation and promotes the development of STs’ selfauthorship since it is needs-based and emerges from STs’ and ToTs’ ongoing mediational interactions.

The relevance of a pedagogy-centric programme is based on recent research developed around ILTE (Díaz Maggioli, 2023), which seems to confirm that the following are desirable understandings for such programmes: • Learning to teach is a complex endeavour.

• Learning to teach requires questioning one’s own assumptions.

• Learning to teach needs to be mediated.

• Learning to teach requires the interaction of experts and novices.

• Th e purpose of that interaction is not indoctrination but enabling adaptive expertise to emerge.

• The whole teacher training process is one of self-authorship.

The ENABLE framework

During the workshop, the ENABLE framework was introduced through interactive reflective activities. Each of the letters of the word enable refers to a key concept in the framework: Engaging – Because STs tend to reproduce traditional methods in their classes even when explicitly being taught otherwise, STs need to explore their own experience as (language) learners and open it up to scrutiny. We can foster this engagement through stimulated recall episodes, simulations, the use of images and videos, the analysis of lesson transcript and by engaging STs in reflective journalling.

Noticing – Once brought out into the open, that apprenticeship of observation (Lortie, 1975) generates a need in STs to notice gaps between their understanding of teaching and learning, and what actually goes on in the classroom. To help STs notice that gap, we can resort to the analysis of classroom tasks and activities, classroom materials, lesson plans, video and audio recordings of live teaching, lesson transcripts and any other teaching artefact.

Accessing – After noticing the gap between their emerging understandings and reality, STs need to access core concepts, skills and dispositions that make up effective teaching. Hence, they need to be afforded chances to deconstruct classroom practice, process it through the theoretical basis upon which it is sustained, and analyse the core dispositions associated with those concepts and skills. During this stage a number of mediational tools are available to ToTs and STs. Videos of live teaching, analysis of lesson plans or lesson transcripts, and the use of observation forms are some of the most

131

Chapter 7: Teacher education and training

effective tools. However, the focus should be in demonstrating exemplary teaching, supporting it with professional literature so as to deconstruct and reconstruct it. Loop input is also a good way of providing access.

Bridging – It is time to help STs bridge the gap between their naive understandings and professional practice. What they need at this stage is to try out their emerging understandings in a safe environment where mediation is available at all times, so that they can develop the requisite professional understandings so as to be able to teach well. Here, peer coaching, expert mediation, microteaching, collaborative planning and co-teaching, and the use of scripts and protocols provide fodder for mediation and engagement in teaching activity.

Launching – STs need to show their mastery, and justify it by teaching in real settings and reflecting carefully on the consequences of their teaching on learners’ language learning. However, this stage needs to be carefully mediated, as well. Some mediational tools which can be used include rubrics, checklists, lesson plan formats, self-assessment, peer-assessment, and learner assessment of teacher’s teaching.

Extending – Having implemented teaching and reflecting on it is not enough. STs need to extend their initial understandings with the purpose of building a professional repertoire of best practices. To this avail, post-teaching reflective tasks, self-assessment, peer-assessment, and ToT formative assessment and feedback can form the basis of action plans oriented at consolidating the new learning.

The ENABLE framework can respond to the emerging needs of practitioners and mediate learning by creating a learning community where theory, practice, and an acknowledgment of our histories as teachers and learners contribute to the co-construction of professional expertise. diazmaggioligabriel@gmail.com

References Díaz Maggioli, G. (2023). Initial Language Teacher Education. Routledge.

Lortie, D. (1975). Schoolteacher: A sociological study. University of Chicago Press.

Loughran, J. (2006). Developing a pedagogy of teacher education: Understanding teaching and learning about teaching. Routledge.

7.2 Adventures in WhatsApp Anna Young and Kristina Smith Bell Cambridge, UK Background and aim

This paper is based on our experience of working on the eight-week British Council PRELIM 2 project, which aimed to help teachers gain confidence with using English in class. We were partnered with Guinea (The Guinea English Teachers’ Club) and were fortunate to have 73 incredibly motivated teachers actively taking part in the course. All training was delivered on WhatsApp as daily ‘micro learning lessons’.

132

Adventures in WhatsApp

The course, materials and delivery

We had one WhatsApp channel to deliver the input each day – PPT slides, short written messages, voice notes and PDFs. Most teachers were accessing content on their mobiles so clarity was essential. We had further channels for teachers to upload their work throughout the course.

With their input, we decided to focus on six areas of classroom language (e.g. giving instructions, eliciting). The focus was on language practice for the teachers, followed by a classroom activity to try out with their students. The language of eliciting naturally led to a crossword activity, for example.

We also wanted to take the opportunity to get to know each other’s cultures and from there ‘Culture Mondays’ were born! Topics included food and special days and proved a great way to share and compare cultures. As the teachers had varying levels of English and experience we had ‘Pronunciation Friday’ to both raise awareness and add challenge. Areas included word stress and intonation. And, Friday being the end of the week, we added a light touch of a ‘Friday emoji task’ 😊, which was delivered live (some teachers responding in real time) and ended with a weekly reflection and goal-setting.

Figure 7.2.1: An example of Culture Monday material

One really important point when designing the course was to build in a break week – time for teachers to catch up (life happens!) and try out what they were learning.

This proved invaluable as this was when the teacher channels were filled with videos and pictures of what they had tried out in their classes. A perfect time for consolidation, reflection and sharing.

Typical input was through images and a model answer (our markets), given as a voice note and text. It was important to offer both so that teachers could hear and read the models. This was followed by input of useful topic vocabulary (with audio) and then a task for the teachers to talk about their local market.

It was important to offer choice of how to respond to tasks, for varying internet connections and teacher preferences. Teachers could add answers as voice notes or text, add pictures or even videos. Also, to encourage online rapport and interaction, 133

Chapter 7: Teacher education and training

there was a task to respond to their colleagues’ posts and ask a follow-up question.

Instructions were given with text and emojis and followed similar patterns each time for familiarity and continuity.

Tips

If delivering training on WhatsApp is new for you, here are a few tips: • F ind out exactly which resources teachers have available and plan materials/input accordingly (our teachers had a chalkboard and desks in rows). Make content relevant and relatable.

• M ake all the materials (PPTs, instructions with emojis) before the course begins.

You can then copy and paste on the day of delivery. Voice notes can be recorded live.

• M ake sure tasks ask teachers to comment on colleagues’ posts to build rapport and online interaction.

• I nclude step-by-step visuals/stages of how to do tasks like bingo and crosswords (the boards, the instructions). These activities may be completely new.

• S et aside an hour a day to read posts and add comments. A lot gets posted and it’s easy to get overwhelmed.

• B e yourself – deliver voice notes as you would speak to a face-to-face class. Ask how they are, comment on what they have posted in the WhatsApp channels.

Evaluation and affordances of WhatsApp

Teacher training done as micro-learning on WhatsApp can work. Teachers can do tasks at a time convenient for them, they have choice in how to respond to tasks, you can reach teachers who would not usually be able to access training opportunities and, most importantly, by using WhatsApp and asking teachers to upload videos and images of their classes, you can see the real, immediate impact the training is having on teaching and learning.

This was a hugely rewarding project to have been part of and our thanks go to Abdoulaye Konate (Vice-President of GTEC) and all the amazing teachers in Guinea who took part in PRELIM 2.

Anna.young@bellenglish.com; Kristina123smith@gmail.com

7.3 Promoting participant and tutor wellbeing on online courses Susi Pearson NILE, Norwich, UK

At NILE, we run 6- to 8-week online teacher development courses. These courses are fully-tutored and require a commitment of 5–7 hours per week, mostly asynchronous but with 3–4 live sessions per course. Our participants are based all over the world, with a maximum of 18 on one course.

Participant and tutor wellbeing on our online courses is as important as on our faceto-face courses, but needs a slightly different approach. In order to investigate how well we were doing in promoting wellbeing on our online courses and what we could do better, I carried out a small-scale research project and will present the results here.

134

Promoting participant and tutor wellbeing on online courses

We defined wellbeing using the Council of Europe (2023) definition: emotional safety, and a feeling of belonging, sense of purpose, achievement and success. The concept of participant wellbeing on online courses is not new to the field. Gilly Salmon’s five-stage model makes clear reference to the tutor role of welcoming and encouraging in the access and motivation stage, and that in the online socialisation stage ‘e-moderators should seek to create a climate that will strongly enhance the well-being of the online group, based on support and respect for each other’ (Salmon, 2011, p.

36). The e-Learning Network (2018) has adapted Maslow’s hierarchy of needs for online learning, with self-esteem, belonging, respect and emotional and psychological safety featuring, as can be seen below.

A survey was sent to 350 participants and 26 tutors, all of whom had participated in courses from January 2021 to December 2022, to explore their experience of wellbeing on our online courses and the contributing factors.

Survey results

1 Participants (47 responses) Overall, NILE participants reported a strong sense of emotional safety, belonging and purpose, achievement and success, with 75 per cent or more agreeing with all the descriptors. Key to this were: a) Interactions with the tutor and other participants, including the setting of expectations of how to interact online, which can be quite different from on a face-to-face course. They appreciated that their contributions were respected, and also that personalised feedback from the tutor made them feel like a real person ‘and not an online sign-in name’. Also key were tasks which encouraged socialisation, such as an early forum where the participants record short videos to introduce themselves, as well as the course live sessions, particularly in the first unit, to help the group to ‘bond’ early. b) Clear orientation and support in the form of an orientation session before the course: platform FAQs; prompt and effective tutor support; clear task instructions; effective visual design; and easy navigation.

135

Chapter 7: Teacher education and training

c) Being aware of and reflecting on their progress. Key areas mentioned were helpful and regular tutor feedback and guidance, and the opportunity to a) reflect and report on their progress in end-of-unit review tasks, and b) put what they had learnt into practice in an end-of-course assignment.

2 Tutors (18 responses) The key contributing factor here was effective and efficient communication before, during and after the course. This included prompt and effective support with technical, administrative and participant issues; clear communication channels; clear expectations about tutor and institution role; fair, helpful, respectful and responsible treatment; and the sharing of post-course feedback.

Future actions

The participants had suggestions for where we could improve in promoting their wellbeing, and these provide useful food for thought. These included more live sessions, and that a WhatsApp group could be encouraged during the course where participants could support each other and discuss the course content. They also suggested creating a post-course community where interaction could continue after the course, which we have tried in the past without great success, but which is certainly an idea to be revisited. There were also suggestions that forums where video contributions are requested could also include the option for posting text contributions. While some participants really enjoy recording videos and these provide a more ‘human’ experience, this can cause stress to others. We have also created short video presentations which model what we consider to be ‘effective contributions’ to sample tasks, to provide clearer guidance on what this means.

The tutors’ main request was for further professional development and sharing opportunities, which we plan to look into for the next academic year, as well as a buddy system for new trainers, which would be an excellent addition to our onboarding programme.

I hope that, if you are an online course provider, this article has given you food for reflection on how you promote wellbeing on your courses. susi@nile-elt.com

References Council of Europe. (2023). Improving well-being at school. https://www.coe.int/en/web/ campaign-free-to-speak-safe-to-learn/improving-well-being-at-school Salmon, G. (2011). E-moderating: The Key to Online Teaching and Learning. Routledge.

The e-Learning Network. (2018, January 3). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs for Learners. https:// www.eln.co.uk/blog/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-for-learners

136

‘Teaching grown-ups’: building confidence in young or inexperienced CELTA trainees

7.4 ‘Teaching grown-ups’: building confidence in young or inexperienced CELTA trainees Laura Khaddi York St John University, UK

At York St John University we train a high number of relatively young or inexperienced trainees. This lack of experience sometimes develops into a negative spiral of decreasing confidence in teaching practice (TP), which can have a knock-on effect on other trainees and TP students themselves. Obviously, our overall aim as CELTA tutors is to equip trainees with the skills and confidence to competently deliver effective lessons; here I present some extra ideas we have used to support less-experienced trainees. Some of these ideas will be adaptable for pre-service tutors working in similar situations – they may also be useful for DOSs working with early-career teachers.

Pre-course

Key issues: helping (potential) applicants gain experience and make informed decisions before applying In terms of gaining experience, we run a language assistant scheme whereby students volunteer in our general English classes. They apply formally, commit to a period of involvement and take an active role participating in and running activities. They receive feedback, alongside the opportunity to observe experienced teachers. Applicants are actively encouraged to join international student union groups (to experience grading their language and negotiating meaning), or to seek part-time work as student ambassadors or in other areas which will build their ability to present and work alongside others.

Successful applicants are invited to language workshops, focusing on language and grammar awareness from a teaching perspective. The first cohort of attendees will join the CELTA this summer; feedback so far has been incredibly positive.

In terms of making informed decisions, CELTA tutors give a pre-application presentation to the whole school, and although the CELTA course is not embedded in our BA/MA TESOL programmes, we run occasional workshops on practical issues with students.

In terms of applications, we cap internal numbers on each course so trainees have the opportunity to work alongside external candidates from a wide variety of backgrounds and age groups, which is hugely beneficial to all.

Mid-course

Key issues: unobserved TP, scaffolded lesson planning, 5-week course Where course numbers permit, we prioritise including unobserved TP sessions, providing lesson plans and materials for trainees to experiment with. Using sample lessons they’ve already experienced and analysed in input has proven particularly effective. Lesson planning is scaffolded: TP1 is highly directed; trainees develop partiallycompleted planning ‘grids’ in TP2; and trainees write full lesson plans from TP3.

On online and some face-face courses, we include ‘non-CELTA’ Wednesdays, to give trainees more time to reflect on and incorporate new techniques into their TP. We are fortunate to have 2.5 tutors, so trainees observe a range of input styles, and tutors have more time to support lesson planning and monitor individual trainees who need extra guidance.

137

Chapter 7: Teacher education and training

In evaluation, trainees commented that tutors welcoming students at the beginning of online TP helped calm their nerves, and that teaching on Day 1 was a ‘blessing in disguise’. Unsurprisingly, they consistently rated TP (observed and unobserved) and lesson-planning support as the factors which most increased their confidence. The pre-course tasks, self-evaluation after TP, student responses during TP, and peer feedback were considered least effective at boosting confidence.

Post-course

Key issue: ongoing CPD CELTA graduates are invited to volunteer at a weekly ESOL group on campus, and/ or to continue volunteering with TP groups between CELTA courses. This has the added benefit of retaining TP students for future courses. We support trainees to find materials, and offer reflection/feedback where possible.

Innovations

As a result of trainee feedback, we implemented new activities focused on building confidence – these all received a positive response on subsequent courses.

• Unassessed TP: Trainees deliver (individually or in teams) extra lessons, based on material provided by tutors.

• ‘Copycat’ teaching: Trainees deliver mini-lessons they have participated in and analysed during input sessions. Familiarity with lesson aims and procedure meant there was no increase in planning or workload, and they could experience the input point in action.

• Increased observations: Where possible, tutors aim to teach on several occasions so trainees can observe them working with students they know.

• Input on preparing to teach: A short input session addresses trainee concerns about teaching, including What if… scenarios, and drawing on their own experience to identify features of a ‘good teacher’.

• Buddy system: Unfortunately, we haven’t yet been able to set this up, although trainees requested a buddy system with graduates from previous CELTA cohorts.

Colleagues at IATEFL 2023 suggested further means to boost confidence. These included flipping input to allow more time for lesson preparation, perhaps alongside ringfenced rehearsal TP time, or sharing trainee lesson plans, supported by online chat to guide observation during TP. Thanks particularly to Judith Hudson, Connor O’ Donoghue and Cathy Clarkson for your ideas.

In conclusion, we have seen that these techniques help create a positive spiral of increased experience, knowledge and confidence leading to more successful TP experiences for both trainees and students. l.khaddi@yorksj.ac.uk

138

Finished CELTA. Ready to teach?

7.5 Finished CELTA. Ready to teach?

Amanda Bailey and Alastair Douglas Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge,

UK

Introduction

As part of one of our undergraduate degree programmes, we offer a CELTA course to second-year students, many of whom spend their summer teaching, and then return for the third year of their degree. Unlike most CELTA courses, this offers us a rare opportunity to discover the extent to which our trainees felt the course prepared them for teaching. Feedback after most CELTAs involves some form of programme evaluation, looking at satisfaction. Instead, we were able to evaluate the impact of our course.

There is limited previous research into the impact of pre-service training courses, but Kiely & Askham (2012) found that most trainees felt confident in knowing what they should be doing and had a good range of teaching repertoires. However, they felt overwhelmed by materials.

Our study

We conducted semi-structured interviews with all the trainees who taught in the summer after our 2021–22 course. This was delivered online over nine months. We also interviewed several of the Directors of Studies (DoSs) for whom they worked.

Whilst no programme can prepare fully-skilled teachers, CELTA is designed to produce TESOL professionals and so we expected that our trainees would teach in a recognisably TESOL way.

Findings – teachers

The trainees taught for between 15 and 38 hours per week. The former was lower than offered, at the request of the trainee. The latter was part of a young learner summer school. All the trainees said that they received good support prior to starting work. This involved access to materials, meeting other teachers they would be working with, observing existing teachers and an induction programme. They reported varying amounts of support during their time working, although all were observed.

All said that they had found the CELTA course to be very helpful in preparing them to teach. Aspects of particular value that they stated were knowing about lesson frameworks, understanding the principles of teacher talk, appreciating the importance of preparing thoroughly, and knowing how to engage learners. They also commented that they had found the input sessions on what to expect when working to be useful, as were the lists of materials and resources that they could use.

They highlighted a number of challenges they found when working. These included dealing with teenagers, learners at high and low levels, and teaching specific types of classes such as conversation classes. They also commented on the challenge of teaching face-to-face, having been trained to teach online.

They also had difficulty with some aspects of work life, such as the need to produce a scheme of work, weekly enrolment of students and dealing with safeguarding issues.

We were surprised that there were no comments about workload and dealing with a full timetable.

139

Chapter 7: Teacher education and training

Findings – Directors of Studies

The DoSs said that they were looking for teachers that had a willingness to learn and would fit in with their teaching team. They noted that our trainees had received positive feedback from lower-level students, they paid attention to the school system and were receptive to observations. Perhaps their recent experiences on the course of being observed meant that they understood the value of this.

The DoSs commented that our trainees found understanding different levels challenging, as well as coping with one group of learners for 15 hours a week. In line with the findings from the trainees, they also commented on weekly enrolment being an issue.

Whilst there were varying responses, generally they felt that the trainees were spending too much time planning. Other challenges included exploiting materials, developing skills and teaching at appropriate pace.

They felt that they would not recommend changing the course, although they suggested adding input on evidencing progress, exploiting materials and making learners aware of the realities of TESOL teaching contracts in the UK. Consequences

The findings of our research have been very encouraging. Our input sessions are mostly fine, but we propose some minor alterations. Firstly, the session on assessment and testing will include more on formative assessment and less on summative. This should help trainees with evidencing progress for themselves and their students. The young learner session will also be rebalanced to focus more on teenagers. We intend to add more input on exploiting materials, for example a ‘think aloud’ section on planning.

Finally, some adjustments will be made to teaching practice to encourage trainees to use supplementary and authentic materials, and to devise TP points in the form of a scheme of work. amanda.bailey@aru.ac.uk; alastair.douglas@aru.ac.uk

Reference Kiely, R., & Askham, J. (2012). Furnished Imagination: The Impact of Preservice Teacher Training on Early Career Work in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 46(3), 496–518.

7.6 Training up as a DELTA Module 2 tutor: lessons observed, lessons learned Jacqueline Douglas NILE, Norwich, UK

If you are considering training up as a DELTA tutor, or you mentor teachers who might, my findings will be of interest. You will learn about my own experiences, from beginning to end, and those of four colleagues who have recently gone through the trainer-in-training process, and whom I interviewed.

140

Training up as a DELTA Module 2 tutor: lessons observed, lessons learned

Why train up?

For some, it is a natural progression from being an experienced CELTA tutor and was about grabbing an opportunity that came their way: one said ‘it’s like Everest, because it’s there’. Other responses included adding a deeper understanding and variety to their work, ‘another string to my bow’, which represents continuing professional development and brings prestige.

Our struggles

As we all reflected, common themes emerged. Foremost was deciding what was too broad and too narrow regarding titles for background essays, particularly when faced with a trainee broadening out from a lesson idea they had had, rather than starting with a suitable area to investigate first. Collectively, we would like to reassure others that experienced tutors face this too, often devising title guides. Then came the need to be au fait with a wide range of language and methodology sources, ‘daunted by what trainees knew because they’d read’ said one. This game of catch up was echoed by another colleague, who found herself learning about language from trainees’ work by using grammar sources to ‘delve into the nitty-gritty to check what they’d written’.

For us all, there’s a trust issue, and in tutorials I was asking myself, ‘What would S. be saying here?’, second guessing my training supervisor. Interviewing, I heard, ‘If we didn’t give the right advice, they could fail’. With language skills, both tutors and trainees are in unfamiliar territory, compared to CELTA level, in content and session delivery. ‘My training supervisor steered me away from doing demo lessons’, the reason being that DELTA trainees should be able to apply a technique without having to watch someone.

Next is the level of detail in lesson feedback compared to CELTA, resulting from two factors, the extensive pro forma we need to complete, and an inexperienced tutor’s stream of consciousness: ‘At first my comments were very detailed because I was afraid otherwise I wouldn’t be clear myself why I think this or that’. Allied to this is grading; our sense of grades for teaching practice on CELTA became irrelevant, unhelpful even, partly because on DELTA goalposts remain fixed as the course progresses, and also because of the need to distinguish, for example, pass from merit. Then there’s the criteria: ‘constantly referring to the handbook, I love criteria referencing but here the criteria are at once prescriptive and tricky to navigate’. I shared that pain, encountering overlaps, e.g. is monitoring under 6 or 9? Ultimately, I saw that experienced DELTA tutors feel the same, so we each need to trust ourselves.

Our successes

Practices that benefited us include keeping very organised notes to return to, being a ‘tutor’ not a trainer-in-training in trainees’ eyes (they saw me as one of the tutor team, I had to step into that role and be convincing), and referring to the Cambridge Moderator’s Handbook for DELTA Module 2, which drew attention to key areas that cause problems in the essay and lesson. The TS support was invaluable, and these words mirror my own feeling: ‘Having a mentor who allows you to find and use your own style is invaluable, trusts you to make your own judgements’. We all progressed, developing a feel for the DELTA standard, realising it’s OK not to know everything,

141

Chapter 7: Teacher education and training

and emerging able to address course participants from a position of authority. I now know to focus on what I’m not seeing in an essay, and these comments show other realisations: ‘I’ll be more confident on CELTA’ and ‘I learned I should stop trying to be more interesting and gain their respect, it’s unnecessary and could be overwhelming for trainees’.

What we need now

We all felt we needed support on first course post trainer-in-training, especially with double marking and developing a sense of when to check our feedback/grading. Additionally, a need to tutor regularly, and we are all hopeful that, with practice, we will reduce the time we need for tasks. Also, the opportunity to discuss sample essays/ plans and ongoing struggles, perhaps through critical incidents, as well as being able to have get-togethers.

I hope that reading this has comforted you, inspired you to train up, or encouraged you, if you mentor certificate-trained teachers, and if I can be of any help, please get in touch. jacqueline@nile-elt.com

7.7 Moving away from a one-size-fits-all approach when using prescribed ELT materials Susanna Schwab PH Bern/Bern University of Teacher Education, Switzerland

During my IATEFL Conference talk, I first shared some findings from a recent research project (2018–2021) on teachers’ use of a prescribed textbook, before I continued with highlighting two findings that went beyond answering my research questions.

For the research project, I investigated how primary school teachers use a prescribed textbook in Switzerland. To address the three sub-questions: 1) how teachers perceive their role using a mandated textbook; 2) to what extent teachers adhere to the textbook; and 3) which methods teachers employed to adapt the textbook, three main data-collection strategies were used: pre- and post-observation interviews; classroom observations; and document analysis.

Data analysis focused on six primary school teachers who taught the same unit of the textbook New World 1 (Arnet-Clark et al., 2013). To work their way through Unit 2, teachers used between 10 and 16 lessons and employed different teaching strategies.

The unit consists of a total of 64 activities. One teacher used 45 activities unchanged, whereas the other five teachers employed between 24 and 28 activities unchanged.

The activities that teachers left out most often led to the first finding that went beyond answering the research questions.

Finding 1 – Teaching approach observed

The teacher’s guide claims that the materials use a task-based learning (TBL) approach to language teaching. However, having observed teachers teach more than 100 lessons (45 minutes each), I claim that the traditional PPP approach was used more or less

142

Moving away from a one-size-fits-all approach when using prescribed ELT materials

constantly. Moreover, teachers and learners used up so much of the 45-minute lesson with the presentation and practice phases that time had run out well before they arrived at the production phase.

When teachers closely followed the textbook and worked their way through the materials step-by-step, little to no TBL could be observed. In addition, there was little to no communicative interaction, and learners rarely seemed to be cognitively and affectively engaged. However, quite often it would easily have been possible to tweak activities (see Tomlinson, 2018). For example, teachers could have started upside-down, meaning starting out with an adaptation of the last activity on the page.

Teachers could have taskified that last activity, prepared one or two scaffolds and some mini-tasks, all with the focus on engaging learners cognitively and affectively. Thus, a genuine TBL approach would have been feasible; at the same time, it would also have provided a big step towards moving away from a one-size-fits-all approach.

Finding 2 – One-size-fits-all approach

The second finding focuses on the title of my talk, as the textbook seems to offer little for teachers to avoid a one-size-fits-all approach. Using Schwab (2019) as a basis, I analysed how the four most popular mandatory primary school ELT textbooks used in Switzerland cater for mixed-ability learners. The analysis revealed that not one of the four textbooks actually offers differentiated instruction. The textbook New World was one of the four textbooks analysed. According to its teacher manual, differentiated instruction is offered with worksheets that are included in the teacher’s book. As I observed 6 teachers teaching Unit 2 of the textbook New World 1, I also focused on the worksheets offered for Unit 2. That unit contains 11 worksheets, 7 are proposed for so-called stronger/faster learners and 4 for weaker/slower learners. However, 10 out of 11 worksheets consist of closed exercises. As there is a key in the teacher’s book for all 11 worksheets, there is some doubt whether the worksheet that I would have classified as semi-open is just another closed exercise. In my opinion, none of the worksheets actually offers differentiation, enforced by the fact that the whole class usually worked with the same worksheet at the same time.

In my role and my context as a teacher educator, training pre-service primary school teachers to teach English as a foreign language, I can put more emphasis on materials evaluation and development, but also on teacher diagnostic competence and how to cater for mixed-ability learners. In in-service teacher education, further emphasis could be put on materials development and evaluation, highlighting reflective practice and a critical analysis of the (prescribed) materials.

In general, I would like to see more professional development programmes that focus on teachers engaging critically with their (prescribed) textbook and reflecting upon the value of the activities for their learners. Even when working with prescribed materials, teachers do have agency (at least in Switzerland) so that we do not have to ask the question: Are you teaching the book or are you teaching learners? susanna.schwab@phbern.ch

143

Chapter 7: Teacher education and training

References Arnet-Clark, I., Frank Schmid, S., Grimes, L., Ritter, G., & Rüdiger-Harper, J. (2013). New World 1 – English as a second foreign language. Klett und Balmer AG. Schwab, S. (2019). Differentiation in English language teaching coursebooks for primary schools in Switzerland. Babylonia - Zeitschrift für Sprachunterricht und Sprachenlernen 1, 88–94.

Tomlinson, B. (2018). Making typical coursebook activities more beneficial for the learner.

In D. Bao (Ed.), Creativity and innovations in ELT materials development: Looking beyond the current design (pp. 21–34). Multilingual Matters.

7.8 Supporting and developing teachers’ employability skills Nicholas Northall University of Sheffield, UK Introduction

On a typical initial teacher training course, there is a focus on planning and delivering effective lessons. This is also the case on in-service programmes, where teachers further their understanding of learning and teaching. However, do such courses actually develop the skills that employers are looking for? Although training courses incorporate such skills, there is a gap between developing these skills and actually being aware of them. This paper considers how teachers can be encouraged to reflect on and articulate skills that go beyond the classroom.

Typical EFL teacher skills

Prospects (2021), a careers advice website for graduates, states that the main skills EFL teachers need are: excellent spoken and written communication skills; an ability to listen; creativity; and the ability to plan practical and interesting lessons – all of which are not surprising. However, the website also states that teachers need excellent organisation skills, an ability to work under pressure and a flexible approach to work.

A survey of current EFL job vacancies also adds teamwork, empathy and leadership.

None of the skills are unexpected; however, apart from the first few, how many are the explicit focus of a typical teacher training or development course?

Skills developed on teacher training courses

Anyone who has taken a formal teacher training course or been a participant on a lessformal teacher development course may argue that the course helped them to develop their understanding of teaching. Indeed, most formal courses include some form of skills-based criteria, which teachers have to meet to pass the course. Such courses also encourage reflection, especially where teaching practice is involved, giving teachers the opportunity to consider their strengths and areas for development. But such criteria and reflection tend to focus only on what happens in the classroom and the planning undertaken to make this happen. Do such courses also encourage teachers to reflect on organisation skills, teamwork, flexibility and other skills employers are looking for?

144

Supporting and developing teachers’ employability skills

Looking at syllabuses of well-known qualifications such as CertTESOL and DELTA, many of these skills (such as teamwork, communication skills and indeed leadership) are actually mentioned; however, many more (such as flexibility, organisational skills and empathy) are not mentioned at all. Anyone with an understanding of teacher training would likely argue that any decent course will implicitly help to support most of these skills, for example, rewriting an assignment that has not passed on first submission (flexibility), producing a portfolio meeting all the course requirements on a short intensive course (organisation skills), and offering encouragement to a course mate who is feeling frustrated (empathy). However, perhaps there is a need to make such skills more explicit.

Developing and supporting employability skills

Those working with teachers may not feel equipped to ‘teach’ employability skills, feeling that they lack those skills themselves. Instead of actually teaching how to be organised or flexible, those working with teachers can help to raise awareness. Teachers can be asked to consider what skills they have and how they have developed these, not only over the course, but in all aspects of their lives. Teachers can be further encouraged to consider all aspects of what a teacher does (such as working with other teachers, planning lessons, marking assignments and talking to parents) and what skills are needed to complete these tasks. Drawing teachers’ attention to the skills mentioned in job descriptions may create an awareness that employers are not only looking for classroom-based skills.

Once teachers have an understanding of what teaching involves and what employers are looking for, they can set goals. These goals could then be revisited during the course. For example, after teaching a lesson, teachers could be asked to not only reflect on what happened in the lesson, but what happened outside to make it happen (such as how they organised their time or worked with a colleague to plan the lesson). If a training course involves the need for a reflection assignment, then teachers could be asked to again reflect beyond the classroom. In a workshop situation, teachers could be asked how they would articulate skills they have developed, evidencing them with examples from both their teaching and other activities (e.g. ‘Tell us about one of the most challenging lessons you’ve taught, how you overcame that challenge and what you learnt from the experience’).

Summary

Being an effective, employable teacher is not only about what happens in the classroom. Drawing our teachers’ attention to this may go some way to supporting our teachers’ future development and career pathways. n.northall@sheffield.ac.uk

Reference Prospects (2021, October). Job Profile. English as a foreign language teacher. https://www. prospects.ac.uk/job-profiles/english-as-a-foreign-language-teacher

145

Chapter 7: Teacher education and training

7.9 What is the teacher’s role in increasingly automated online education?

Neenaz Ichaporia British Council, Mumbai, India

How automation, and particularly AI, will impact teachers’ roles is a polarising topic that has gained traction and urgency following recent advances in conversational AI, such as ChatGPT and similar large language models. We will critically examine three prevalent views: that automation augments, displaces, or replaces teachers.

The first is that automation augments and empowers teachers, who remain central to education. Automation is seen as laboursaving, taking over bureaucratic tasks like marking or producing lesson plans, freeing teachers up for more productive tasks.

Automation is seen as an ideologically and pedagogically neutral ‘tool’ that teachers wield to achieve desired outcomes.

However, it is possible that automation could increase rather than decrease teacher workloads, as teachers will need to learn new skills sets such as managing AI teaching assistants. This is borne out by a global report on the status of teachers, finding that technological and policy changes led to increased teacher workload and decreased wellbeing (Keper, 2022). Furthermore, technology is rarely neutral. For example, speech recognition has been shown to display significant race and gender biases.

The second view is that automation will displace teachers, fundamentally altering their role. In a direct challenge to the humanistic view that sees teachers as central to education, we now have the potential for algorithms that can support student learning. Intelligent tutoring or adaptive learning systems ‘know’ learners intimately; they study patterns of learning and use this data to make targeted personalised recommendations.

The third view sees automation as replacing the teacher, leading to job loss. The media is full of predictions about which jobs will be taken over by AI. However, it’s important to contextualise this hype and remember that similar predictions from the past seem exaggerated in hindsight. For instance, a decade ago Frey & Osborne’s (2013) highly influential paper ‘The Future of Employment. How Susceptible Are Jobs to Computerization?’ created widespread alarm when it predicted that over 47 per cent of total US employment, including education, was at risk of automation.

However, the number of teachers employed globally seems to be stable or rising. Current thinking is that as most occupations involve multiple tasks, even if some components are automated, there will remain others which are not automatable.

In contrast to these extreme views on automation, it is useful to take a posthumanist perspective, considering how the human and non-human are inseparable. Research in this area has involved bot teachers deployed on large-scale courses. One University of Edinburgh study found that the bot teacher provided support, increased interactivity, and prompted reflection on course concepts (Bayne, 2015). It has also been suggested that bot teachers could help reduce lurking on MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses), by drawing participants into the discussion.

Technologies like bot teachers also raise some ethical concerns. Firstly, there’s the question about informed consent, raised by studies such as Professor Ashok Goel’s experiment with the virtual teaching assistant Jill Watson at Georgia Tech in 2014.

146

What is the teacher’s role in increasingly automated online education?

In that study, students in the course were unaware that Jill was a bot, they thought she was a real person. Should students be made aware of the human/non-human composition of any teaching team in advance? And should AI developers aim to keep virtual teaching assistants distinguishable from humans?

Other ethical issues involving automation: policymaking tends to lag behind rapid technological developments. AI systems are often so advanced that they act in nontransparent ways, raising the question of whether they can be governed at all. Data generated by AI used in education systems may be owned by private companies, leading to ethical concerns. There’s also the issue of algorithmic (un)fairness, and increasing research into how bias prevalent in society translates into bias in AI in education systems.

To counter these issues and participate more fully in technological development and adoption, teachers must be equipped with a very robust sense of digital literacy.

Currently, there’s no consensus on what constitutes digital literacy in theory or pedagogic practice. Traditionally, digital literacy has been equated with computer literacy or knowing how to code. There’s an urgent need to broaden our understanding of it to include things like information and media literacy. Teachers need to engage with concerns around AI and transparency, trust, surveillance and privacy. If teachers are equipped with a thorough understanding of digital literacy, they can also lead on piloting new technologies and approaches themselves, evaluating new tools for privacy and security risks. This could help ensure the chosen technology and its implementation have the desired outcomes. neenaz.i@gmail.com

References Bayne, S. (2015). Teacherbot: interventions in automated teaching. Teaching in Higher Education, 20(4), 455–467. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2015.1020783 Frey, C. B., & Osborne, M. A. (2013). The Future of Employment. How Susceptible Are Jobs to Computerization? Oxford Martin School, University of Oxford.

Keper, L. (2022, September 8). The unheard impact: technology and the teaching profession.

Education International. https://www.ei-ie.org/en/item/26803:the-unheard-impacttechnology-and-the-teaching-profession

147

8

Perspectives on teacher development and motivation

In the opening paper here, Tom Godfrey reports on a series of diagnostic workshops conducted at a teacher training centre in Istanbul, focusing on how participatory methodology can inform ELT teacher education, and argues there is a need for training in performative methods. Then, Laura Ferroglio explores how language teachers’ emotions impact on teaching practice, and how developing emotion awareness can improve teaching. Ana Paula Biazon Rocha addresses the issues and challenges teachers face when it comes to teaching pronunciation and offers a number of suggestions on how to tackle these. Gareth Luke Scyner describes the benefits of his own development journey from teacher to teacher researcher, offering suggestions to others wishing to make this transition. The focus of Beatrix Price’s paper is sustaining English language teachers’ associations through professional development, highlighting the need for associations to consciously reflect on successes and challenges to respond quickly and effectively to challenges they face. Marjorie Rosenberg looks at the benefits of volunteering, for professional development and personal growth, while giving back to our communities.

And to end the chapter, Anju Moses discusses how team leaders and managers can build and sustain highly motivated and engaged teaching teams.

8.1 Embodied approaches to ELT professional development Tom Godfrey International Training Institute, Istanbul, Turkey Introduction

In this paper I present my current research on embracing participatory methodology in ELT teacher education and in particular the potential of community forums for inservice teacher development (TD). As a teacher trainer, I have worked with pre-service and in-service teachers from diverse cultures and linguistic backgrounds who face the challenge of teaching in a language that is often not their mother tongue. Many of them feel ill-equipped and disillusioned with their training, which focuses on cognitive, instrumental and propositional knowledge, leaving little room for the performative skills required to teach effectively in situ.

Performative pedagogy

To fill this gap, I have turned to performative pedagogy and examined its applicability to teacher education. Performative approaches to learning demand skills that combine physical, cognitive and affective domains, as teaching is performative in that it is based on judgements formed through action, influenced by contingencies that happen in

148

Embodied approaches to ELT professional development

real time, involves physical and emotional engagement, and learning is created in the process. However, traditional teacher education typically focuses on static strategies and competences but ignores key performative skills, such as self-awareness, reflection, collaboration, inter- and intra-personal qualities, and adaptability, that are critical for effective teaching in multi-cultural and multi-linguistic contexts.

Participatory arts

In my opinion, TD programmes ignore key performative skills that teachers need to develop their teaching. Indeed, I believe TD is a heuristic process of trial and error which evolves through experimentation and risk-taking conducted in a safe, encouraging environment. Unfortunately, many TD environments advocate developing competencies (such as adherence to a rigid and static methodology and meticulous lesson planning) that encourage risk avoidance. Similarly, while attending a series of professional workshops, I noticed a worrying paradox. Many ELT trainers and educators advocate personalised, learner-centred lessons that focus on communication and language use, yet their training sessions remain tutor-centred, material-driven, and primarily aimed at content transmission. Trainers and educators need to set an example of how to encourage participatory learning, or teachers will pay lip service to the concept of ‘facilitating learning’ while being stuck in the traditional conception of a teacher as a transmitter of information. Participatory arts, such as Forum Theatre, provide a form of expression that enables shared ownership of decision-making processes and aims to generate dialogue, reflection and community cohesion.

Community forums

Adapting the principles and rationale of Forum Theatre, I explored the use of participatory methodology, and community forums in particular, for teacher professional development in a series of workshops at a teacher training centre in Istanbul. Community forums are an adaptation of Forum Theatre developed by Brazilian educator, Augusto Boal, in 1973. Based on Paolo Freire’s model of participatory education, community forums involve the re-enactment of critical incidents and experiences of challenges to stimulate community dialogue and problem-solving.

Research design

The paper is based on a series of diagnostic workshops conducted at a teacher training centre in Istanbul focusing on how participatory methodology can inform ELT teacher education. The workshops provided participants with experience of participatory methodology and techniques to elicit feedback on their pedagogic value and efficacy in teacher education. Through dialogue and reflection, participants identified the facilitation skills they valued from the workshops. While participatory methodology has a long and proven track record in applied theatre, it is rarely utilised in TD programmes.

Results

Feedback from the workshops (Godfrey, 2023) revealed that community forums provide participant-led, solution-oriented, multiple-voiced opportunities for reflection and dialogue on critical incidents teachers face. Community forums operate at the facilitative, open end of the teaching/training continuum and therefore are liable to elicit more

149

Chapter 8: Perspectives on teacher development and motivation

fervent participant responses, interaction and dialogue. The workshops aim to initiate transformational change by developing participants’ facilitation skills, and the research provides the initial diagnostic data to create TD programmes incorporating community forums and participatory methods.

Conclusion

I contend that there is a need for training in performative methods and for educational practices to understand the potential of the arts in transforming consciousness, refining the senses, and enlarging the imagination, and in providing teachers with a range of activities to develop awareness of performative skills. Performative pedagogy introduces teachers to a range of techniques to raise awareness of the performative and reveal a fresh landscape of creative embodied expression, enjoyment and gratification. I am going to continue to explore the use of performative methodology in workshops, in order to uncover these skills that have been ignored in TD until now. tom@iti-istanbul.com

Reference Godfrey, T. (2023, February 3). Community Forums: A Participatory Approach to Professional Development [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/sN-FHSl-TqU

8.2 How can what teachers really feel help them teach better?

Laura Ferroglio Freelance, Turin, Italy Introduction: aims

My talk at IATEFL Harrogate explored how language teachers’ emotions impact on teaching practice, and how developing emotion awareness can improve teaching.

Part one: why explore emotions?

I started by explaining how loss of enthusiasm in teaching led me to research emotions, after realising that expertise was not enough to teach effectively. Then I asked participants to share on menti.com the most common emotions they felt while teaching. See Figure 8.2.1 for the results.

Figure 8.2.1: Common emotions felt by participants while teaching

150

How can what teachers really feel help them teach better?

We then examined two reasons why addressing emotions as teachers is worthwhile.

Firstly, emotions help us make sense of the world: a teacher may feel frustrated when students are not on task, while students might feel enthusiasm when chatting with peers, which may be more motivating for them than the task suggested by the teacher. These are two ways of making sense of a situation.

Secondly, if we know how we feel and how to deal with it, we are readier to respond to what happens and become more confident teachers. Educators may find many different reasons to develop emotion awareness: the two addressed here are the result of contributions from my research and experience.

Part two: the role of teachers’ emotions in ELT and research

The next part of the talk showed how – until recently – learners’ emotions have been researched more systematically than teachers’ (Dewaele & Li, 2020), exploring three reasons for this: 1 Th e need to investigate the role of affect with the aim of promoting learner autonomy and motivation.

2 Th e emphasis given in training courses to methodology and technique over interpersonal and intrapersonal skills such as empathy and emotion management.

3 The unwritten yet widespread assumption that teachers are naturally gifted with emotion management skills.

Part three: what we feel and how we act might differ

If teachers are expected to manage their emotions skilfully, they are also expected to avoid certain emotions while at work: frustration and anxiety are not exactly welcome in the classroom. Yet, we do feel them and respond in different ways. A concept that can help illustrate this is that of emotion labour, describing the dissonance between the emotions we actually experience and the ones we display or try to experience in order to fit our professional goals (e.g. enthusiasm, calm). Managing this dissonance requires effort (labour), which teachers perform when forcing a smile or a calm tone of voice when in fact they are upset or frustrated (Isenbarger & Zembylas, 2006).

Part four: caring as an emotion management tool

As teachers, caring often determines how we feel: if we care about our students’ success, we may feel empowered or worried, proud or frustrated. Working towards addressing our students’ needs does require emotion labour (Gkonou & Miller, 2019). When teaching for exams for instance, we might want to reduce students’ anxiety or improve their confidence while wanting them to do well. Yet, we may feel anxious about their performance ourselves. Being aware of our own anxiety can help regulate the effort we make to support students by redirecting our emotional resources towards our teaching goals.

Conclusion

The talk raised curiosity on how to transform uncomfortable emotions into more comfortable ones in practice; it was emphasised that uncomfortable emotions cannot simply be switched to positive mode, but viewing comfortable and uncomfortable emotions as

151

Chapter 8: Perspectives on teacher development and motivation

a continuum is a helpful starting point. Some participants shared their experiences of how they felt obliged not to display their true emotions on the job. What emerged was how emotion management and awareness are topics which resonate deeply in our field, showing the importance of reinforcing teachers’ voices and collaboration when it comes to their own emotions.

Takeaways and reflection questions

The results of the poll from the talk have shown how pleasant and unpleasant emotions coexist. Pleasant emotions can be fostered through caring, and help teachers manage unpleasant emotions and feelings, such as frustration and anxiety. In your daily practice, take a moment to think about these questions: 1 W hen do you feel caring while teaching?

2 H ow are the emotions you feel in your daily practice similar or different to the ones shared by participants in the talk? lauraelt8@gmail.com

References Dewaele, J. M., & Li, C. (2020). Emotions in Second Language Acquisition: a critical review and research agenda. Foreign Language World 196(1), 34–49.

Gkonou, C., & Miller, E. R. (2019). Caring and emotional labour: Language teachers’ engagement with anxious learners in private language school classrooms. Language Teaching Research, 23(3), 372–387.

Isenbarger, L., & Zembylas, M. (2006). The emotional labour of caring and teaching. Teaching and teacher education, 22(1), 120–134.

8.3 Are we pronunciation ignorers, entertainers, enthusiasts and/or teachers?

Ana Paula Biazon Rocha University of Sheffield, UK

Despite the paramount importance of pronunciation in second language learning (Walker, 2014) and the major shift to intelligibility as the main goal of pronunciation instruction, many teachers are still unsure about how to teach pronunciation effectively (Levis et al., 2022). This is one of the main factors that motivated me to explore who we are when teaching pronunciation. Based on my own teaching experience, as well as on fellow teachers’ whom I have worked with in my career or met at past IATEFL conferences, or through PronSIG, I focused on identifying three general recurrent profiles and reading between their lines.

1 Pronunciation ignorers

These are teachers who claim to have more important things to teach than pronunciation, or believe that it can be learned incidentally. Nevertheless, detaching pronunciation (or grammar, vocabulary) from language seems highly unlikely. Isn’t language teaching what we do regardless of it being EAP, ESP, business English, ESOL, among

152

Are we pronunciation ignorers, entertainers, enthusiasts and/or teachers?

others? Additionally, research has shown that explicit pronunciation instruction does help learners improve oral communication (Levis et al., 2022). A closer look can show that the majority of these teachers seem to lack knowledge, confidence and skills as a result of inadequate preparation or training in pronunciation instruction (Levis et al., 2022). Thus, ignoring pronunciation in the classroom actually works as a disguise for their own difficulties and uncertainties at the expense of students’ language improvement (Walker, 2014).

2 Pronunciation entertainers

These are teachers that may get carried away by the fun aspect of pronunciation learning and teaching. They enjoy playing pronunciation games or doing fun activities with learners, possibly because they are great ten-minute fillers to end a lesson or work quite well as a last activity on a Friday. Yet, having fun for the sake of it may not be the most appropriate way to meet students’ needs. Teachers should consider the learning aspect behind it (Bruzzano, 2022): how the fun activity or game will contribute to learners’ pronunciation improvement or what follow-up task(s) can be used to help them practise pronunciation. To put it simply, ‘let’s play a game’... and then what?

Lack of planning is potentially what lies underneath: teachers tend to plan vocabulary or grammar activities more thoroughly than pronunciation exercises or tasks (Walker, 2014). In other words, a common assumption is: ‘I’ll do this for vocabulary, that for grammar, and then I’ll do some pron work’. But what does pron work mean? An add-on activity, playing a game, drilling, something else?

3 Pronunciation enthusiasts

These are teachers who recognise the importance of pronunciation, and are keen to learn more about it, but are still uncertain when it comes to pronunciation teaching. They may have questions about how to effectively integrate it into their lessons. This usually happens when: a) pronunciation instruction is solely understood as error correction, which it is not, it goes beyond that; b) pronunciation is approached unsystematically and irregularly in the classroom (Levis et al., 2022); c) time and curriculum constraints limit what teachers are able to do in class; and d) there is a lack of pronunciation assessment, which can undermine its relevance: if there is anything that can be cut out in the lesson, pronunciation will probably be the first option (Levis et al., 2022).

Tackling issues in pronunciation teaching

It is important to mention that there is no right or wrong in the profiles analysed above.

In fact, they demonstrate the issues and challenges that the field of pronunciation instruction has frequently faced. To address some of them, it is suggested that: a) If teachers lack confidence, they should give pronunciation teaching a go; it does not have to be an elaborate activity or lesson plan, but a first step into incorporating pronunciation into the lesson. b) If there is lack of planning, teachers can take a step back and consider what pron

153

Chapter 8: Perspectives on teacher development and motivation

work they intend to do, because improvising in front of students, especially when one is not confident or certain, can be too demanding. c) If there is lack of adequate training or preparation regarding pronunciation teaching, different resources are available to aid teachers (e.g. books, realia, online materials, audio and videos on the Internet, etc.), as well as special interest groups such as PronSIG, and teaching associations, such as IATEFL, which can provide further assistance. It is never too late to try! a.p.biazon-rocha@sheffield.ac.uk

References Bruzzano, C. (2022, August 12). Pronunciation: what we think and what we do. Modern English Teacher. https://www.modernenglishteacher.com/pronunciation-what-we-think-and-what-wedo Levis, J., Derwing, T., & Sonsaat-Hegelheimer, S. (2022). Second Language Pronunciation.

Bridging the Gap Between Research and Teaching. Wiley Blackwell.

Walker, R. (2014). Pronunciation Matters. English Teaching Professional, 90, 4–6.

8.4 Negotiating environments: making the move from teacher to researcher Gareth Luke Scyner Benemérito Instituto Normal del Estado “Gral. Juan

Crisóstomo Bonilla” (BINE), Puebla, México

Introduction

Transitioning from teacher to teacher researcher can be daunting for experienced English language teaching (ELT) professionals. After years of teaching, many find themselves in a cycle of working hard for money with little or no continuing professional development (CPD) strategy in place. This paper provides an autobiographical account of how I negotiated my professional and personal context to make this transition after 15 years as an English teacher. I hope my story helps convey the value of engineering the steps needed to combine classroom-based research with teaching at an earlier stage of the ELT profession.

Why CPD is so important

My professional and personal life as a novice teacher was enjoyable and expansive. I worked in five different countries over 10 years post-CELTA, met many interesting people and taught various class types within institutions and privately. I earned sufficiently well as a young, single man to pay the bills, travel and occasionally participate in teacher development activities, such as training to be a Cambridge Main Suite examiner. However, I received limited CPD (or guidance on such), essential for new teachers starting their careers. CPD is vital to avoid what I suffered from – the classic ‘ELT plateau’ – overworking to have enough money but not having any real direction or purpose other than that which pays well (do I need to teach that class on a Friday evening on the other side of the city?). I believe you can have your cake and eat it: yes, you can enjoy the thrill 154

Negotiating environments: making the move from teacher to researcher

of being a new ELT teacher, and yes, you can make strategic career-based decisions with the longer objective in mind.

My move toward research

The need to find personal and professional fulfilment was the reason behind my decision to change the way I worked in ELT. My critical moment came through a realisation that teacher burnout, combined with an employer’s apathy toward CPD, meant change was necessary. I reflected upon why my values and goals had changed and how I needed to take action steps to achieve them. For me, reflection was so critical. Why had I initially become a teacher? Who did I want to help through education? What were my longterm goals? Who did I want to become professionally? Disappointingly, I discovered my employer did not share my dreams, so I needed to find an institution that did.

However, the fallout from this disappointment led to positive change. I moved to an institution which valued classroom-based research highly, and I combined my teaching with completing a master’s degree in ELT. I want to become a researcher: how do I do it?

As the title suggests, the transition from teacher to teacher researcher requires careful planning and dedication. You may be enthusiastic, but how can you negotiate a realistic pathway without adversely affecting your income or employment? ‘Professional Development requires the support of the institution. It also needs opportunities for teachers to collaborate to achieve the best results for the school and those who work and learn within it’ (Richards 2017, p. 91).

Several strategies can help teachers make the transition into research-based positions.

First, show interest by contributing to CPD opportunities that occur. You can give opinions on what CPD would benefit you and your colleagues and collaborate on a CPD plan for your employer. Ideally, find a more experienced teacher researcher to mentor your first steps. Though you may be a novice researcher, as a teacher you may have a lot of insight to offer new generations of teachers.

Sharing your knowledge and skills would also allow you to find others with similar interests and needs. It is essential to build relationships with other teacher researchers in the field so they can provide you with an insight into the topic, and the skillset required to be a contributor. Designing and making a presentation at a conference allows ideas to be clarified and shared by others. You and your colleagues could then write up and develop the presentation into an article for a print or online academic publication. Networking at conferences like the annual IATEFL one or joining a research group like the IATEFL Research SIG (ReSIG) will give you the impetus to continue developing meaningful research projects.

155

Chapter 8: Perspectives on teacher development and motivation

Conclusion

Moving from teaching to research at an early career stage is rewarding and necessary if you wish to develop professionally. However, the decision is not easy, as the skillset required as a researcher may differ from the one you use as a teacher, and you will need some development of these skills over time. Despite this, your knowledge as a teacher is of value to others, and your role with experience can change into something rewarding, as you help the next generation of educators. scyner.gl@bine.mx

Reference Richards, J. C. (2017). Jack C Richards’ 50 Tips for Teacher Development. Cambridge University Press.

8.5 Sustaining Associations of Language Teachers (SALT) – keeping ELTAs alive Beatrix Price Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary

The essential roles of professional organisations, such as English language teachers’ associations (ELTAs), are to provide professional development to members and potential members alike, and to achieve continuity in membership and leadership. To ensure this, conscious reflection on successes and challenges are needed regularly as the route to improvement.

‘Understanding the challenges facing different LTAs in the 21st century through researching them and researching their members must be part of the CPD of LTAs themselves, with the concurrent professional benefits that this will bring to their members’ (Paran, 2016, p. 135). But what are these challenges and how to overcome them? The Internet revolution, English as a global lingua franca, globalisation, commercialisation, teacher precarity, diversity and ethical issues are just a few examples that affect ELTAs and the ELT profession. Therefore, better understanding of the different forms of CPD provided by these associations not only affects their members’ professional lives but helps these organisations stay alive, healthy and prosperous.

The target audience of my workshop at IATEFL Harrogate was ELT professionals, teachers, teacher trainers, material writers, researchers, ELTA members, helpers, volunteers, leaders, external stakeholders and policymakers. All the segments of the profession represented themselves during the workshop, thus different views contrasted and complemented each other. The first task was to identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of ELTAs (the SWOT analysis), in connection to the participants’ own professional contexts. The attendees brought their own examples which were compared to the possible pitfalls and opportunities of ELTAs, demonstrated from previous ELTA research findings, identifying a checklist for ELTAs (Price, 2022a). Another solution for strengthening ELTAs was brought by bringing examples of collaboration on both an individual level and an organisational level. It was shown that ELTAs provide a protected territory for ELT professionals,

156

Sustaining Associations of Language Teachers (SALT) – keeping ELTAs alive

where sharing and caring can happen in a natural way. It is well-known that the most frequently preferred way for ELTA members to meet is at conferences or other smaller ELTA CPD events, in Special Interest Groups (SIGs) in the case of IATEFL, or in Interest Sections (ISs) or Professional Learning Networks (PLNs) in the context of TESOL, or regional branches or chapters in other ELTA contexts. Communities of Practice (CoPs) provide the ideal space for collaboration where mutual interest is borne out of interaction. Short- or long-term collaborative ELTA projects outlined by external stakeholders, such as the Regional Language Offices of the Embassy of the United States around the world or the UK-based British Council, are summarised by Price (2022b); however, there are some other stakeholders, publishers, ministries and universities that can offer collaboration with ELTAs, and their potential and actual members. Research and collaboration within and among ELTAs, or collaboration with other ELTAs could offer another direction for these professional communities, as can be seen with many ELTAs having partnership agreements with each other, offering free conference participation, publication offers and other additional benefits.

Some recommendations for ELTA members were concluded, such as: finding the right community for taking small steps for volunteering; sharing and caring about others in the learning organisation; helping others on their professional paths; creating local communities of practice; and nurturing good connections. This way internal and external relationships are strengthened and these lead ELTAs closer to each other, so that they can learn from each other’s successes and challenges, and enhance their collective impact by holding a mirror to one another. In this way, ELTAs can provide members with the opportunity to connect, share, reflect, inspire and grow. Conscious and responsible leadership in ELTAs would also prepare future leaders, through accountability, transparency and visibility: When leaders pay attention to members’ needs, they represent members and delegate tasks among board members.

My intention with my workshop was to take a step further from the findings of my recent PhD research on ELTAs to awaken ELTA leaders to sustain their associations of language teachers. The findings of my studies have highlighted that ELTAs must become nimbler and more adaptive, meeting the speed of change in the world with a faster response and greater openness to new ideas and directions, as the Internet revolution affects members’ involvement in CPD directly, often opting for online resources or joining online professional communities rather than ELTAs. Participants were invited to share their own practice and reflect on specific contexts in their own associations. Thus, the talk was divided into sections in order to maximise audience participation, where the members of different ELTAs could share their views and offer their valuable solutions. price.beatrix@btk.elte.hu

References Paran, A. (2016). Language teacher associations: Key themes and future directions. ELT Journal, 70(2), 127–136.

Price, B. (2022a). Motivational currents in English language teachers’ associations. In D. Bullock (Ed.), IATEFL 2021 Virtual Conference Selections, pp. 34–36. Faversham: IATEFL. Price, B. (2022b). Together we stand: Collaboration within and across Teachers’ Associations.

Humanising Language Teaching, 24(2).

157

Chapter 8: Perspectives on teacher development and motivation

8.6 Upskilling ourselves while giving back to the ELT community Marjorie Rosenberg IATEFL BESIG Joint Coordinator, Graz, Austria Introduction

Most of us begin our careers with a similar skill base. We are knowledgeable about the English language and the terminology we need to teach it, we have learned about classroom management, syllabi and lesson planning, we are aware of a range of classroom activities, we understand the importance of the four skills, we know how to assess our students, and we work hard to include all our learners in a lesson. What we generally don’t possess at the outset of our careers, however, are skills such as organisation and time management, conflict resolution, working under stress, leadership qualities, cultural awareness, public speaking, and small talk to build rapport. The premise of my talk was to explain how we can close this skills gap by volunteering for roles in teaching associations and how these skills are related to the realities our learners face in the workplace.

Benefits of volunteering

When we take on a role, either in a local capacity or an international one, we experience personal growth and the chance to network and create a global presence. In addition, the work we do helps us to become lifelong learners and to stretch out of our comfort zones. As our learners need a range of communication skills including managing meetings, working with teams, problem-solving, giving feedback and building relationships, as well as business skills such as public speaking, negotiating, personal branding, goal setting, recruitment of talent and risk assessment, these are valuable skills for us to acquire as well.

Positions and tasks

Teaching associations offer a number of roles ranging from top leadership positions, such as president, chair or coordinator, to being a member of a committee, a newsletter editor, or being in charge of social media presence or events. Tasks vary but common ones include dealing with budgets and finances, project management, troubleshooting, delegating, meetings and implementing feedback. When we plan events, the tasks widen to include finding venues, sponsors and speakers, organising refreshments and social events, ensuring technology is available, creating a programme, advertising, promotion and dealing with unexpected issues.

Opportunities to learn

No matter which position we take or where it is, our chance to upskill ourselves is clear. In order to carry out these roles effectively, we must learn the basics of organisation and leadership. In addition, we may have to learn to use business software, negotiation skills, how to get our message across, and how to be accountable for what the organisation does. These roles also lead to expanding our personal learning network, confidence, understanding the importance of rapport, team management, problemsolving and how to set and reach milestones and goals. What we need to keep in mind

158

Upskilling ourselves while giving back to the ELT community

is that this skill set is not separate from our day jobs. Our learners may already be in the workplace or preparing for it and the skills mentioned above are already, or will be, part of their daily lives.

Personal growth and giving back

An important aspect to remember is that joining a committee of a teaching association provides us with a unique chance for personal growth. We learn to work with people from diverse backgrounds, we may have the chance to travel to different countries and experience a variety of cultures first-hand, we discover the value of building relationships and we learn to give and take. While doing this, we are also giving back to the community we belong to. The volunteer work we do helps other teachers by facilitating the sharing of ideas, we can create programmes for continuing professional development and learn to mentor others, and we reach out across the globe and help educators to connect.

For the future

What does this actually mean for us in our work? Acquiring both business and communication skills can set us apart from the crowd and give us a true understanding of the reality of today’s workplace. We become peers for our learners who deal with these issues every day, and begin to teach more than just the language. We may find ourselves on the path to becoming business coaches by helping learners with presentations, negotiations and other workplace skills. If we decide to start our own businesses, the skills we have acquired will also be invaluable and help us on our way, In conclusion, there are many ways we can aid our own growth and expand our skill set while giving back to the community we are a part of. marjorie.rosenberg@drei.at

8.7 Managing and motivating teaching teams for excellent results Anju Moses Avinya Foundation, Colombo, Sri Lanka [IATEFL LAMSIG

Scholarship]

Whether you are an experienced team leader, manager, or someone newly promoted to an academic management role, these essential questions are likely at the forefront of your mind: • What makes a motivated and engaged team?

• Why are some teams more successful than others?

• How can we build and sustain high levels of motivation and engagement?

Upon engaging in conversations with numerous colleagues on this topic, it has become evident that finding joy in your work and having a genuine passion for what you do are crucial factors for success. However, creating an environment and atmosphere that fosters such sentiments is no easy feat, especially in the ELT industry.

One of the challenges we face is the lack of clarity regarding common goals, as the

159

Chapter 8: Perspectives on teacher development and motivation

majority of the team focuses on creating magic in the classroom. When it comes to teaching performance, quantifying and evaluating what constitutes good work can be particularly intricate and hard to pin down. It is possible for a team member to put in tremendous effort without receiving glowing student recommendations. That doesn’t mean that they have not been as equally amazing as the teacher who is showered with flowers and cards at the end of term.

So, how can we navigate this diverse landscape and ensure that everyone remains happy, engaged and motivated? ‘As an effective team leader you can play a key role in helping to align and attune the potential aspirations and talents of your staff as individuals, and as a team, with vision and direction of your organisation’ (Taylor, 2007, p. 29). So, to find the solutions, let’s dive into three key elements that could hold the answers we are looking for.

1 Core team values and principles

What are some of the team values that make a difference and bring teams closer together? Through a lot of conversations with both managers and teachers, one value kept coming up over and over again: openness.

The usual response when teams bring up lack of openness is an increase in staff meetings. However, through these conversations what I realised is what they really yearn for is 1:1 or small group time with management. They want to be seen and heard as individuals and not as a part of a group. This of course takes a lot of time, but the investment seems to be well worth it once an engaged, committed and motivated team is formed.

The other top two values are volunteerism and accountability. It’s all about fostering a spirit of mutual support and togetherness, standing by each other’s side through thick and thin, even if it sounds clichéd.

2 Feeling valued

A team member once told me that she was very touched that she was made to feel so valued in the team. A common quote, often attributed to Maya Angelou amongst many others, says, ‘I’ve learned that people will forget what you said, people will forget what you did, but people will never forget how you made them feel’. This really drives home the point that our interactions with others have a profound and lasting impact. That’s why it’s so important to foster a positive and uplifting environment where everyone feels valued, supported and empowered. When we create that kind of atmosphere, we have the power to inspire others and help them unleash their full potential. And the best part? It leaves a lasting, positive impression that people will carry with them wherever they go.

3 Consultative decision making

It’s hard to bring a group of people together in one room and to get them to agree on one outcome or one way forward. However, the power it has to ensure that every team member owns the decision is immeasurable.

When we involve everyone in the decision-making process, getting their input, listening to their perspectives, and valuing their ideas, it creates a sense of ownership

160

Managing and motivating teaching teams for excellent results

and collective responsibility. This in turn fosters a stronger commitment to the chosen direction. It’s like building a sturdy foundation for the decision, where everyone has contributed their insight and expertise.

By harnessing the collective wisdom and diverse perspectives within the team, we tap into a rich pool of ideas, increase buy-in, and ultimately enhance the chances of success.

In conclusion, when it comes to team leadership and academic management, fostering a sense of value, engagement and motivation is essential. The power of creating a supportive environment and acknowledging the lasting impact of our interactions is immeasurable. Prioritising these principles cultivates a positive, collaborative atmosphere, propelling teams to new heights. anju@avinyafoundation.org

Reference Taylor, P. (2007). Motivating your team, coaching for performance in schools. Sage Publications.

161

9

Teacher development in action

This chapter starts with Divya Madhavan’s plenary paper, in which she explores coaching and mentoring as a means to developing teacher wellbeing and resilience.

Using stories of teachers who have built resilient environments, she then looks more closely at the roles of coach and mentor and how they fit with a teacher’s identity.

In the next paper, Jennifer Schumm Fauster and Ulla Fürstenberg report on an edited book project in Austria that provided a forum for experienced practitioners to collaborate with teacher researchers. They describe how the process of working on this book not only contributed to the professional development of the authors, but also helped them grow as teachers and teacher educators. América Bustamante Piedragil reports on an initiative in Mexico which enabled teachers to come together virtually as a community for the first time to exchange views and strategies. América describes how this has led to a shift in beliefs about grammar teaching, which has had a positive impact on students. The focus of Seden Eraldemir Tuyan’s paper is self-enhancement mentoring, an approach that she introduced with Turkish EFL teachers to help them understand, build on and extend their successful teaching experiences. Moving to Cuba, Eduardo Escalona Pardo describes how, thanks to APC-ELI, teacher development opportunities have finally reached teachers in rural areas of Granma in the west, and how these are benefiting the teachers in that area. Finally, the chapter closes with Mohammed Isifan’s report on the transformative power of the PRELIM project and virtual communities of practice on Palestinian teachers’ professional development and growth.

9.1 Plenary: Lean on me: stories of coaching, mentoring and teacher resilience Divya Madhavan CentraleSupélec, Université Paris-Saclay, France Introduction

Of all the amazing things teachers achieve in classrooms around the world every day, one of the most amazing is perhaps how much teachers show up. Even when it’s messy, even when it’s underpaid, even when it’s exhausting, we teachers have this incredible capacity to show up, to be there, to ensure presence. With this constant and reassuring presence, we shape learners and learning environments within (and sometimes despite) education systems. Teachers have always been the heroes of quieter revolutions, such as tolerance and understanding, achieved only through education.

162

Plenary: Lean on me: stories of coaching, mentoring and teacher resilience

As teachers of the world’s international language, we know this reality of fostering understanding and acceptance through better communication all too well. We have always been the ones who fight the good fight that is education.

So, who shows up for teachers? When we’re overwhelmed, feel undervalued, or are simply just tired: Who do we lean on? How do we find ways to look after teachers continuously and not just in specific moments of training? Whose responsibility is teacher wellbeing? Where do we start? In this article, I will explore a couple of starting points for developing teacher wellbeing and resilience, which are the practices of coaching and mentoring. I will map out how coaching and mentoring initiatives can be embedded into organisations and how they can transform interactions and relationships through finer-tuned perceptions of self. Through stories of strong teachers who have built resilient environments, we will explore the roles of coach and mentor and how they fit with a teacher’s identity.

Teacher development within the IATEFL community

Teacher growth is at the heart of all teaching practices, regardless of discipline. This is what we mean when we say a teacher has experience, when a teacher has seniority and when a teacher can lead other teachers. In ELT, teacher growth is embedded in teaching communities, where we lean on each other and help each other grow. There are more traditional disciplines in education where teacher growth is more of a straight line – teachers go from a bachelor’s degree to a master’s degree to a PhD, or some sort of teaching certification, and then comes a job. ELT doesn’t work like that, our realities are far messier: some of us fall into ELT from other professions, most of us study and get qualified while we work as teachers because it’s the only way we can afford to do so and all of us understand the value of moments like an IATEFL conference as so many of us pay our own way for professional development. The IATEFL community is fuelled by an energy that goes beyond just professional ambition; we are fuelled by a deep love of teaching and an infinite joy in discovering new dimensions to teaching and learning.

I’ve been an English teacher for 25 years, I’ve done most jobs in ELT, from private tutoring to teaching in companies, from primary school to higher education and everything in between and I have grown a lot in the process. Today some of the choices I make influence how the teachers I work with are able to grow; and I’ve come to realise that many of the everyday choices we all make influence how the people around us grow. So, I’d like to invite you to reflect on what it means to be a teacher who supports other teachers; to reflect on how we nurture each other’s trust, how we help each other find confidence, how we give each other courage, and how we show each other perseverance.

The messier realities of big shifts in ELT

I grew up in Malaysia in the 1980s. English was the language I spoke at home, and like so many kids who grow up in Southeast Asia there were status issues on what kind of English, what accent, what register, what variety … and of course like so many of us in the IATEFL community, I’ve had to casually and not-so-casually justify my

163

Chapter 9: Teacher development in action

connection to the English language at many moments in my career. The most incredible thing I’ve observed in my time is a levelling of the playing field when it comes to questioning the cultural, racial and gender privileges within our industry. Things are far from perfect but today we can say and do so much more than we could before, and this conversation on inclusion will only grow bigger thanks to voices like Seburn’s (2021). Today, I am the Director of a large language centre in France with English teachers from Taiwan to Turkey via South Africa and Sweden. Teachers like us define the quality of English language teaching through not only how rich it is, but how far it reaches.

This cultural shift of English as the world’s international language has been moving our community forward for a long time, and with each stage things get better and move forward, despite the journey being a little messy. Change is messy because we human beings are messy. Messiness is perhaps one of the most profoundly human qualities because every human success is built on countless moments of failure.

And so the starting point for my IATEFL plenary was a mess. Well, not a mess, but the mess: the big mess of the huge gaps in teacher pay around the world compared to other professions requiring similar levels of education; the mess of severely lowresourced environments; the mess of most of us having to work more than one teaching job to pay our rent and look after our families. Our incoming IATEFL President, Alex Popovski, gave a talk in Malta in October where she raised more than one sujet qui fâche sore point, regarding the working conditions of ELT teachers. I sat in the room and watched her full of admiration as she spoke her truth and took quite a lot of heat with incredible grace during the questions. As I reflected on this powerful but disturbing talk in the weeks after the conference, I realised that the incredible thing is – in all this mess, we still show up. We have this incredible capacity to put aside the difficulties and show up for our students. And teachers showing up is what has kept education moving since the beginning of time.

English teachers showing up across the ages

A millennium ago, teachers (there weren’t English teachers yet, they were Latin and Greek teachers) witnessed the birth of higher education and began teaching critical thinking. They taught language, but also probably had to persuade parents to send their children to school, and standardise language to make it more accessible.

Five centuries ago, English teachers like us had access to the printing press and taught literacy and English grammar – and they helped students aspire to higher-level jobs, as education and language competence became more widespread.

A century ago, English teachers like us had the singular status of teaching not just a language but the language of the most powerful colonial force in the world. And as the political world shifted and re-centred, English became everyone’s language, infused with the diversity that makes it all our own today.

Now, in 2023, we are English teachers in the era where computer scientists are flirting wildly with biologists, as philosophers tag along on the date as a bit of a third wheel; we are in the era where higher education is being turned on its head by artificial intelligence. We are in the era of ‘how-to’ guides, where advice on everything from dieting to dreaming abounds: expertise has become ubiquitous.

And so, we are in the era of information overload, where language inundates us

164

Plenary: Lean on me: stories of coaching, mentoring and teacher resilience

from every direction. The winners who will write this phase of history will be those who can see and think and communicate clearly. Clear communication has never been more essential to the advancement of society, and, as teachers of language, our role is more crucial than ever before, and we continue to show up.

Teachers show up, and that’s amazing. We show up as teachers, as coaches, mentors, nurturers, lifelines, supporters, role models, underdogs and cheerleaders in the complex landscape that is language teaching. Showing up deserves celebration and showing up for each other deserves recognition.

Coaching, mentoring and teacher resilience

I’d like to focus on two neighbouring roles to teaching: coaching and mentoring. Why are they relevant to our context? Because they help us frame the different roles that teachers can take on, and better envision the kinds of spaces we, teachers and education managers, create and invest in for our teachers’ growth.

What is coaching?

Coaching is all about honing specific skills and behaviours related to a task or role. As a debating coach myself, I select and train students for competitive debates. I build an incredibly close bond with my debaters and yet this bond is laser-focused on our debating goals. And the same goes for a football coach or even a careers coach, where there’s a specific area that needs to evolve and the coach’s role is to guide their person, their client, their student, their colleague towards evolving successfully. Today, I will stick to this broad definition of the practice of coaching as a natural extension of the teaching persona. I am respectfully disassociating the professional certifications related to coaching from this discussion because those are actual career paths that people choose and grow into – they stop being English language teachers and become a professional coach so it’s different.

Now, here’s the thing – a successful coach doesn’t necessarily have to be an expert in the subject matter. What really counts is their ability to bring out the best in the person they’re coaching and help them achieve their goals. Coaches themselves need coaching sometimes. At a difficult time in my job, I was coached by a crisis management coach with whom I had the most amazing journey, and I found out much later that he mainly worked with firefighters to help them manage their stress. His coaching was so effective because he had the skills and methodology and it didn’t matter which industry his clients were from. Coaching is perhaps the more natural relationship we have with our students.

What is mentoring?

Mentoring is different; you can’t mentor a team of debaters to win a tournament and you can’t mentor a squad of footballers into winning a championship. Mentoring takes time, this time spills across multiple spaces and these multiple spaces reveal multiple goals. Having a mentor is like having your own personal Yoda, someone who can guide you through the ups and downs of life with their expert knowledge of the Force. In mentoring, subject knowledge is key – you need someone who really knows their stuff to help you navigate complex challenges and grow as a person. And here’s the thing with mentoring – you have to know your stuff, you have to be on an expertise-building journey yourself before people can look up to you and be mentored.

Mentoring is perhaps the more natural relationship we have with our fellow teachers.

165

Chapter 9: Teacher development in action

In each of these three roles, the positioning of the teacher shifts – we go from teaching to enabling learning, to facilitating development and performances that thrive, to supporting and inspiring. Each of these practices create a sort of echo within us: they provide spaces for reflection and introspection, they encourage us to rise above and take a different perspective and, most importantly, hold up a profoundly human mirror for stories that resemble our own.

Going the extra mile in teaching

We don’t all know each other very well but there are a few things I’m pretty sure I share with each and every one of you – I’ll venture a couple of simple examples. I love my students so much that I do things that really aren’t in my job description. I bring them food, cake especially, when I have quite a lot of work for them to do; I’m a debating coach and during tournament season my debaters work very hard as I churn out these vast amounts of cake – my main coaching strategy is that of an army marching on its stomach. I love my students so much that I dedicate evenings and weekends to rewriting perfectly good teaching materials to make sure I adapt them perfectly to this particular class I have this particular week. I also make sure I complain to my whole family how annoying it is to have to spend my weekends on my teaching!

These going-the-extra-mile gestures are universal in the world of teaching. It doesn’t matter that I teach in France and some of you might teach tens of thousands of miles away. We all know what it is to find that little bit of extra energy in the tank when it’s necessary (and when we deem it necessary) and show up.

The question I asked when I started preparing my plenary talk was: ‘So, who shows up for teachers?’ I don’t need a whole article to answer that – it’s fairly straightforward: it’s other teachers! What I’d like to focus on is how we show up for each other by sharing the stories of four teachers whose work I’ve leaned on at different moments of my career. These four teachers aren’t my best friends, or work colleagues or my former teachers – they’re just people whose work inspired me and made me look up and look forward at different points in my journey. They’re people who showed up for me without necessarily knowing that they were showing up for me, because these are people whose legacies are in the collective spaces, who have worked to change their worlds without necessarily being the ones who changed their worlds. They are people who lean on others and are leaned on. One was in the audience in Harrogate, one was online, the other probably wasn’t, and the last one had never even heard of IATEFL or the ELT community until I met her for the first time, after working up the nerve to ask her for an interview. I interviewed each of these teachers about coaching and mentoring as I prepared for my plenary and I’d like to invite you to reflect on them with me under these philosophies of trust, confidence, courage and perseverance. Let’s dive in, with our story of trust.

Story of trust: Vicky Saumell, Argentina

Vicky is one of us – she is so emblematic of what keeps ELT environments running – she teaches while questioning teaching environments, she adopts new technologies while ensuring their sustainability and she trains teachers by standing alongside them as opposed to above them.

Vicky’s version of showing up is reflected in her critical dialogue with adapting

166

Plenary: Lean on me: stories of coaching, mentoring and teacher resilience

learning technologies and working differently with different groups of teachers as she implements large scale change.

What I learnt from interviewing Vicky is that change is implemented by creating new habits, and that getting us teachers to do anything new can only work if we are trusted to do it. People tend to talk about trust in the workplace like it’s one thing, but it’s layered and not everyone gives it the same importance. Trust, among teachers, doesn’t quite work the same way as in a collocations dictionary, where it’s simply ‘built’ or ‘broken’ – these actions are maybe too precise, too instantaneous. Trust is cultivated, it’s demonstrated and it’s prolonged once it’s been earned – these are the messier realities in which we need to work.

Trust is the essential ingredient for habit-building in educational environments.

Clear (2018, p. 28) reminds us on how incremental a process habit-building is: ‘Every action you take is a vote for the type of person you wish to become. No single instance will transform your beliefs, but as the votes build up, so does the evidence of your new identity’. Vicky reminds us of it too when she describes the trust negotiation she plays in the mentoring process. Now let’s turn to our story of confidence.

Story of confidence: Barb Sakamoto, Japan

Barb is also one of us – to me, she has always been someone who makes a lot of magic in the margins. Barb is the muscle behind iTDi (International Teacher Development Institute), which functions in a similar way to IATEFL. It’s a space which provides professional development that is affordable and accessible, with ideals and objectives like teacher empowerment and community building. For me, Barb’s story is inseparable from the role she’s played in building a sustainable teacher development model through a community of highly-skilled contributors, who provide a space for teachers to lean on.

What I learnt from interviewing Barb is that these frameworks of coaching and mentoring are built, they’re built with purpose, and built on purpose. And they need to be given space and recognition in order for them to work, because cultivating new habits requires space. We do sometimes have a tendency to see our classrooms as having two sides – a teaching side and a learning side, and the cool teachers are maybe the ones who identify as learners first, but what if we were to consider more nuanced versions of the teacher’s role itself, in the way that Giroux (1988) has had us questioning for decades whether teaching is about being ‘sage on the stage’ or the ‘guide on the side’.

As we reflect on how confidence is built, I think it’s also important to reflect on where confidence is built; it’s built in the social environment of a classroom with all its complex human mechanisms. And while critical pedagogy is no stranger to ELT, in many education management contexts we need reminding of its lessons in questioning the social mechanisms we take for granted. Speaking of taking things for granted, let us now turn to our story of courage.

Story of courage: Patricia Angoy, Eswatini

Patricia is a school leader who worked in the UK in the 1970s, then in South America, and more recently in Southern Africa. She’s amazing, please Google her. I met her about ten years ago when we were both students on the same course and I was very

167

Chapter 9: Teacher development in action

impressed by her capacity to zoom out, and to always see the big picture of what was really happening. So, when I found myself on the journey of preparing for my plenary, I reached out to her. Her last role was Principal of Waterford Kamhlaba United World College of Southern Africa. She is the first woman of colour to have headed this school.

What I learnt from interviewing Patricia is how much we all need courage when we show up. Having courage shapes our every decision: the battles we choose to fight; the ones we choose to lose; the ones we bring back to the table later; and the ones we leave behind. These are all decisions and actions that are rooted in courage. Courage is speaking up and courage is also acting up when it’s necessary.

Pedagogy of the Oppressed (Freire, 2000) taught me everything I know about what matters about being a teacher. I have read it again and again and each time have found a little more meaning in this one-hundred-page book written by this Brazilian educator in the 1970s; it’s the book that has helped me recentre and reprioritise when things get too busy or too blurry. And where are things recentred and reprioritised? It’s in our collective critical consciousness, which is the whole point of this beautiful mess that is education. The point is that each of our students should leave our classrooms a small step closer to being a change agent in society, because the English language is not only a language and an international culture but also a very powerful currency in the world today, and as English language teachers we shape its exchange rate. So we need courage to choose the right kinds of change that will move us all forward one small step at a time.

Story of perseverance: Maggie Doyne, Nepal

The final interview I’d like to share with you is of a 2005 high-school leaver on a gap year who met a young six-year-old child who had to do hard labour instead of go to school due to extreme poverty. This then student used her babysitting money that she had saved up to send this child and others to school and she very quickly realised how much more there was to do; today, she has built a children’s home, women’s centre and school in Surkhet, Nepal, and is legal guardian to over 50 children. She is the sort of person for whom teaching, coaching and mentoring comes so naturally because her labour of love is within the messiest of human realities: educating and protecting children in remote under-resourced environments.

What I learnt from interviewing Maggie is that perseverance is about dreaming these big bold dreams that keep our worlds magical and give us the momentum we need to keep moving forward. I mentioned at the beginning of this talk how we all know what it is to find that little extra in the tank when it’s necessary, and people like Maggie remind us how big the tank is.

These four incredible educators show us the poetry with which we English language teachers connect dots that span the whole world, embodying this most vital culture of fostering greater tolerance in the world through better quality communication. Our strength as a community has always been in the collective space and we will only grow more resilient by honouring and celebrating each other every possible chance we get.

I began this article by walking you through English teachers showing up across the ages; a thousand years ago, one hundred years ago, and today. Today, our outstanding technological prowess in language learning is coupled with plummeting enrolments

168

Giving back to the ELT profession: a collaborative endeavour

in English degrees in higher education. Today we’re embracing large language models in AI with a nervous look over our shoulders as to what this really means for sustainable, global language teaching and learning. What will our students look like in fifty years, in one hundred years, and will there even be a planet to inhabit in one thousand years or would we, in our hubris, have destroyed it. We don’t know. I do know this: we are here, and we, both now and in the future, with our profoundly human gazes, are irreplaceable. And so, in the spirit of IATEFL, let’s celebrate the irreplaceability of teachers showing up. divya.madhavan@centralesupelec.fr

References Clear, J. (2018). Atomic Habits. Avery.

Freire, P. (2000). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Continuum.

Giroux, H. A. (1988). Teachers as intellectuals: Toward a critical pedagogy of learning. Bergin & Garvey.

Seburn, T. (2021). How to Write Inclusive Materials. ELT Teacher 2 Writer.

9.2 Giving back to the ELT profession: a collaborative endeavour Jennifer Schumm Fauster and Ulla Fürstenberg University of Graz, Austria

‘Professional learning never reaches an endpoint, but rather is a continuous process of growth, adaptation and development’ (Mercer et al., 2022, p. 7). This quote accurately sums up our observations while working on an edited book project that provided a forum for experienced practitioners to share their expertise in collaboration with teacher researchers, thus contributing to our local Community of Practice. Our edited volume is entitled English Language Teaching in Austria: From theory to the classroom and beyond and is available open access (see References).

Information about the book project

Our motivation for undertaking the book project was to fill gaps in ELT publications in Austria, which we had noticed in our work with students in teacher education.

These included gaps between international and local viewpoints as well as between theoretical perspectives and practical applications. Our book consists of four sections: Part 1 – The teacher; Part 2 – In the classroom; Part 3 – Language skills and subskills; Part 4 – Special contexts. The chapters in each section focus on topics which concern the contributors’ areas of expertise and which they consider particularly relevant to teaching English in various different educational contexts in Austria. Each chapter follows the same structure, beginning with key words and questions outlining the chapter content, followed by theoretical perspectives and the Austrian context. After this, practical applications and questions for reflection are presented. A list of references and suggestions for further reading in the form of an annotated bibliography are included. Finally, a commentary on the reflection questions which facilitates independent learning rounds off each chapter.

169

Chapter 9: Teacher development in action

The book, which is also designed for self-study, is intended as a practical guide and reference for pre-service teachers and current classroom teachers, as well as a resource for language teacher educators and academics working in the area of ELT in Austria and those interested in the Austrian context.

Contributions to collaborative professional development

In addition to contributing to the ELT resources available in Austria, we also feel that the book has contributed to the professional development of the authors and editors.

Firstly, we noticed how the book engaged our contributors in collaborative teacher development, as teachers and researchers worked on the chapters together and peerreviewed each other’s work. This process of social learning can also be assumed to benefit the contexts in which the contributors work, i.e. their students and institutions.

Secondly, contributors had the opportunity to reflect on and refine their understanding of their personal area of expertise. This was also facilitated by the writing process, which required them to challenge their assumptions and express their teaching principles in a way that is accessible to the reader.

Thirdly, exchanges during the work on this book project led to the creation of a professional learning community which includes different institutional contexts: different types of secondary schools; institutions of tertiary education; and adult education providers. This professional learning community will hopefully continue to offer opportunities for professional development in the future.

Lessons learned

Referring to teacher professional development, Bailey (2020) points out that by ‘priming the pump for future travellers, we ourselves can grow and be refreshed’ (p.

240). While we feel that the process of working on this book has contributed to the professional development of our authors and will benefit our students in the future, there can be no doubt that we have grown in our roles as teachers and teacher educators as well. For example, the editing process allowed us to deepen our knowledge of a wider range of topics in ELT beyond our specific areas of interest. We also noticed that we have been able to form stronger links with colleagues at various local institutions, e.g. secondary schools. This has opened up channels of communication which are extremely valuable for our work in language teacher education.

We additionally gained a greater appreciation for the challenges of different teaching contexts through working on this project. These included obstacles encountered when implementing new teaching methods, the demands involved in interacting with learners of all ages and the constraints imposed by different institutional contexts.

Finally, we became aware of the obstacles some teachers face when they branch out beyond the classroom and their traditional role to grow as teachers. Engaging with research and publishing their work can sometimes be perceived as threatening by their institutions. Understanding these challenges made us appreciate our contributors’ commitment all the more. jennifer.schumm@uni-graz.at; ulla.fuerstenberg@uni-graz.at

References Bailey, K. M. (2020). Priming the Pump: Giving back to the Profession. In C. Coombe, N.

170

Improving grammar teaching: exchanging strategies between Mexican English teachers J. Anderson & L. Stephenson (Eds.), Professionalizing Your English Language Teaching (pp.

233–241). Springer.

Mercer, S., Farrell, C., & Freeman, D. (2022). Self-directed professional development in ELT. Oxford University Press.

Schumm Fauster, J., & Fürstenberg, U. (Eds.). (2023). English Language Teaching in Austria: From theory to the classroom and beyond. Graz University Library Publishing. https://doi. org/10.25364/978-3-903374-05-8

9.3 Improving grammar teaching: exchanging strategies between Mexican English teachers América Bustamante Piedragil CELEX, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-

Iztapalapa, Ciudad de México, México

Grammar teaching is considered an essential element in elementary EFL classrooms, despite the communicative approach. A recent survey I conducted at the National English Program in Basic Education in Mexico revealed that, regardless of the institutional restriction placed on explicit grammar teaching, teachers consider it a priority and a necessary element of meaningful language teaching.

To summarise the context of English teaching at the elementary level in Mexico, it’s necessary to point out that the teaching of English was made compulsory from 2011, and the goal is for students to reach B1 level by the end of their basic education. To this end, students are exposed to three hours of lessons per week. Despite our geographical proximity to the United States, there is very little contact with the English language outside the classroom, so the exceptions who achieve the required level are few in number.

Teacher cognition and teachers’ beliefs

In the case of these teachers, their interest in filling this gap in their teaching has a cognitive explanation. This topic is related to the increasing interest in what teachers think, know and believe, as it is a key aspect of the language teaching-learning process which considers that ‘teachers are active individuals who make decisions and instructional choices based on complex, practice-oriented, personalized, and contextsensitive networks of knowledge, thoughts, and beliefs’ (Borg, 2003, p.81). Its study is therefore essential for effective pedagogy, as well as for teacher development itself.

The sociocultural turn

For the past few years, research on teacher cognition has shifted towards a more interactionist and sociocultural approach, since it ‘provides a framework through which cognition can be systematically investigated without isolating it from the social context’ (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006, p.1), offering an important alternative approach in which the internal - psychological - and external - socialisation - domains are treated together as a dialectical unit. In this perspective, teacher cognition is not static and far from existing solely in the minds of teachers; it is fluid and interactive and situated in a given context.

So, if teacher cognition is social in nature, we can identify it on two levels: First, 171

Chapter 9: Teacher development in action

because ‘cultural norms and practices provide individuals with a prior cognitive repertoire. Second, it is through social interaction in professional contexts that individuals develop knowledge, conceptualisations and assimilate accepted practice’ (Li, 2020, p.

41). The second condition is where Mexican teachers are located.

A teaching practice un-covered

With the pandemic, not only were we forced to move our classroom to a virtual environment, but, for the first time in Mexico, the National English Program held a national campaign for EFL teachers’ development, and teachers had the opportunity to get in touch with each other as a community to exchange views.

In the virtual teaching groups, the most common activity was the exchange of material and teaching strategies, including teaching grammar in a veiled way. To illustrate, some of the most shared strategies were: • Storytelling activities, with a previous explanation on how sentences are structured.

The input must contain the grammar point multiple times, so it generates a drilling practice.

• Identifying sequences, with the teacher guidance especially on those structures that don’t exist in their first language, students must discover the grammar form of a particular tense.

• Keep it simple, teach a structure or a tense at a time, in its basic form. There are structures that students haven’t studied in their first language.

Most of the teachers reported that this shift on their grammar teaching helped students to be more independent in their learning.

Conclusion

Let’s emphasise the importance of interaction and exchange of experiences for teacher training and improvement. Social interaction between peers from the same community, with cognitive affinities, such as English teachers, was the setting for an adaptation of teachers’ cognition. This was on the understanding that the experience of the colleague who has been successful in applying certain strategies is more real than the instructor, who only gives suggestions of what and what not to use in the classroom. Their belief system has been modified by peer-to-peer collaboration and despite formative teaching instruction. Most importantly, their self-concept has been strengthened, as a previously veiled action is now collective. abp@xanum.uam.mx

References Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language teaching: A review of research on what language teachers think, know, believe, and do. Language teaching, 36(2), 81–109. https://doi. org/10.1017/S0261444803001903 Lantolf, J. P., & Thorne, S. L. (2006). Sociocultural Theory and The Genesis of Second Language Development. Oxford University Press.

Li, L. (2020). Language Teacher Cognition. A Sociocultural Perspective. Palgrave Macmillan.

172

Self-mentoring through enhancement mentoring approach for teacher-research

9.4 Self-mentoring through enhancement mentoring approach for teacher-research Seden Eraldemir Tuyan Çag University, Turkey What is teacher-research mentoring?

Mentoring is about the sharing of knowledge, skills and experience, with the goal of encouraging and empowering another person. In teacher development situations, this approach entails improving teachers’ autonomy to develop for themselves, as well as their ability and willingness to take responsibility for what they are learning rather than judging, explicitly advising, or providing them with all the answers.

What is enhancement mentoring for teacher-research?

Enhancement mentoring for teacher-research (Smith et al., 2021) is an innovative approach to mentoring which aims to build on teachers’ existing achievements, as a possible way to help them derive value from, and chart a path through and beyond, crisis experiences or other difficult circumstances. This approach includes three sets of questions which are considered to move teachers closer to achievement-based teacher-research.

What is self-mentoring?

As was proposed by Jorde Bloom (2007), self-mentoring is, at its core, self-directed learning. It entails growing or enhancing those qualities of who you are and who you want to be, while requiring not just a clear vision of your current self, but also a clear picture of your ideal self, the person you aim to be.

Extending my own success

In the early days of the Covid crisis in 2020, I was working on enhancement mentoring for teacher-research with Richard Smith, Erzsébet Ágnes Békés and Mariana Serra, trying to survive this unexpected difficult circumstance. I was exploring ways to improve my situation to overcome physical and psychological symptoms that made me feel frustrated and overwhelmed with my responsibilities, to reach my desired state of personal and professional contentment and wellbeing. I prepared an action plan to feel better during that time, and I practised mentoring myself using mindfulness practices, and encouraged and empowered myself, recalling some influential quotes such as: ‘What does not kill me makes me stronger’; ‘Cold never bothered me anyway!’, the line spoken by Elsa, in the film Frozen (2013). I identified myself with ‘The Pearl in the Oyster’ metaphor in the Oyster’s Tale (author unknown) to maintain my resilience and grit. Finally, the outcome of my own action plan made me feel successful, and I decided to extend my success to my teaching context.

As I was teaching the ‘Professional Development for ELT Teachers’ module as part of the MA Program at Çag University in Turkey, I conducted this research with two cohorts of MA students: 20 in the 2020 fall semester and 4 in the 2021 fall semester.

Just as I mentored myself to overcome my challenges during the pandemic, my intention with this study was to see how the adapted self-enhancement mentoring approach for teacher-research supported Turkish EFL teachers with their CPD during the Covid 173

Chapter 9: Teacher development in action

pandemic. The MA ELT students conducted their self-enhancement mentoring projects in their own EFL teaching contexts and mentored themselves to a) understand the nature of their previous successful teaching experiences, and b) extend these to different teaching situations.

Three different self-enhancement mentoring templates (Smith et al., 2021) were adapted as handouts, consisting of guiding questions for the purpose of this study, and each student completed all three. Inductive analysis of data, open codes, axial codes and themes (Strauss & Corbin, 1994) were constructed after reading the completed handouts. To check validity, two other researchers also reviewed the emergent themes.

Preliminary findings

Preliminary findings revealed that the participating teachers benefited from their selfmentoring practice as follows: • i ncreased self-awareness about their strengths; • i mproved critical thinking skills in expanding previous successful experiences; • e nhanced problem-solving skills; • i ncreased motivation and engagement; • a greater sense of control over their own professional development; • a chance to evaluate their own performance and progress and to celebrate their achievements; • a bility to create a personal vision and plan for their professional growth; and • i ncreased confidence and job satisfaction.

The following quote by Teacher 3 exemplifies how teachers can benefit when they use self-mentoring through the enhancement mentoring approach for teacher-research: Seeing our students’ improvements may not be enough for us to believe in ourselves because, as human beings, we focus on the troubles that we face rather than being grateful for what we have succeeded in so far. When I mentor myself, I see the power in me as a teacher; I see myself as a curious learner looking for a solution whenever I face a problem instead of just complaining about the problem. So, I believe that this session gives me another perspective on myself.

sedentuyan@gmail.com

References Jorde Bloom, P. (2007). Becoming a self-mentor. Exchange, January/February, 54–57.

Smith, R., Eraldemir-Tuyan, S., Békés, E. A., & Serra, M. (2021). Enhancement mentoring for teacher-research: A positive approach in a crisis. ELTED Journal, 24, 43–61.

Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1994). Grounded theory methodology: An overview. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 273–285). Sage Publications, Inc.

174

Professional development for teachers in rural areas

9.5 Professional development for teachers in rural areas Eduardo Escalona Pardo University of Granma, Manzanillo, Granma, Cuba

Granma, characterised by its contrasting rural flat and mountainous areas, is located in the southwest of Cuba and is where many teachers and trainees at University of Granma live. Granma has two provincial universities: University of Granma and the University of Medical Sciences. English is studied as a foreign language and the goal is to graduate professionals mastering this language. At the University of Granma, it is the responsibility of professors to lead the training process in such a way that students become its active component.

The major at this university, Bachelor of Education in English as a Foreign Language, trains teachers to lead the teaching/learning process at different educational levels. For this reason, training needs to approach practice in light of the reality of the educational facilities and the regions, in order to achieve a coordinated, systematic and inclusive educational process.

In 1977, the demand for highly qualified professionals resulted in a need for the improvement of study programmes, and as a result curricula A to E (corresponding to years 1 to 5 of the programme) emerged. Each of these emphasised the development of linguistic and communicative skills, as well as the theoretical and practical mastery of the language. However, these professional objectives were not adequately implemented in pedagogical training, and teachers and students did not have the opportunity to interact regularly with ELT experts nationally or internationally. The situation was even more challenging because students and teachers come from different socio-cultural contexts; professional development opportunities for those from mountain areas were especially limited, reaching only the cities, such as Havana, Matanzas and Villa Clara.

Transformations, however, have taken effect, representing a leap in the development of Cuban education. These concern teachers’ professional development and a strategy based on theoretical foundations of current, relevant good practice and application.

Linguistically, it involved the development of competences, fundamentally developing what Hymes (1972) calls ‘communicative competence’. Pedagogically, the principles for the direction of the pedagogical process occupy a top-ranking place. Within the variety of definitions, the principles proposed by Addine (2002) are assumed: scientific character of education; connecting education with life, environment and work; unity between activity; and communication and personality among others.

Although education via the Bachelor of Education in English as a Foreign Language has reached trainees coming from rural areas, there weren’t many possibilities for socialising experiences with ELT experts from abroad, which created a barrier to putting into practice and socialising the communicative and professional skills acquired.

The solution came thanks to the creation of APC-ELI in Granma and its connection to IATEFL, associations to which many teachers belong and from whose activities they receive their benefits. Activities developed by the association nationwide include: • b iannual conferences, in which both speakers and a certain number of non-speakers participate regardless of their social background; • opportunities

to participate in IATEFL scholarships; and

175

Chapter 9: Teacher development in action

• c oordination to achieve the support of the Cuba English Language Support Team (CELST) to guarantee both academic and monetary help based on participation in national and international events.

And specific activities developed in Granma include: • t eacher activities organised with the support of the APC-ELI, the British Council and the CELST; • r oadshows; • N ational Workshop on the Didactics of Foreign Language Teaching held at the University of Granma with the participation of UK experts; • w orkshop ‘Joining the Teachers’ Association, a step forward to continuous professional development’, part of the implementation of the Hornby Trust Project – several teachers benefited from the actions of the Partnered Remote Language Improvement Project; and • w ebinars such as ‘Canadian Teachers and the Covid-19 Pandemic’ by Julia Macrae, ‘Reducing Fear’ by Ken Wilson, ‘Strategies for Reading’ by Sue Piper, ‘Supporting all English Learners and Planning for Success’ by Carol Harvey, among others.

The main outcomes from these activities have been: • a n increase in student and teacher motivation; • t he creation of a community of English language teachers in-country and abroad; • o pportunities for professional development inside and outside the country; • g rowth of English language proficiency; and • c ascading of knowledge across the country.

To conclude, all these activities have challenged the teaching of English in Cuba; however, while facing those challenges and others, teachers still want to do their best for their students and take pride and pleasure in doing their jobs. APC-ELI, with the support of the British Council, is committed to helping them do both. eescalona1312@gmail.com

References Addine, F. (2002). Didactics: Theory and Practice. People and Education.

Hymes, D. H. (1972). On Communicative Competence. In J. B. Pride & J. Holmes (Eds.), Sociolinguistics: Selected Readings (pp. 269–293). Penguin.

9.6 Empowering teachers: a journey from virtual communities to the IATEFL Conference Mohammed Isifan UNRWA, PATEFL, The Palestinian Territories

I was delighted to be selected as a speaker at the prestigious 2023 IATEFL Conference, where I represented both the United Nations Relief and Working Agency (UNRWA) and the Palestinian Teachers Associates (PATEFL). It was an incredible opportunity to showcase the transformative power of virtual communities of practice on professional development, and highlight the success of our main international partnership through the Partnered Remote Language Improvement project (PRELIM).

176

Empowering teachers: a journey from virtual communities to the IATEFL Conference

My presentation at the Conference focused on the importance of virtual communities of practice in empowering teachers and facilitating their continuing professional development. In a world increasingly interconnected by technology, these virtual communities provide a platform for educators to share knowledge, exchange ideas and collaborate across borders. By harnessing the power of digital tools, teachers can engage in ongoing learning, receive feedback and access valuable resources from their peers worldwide.

The collaboration between UNRWA, PATEFL and our UK partner schools through the PRELIM project was at the core of my presentation. PRELIM served as a powerful example of how international partnerships can foster professional growth and create meaningful connections between educators. Through this project, Palestinian teachers had the opportunity to engage in virtual communities of practice with their UK counterparts, exchanging teaching methodologies, innovative approaches and experiences.

The project centred on the organisation of virtual communities led by Palestinian teachers who were members of PATEFL. These teachers voluntarily enrolled on courses designed to enhance their speaking skills. The participants included educators from various sectors, including public schools, UNRWA schools, and private schools, representing diverse politically disconnected districts in Palestine. These virtual communities played a crucial role in connecting teachers from regions where physical gatherings were often challenging due to political factors.

In collaboration with UK partner schools like Peartree Languages and Hilderstone College, along with PATEFL, the project’s main focus was on conducting weekly online meetings on specific topics. These meetings provided a platform for teachers to engage in meaningful discussions, exchange ideas and improve their English speaking abilities. As a result of these virtual communities, teachers experienced a significant boost in their confidence and fluency in English, which directly translated into their classrooms and teaching practices.

Overall, the project successfully facilitated professional development among Palestinian teachers, improved their language proficiency, and enhanced their ability to deliver effective English language education to their students, demonstrating the transformative power of virtual communities in education.

The impact of PRELIM and virtual communities of practice on our teachers has been profound. It has not only expanded their pedagogical skills and enriched their teaching practices but has also provided a space for reflection, support and professional networking. Teachers have gained a global perspective on education, embracing diverse perspectives and cultural nuances that enhance their understanding of the profession.

Being selected as a speaker at the IATEFL Conference was a testament to the effectiveness and relevance of our work. It demonstrated the recognition and appreciation for the efforts undertaken by UNRWA, PATEFL and our partner schools to promote excellence in education and empower teachers. The Conference provided a platform to showcase our achievements, share our success stories, and inspire educators from around the world to embrace virtual communities of practice for their own professional development.

177

Chapter 9: Teacher development in action

Participating in the IATEFL Conference as a speaker was a moment of pride and honour for me personally. It highlighted the dedication, commitment and resilience of the Palestinian teachers and reaffirmed the significance of international collaborations in enhancing educational outcomes. I am grateful for the support of UNRWA, PATEFL and our partner schools in realising this milestone and for the opportunity to contribute to the global discourse on education.

As we look ahead, our commitment to nurturing virtual communities of practice and fostering international partnerships remains unwavering. The IATEFL Conference has ignited a renewed passion to further strengthen our collaborative efforts and explore new avenues for professional growth. Together, we will continue to empower teachers, transform education and build a brighter future for our students, embracing the power of virtual communities and global connections. mohammedsiefan@gmail.com

178

10

Inclusive practices

The first two papers addressing issues of inclusion in this chapter focus on projects designed to empower women in under-resourced contexts. Motikala Subba Dewan and Bikas Rimal describe how a grant from IATEFL’s Projects scheme was used to develop a sustainable project offering basic ICT, communication and leadership skills to female teachers from disadvantaged areas of western Nepal. Abigail Ekangouo Awanga also initiated a project related to basic digital skills, but focused on the use of mobile phone apps for professional development with female teachers in her community in Cameroon. Having no backing, Abigail has faced many challenges, but having seen the impact that the training has had, her commitment and motivation to train more and more female teachers remains strong. In the third paper, we turn to Nigeria and the teaching of English to the hearing-impaired. Martha Ada Onjewu and Mairo Hamid Ipadeola outline the particular challenges that English-medium instruction poses for hearing-impaired children in Nigeria, together with recommended strategies to minimise these challenges and enhance learning. Moving on to teacher education in Chile, Priscila Riffo-Salgado reports on research into challenges faced by pre-service teachers in implementing inclusive practices in mainstream secondary ELT. The study identifies barriers and enhancers to the adoption of inclusive teacher identity, and offers a number of recommendations for language teacher education programmes.

The focus of Wiktoria Allan’s paper is students with ADHD. Wiktoria draws on her own experiences in the context of higher education in Germany to raise awareness of ADHD, and provides some classroom and assessment tips which she has found successful and beneficial, to her students and herself. In the next paper, Petra Harder also draws on her experiences of working in a German university context to share ideas for incorporating inclusive practices effectively using Universal Design for Learning (UDL) guidelines. After an introduction to the UDL framework, Petra looks more closely at the three pillars of UDL and provides easy-to-apply examples of inclusive practices that teachers in any context can use. With the final paper by Julia Koifman, we move into the teaching of business English. Drawing on her experiences of working with office workers and small business owners in Israel, Julia offers insights and suggestions on how to be inclusive within a needs-based, multidimensional, multisensory and integrated approach.

179

Chapter 10: Inclusive practices

10.1 Empowering marginalised female teachers: an overview of a sustainable project Motikala Subba Dewan and Bikas Rimal Nepal English Language Teachers’

Association (NELTA)

Introduction

Sudur Paschim Province lies in the far western part of Nepal and is one of seven undeveloped provinces in terms of literacy rate and Human Development Index (HDI). According to UNESCO (2019), the adult literacy rate in Nepal is 67.91%; the male literacy rate being 78.59%, and female only 59.72%. In the far western region, 63.48% of people are literate (females only 51.93%), which is the lowest literacy rate throughout Nepal.

The UNDP’s 2020 report states that the HDI of Nepal is 0.602, whereas the HDI of the far western province is only 0.547. Flash 1 report (MOEST, 2018–2019) states that the nationwide share of females among the total number of teachers is 19.1% at lower basic level (grades 6–8), 18.6% at secondary (grades 9–10) and 19% at secondary (grades 11–12) respectively. Thus, leadership participation of female teachers from the rural provinces is less, and culturally, politically and economically they lag behind.

Almost no programmes are developed for capacity building among female teachers.

They receive hardly any opportunities, and if they are invited to programmes, they feel inferior and are reluctant to participate in front of the large number of male participants.

Major intervention

After winning the IATEFL’s 2022 Project funding, a project was developed to offer basic ICT, communication and leadership skills to female teachers from disadvantaged areas in the Sudur Paschim Province. Participants were selected from both private and public schools in coordination with the NELTA (Nepal English Language Teachers’ Association) Province/branches and local government. During the pre-test, it was discovered that out of 28 participants, 5 did not have email addresses, 9 had never used a computer/laptop before, 23 of the participants had not used a digital device for learning new things/getting resources for teaching their students, and 5 participants learned new things/extracted resources for teaching their students with the help of their family members and colleagues – none had used online resources independently.

Training objectives were based on the participants’ needs and expectations and so were focused on ICT and enhancing communication and leadership skills.

Participants were engaged in different activities, such as practising MS Word and PowerPoint skills, sending emails with attachments and links, using different subskills for Zoom, etc. The facilitators shared how to communicate effectively and prepare PowerPoint presentations (PPTs) for teaching in the classrooms. Participants learned how to search for useful resources from websites such as NELTA and British Council, etc., and were asked to extract information, e.g. listening activities for primary level students, journal articles on digital literacy for secondary level English teachers, etc. After all the input sessions, participants were divided into seven groups and given different topics to prepare session plans and PPTs for the micro-sessions. All 180

Empowering marginalised female teachers: an overview of a sustainable project

the participants actively participated and had opportunities to share in these microsessions, and feedback was shared by fellow participants and facilitators.

Lessons learned

NELTA has learned the following lessons from this experience: • D ue to time constraints, we could not cover all the targeted sessions such as practising MS Excel, the use of Padlet, online assessment, and evaluation, etc. More time was spent on practising MS Word and PowerPoint. Time allocation should be more balanced.

• A t the outset, we did not have a plan to use smartphones, but during the sessions while teaching email and filling in Google Forms, we encouraged the participants to use their smartphones because very few of them had laptops. In future, NELTA would plan to utilise the participants’ smartphones in a similar kind of programme to teach ICT skills.

Sustainability

NELTA coordinated with the local governments and schools to select the participants.

Due to this, teachers who attended the training did not need to take extra leave from school. Since the schools sent them for training, the schools and local government will monitor their performance and encourage them to use the available resources in their classrooms. Finally, NELTA invited all NELTA branch Chairs to the closing ceremony, and gained their commitment to include these participants in district-level programmes in the future to motivate them further. NELTA has been conducting virtual webinars in partnership with British Council Nepal, and has been sharing Zoom links with those participants and encouraging them to attend the virtual webinars. motikala_d1@hotmail.com; rimalbdynamic@gmail.com

References MOEST. (2018–2019). Flash I report 2075. MoEST. UNDP. (2020). Human development report 2020: The next frontier: Human development and the Anthropocene. UNDP. UNESCO. (2019). The CapED Programme: annual report 2019. Capacity Development for Education. UNESCO.

10.2 Sharing passion for technology with female teachers of my community Abigail Ekangouo Awanga EFLT, CAMELTA, Cameroon [The TransformELT

Scholarship for Global Change]

I teach and live in Cameroon, a country in central Africa. In my community, technology is still evolving, and we teachers, like all other citizens, still struggle with Internet connection. But despite the challenges, technology is part of our lives and there is nothing we can do to stop it. This is why two years ago I decided to start offering free digital skills training to female teachers in my community.

181

Chapter 10: Inclusive practices

Why only the female teachers?

The digital disparity between male and female teachers in my school is considerable (no research has been conducted to confirm this). In our professional social media groups, male teachers are more active than female ones. I think the reasons are obvious. Females have less time to get involved in digital activities because of the extra roles they play – apart from being teachers, they are mothers and wives, and sometimes daughters and caregivers.

What spurred the training?

I am very attached to my android phone. More often than not, when sitting in the staffroom and discussing with my fellow female teachers, I tended to be focused on my mobile phone rather than responding to the heated debates. My female colleagues found it rather snobbish and didn’t feel comfortable around me. One day I was approached by one of the females who wanted to know what I found so interesting on my phone all the time at their expense. I told her I do a lot of research, I discover new apps, I participate in virtual professional discussions, I take online courses, etc.

She was surprised I could do all of that with my android phone because most of them used theirs only for calls, and sometimes WhatsApp. That was how the idea came to me to help those females who were interested in acquiring basic digital skills to use their phones like I did.

The way to training

To start with, I needed participants, a venue and help from one or two other trainers.

To get the first sample participants, I visited 12 secondary schools around my community and talked to school heads about my idea of offering free training to female teachers. Most of them were reticent because it was a personal initiative not backed

by NGOs or the government. A handful of school heads however were impressed and decided to encourage the initiative by sending two female teachers to the two-day training. I had 11 females for my first training.

The training proper

The idea was to help females learn how to exploit their android phones for teaching and learning – how to use basic and free apps like Google Forms, Canva, WhatsApp, Telegram, and many other basic and simple apps, to do research, create teaching content and manage communities of practice.

I divided the work into a two-day training programme, assisted by three volunteer trainers. At the end of the training, the female teachers were given certificates of achievement and encouraged to go and practise, and then take the initiative to train other females in order to reduce the digital illiteracy gap between us and male teachers.

Challenges encountered

There were (and still are) so many challenges encountered during this training: • L ack of sponsors: the initiative being a personal one and personally funded, it is difficult to have enough money to cover training expenses. This equally discourages females from venturing forward, as they are forced to cover some of the expenses, such as transport, meals and Internet connection.

182

The future of teaching English to the hearing-impaired

• L ittle or no cascading: the chain is cut at some points because those who have been trained are yet to summon the courage to start cascading down. Also given that it’s not funded, motivation is weak.

• I nternet connectivity also hinders training from time to time.

• Th e physical distance between me and other interested females is another challenge.

The cost of travel and training is higher when I travel, which makes it difficult and almost impossible for me to reach remote places.

Perspectives

Despite the challenges I encounter, my wish is to train as many females as possible from towns to the interior and nationwide. Also, I wish to produce a harmonised training guide for teachers who do the training so that they can use it for cascading to others.

Conclusion

The few females who have already received this training have been impacted and are making commendable digital growth. We could impact a larger number of females in my country if only we had the financial means. lahidechou@gmail.com

10.3 The future of teaching English to the hearing-impaired Martha Ada Onjewu and Mairo Hamid Ipadeola Kaduna Polytechnic, Nigeria Introduction

As in many countries around the globe, English language plays a crucial role in Nigeria by being the medium of instruction in schools from mid-primary to tertiary level, and by being the official language for work. Therefore, the nation’s education policy stipulates that a credit pass in English is required by everyone without exception for advancement in education and employment. However, listening, which is the foundation of all language skills and highly relevant to everyone in every language learning situation, is not available to those with hearing loss. As a result, these learners face a major setback when learning English even though they too need to master it for the same reasons as those without hearing impairments.

Relevance of this paper

Research on English language studies of people with hearing impairments was historically neglected, but is now an emerging trend as part of holistic human education.

Moreover, because of the role of English language, an understanding of this area is useful for meeting the language needs of hearing-impaired children to grant them access to: psychosocial health; critical social, mental health; and general education, without which their levels of frustration and likelihood to fall into depression is high.

183

Chapter 10: Inclusive practices

Challenges of teaching English language to the hearing-impaired in Nigeria

Among the many challenges faced by the hearing-impaired in studying English in Nigeria, the following are those of concern here.

Firstly, the majority of hearing-impaired children with hearing parents have very weak or no foundation in English language, when compared to a hearing child who averages a vocabulary base of 8,000–14,000 words by six years of age. Secondly, when hearing-impaired children have deaf parents and have acquired sign language, their vocabulary base tends to be limited or weak (Alqraini, 2018), when compared to that of hearing children with hearing parents. In Nigeria, sign interpreters mostly use Signing Exact English (SEE) to teach English vocabulary, but SEE does not have corresponding signs for all English language words. Hearing-impaired children learn words by sight, therefore their knowledge of the letter–sound relationship in English is very limited or non-existent. Words with the same pronunciation and spelling but different meaning are another source of great difficulty for children with hearing impairment (Andrew et al., 2014) because the tendency for such children is to accept only the first (often literal) meaning that they come across and outrightly reject any other meaning. For instance, they would accept a ‘running boy’ but never a ‘running stream’ thereafter, insisting that water does not have legs to run. In addition, the learning of SEE using American Sign Language alongside local signs is confusing to both children with hearing impairments and sign language interpreters, and this needs to be resolved. Moreover, the hearing-impaired have difficulty in conceptualising English syntax, or word order, this usually being ‘subject + verb + object’, e.g. I love Nigeria, which differs from what results from sign language, i.e. verb + subject + object’, e.g. Love me Nigeria.

Recommendations

The following strategies could greatly enhance the English language acquisition of the hearing-impaired: 1 R emedial lessons for base vocabulary enhancement at the onset of schooling; 2 E xtra lessons to give the hearing-impaired the extra time they need to keep up with hearing learners; 3 Th e learning of sign language by English teachers from volunteers, to use during English language teaching rather than engaging an interpreter; 4 Th e development of an indigenous sign language by the Association of Sign Language Interpreters of Nigeria, which would ease most of the difficulties and confusion; 5 M ass sensitisation of the public on the need for hearing parents to learn sign language; and 6 M ass sensitisation of the public by federal and state Ministries of Education on how all parents could support their hearing-impaired children to grow their base vocabulary at home.

Conclusion

The literature affirms the possibility of successfully acquiring the English language skills of speaking, reading and writing proficiently by the hearing-impaired, if they are

184

Practical implications of inclusive education in the mainstream ELT classroom

given more time among other considerations; therefore, we propose the implementation of all necessary innovations and strategies that minimise the challenges of English language learning by the hearing-impaired, while also granting them any privileges that could enhance their English language learning abilities. monjewu@yahoo.com; hajiamairoipadeola@gmail.com

References Alqraini, F, M. (2018). Identifying Similarities and Differences on How Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students Learn New Vocabulary Knowledge. International Journal of Instruction 11(4), 61–74. https://dx.doi.org/10.12973/iji.2018.1145a Andrew, K. N., Hoshooley, J., & Joanisse, Marc F. (2014). Sign Language ability in young deaf signers predicts comprehension of written sentences in English. Plos One 9(2), 1–8. https:// doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089994

10.4 Practical implications of inclusive education in the mainstream ELT classroom Priscila Riffo-Salgado University of Southampton, UK Introduction

This paper comprises part of my doctoral research findings on the professional identity development of EFL pre-service teachers (PSTs) during their final-stage practicum on an English language pedagogy programme in a southern university in Chile. The study explored the challenges faced by PSTs in implementing inclusive practices within the mainstream ELT classroom, in light of the Inclusion Legislation of 2016. Practical implications are provided, which could hold relevance in other ELT classrooms or in teacher training programmes, to promote the adoption of inclusive practices, thereby promoting the development of inclusive language teacher professional identities.

Context

The Chilean Inclusion Legislation of 2016, embedded within the Salamanca Statement of 1994, emphasises the right of every child to education, regardless of their socio-economic background or disabilities, and the need for education systems to accommodate the diverse characteristics, interests, abilities and learning needs of children. To achieve this, schools must develop Integration Programmes (PIEs), which provide for the implementation of such measures (Mineduc, 2017).

PSTs that form part of this research were responsible for secondary level classes within the five schools they were placed in. The disabilities observed ranged from cognitive and developmental to students with impairments affecting their hearing.

Implementing this legislation, with regard to fostering learning and inclusion of these students, was reported problematic for PSTs. This study was carried out in the poorest region of Chile and the schools’ contexts were known for having high numbers of vulnerable students, that is, students whose lives are at risk from various factors – social, economic, psychological, cultural, environmental and biological.

185

Chapter 10: Inclusive practices

Methodology

I designed and carried out a qualitative case study, framed within sociocultural theory, which can offer a framework that can be used to investigate cognition systematically, and that importantly takes into account the social context (Lantolf, 2004). I recruited 21 participants, among them PSTs, host teachers, university supervisors, and part of the Faculty of Education members, the PSTs being the focus of the research. During an academic semester in 2019, I used semi-structured interviews, lesson observations, video recordings, stimulated recall interviews and focus groups to gather data regarding what they identified as qualities of a good language teacher, and how these were applied in their placements.

Findings

The study identified barriers and enhancers to the adoption of inclusive teacher identity.

A major barrier was the belief against inclusion (Pajares, 1992), with PSTs viewing their students as slow at learning, or supporting social inclusion but not in the classroom.

This hindered the recognition of students’ right to education, leading to exclusion. Lack of training in teaching students with disabilities was another significant barrier. PIE staff primarily focused on Spanish language and maths support, neglecting ELT and providing mostly assessment adjustments over teaching. Time constraints also impeded inclusive practices, as PSTs feared it would slow down teaching and affect their practicum evaluation.

Among the enhancers, reflection emerged as a positive strategy for modifying teaching practices. When PSTs reflected on the school context and the vulnerability of their students, they recognised that not all students should be assessed, and acknowledged the benefits of learning based only on the outcomes outlined in the national curriculum.

Consequently, they adapted their behaviour to foster rapport in the classroom, ultimately promoting language learning. Additionally, the presence of host teachers who advised PSTs to seek guidance from PIE staff, or who themselves adopted inclusive practices, significantly increased PSTs’ engagement in inclusive practices.

Conclusions and recommendations

This research underscores the impact of beliefs and school culture on PSTs’ engagement in inclusive practices and their EFL professional identities. Language teacher education programmes are advised to prioritise promoting inclusive practices and encourage reinforcement during school placements, through collective work of both universities and placement schools. PSTs can benefit from observing language teacher educators and in-service teachers implementing inclusivity, as it encourages their own enactment. At the same time, promoting inclusivity in the ELT classroom and fostering an inclusive identity within ELT can enhance the learning experience for students who have been historically marginalised or excluded, not only due to disabilities but also their vulnerability. In order to aim for inclusion, identifying specific disabilities to support the learning of English is important, but equally important is to understand the context students are in. To achieve this, it is imperative to engage in a re-evaluation of the language teacher knowledge base within the local context and call for a local ELT pedagogy. priscila.riffo@gmail.com

186

Working towards a more inclusive English-language classroom: students with ADHD

References Lantolf, J. P. (2004). Sociocultural theory and second and foreign language learning: An overview of sociocultural theory. New Insights into Foreign Language Learning and Teaching, 9, 13–34.

Mineduc. (2017). El primer gran debate de la Reforma Educacional: Ley de Inclusión escolar. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12365/441 Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers Beliefs and Educational-Research – Cleaning up a Messy Construct. Review of Educational Research, 62(3), 307–332. https://doi.org/10.2307/1170741

10.5 Working towards a more inclusive English-language classroom: students with ADHD Wiktoria Allan Berlin School of Economics and Law, Berlin, Germany [IATEFL

Gill Strurtridge First Time Speaker Scholarship]

While many educators are familiar with the term neurodiversity, not many know how to teach inclusively. Most teacher-training programmes neglect supporting neurodivergent learners, and teachers must fend for themselves. This inspired me to further research this topic and raise awareness about learners with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

My context and motivation

I teach in higher education in Germany, and an online interaction with a student who asked me to virtually work ‘next’ to her – something I now know to be body doubling – inspired me to educate myself on neurodiversity. I am currently six months into my PhD in Linguistics at Lancaster University where my goal is to find out what my students’ classroom experiences are and what teachers can do to improve the learning environment for everyone.

The curb-cut effect

To explain the benefits of inclusion, in my presentation I used the example of curb cuts. I showed pictures of curb cuts – part of the pavement which is lowered to the same level as the road – and asked the participants who might benefit from this urban design feature. Initial answers included wheelchair users and people with prams. However, after more thought, the participants realised there were many groups who could benefit: people wheeling luggage, small children, street cleaners, and many more. This is known as the curb-cut effect: when we support a traditionally disadvantaged group, everyone benefits (Blackwell, 2016). I encourage teachers to apply this principle in their classrooms.

ADHD in adults

By discussing the characteristics of ADHD in adults, I hope to debunk the ‘naughty boy’ myth: a harmful oversimplification. In fact, the name ADHD is disputed and there is a movement to rename it – a movement I support. There is no one unifying

187

Chapter 10: Inclusive practices

example of someone with ADHD and everyone is different. What works for one person may not work for another. Everybody has different strategies, as well as good days and bad days. And finally, everyone deals with their diagnosis (or lack thereof ) in different ways. In fact, it is estimated that over 80 per cent of adults with ADHD lack a formal diagnosis (Ginsberg et al., 2014), suggesting more of our students have ADHD than we even know.

So, with all that in mind, what are some of the characteristics of learners with ADHD? There are three presentations (types) of ADHD: inattentive, hyperactiveimpulsive, and combined. Someone with an inattentive presentation may find it difficult to maintain attention and follow through on tasks, make careless mistakes, and sometimes seem not to listen when spoken to directly (Kormos, 2017; Ginsberg et al., 2014). A student with a hyperactive-impulsive presentation may talk excessively or leave their seat often when staying seated is expected (Kormos, 2017; Ginsberg et al., 2014). Hyperactivity can also manifest internally as racing thoughts and restlessness.

While my formal research is just beginning, here are some ways I support my learners. I hope readers can take my ideas, adapt them to their students, or even conduct their own research to find out students’ needs within local regulations.

Classroom and assessment tips

In my classroom, I prioritise student choice. I offer flexibility on deadlines, seating, mode of assignment submission (e.g. written vs voice recording), whether or not learners want to work in a group, lights on or off, food and drink, etc. Additionally, I reinforce task instructions by repeating them and follow up by writing them on the board with a time limit.

Assessments are typically more strictly regulated, so I always make sure I am operating within the rules. I encourage students to apply for accommodations, offering them deadline reminders and support filling out the paperwork. These accommodations might include time extensions, a separate room, the option to bring in a service animal, special software, etc. I also allow my students to bring earplugs or headphones to block out distracting noise, especially for writing and reading exams. Whenever I can, I make sure my students type their work instead of handwriting and, for many exams, I do not consider spelling or grammar – for example on a listening test. Finally, I try to break up longer texts or audios into smaller chunks in the exam. I will also take on a recommendation from an audience member and talk more about the positive sides of ADHD in my future talks.

To conclude, the best thing about body doubling with my student was not just that I was able to help her, it was that I, too, completed a task I had been procrastinating for weeks. That is the wonderful thing about making a classroom more inclusive; it benefits everyone – not just those with a diagnosis. v.allan@lancaster.ac.uk

References Blackwell, A. G. (2016). The Curb-Cut Effect. Stanford Social Innovation Review, 15(1), 28–33. https://doi.org/10.48558/YVMS-CC96 Ginsberg, Y., Quintero, J., Anand, E., Casillas, M., & Upadhyaya, H. P. (2014). Underdiagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adult patients: A review of the literature.

188

Easy access to inclusive practices using the UDL guidelines The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders, 16(3), e1-e8. https://doi.org/10.4088/ PCC.13r01600 Kormos, J. (2017). The second language learning processes of students with specific learning difficulties. Routledge.

10.6 Easy access to inclusive practices using the UDL guidelines Petra Harder Helmut-Schmidt-University Hamburg, Germany Introduction

The aim of my workshop was to share ideas for incorporating inclusive practices into lessons effectively, drawing on my German university context experience. The Universal Design for Learning (UDL) guidelines served as a structured and highly accessible basis for doing so.

Relevance of inclusive practices

Inclusion is not yet generally practised in the German education system. Furthermore, Helmut-Schmidt-University is part of the German Federal Armed Forces (Bundeswehr) and therefore most students are officer cadets. As people with disabilities, such as visual impairments or impaired mobility, cannot become German soldiers, inclusion may seem irrelevant in this context. However, federal institutions including the Bundeswehr are committed to inclusion. Further, the Erasmus Charter for Higher Education (ECHE) is committed to inclusion strategies, and consequently so are the more than 5,000 higher education institutions participating in the Erasmus+ Programme, including HelmutSchmidt-University. Additionally, Germany and all other signatories of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disability (CRPD) have committed themselves to ensuring an inclusive education system at all levels. Consequently, inclusive practices are deemed important at all levels of education globally.

Implementing inclusive practices using the UDL framework

Creating content that caters for all, and conducting lessons and assessment based on inclusive practices may seem daunting. Hence, using a framework can be beneficial.

CAST, originally known as Center for Applied Special Technology, has designed nine guidelines with 31 checkpoints to support the implementation of UDL, which ‘offer a set of concrete suggestions that can be applied to any discipline or domain to ensure that all learners can access and participate in meaningful, challenging learning opportunities’ (CAST, 2023). Novak & Tucker (2021) express the essence of UDL concisely in stating: The UDL framework recognises and embraces learner variability and provides a lens for creating instructional goals, methods, materials, and assessments that work for everyone – not a single, one-size-fits-all solution. The ‘universal’ concept means we can design a lesson with enough flexibility to work for all learners that remains focused on the same firm goals. (p. 16)

The UDL guidelines (CAST, 2018) define three main pillars which address three distinct areas of the brain: 189

Chapter 10: Inclusive practices

• Th e affective networks are stimulated by providing multiple means of engagement with the goal of expert learners who are purposeful and motivated.

• Th e recognition networks are stimulated by providing multiple means of representation with the goal of expert learners who are resourceful and knowledgeable.

• Th e strategic networks are stimulated by providing multiple means of action and expression with the goal of expert learners who are strategic and goal-directed.

Workshop and outcomes

After a brief introduction, I focused on the three pillars of the UDL guidelines. I modelled how multiple means of engagement can be provided, naming examples from my context (see Table 10.6.1, column 1). In a first group activity, examples of providing multiple means of representation were elicited (see Table 10.6.1, column 2) while a sensory timer supported time-management. In a final group activity, participants brainstormed ideas of how multiple means of action and expression can be provided (see Table 10.6.1, column 3), adding them to a Padlet which allows for multiple means of action and expression. As a takeaway, participants had a collection of examples for providing multiple means of engagement, representation, and action and expression, having trialled some within the workshop.

Provide multiple means of engagement • P rovide choice (level of challenge, tools, sequence or timing).

• A llow for personalisation (relevant to age, culture or context).

• C reate a conducive learning atmosphere.

• E ngage learners in feedback, assessment and reflection.

• F oster collaboration (group tasks, online forums).

• R educe threats (sensory countdown timer).

• F or executive functions - offer deadline extensions - create intermediate deadlines, break a big project into smaller parts; - give formative feedback.

• A llow for own navigation path through online materials.

representation

action and expression

• A ctivate captions.

• P rovide visual/ auditory options.

• A djust speed of audio to needs.

• A djust colour mode and contrast.

• U se multi-modal tools (Wakelet, Padlet, OneNote).

• U se videos, audio, e-books, learning apps, rubrics clearly showing levels of expectations.

• U se text to speech converter.

• Write down spoken responses.

• Provide multi-modal options (images, drawing, graphics, video, screencast, podcast, skit, rap song, poster, written text).

• Use Flipgrid where students can record their videos, watch them, re-record them and switch subtitles on to see how clearly they speak. Flipgrid also allows asynchronous communication on top of synchronous in class communication.

• Do activities with physical exercise.

https://padlet. com/petraharder1/ udl-qu06m5w6l6c7udcq

Table 10.6.1: UDL workshop outcomes 190

Inclusivity for all types of learners in business English teaching

Conclusion

The participants were highly engaged and contributed many ideas from their own working backgrounds. Exchanging ideas for implementing inclusive practices was seen as particularly useful. In conclusion, I am even more convinced that teachers everywhere can benefit from easy-to-apply inclusive practices, which the UDL guidelines provide. petraharder1@web.de

References CAST. (2018). Universal Design for Learning Guidelines version 2.2. http://udlguidelines.cast.org CAST. (2023). About Universal Design for Learning. https://www.cast.org/impact/universaldesign-for-learning-udl Novak, K., & Tucker, C. (2021). UDL and blended learning: Thriving in flexible learning landscapes. IMpress.

10.7 Inclusivity for all types of learners in business English teaching Julia Koifman Beit Ekshtein high school, Rupin, Israel [IATEFL BESIG

Facilitator Scholarship]

Introduction

Inclusive education allows everyone to study, regardless of their mental, emotional, intellectual or social characteristics. In in-service business English courses, the term ‘inclusion’ is the process of including people with neurodiversity and learning difficulties into classroom activities and providing them with full opportunities for completing the course programme. ‘Learning difficulties refer to a range of complex and often misunderstood neurological-based processing challenges’ (Wearden, 2013). The most typical sorts of learning difficulties are dyslexia, dysgraphia, autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). On the one hand, they need to be included in the process of learning; on the other hand, each student needs an individual approach to improve their English and finish the course successfully.

Neuroscientific hypothesis of learning business English

I teach people aged 25–50 who work in offices or run businesses such as shops, small hotels or restaurants. Many of them struggle and have the forenamed learning difficulties. Such students need English for their jobs and refresh it by taking general or business English courses. The main objectives of such courses are teaching lessons in accordance with the curriculum and adapting the programme to students’ individual needs and expectations. Most of them have a higher education and speak English quite well: the level of the group is A2–B1, but they have problems with writing, spelling and reading comprehension and often get unfocused.

Cognitive sciences have contributed to expanding the perspectives of neuroscience in the field of education and have provided methodological foundations and

191

Chapter 10: Inclusive practices

philosophical foundations. Tan and Amiel (2022) claim that the neural network is responsible for the cognitive processes of memory. Normally, each part of the brain performs its function and enables people to memorise information and develop specific learning skills. For the last two decades, linguistic science has identified and analysed such an essential cognitive chain as ‘consciousness – language – representation – conceptualisation – categorisation – perception’. It is explained by the fact that one should apply a complete set of experience accumulated by an individual in obtaining information, its perception, processing, and transmission, as well as memory processes. The latter is especially important for neurodivergent people (Schindelheim, 2021).

Educational neuroscience researches neural mechanisms of learning. ‘With technological advancements promoting the production of new knowledge in neuroscience current understandings are challenging earlier provisions of brain-based learning’ (Tan & Amiel, 2022, p.70). Therefore, participants in business English courses need multisensory teaching with the help of audio and visual learning technology, which enables them to train their working memory.

Inclusivity in business English courses

The main task of inclusive education is creating a neurodiversity-friendly atmosphere in the classroom, which is especially crucial for people with ASD and ADHD. Since the latter often have problems with communication, the teacher should be empathetic and try to understand their feelings and perspectives. Mainly, they need special methods to improve the process of learning and training soft skills – such as leadership, creativity, teamwork, the ability to communicate, to write business letters and to conduct negotiations.

It should be noted that, in general, business English courses do not include the study of highly specialised vocabulary that is used in specific areas of business. Basically, the programme includes only common business vocabulary and business etiquette, which will help in standard situations. If people need to master specific professional terminology, the teacher must choose a special profile business English course for a specific business area, for instance, accounting, law, banking or HR. Usually, a business English course provides the following skills: • telephone communication; • practising interviews; • presentations and negotiations; and • m aintaining business correspondence and documentation, such as contracts, reports and payments.

Thus, in-service business English courses for neurodivergent people must be workbased (Schindelheim 2021). Motivational and success-oriented activities are also crucial because they simulate working situations that the course participants will deal with outside the classroom. If students have dyslexia and dysgraphia, they can do self-checking exercises online.

192

Inclusivity for all types of learners in business English teaching

Conclusion

Having researched the cognitive foundations of language, we realise that inclusivity in teaching business English to students with learning difficulties is successful with a multidimensional and integrated approach. The course must be composed in accordance with learners’ needs and taught through the soft skills, which are necessary for work. Multisensory teaching trains their working memory and enhances their learning skills. Furthermore, since some students with learning difficulties have problems with communication and expressing their feelings, the teacher should try to understand their problems and find the best methods to involve them in the classroom activities. f3djd@yahoo.ca

References Schindelheim, R. (2021, April 30). Work-based learning teaches soft skills to the neurodivergent. WorkingNation. https://workingnation.com/work-based-learning-teachessoft-skills-to-neurodivergent/ Tan, Y. M., & Amiel, J. J. (2022). Teachers learning to apply neuroscience to classroom instruction: case of professional development in British Columbia. Professional development education. 48(1), 70–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2019.1689522 Wearden, Z. (2013). Teaching English to students with learning difficulties (LDs). Using English. https://www.usingenglish.com/teachers/articles/teaching-english-to-students-withlearning-difficulties-lds.html

193

11

Materials development

Materials development and exploitation is the focus of this chapter. Katerina Lanickova’s paper ‘Helping busy students learn regularly with study newsletters’ opens the chapter and provides useful tips on how to get started, as well as outlining the benefits to learners and teachers. The second paper by Ciarán Lynch encourages us to take a closer look at incorporating memes in negotiating the digital landscape of online discourse in English. Ciarán makes reference to research in this area too. Evelina Miščin’s paper focuses on graphic novels, exploring why these resources should be used in the classroom and the benefits they afford, while offering some practical examples of their use. Moving on to Cameroon, Eric Ekemebe describes a decentring initiative, in which secondary teachers inexperienced in materials writing successfully created their own context-relevant worksheets. The final three papers focus on creating digital materials. Carol Lethaby turns to the principles of cognitive load theory to present ideas for effective online material design that are easy to apply and based on robust research evidence. Claire Bowes gives advice on creating learning materials for social media platforms while building an online community of learners, and the rewards and challenges involved. And finally, Laura Broadbent and Billie Jago summarise key factors to consider in the writing of digital self-study materials to ensure they are both effective and engaging, while also highlighting how they differ from print.

11.1 Helping busy students learn regularly with study newsletters Katerina Lanickova Freelance, Vienna, Austria Introduction

Adult language learners, with their fully packed schedules, typically share many common characteristics, out of which lack of time between lessons tends to be at the top of the list. This might influence the amount of effort they put into studying between their classes, especially once the initial enthusiasm has potentially worn off or their motivation has decreased. In this paper, I propose a possible solution to tackling this problem by means of sending the students regular study newsletters.

Study newsletter explained

A study newsletter can have many forms. Whether such a letter is written in the form of a simple email, possibly with a few attachments, or you make use of one of the many online newsletter writing programmes, is up to you, your unique teaching

194

Helping busy students learn regularly with study newsletters

situation and your available resources. In my (adult learner) teaching context, I send out a newsletter at the beginning of each month, containing a link to a PDF. In this 6–8 page-long document, the readers are provided with a combination of study tips, words/phrases of the month (often relating to a topical issue), input on language skills or systems, functional language or links to interesting online articles, to name just a few content examples.

As time is always an important factor when starting a new teaching project, recycling old material is recommended. It is also useful to keep in mind that you decide the scale of the project – anything from sending your students five interesting new words or study tips each month to a multiple-page study resource, including graphics or interactive quizzes, is an option.

Another important consideration is tailoring your study newsletters to your target audience, provided you know your target group. In my context there is very mixed readership, so my content varies from approximately A2 to C1 levels according to CEFR, which means that although no entire issue will be fully relevant to any one person, there is always something for everyone. And finally, whatever the level, I recommend finding ways of using authentic materials, especially since the medium of communication is online.

Goals and shifting the role of the teacher

The basic goal is to inspire and motivate your learners to study regularly – between their lessons or during longer breaks, such as over the summer. Starting my own newsletter project was an answer to my search for a solution to the problems outlined in the introduction. Since the publication of the first letter, my hope has been that by providing my students with regular language input, practice and tips, I support them in creating study habits that feel easy and that become a natural part of their busy lives.

The role of the teacher gets shifted more in the direction of a coach or a language guide. A regular email in their inbox will provide the base, yet the students still have the power of choice whether to read it, in how much depth, how often and what they will do with the information they learned. From a cognitive point of view on motivation, choice is a ‘factor that is of central importance’, and having this choice ‘enables us to set goals for ourselves, and we then decide to act in certain ways in order to achieve these goals’ (Williams & Burden, 1997, p. 119). Moreover, giving the learners the power to decide if, when and how to learn resembles how they engage with other, regular newsletters – such newsletters are read because of the readers’ interests and not out of obligation.

Conclusion

There are a number of benefits resulting from starting a newsletter project: sending regular study input to your student community might foster the creation of meaningful personal connections, create a positive image of the language, as well as increase motivation to engage with English when not in the classroom. Moreover, some of my readers have reported feeling less afraid of English. Most of all, it helps the students to not forget about English when no teacher is around. On a personal level, producing your own material in this format may help you grow your creative side as a teacher and

195

Chapter 11: Materials development

inspire you to explore materials writing in more depth.

You can see example newsletter issues at https://www.study-newsletter.com/archive. katerina@lanickova.com

Reference Williams, M., & Burden, R. L. (1997). Psychology for Language Teachers: A social constructivist approach. Cambridge University Press.

11.2 Incorporating memetic communication into language learning Ciarán Lynch International House, Córdoba, Spain Introduction

Memes constitute a unique and new form of communication which can mirror the intricacies of an actual language. A memetic lexicon exists online and is often referenced in real conversation. Despite this prevalence, memes are rarely studied in the field of communication or capitalised on in language learning. Failing to teach learners memes in English leaves them at a distinct disadvantage as they will be ill-equipped to navigate the digital landscape of online discourse in English.

The prevalence of memes in online discourse

Memes, as cultural units, exist online in various forms which lend themselves to the production of language. They act as templates which scaffold the production of language, allowing for a scale of language experimentation and creativity that is not often found in the classroom. 96 per cent of people aged 16–24 are connected to at least one form of social media. That figure only dips slightly to 84 per cent in the 25–34 age bracket, and to 71 per cent for 35–44 year-olds (Eurostat, 2023). This means that the vast majority of learners are viewing, reading, reacting and possibly editing a wide variety of memes either through the medium of text, photos, videos, songs, or even a combination of all of those things.

Memes as a tool for lexical and grammatical retention

Memes have several characteristics which fit with traditional teaching of lexis through contextualisation. Using a meme – text-based, audio, or video – can help learners better understand the meaning of vocabulary, collocations or fixed exponents. Furthermore, memes tend to use elements of English such as slang, idioms and colloquial expressions that are typically used in everyday language but fail to be covered in traditional coursebooks. Through the analysis of the lexis present in memes, learners can develop their vocabulary and produce language in an informal register. Moreover, if the meme uses video or audio content, it is an excellent chance to practise the pronunciation or intonation of the lexical unit. It allows learners to listen and imitate the correct pronunciation in context and usually, although not exclusively, from native speakers.

Practising grammar structures is also facilitated by incorporating memes into classrooms. Memes have been found to be very successful in teaching present progressive

196

Incorporating memetic communication into language learning

and imperatives. However, more complex structures such as conditionals can be used to provide a clear example, scaffold the language, and make the production aspect more engaging and more memorable.

Language learning material is predominately presented as words and grammar, normally through the medium of text. Yet, this belies the reality that language is not unimodal. This does not reflect how language is experienced in our day-to-day lives.

This is especially true online where written text is generally mixed with images, GIFs, videos and TikToks. Memes engage with this multimodality as they are intrinsically multimodal. The multimodality of memes can enhance a learner’s retention of language items, their cognitive absorption and help them tackle complex lexical items and facilitate learning (Ugalingan et al., 2022).

A further point to mention is that as memes are almost omnipresent online, language learners can feel they may have prior knowledge of the content before doing the task. This helps alleviate anxiety and stress when studying new lexis or grammatical structures. Additionally, students who feel familiar with memes may be more adventurous with the production of language presented in class.

Conclusion

Using memes in language teaching is a new concept and over the last four to five years there have been a number of studies into the effectiveness of using memes to learn language. This has not just been in the context of English language learning; Chinese, Portuguese and Arabic teachers have been studying the success rate of using memes in language learning.

Despite being in the early stages of research, there are promising results. Studies were able to clearly show that students had been able to increase their knowledge of English, strengthen their vocabulary, and improve their writing skills after having memes incorporated into their classes on a regular basis (Aedo & Millafilo, 2022).

Moreover, language learners had also started to notice the differences in the structure of full sentences and on the whole made fewer grammatical errors. By harnessing the power of memes, language teachers can boost language retention and engagement.

As the field of language education continues to evolve, embracing memes as valuable resources is vital in preparing learners for effective communication in a digital age. ciaran@ciaranlynch.com

References Aedo, P., & Millafilo, C. (2022) Increasing vocabulary acquisition and retention in EFL Young learners through the use of multimodal texts (memes). Colombian Applied Linguistics Journal, 24(2). https://doi.org/10.14483/22487085.18312 Eurostat (2023, October 16). Individuals – internet activities. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/ databrowser/view/ISOC_CI_AC_I__custom_7858123/default/table?lang=en Ugalingan, G. B., Flores, G. M. L., Garinto, L. A. B., & Mante-Estacio, M. J. (2022). The pedagogy of multiliteracy and multimodality through memes. International Journal of Media and Information Literacy, 7(1), 264–271. https://doi.org/10.13187/ijmil.2022.1.264

197

Chapter 11: Materials development

11.3 Graphic novels in the classroom Evelina Miščin RIT, Zagreb, Croatia

Graphic novels and comics have emerged as valuable educational resources, sharing similarities with picturebooks while offering distinct features such as panelled layouts, visual text elements like speech balloons, and sequential storytelling. This paper explores the reasons why graphic novels should be integrated in the classroom and gives some practical examples of their use.

Schwarz (2002) found that graphic novels present readers with ‘alternative views of culture, history, and human life in general in accessible ways, giving voice to minorities and those with diverse viewpoints’ (p. 264). Graphic novels tackle complex topics while presenting them in a visually engaging format. Students are exposed to a wide range of literary elements including colour, shape, texture and layout, fostering visual literacy skills that are increasingly relevant in today’s digital media world.

Graphic novels serve as excellent resources for students who struggle with reading, and/or English-language learners. By providing a graphic novel version of a scene or chapter before reading the corresponding text-based material, students gain a general understanding of the plot, allowing them to focus on the details and nuances during the reading process. The approach boosts comprehension and provides a supportive bridge to more complex literary works.

My workshop dealt with some examples of how to use graphic novels in the classroom. The first task is to ask students how they expect to see a bad smell, movement, thinking, death, and anger in a comic/graphic novel. After that, some examples from the graphic novels are shown, for example, changing the form of text bubbles to indicate if a person is thinking, speaking or shouting.

When introducing the topic of a graphic novel, for example, Persepolis, a slide with symbols could be used where students have to match them with historical events and then put them in chronological order. In that way, students also learn about other cultures they are not usually familiar with. This could also lead to fruitful discussions about differences in perceptions of various cultures.

The next topic involved the graphic novel MAUS. To introduce the content, students are put into groups and receive pictures from one page which they have to put in the correct order. To make their job more difficult, frames are removed. Students are also shown an article about the prohibition of MAUS in Tennessee and the burning of the comic books in 1955, which should provoke a discussion.

The last graphic novel was Good Talk, which deals with an inquisitive young boy (six years old) and his view of American identity and interracial families (his mother is Indian and his father a white Jew). Since the boy asks a lot of questions, one of the activities that can be used with this novel is telling students that a boy is obsessed with Michael Jackson and wants to know a lot about him. The text from speech bubbles is deleted and students have to predict which questions he asks.

Other suggestions for activities with graphic novels involve asking students to draw pictures or to think of alternative endings. They can also create their own comics using websites like https://makebeliefscomix.com or www.pixton.com. It should also be mentioned that some classics have also been turned into graphic novels, like Odyssey

198

Creating context-relevant EFL worksheets for Cameroon secondary schools: lessons learnt

and Hamlet, in an attempt to make them more appealing to students.

In conclusion, teaching graphic novels offers numerous benefits for students. They appeal to reluctant readers, provide cross-curricular opportunities, develop multimodal literacy skills, facilitate comprehension of complex topics, and offer fresh perspectives on classic works. By embracing graphic novels in the classroom, educators can foster a love for reading, encourage critical thinking, and create a vibrant and inclusive learning environment for all students. evelinamiscin@yahoo.co.uk

Reference Schwarz, G. E. (2002). Graphic Novels for Multiple Literacies. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 46(3).

11.4 Creating context-relevant EFL worksheets for Cameroon secondary schools: lessons learnt Eric Ekembe Higher Teacher Training College (ENS), Yaounde, Cameroon Introduction

Language learning materials are essential in the learning process. In Cameroon, the prescribed learning materials are generally not within the reach of the majority of learners, coupled with the fact that they mostly carry content that is alien to the learners’ cultural experiences. This causes teachers to generally resort to teaching structural aspects of the language in mechanical ways that do not lead to real-time learning.

Conscious of this, the Cameroon English Language and Literature Teachers’ Association Research Group, in one of their initiatives (Ekembe & Fonjong, 2018), decided to create context-relevant EFL worksheets to provide a local solution to the problem and this earned funding from the Hornby Educational Trust Teacher Association Scheme.

Conceiving the project

The conceptual phase consisted of two major elements handled through WhatsApp meetings: analysing the curriculum, and recollecting ideas on the categories of actions learners at the target learning levels would possibly do in their day-to-day lives. Teachers were guided to identify possible classroom solutions to the problems identified in the previous meeting, placing the learners at the centre of the suggestions.

Creating the worksheets

The worksheet samples created were analysed to verify their appropriateness using the following checklist: 1 I s there something holistic the learners can do upon completion of a task or sequences of tasks? What is it?

2 Do tasks link or provide a basis for the next tasks or build from previous ones?

199

Chapter 11: Materials development

3 Are grammar and vocabulary treated as a means to an end or for their own sake?

4 Do the tasks meet curriculum requirements?

5 Are the tasks at the right level of learning for the learners?

6 I s there an intensive relationship between the tasks and graphics?

7 Are the graphics clear enough to be accessed by the learners?

8 Are the instructions for each task clearly written?

9 Do the graphics reflect the social worlds of the learners?

10 D o the tasks require creativity or simple regurgitation of knowledge?

11 Are all the language skills and subskills equitably handled?

Management 1 Are all the pages numbered?

2 Are the levels/classes specified?

3 Are the modules for each task clearly stated?

4 Have the tasks been grouped to build specific competences?

From the first samples, it was noticed that most of the tasks were recall and not production activities and members revised the tasks to ensure they were productive. 57 worksheets were created on varied topics reflecting the contents of Module 1 of the 7th-, 8th-, and 9th-grade syllabuses, which were later revised following the guidelines below: 1 They reflect the right level of the learners.

2 They reflect the target module.

3 They reflect the real-life situations in the module.

4 Learners can access them independently of the teacher.

The trial phase

The worksheets produced were reviewed and members agreed to individually try them in their respective classes to a) determine how responsive students were, and b) later share the experience in an online conference with other Hornby Teacher Association Scheme awardees around the globe. The worksheets created were later structured following the guidelines below: 1 Ten worksheets with varied tasks per module for all classes.

2 E ach unit in the module carries three worksheets with the heavier one having four worksheets.

3 All the real-life situations in the syllabuses are represented.

4 All worksheets are numbered following the real-life situations described in the module.

Conclusion

The purpose of this write-up is to attempt sense from domestic ELT practices in Cameroon borne out of the urgency to address a local problem. The process of conceiving worksheets with teachers who had no prior knowledge of worksheets, to a point where they were able to assess the relevance of worksheets with respect to their local realities, has the potential to decolonise their minds in ways that are realistically productive and sustainable. Equally, knowledge generated and shared empowers teachers whose identities have been submerged by hegemonic structures, and opens wider possibilities for agency in teacher associations that link with decentring ELT (Banegas et al., 2022). eric.ekembe@yahoo.com

200

Effective online materials design: what does the evidence say?

References Banegas, D., Bullock, D., Kiely, R., Kuchah, H., Padwad, A., Smith, R., & Wedell, M. (2022).

Decentring ELT: teacher associations as agents of change. ELT Journal, 76(1), 69–76. https:// doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccab090 Ekembe, E., & Fonjong, S. (2018). Teacher Association Research for Professional Development in Cameroon. ELT Research, 33(1), 28–31.

11.5 Effective online materials design: what does the evidence say?

Carol Lethaby UC Berkeley Extension, San Francisco, US Overview

Many ELT teachers and teacher educators were asked to teach online during the Covid pandemic in 2020 without any training or experience of working in this mode, nor knowledge of the techniques and materials required. This session looked at ideas for effective online material design that are easy to apply and based on robust research evidence. Examples from videos created by ELT teachers in training were used to illustrate the points made.

Practices that have been shown to be effective in online materials design

The practices outlined below are based on the paper by Sepp et al. (2022), which summarises research into online instructional design. Many of the findings refer to the principles of cognitive load theory, which considers how to design materials that are challenging to learners, take advantage of what the learner already knows (in long term memory), and ensure that the limited working memory is not overloaded when attempting to learn new things. The techniques and strategies put forward were discussed with reference specifically to English language teaching.

1 Split attention

Placing extra information away from visuals or text, such as by using vocabulary glossaries or putting questions in a different place from a reading text, can cause the learner to split their attention and thereby cause overload to the working memory.

This is even more important for learners who by virtue of working in an L2 are already under high cognitive load. Splitting attention can easily be remedied when materials designers ensure the close proximity of all necessary information when learners are listening to and reading text.

2 Dual modality without redundancy

Learning has been shown to be more effective if information is given both visually and auditorily with the caveats that the two modes must support each other in helping the learner and not include redundant information (which can actually serve to distract learners). Butcher (2006) shows how, by removing extraneous information in visuals, learning is enhanced. Sung & Mayer (2012) show that learners like online materials

201

Chapter 11: Materials development

more if they include visuals such as images and diagrams, but that learners don’t necessarily learn better if the two modes are not actually supporting each other.

3 Visual signals

One of the ways that visuals can help learners is if the important information is pointed out and highlighted, using, for example, underlining and different colours, or by the use of visual aids like timelines and charts. This is something that most language teachers do in the classroom, but it is essential that this is also applied when designing online materials.

4 Amount and pacing of information

It is paramount that the presentation of material online is spaced out carefully and ‘chunked’ so that learners are given enough time to take in new material. Here, recorded material that learners can stop and play back at their own speed is ideal, something which because of the ease of online video recording is fairly straightforward for teachers to be able to create.

5 Visible instructor

The next research finding is interesting and perhaps a little surprising – it has been shown that having the instructor visible in online materials makes those materials more effective than if the teacher is not in view. This is again something that is not hard to do in online instructional design using Zoom or other video applications. However, rather than being merely present in the corner of the video, research shows that the use of gesturing and signalling by the teacher will enhance learning still further.

6 Human movement and first person perspective

Related to the point above, materials were also found to be more effective when they showed human movement, and particularly when the movement shows the instructor demonstrating the learning point from their own (first person) perspective. In language learning, this could mean the use of videos where the instructor participates in a conversation with someone else, or just points to things on her recorded screen.

Participants then had the chance to evaluate and discuss examples of teaching videos for the presence or absence of the features mentioned above and to give their own opinions and ideas about how these findings can be useful to ELT. Conclusions

Some of the techniques and ideas are familiar to teachers from their in-classroom experience, but it is reassuring when there is research that legitimates our practice.

Evidence for the effectiveness of teaching materials meant to be used online, although taken from other fields, can clearly also be used to inform ELT materials design. clethaby@clethaby.com

References Butcher, K. R. (2006). Learning from text with diagrams: Promoting mental model development and inference generation. Journal of educational psychology, 98(1), 182.

Sepp, S., Wong, M., Hoogerheide, V., & Castro‐Alonso, J. C. (2022). Shifting online: 12 tips

202

How to create learning materials for social media platforms for online teaching derived from contemporary educational psychology research. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 38(5), 1304–1320.

Sung, E., & Mayer, R. E. (2012). When graphics improve liking but not learning from online lessons. Computers in human behavior, 28(5), 1618–1625.

11.6 How to create learning materials for social media platforms Claire Bowes Freelance, Córdoba, Spain Introduction

Social media has affected all aspects of life but only recently has there been a noticeable development in the production of educational language content in this digital space. In order to make an impact on learners in this environment, it is essential to understand the requirements of online educational content and develop a specific niche area where educational content can be curated for digital audiences to improve their language skills (Reinders & Benson, 2017).

Find your focus

Finding an area to specialise in presents one of the greatest challenges for the production of content on social media. Before the creation of learning materials, it is necessary to determine the subsection of language learners to focus on. Selecting areas that coincide with an area of expertise or prior knowledge can act as an educational base for the target community and lead to the production of meaningful content and ultimately engagement. Some examples, such as general English, exam preparation or pronunciation, will broadcast to the community of learners what content they can expect from that specific social media channel. Additionally, it is crucial to post regularly to form a meaningful connection with the language learning community.

Creating educational chunks

In the digital space, it is vital to consider what can be taught in a single minute.

Some platforms have time constraints which dictate this limit, or others have users who are inundated with content and are easily distracted as a result. Therefore, complex aspects of language teaching must be condensed into easily digestible education chunks. By reducing the amount of information shared, learners are afforded the time to fully comprehend the concept being taught (Selivan, 2018). These lessons must also be visually appealing in order to compete effectively with the significant amount of content that an online learner on social media will be exposed to.

Think like a digital native

Another notable consideration is the online audience for learning materials. They are predominately digital natives who have spent their entire lives consuming content on the Internet. They prefer visual and interactive content and are adept at finding and assessing information online (Helsper & Eynon, 2010). Consequently, an everevolving approach to content creation is required. As social media trends and features

203

Chapter 11: Materials development

evolve, so must the content that is produced. However, some trends can have a relatively short lifespan so speed is of the essence when trying to increase the visibility of content and connecting with a wider audience.

Setting realistic expectations

The rewards of creating learning materials and building an online community of learners can be immense; however, it is vital to note that there are positives and negatives related to this endeavour.

The negatives 1 S low growth: Building a large following and gaining traction takes time and dedication. It is essential to be patient and consistent when posting, as virality and instant success are sporadic.

2 T ime-consuming: Creating quality educational content and engaging with a community on a daily basis can be time-consuming.

3 C riticism: When sharing expertise online, criticism or negative feedback may be encountered. This can range from items related directly to content or to appearance. It is important to handle such situations with refinement, respond constructively if necessary, and learn to ignore or report untoward comments.

The positives 1 C onnecting with a community of learners: Social media allows a passion for teaching to be connected with the world – not just reaching learners, but also engaging with them through the platforms.

2 B rilliant creative outlet: Social media affords a creative platform to showcase skills, express creativity, and experiment with various content formats. It offers an interesting challenge of remaining educational while also entertaining individuals with different teaching styles.

3 Making

a difference: When educational content resonates with an audience, a positive impact can be made on their lives. Empowering others with knowledge and allowing them the chance to learn online can really boost a teacher’s motivation.

Conclusion

Developing content online is a challenging but rewarding process. It requires dedication and determination over a protracted period of time. Furthermore, when creating content, it is important to innovate and evolve in order to better engage an audience. In addition, keeping abreast of current trends and platform features is essential.

Despite these challenges it can be incredibly fulfilling and beneficial for the teacher as well as the students. bowesclaire6@gmail.com

References Helsper, E. J., & Eynon, R. (2010). Digital natives: Where is the evidence? British Educational Research Journal, 36(3), 503–520.

Reinders, H., & Benson, P. (2017). Social media and language learning. Cambridge University Press.

Selivan, L. (2018). Lexical Grammar: Activities for Teaching Chunks and Exploring Patterns.

Cambridge University Press.

204

How to write effective and engaging digital materials

11.7 How to write effective and engaging digital materials Laura Broadbent and Billie Jago Otterelt Ltd, London, UK What do we mean by digital materials?

In this paper we summarise our talk from the IATEFL Conference. Firstly, it’s important to define what we mean by digital materials. In this case, we mean: videos; language learning apps (e.g. Busuu and Babbel); gamified language-learning apps (e.g.

Duolingo, BBC Bitesize games); interactive eBooks; and web-based language learning platforms and assessments (e.g. BlinkLearning). What we are not discussing here are computer programs such as Word and Excel, or teacher-made resources to use in the classroom, such as Kahoot! and Quizlet.

The benefits of self-study language apps

We decided to focus on the creation of self-study language apps because they have a history of being very popular and successful language products. Babbel, for example, has more than 10 million users. This is due to several strong advantages for users, such as offering independence, the ability for the learner to choose their own pace, and way they learn. Not only do self-study language apps provide a customable and flexible learning approach, they are also very useful alongside other formal courses as a way to reinforce and consolidate learning.

Things to consider – print versus digital

Many writers and editors have a lot of experience writing print materials and teachers, likewise, have been using print books for a long time in classes. Therefore, we’re all relatively well-versed in these types of resources. However, how do digital materials differ and what do we need to consider when creating them?

First of all, the learning experience is very different. With digital materials, the learner is only using student-facing materials and they don’t have a workbook or teacher using a teacher’s book available to them. This means they receive no extra instructions or explanations while learning. As well as this, accessibility can be quite constrained as learners are working alone with small screen sizes and limited information. Because of the self-study nature and the aforementioned constraints, digital materials usually follow a modular pedagogy and lessons or units are bite-sized. This means that learning objectives must still be met but with fewer items or activities.

Making our own self-study digital materials

The first steps to planning our self-study materials include: 1 W hat task types work best?

2 H ow can we ‘replace’ the teacher?

3 H ow can we make it accessible for as many learners as possible?

Task types

We are used to seeing multiple choice, drag and drop, and matching activities in digital materials because they can fit onto a small screen and simply require the learner to move a finger or mouse across a screen. However, these tasks replicate the activities

205

Chapter 11: Materials development

in a print student’s book or workbook. But if we are creating digital materials with the capabilities and functions of a computer and/or phone, why are we confining ourselves to these types of tasks? We should be creating tasks that harness the creativity and power of technology, and creating tasks that contain games, scoring and adventure elements to support and engage the learner.

‘Replacing’ the teacher

As previously mentioned, when learners are using self-study materials, there is no teacher to explain what to do or why they are doing it. Therefore, we need ways to present information, explain concepts, inspire learners and build confidence. One way to do this is to include a strong narrative thread at the beginning of each screen to guide learners. Clear rubrics and pop-up tip boxes are also effective ways of presenting key information to learners.

Accessibility

Although writers and editors don’t have much say in the appearance and functionality of their digital materials, it’s important to be aware of the ways we can help learners process our language content.

When it comes to the appearance of activities, photos are only useful if they carry meaning and have alt text that describes exactly what the photo should be conveying.

There isn’t generally space for decorative photos, and they can be confusing for many learners. Furthermore, rubrics should ideally be one line long and the fewer the words the better. Learners can struggle to understand long instructions, particularly without a teacher to break it down for them. And finally, when you’re writing automatic feedback, ensure it is encouraging and motivating for students and includes tips to get the answer right next time.

There are many exciting elements to creating digital materials that we need to combine carefully with strong, clear pedagogical approaches. We hope that this brief summary inspires you to write your own effective and engaging digital materials. lblaurabroadbent@googlemail.com; billiejago@hotmail.co.uk

206

12

Global issues and insights

The opening paper in this chapter comes from the presentation of the 11 Hornby Trust Scholars – teachers and teacher trainers representing 10 countries of the Global South – in which they discuss the decentring of ELT within their own respective contexts. After a brief introduction to decentring ELT, the scholars go on to describe positive practices they have experienced and concerns that they have. They conclude by highlighting the need for ongoing critical reflection on the process of decentring ELT. Following this is Serrana Muniz’s paper, in which she introduces critical environmental education (CEE) and ecophobia. Serrana discusses a number of classroom techniques typically used in environmental education, and concludes with a call for profound questioning and change at societal level, which educational systems are in a position to contribute to. With a focus on Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), Jason Skeet demonstrates how three procedures for creating poetry in the language classroom can help learners explore important questions related to ESD and the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals. Jason concludes by stressing the need for deep questions, creativity and cooperation to catch a glimpse of what a sustainable society might really involve. In the next paper, ‘The profit motive: time to problematise capitalism in ELT?’, Steve Brown explores ways in which the prioritisation of profit is having a damaging impact on the ELT profession. Steve ends by encouraging us to question the capitalism in ELT, and to engage critically with its damaging impact on our profession. To close this chapter, and this 2023 volume, we now look to the future, and more specifically the future of English. Based on the British Council Signature Event and earlier talk ‘The future of English for teachers, schools and governments’, Mina Patel, Mike Solly and Steve Copeland report on insights from the British Council’s ‘Future of English’ programme, which aims to identify key trends that will define the role of English as a global language in the coming decade, together with issues and opportunities. The paper summarises the findings to date related to eight thematic areas of interest which are likely to have a major impact on the future of English, and ends with a summary of Conference participants’ thoughts about education systems in 10 years’ time.

207

Chapter 12: Global issues and insights

12.1 The Hornby Trust Scholars presentation: Decentring ELT: insights and explorations The A.S. Hornby Scholars at IATEFL 2023: Jordan Wallace Anjos da Silva Brazil, Anestin Chi Cameroon, Suyog Dixit India, Younos Dost Mohammadi Afghanistan, Jean Paul Dukundane Rwanda, Azmatullah Fazli Afghanistan, Viktoriya Ivanenko Tajikistan, Haneen Jadallah The Palestinian Territories, Jia Lih Lim Malaysia, Dany Prima Putra Indonesia, and Phyo Wai Tun Myanmar Introduction

We are all Hornby Scholars, that is, teachers and teacher trainers from different countries of the Global South who have a Hornby Trust scholarship to study for a master’s degree in TESOL at the University of Warwick. To begin our presentation, Azmatullah (from Afghanistan) explained how the Hornby Trust and the University of Warwick offer opportunities for ELT professionals from Global South contexts to build on existing practice, and to extend that practice in new directions. Younos, also from Afghanistan, followed up by describing the Hornby Trust’s Decentring ELT initiative, launched in 2018, which focuses on identifying, describing and sharing examples of ELT ‘decentring’ practices: A decentring perspective involves valuing and seeking to understand how teachers, often collaborating with each other, try to articulate key features of their work (including the reasons for these features) and ways they feel their practice can be improved.

Decentring ELT highlights teachers’ own development of contextually appropriate thinking and action (on methodology, materials design, curriculum development, teacher education, and so on) in relation to the needs of their local contexts. (Padwad & Smith, 2023, p. 80)

So far, the Hornby Trust Decentring ELT initiative has paid particular attention to the activities of teacher associations (see Banegas et al., 2022). This has led to the recent publication of a book containing case studies (Padwad & Smith, 2023) and the initiative is now entering a new phase, with a focus on pre-service and in-service teacher education as well as other areas. With a view to supporting this broadeningout of focus, as a group of Hornby scholars from diverse contexts we together discussed and explored the topic of decentring ELT on the basis of our own experiences and perspectives from November 2021 to March 2022. Our presentation and the present article are the outcome.

Why we feel decentring ELT is necessary, and what it means to us

Overall, we agreed that there are needs for (further) decentring of ELT in our own contexts, as illustrated by experiences shared by Viktoriya, Jia Lih and Phyo: Viktoriya, from Tajikistan, expressed frustration with a North American teacher trainer who had visited her institution to provide input on culture-sensitive pedagogy, but who lacked sensitivity to the local context and made dismissive judgements about the

208

The Hornby Trust Scholars presentation: Decentring ELT: insights and explorations

use of the local language and a teacher wearing a headscarf during training. The fact that the administration trusted this trainer’s judgement, to the extent of firing three teachers she disapproved of – for their use of students’ mother tongue among other things – highlights the importance of a decentring lens with regard to administrators, not just foreign trainers.

Jia Lih’s experience in Malaysia revealed the limitations of strictly enforcing an English-only policy in the classroom. Although she faithfully adhered to this policy for five years, she began to realise that allowing students to mix their mother tongue with English increased classroom interaction, motivation, and comfort in speaking. Jia Lih reported that incorporating students’ mother tongues in the English language classroom yielded positive results, even though doing so was contrary to what central policy dictates.

Jia Lih also highlighted the pressure on teachers to produce ‘perfect’ weekly lesson plans for school principals, leading some to purchase pre-made plans online or simply pay lip-service to the exercise. Jia Lih argued that teachers should have more freedom to write ‘good enough’ plans that cater to local realities instead of being pressured to aim for perfection.

Phyo’s experience in Myanmar cast further light on the negative effects of top-down curriculum development and implementation. A new ‘communicative’ curriculum was introduced a few years ago with insufficient input from teachers, resulting in challenges during implementation. Teachers faced large class sizes and a heavy workload, and they had their own preferred teaching practices, meaning that they did not adhere to the new curriculum. Phyo emphasised the importance of involving teachers in the development and implementation process, and viewing them as change agents.

The experiences shared by Viktoriya, Jia Lih and Phyo show why a decentring ELT perspective is needed – as we all agreed, more attention needs to be paid to respecting diverse cultures and languages, empowering teachers to plan and teach according to local realities, and involving them in curriculum development and implementation.

Positive decentring ELT practices

We also shared examples from our practice which seem to reflect decentring principles, three of which are reported here.

Jordan, from Brazil, highlighted how he had been involved in producing teaching materials that aimed to accommodate diversity and reflect the lives and needs of students in the municipality of Rio de Janeiro. The materials were designed with the involvement of experienced local teachers who understood the reality of students’ lives. Characters were created to represent different educational stages, different school roles from head teacher to janitor, and diverse backgrounds, and audios were recorded

by Brazilian English teachers rather than native speakers.

Haneen, from The Palestinian Territories, shared a story of drama production that celebrated the local context and honoured the culture and efforts of Palestinian children. Through the Hands Up project, Haneen set up drama clubs where students wrote individual stories in English, some of which were then shared and transformed into a play called Oh, my home. The play showcases the students’ identities as refugees, and it has been performed to audiences in several countries. This practice exemplifies how decentring ELT can involve honouring learners’ identities at the same time as connecting them to the world.

209

Chapter 12: Global issues and insights

Dany, from Indonesia, discussed the Indonesia Teaching Community (ITC), an NGO formed by teachers like him to address the shortage of qualified English teachers for young learners. The community provides free online English classes and teacher training, with a rotating executive team and a focus on sharing insights among teachers in the community. As a voluntary democratic and teacher-led organisation dedicated to English language improvement, ITC can be seen as a positive example of decentring in ELT. Overall, these examples illustrate a variety of ways ELT can be decentred. They involve being guided by local teachers’ input in materials design, incorporating local contexts and identities in creative projects, and establishing a teacher-led organisation that prioritises peer learning and community input. These practices emphasise the importance of valuing local perspectives, empowering teachers, and fostering connections between learners and their broader communities.

Concerns about decentring

Although we are in favour of decentring ELT overall, we end with some critical questions which occurred to us during our discussions. Suyog, from India, expressed his worry that the concept of decentring might be misinterpreted. He shared past examples from his context where good ideas, such as promoting local practices or using mother tongue to teach English, have been misinterpreted or used as excuses for lacks in competence. Suyog emphasised the need to disseminate the idea of decentring effectively.

Jean Paul, from Rwanda, discussed possible concerns about insularity in the process of localising materials. While it is important to connect materials to learners’ daily lives and local contexts, there is a risk that students’ exposure to global communication will remain limited. Localised materials might focus only on local aspects, such as transportation or food, without integrating intercultural aspects of English.

Another concern highlighted by Jean Paul was whether teachers are ready to embrace decentring. In Rwandan technical education, a competence-based approach has been introduced, providing teachers with the freedom to create contextually appropriate materials. However, due to workload, lack of materials design skills and other challenges, teachers tend to resort to using ready-made materials or unreliable Internet resources, resulting in decontextualised teaching and a reinforcement of explicit grammar instruction. Empowering teachers to develop contextually appropriate thinking and actions may be necessary for successful decentring.

Finally, Anestin, from Cameroon, shared an example that raised questions about the extent to which decentring is possible in a teacher-training initiative. She was selected as a model teacher from Sub-Saharan Africa to contribute to a video teachertraining resource which showcased real classrooms. However, the selection and vetting was carried out by a UK-based agency, and the final product was also controlled by centre agency experts. Anestin raised the question whether this initiative truly represents decentring, given that there was still a strong influence from the outside – ‘Can we decentre from the centre?’, as she put it. Outside influence of this kind can obscure local expertise, hence the need to recognise local teachers’ cognitions and practices, which are more contextually appropriate than imposed ‘best practices’.

These were our critical concerns about the process of decentring. While, as a group,

210

The Hornby Trust Scholars presentation: Decentring ELT: insights and explorations

we were generally supportive of decentring, the examples in this final section highlight the importance of addressing potential misinterpretations, balancing localisation with intercultural content, preparing teachers for decentring, and ensuring that initiatives are genuinely decentralised rather than controlled by external agencies.

Final thoughts

Adopting a ‘decentring ELT’ perspective, we found, enabled us to critically reflect on our teaching practices, and to both share and gain insights into the importance of valuing local contexts, as well as respecting and empowering teachers, aspects which are not usually given enough attention in centralised education systems. Hearing from different contexts showed us how things can be different from what we had previously experienced, and encouraged us to think of new strategies for tackling issues locally.

At the same time, our discussions highlighted needs for ongoing critical reflection and revealed potential challenges in the process of decentring ELT. This process, we found, involves listening to others’ voices and reaching out to one another, while remaining critical in a constructive way. Decentring ELT is a broad concept, with huge potential for exploration. It is not meant to cause division or denigration of past or existing educational strategies and structures, but, rather, to stimulate positive changes in English education around the world.

(Jordan Wallace Anjos da Silva) jordan.rio.ingles@gmail.com (Anestin Chi) anestinelum@gmail.com (Suyog Dixit) suyogadixit@gmail.com (Younos Dost Mohammadi) younos.dmyn@gmail.com (Jean Paul Dukundane) bullypablo@gmail.com (Azmatullah Fazli) azmat.fazly@gmail.com (Viktoriya Ivanenko) vikaivanenko@mail.ru (Haneen Jadallah) haneen.kh.jad@gmail.com (Jia Lih Lim) limjialih94@gmail.com (Dany Prima Putra) dany.anggimawan@gmail.com (Phyo Wai Tun) phyowaitunedu@gmail.com

References Banegas, D. L., Bullock, D., Kiely, R., Kuchah, K., Padwad, A., Smith, R., & Wedell, M. (2022). Decentring ELT: Teacher associations as agents of change. ELT Journal 76(1), 69–76.

Padwad, A., & Smith, R. (Eds.). (2023). Decentring ELT: Practices and Possibilities. AINET & A.S. Hornby Educational Trust. https://theainet.net/pub/dcbook1

211

Chapter 12: Global issues and insights

12.2 Critical environmental education and ELT: a necessary blend Serrana Muniz Freelance, La Paloma, Rocha, Uruguay

This paper discusses the critical approach to environmental education and its value to address environmental issues in the ELT classroom. These notions are relevant for all audiences, as one of the challenges within this area is that there is a tendency to direct it at children and teenagers, a view of future generations as saviours and heirs of the world, but we should be targeting adults as well, who are the ones in decision-making spaces today, and release that burden from our youth.

Critical environmental education (CEE) draws from critical pedagogy (Freire, 1968).

It invites us to challenge social and power inequalities and understand that social and environmental issues need to be understood interrelatedly. It aims at environmental justice. It views ourselves as part of the environment in a series of interconnected relations.

Practitioners that follow this approach problematise environmental issues and conflicts beyond individual responsibility and action, to foster grounded, contextualised environmental debates. This way, democracy, citizenship, genuine participation and social transformation are promoted. Key to this notion is the situated nature of the discussion: we should build knowledge and intervention strategies in dialogue with the interests, concerns, beliefs, values and multiple identities of local communities, understanding the power relations and key actors in context (Layrargues & Ferreira Da Costa Lima, 2014).

Another important construct is ecophobia, which is the negative impact that approaching environmental issues from the analysis of global problems can have. It can make students feel overwhelmed, unmotivated, helpless, sad and anxious. In his seminal work Beyond Ecophobia, Sobel (1996) invites us to develop children’s emotional connection with their natural surroundings instead. He suggests the starting point should be here and now before moving to the beyond and long ago. We should also consider learners’ developmental stage when designing our educational practice; we can transition to more abstract and distant issues as learners develop. This doesn’t oppose questioning profound roots of environmental issues or political decisions that perpetuate them, but means that environmental education will happen in a framework of emotional support. In Sobel’s words, ‘If we want children to flourish, to become truly empowered, let us allow them to love the earth before we ask them to save it’ (https://www.davidsobelauthor.com/ about-david-sobel). He especially fosters nature-based education, i.e. practices in which education happens in nature. While his focus is on children’s education, these notions are important considerations for all ages, especially so in times when eco-anxiety keeps growing at an alarming rate. Dealing with issues we can relate to and take action on, without skipping the step of establishing and evoking a relationship with nature, can have a positive effect for all.

There are a number of techniques typically used in environmental education that are aligned with both CEE and ecophobia prevention. Some examples of these that have language learning potential are: • p roducing transects, which are paths from one point to another in which occurrences of what is being studied are counted and recorded. These can range from subjects such as plant or animal species to colours, sounds, feelings;

212

Critical environmental education and ELT: a necessary blend

• producing dissemination material such as fanzines or infographics; • u sing art to raise awareness and foster collective action on socio-environmental issues; and • planning and implementing local projects.

CEE is compatible with project-based learning and CLIL; it provides opportunities for authentic uses of the language and for interdisciplinary work.

It is often the case that environmental issues in ELT are approached following a generic unit in an internationally published book, so the focus tends to be on global issues and individual responsibilities and actions that can be taken to ‘save the planet’.

In contraposition, CEE invites us to build from local issues, and think about collective action.

CEE can be considered radical and it is certainly political, so there are educational contexts in which it might be controversial. However, this is an invitation to consider it a lens to analyse our approach to environmental issues in the English classroom and make adjustments to move closer to it. For instance, if you’re using a book that tends not to consider this, you can make adaptations such as: introducing lead-in activities that give learners time to evoke affective memories related with nature before focusing on the problems; introducing discussion questions that connect local spaces and issues when dealing with global ones; critically analysing the map of actors that play a role in the subject and how collective actions could be taken; and a long etcetera.

Let’s continue conducting and promoting individual sustainable actions, but let’s stop doing so without understanding that there needs to be profound questioning and change at societal level (some authors talk about civilisation crisis rather than an environmental one, as the way we organise ourselves as society is simply not compatible with life). The educational system is in a privileged position to contribute to this change.

Conference slides can be found at: https://docs.google.com/presentation/ d/10PoGlTLIoGdVy1ICr9qdrB5mlU_kZyHRUpTp53-_mQ8/edit#slide=id.p serrana.munizg@gmail.com

References Freire P. (1968). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Seabury Press.

Layrargues, P., & Ferreira da Costa Lima, G. (2014). The Brazilian Environmental Education.

Macro-political-pedagogical Trends. Ambiente & Sociedade, XVII(1), 23–40. https://www. academia.edu/78923215/As_macrotendências_pol%C3%ADtico_pedagógicas_da_educação_ ambiental_brasileira Sobel, D. (1996). Beyond Ecophobia. Reclaiming the Heart in Nature Education. Orion Society.

213

Chapter 12: Global issues and insights

12.3 Poetry and Education for Sustainable Development in language classrooms Jason Skeet Norwich Institute for Language Education, UK Introduction

The term Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), coined at the 1992 Earth Summit, has become something of an educational buzzword. In the ELT context (as with other education contexts), ESD is frequently tied to the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals. But what counts as sustainable education? What and who is ESD for?

Is there a difference between education about sustainable development and education for sustainability, and why might this distinction matter? In what follows, I report on a workshop I delivered at IATEFL Harrogate in which these questions were addressed by trying out three procedures for making poetry in a language classroom.

Poetry procedures

A poetry procedure involves providing learners with clear steps to follow for making a poem; a procedure could also include the use of a writing frame, as well as learners working collaboratively on a poem. All three procedures described below involved additional stages of sharing and discussing the poems.

Figure 12.3.1 shows the stages to the first procedure, ‘Close Encounters’. This procedure supports what I call upstreaming, learning that involves a process of questioning underlying assumptions by exploring where an assumption comes from and, in the process, investigating the deeper questions that assumptions often conceal. The poems made through this procedure, and the sharing and discussion that follow, can be used to explore assumptions about our place and agency in the world. In fact, I would suggest that this procedure challenges a stewardship mindset (and associated pedagogy), or what Hine calls ‘fish tank thinking’ (2023, pp. 145–153) – the world treated as separate from us, a ‘resource’ to be controlled and managed.

The dominant conception of sustainable development – a conception taken as a given in mainstream ELT materials (at least those I’ve seen) – emphasises the need to conserve resources for future generations. However, this idea of long-term stability always talks about the economy and environment. Why, then, is the economy always put first? And also, for that matter, why is the idea of resources so reductive – what about our cultural resources, for example? Moreover, elements of the Sustainable Development Goals, made central to so much environmental education, reflect the objectives of Integrated World Capitalism, its structural need to expand continually to generate profit. When underlying assumptions are not challenged, what we end up with is education about a dominant conception of sustainable development: this is teaching and learning based on codified skills and prescribed outcomes. But by engaging with deeper questions about how we look at the world, how we understand our relationship with ‘nature’ and what it means to be human, we move towards a conception of sustainability as ‘open-ended learning that explores ways to ensure life goes on’ (Foster, 2008, p. 145). This is how we create education for sustainability.

214

Poetry and Education for Sustainable Development in language classrooms

Figure 12.3.1: Poetry Procedure 1 (adapted from Walker, 2022)

The second procedure – ‘I hear a New World’ (Figure 12.3.2) – explores wishes for a sustainable society. The procedure is linked with the ‘3 Rs for Sustainability’: relinquishment, restoration and resilience (Hine, 2023, pp. 62–63). These are open-ended concepts that could be explored in various ways. They help to move environmental education away from a focus on problems which need the right technological/scientific/economic solutions (to maintain the situation as it was before the problems arose). Rather, I would suggest that education for sustainability starts out from the acceptance of a complex predicament with no solution – the big question then becomes: how to live with it…?

Figure 12.3.2: Poetry Procedure 2

A third procedure – ‘Dear Planet Earth’ – involves working with a partner to write a one sentence message to the planet (not to the human and beyond-human occupants), which is added to a shared online document to create a collaborative poem.

In the workshop at IATEFL, the messages expressed shame, anger and sadness. This procedure, then, is a way to explore affective responses to environmental destruction in a way that allows for these emotions to be shared and examined. I would suggest that such emotions are necessary as part of a process of mourning the end of a world – the world of western modernity, that is!

Conclusion

I have questioned the conception of ESD that focuses on solutions to what is ongoing environmental devastation – especially when these solutions amount to feelgood fixes. Instead, an education for sustainability is an open-ended process of learning that explores ways to ensure life goes on, and which might also enable us to see

215

Chapter 12: Global issues and insights

how classrooms involve their own dynamic ecologies. Let’s make space for posing deep questions, and for a creativity and cooperation which might offer a glimpse of what a sustainable society might really involve. jason.skeet@nile-elt.com

References Foster, J. (2008). The Sustainability Mirage. Earthscan.

Hine, D. (2023). At Work in the Ruins. Chelsea Green.

Walker, A. (2022). Ecopoetry, Pedagogical Encounters, and Holding Absence Present: Ideas for Classrooms. In S. L. Kleppe & A. Sorby (Eds.), Poetry and Sustainability in Education (pp.

185–208). Palgrave Macmillan.

12.4 The profit motive: time to problematise capitalism in ELT? Steve Brown University of Glasgow, Scotland Introduction

While capitalism faces increasing scrutiny as a system of global governance in the 21st century, the application of capitalist principles in ELT continues unabated. This paper aims to address a gap in the discourse by exploring ways in which the prioritisation of profit is having a damaging impact on the ELT profession.

Defining capitalism

After playing a short clip to illustrate how capitalism is being critiqued within the context of the climate crisis, I provided some definitions of capitalism, demonstrating how it is predicated on the assumption that people act in their own self-interest, and that the primary motive within this system is to make a profit. Neoliberal capitalism, which has dominated western socio-economic policy since the early 1980s, goes beyond trade and commerce, allowing all aspects of society – including education – to be controlled by market forces.

The ubiquity of privatisation, commodification and marketisation also forces individuals to become commodities, or human capital, whose value is determined by their economic output. Rather than exploring neoliberalism as an ideology, the focus of this paper is to explore the impact of the profit motive on the ELT profession.

ELT as a profit-oriented industry

The involvement of large, global corporations in ELT is well-documented (see for example Bunce et al., 2016), so much so that ELT is often referred to as an industry rather than a profession. Global corporate involvement includes the publishing of materials, provision of assessments, the certification of TESOL qualifications and, of course, the provision of teaching in private language schools, many of which operate as global franchises. Each year, these corporations generate billions by commodifying and monetising the ELT profession through the development of ‘products’, in the form of courses,

216

The profit motive: time to problematise capitalism in ELT?

coursebooks, assessments and qualifications. In doing so, they are highly influential in determining the methodologies, materials and assessments that are used.

Impact of the profit motive

If there was a direct correlation between commercial success and educational quality, there would be less need to engage critically with the commercialisation of ELT. However, many educational and ethical problems exist within our profession, which profit-orientation is largely responsible for. A commodified curriculum requires a highly prescriptive and linear model of learning, with language presented in a pre-determined order, and packaged and sold as courses for students to progress through incrementally.

This may seem logical, but is in fact completely out of step with the ‘inherently chaotic and idiosyncratic nature of language learning’ (Thornbury, 2014). Moreover, corporations prefer to develop products – courses, coursebooks, assessments and qualifications – that can be packaged and sold globally. This approach is based on the principles of McDonaldization (Littlejohn, 2012) and is a very efficient business model. However, the one-size-fits-all approach fails to accommodate more localised needs and preferences in terms of learning content, outcomes and methods. Generic content tends to be heavily sanitised, meaning that topics which could be regarded as sensitive in some contexts are avoided. This leads to a lack of focus on issues related to social justice, structural inequality or community action.

Another impact of the profit motive in ELT is the maintenance of the native-speaker/ non-native-speaker dichotomy. Discrimination against non-native English-speaking teachers (NNESTs) is already well-documented, with many employers advertising jobs exclusively for native English-speaking teachers (NESTs). However, the NEST/NNEST dichotomy also allows employers in many contexts to justify the poor treatment of NESTs. On the one hand, they are exploited as marketing tools, as many learners have been led to believe that NESTs make better teachers. However, alternative discourses also portray NESTs as poorly-qualified, inexperienced and unprofessional, thereby justifying low salaries and precarious conditions.

Ultimately, the prioritisation of the profit motive in ELT means that learning content, methods and outcomes are determined by the market, rather than by what is known to be effective, or what is likely to have maximum educational value. By promoting discourses that favour linear learning, universal prescriptivism and native-speakerism, corporate ELT is able to provide learners with what they think they need – rather than what they actually need – while at the same time maximising their own profits.

Conclusion

It may be difficult to envisage the ELT profession without the involvement of profitoriented organisations, and even harder to consider ways to challenge this involvement.

The talk finished with some brief suggestions, such as the prioritisation of quality over commercial viability, and the unionisation of teachers. However, perhaps the main focus should be on questioning the uncritical acceptance of capitalism in ELT, and engaging critically with its damaging impact on our profession. stephen.a.brown@glasgow.ac.uk

217

Chapter 12: Global issues and insights

References Bunce, P., Phillipson, R., Rapatahana, V., & Tupas, R. (Eds.) (2016). Why English? Confronting the Hydra. Multilingual Matters.

Littlejohn, A. (2012). Language teaching materials and the (very) big picture. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 9(1), 283–297.

Thornbury, S. (2014). Who ordered the McNuggets? ELTJam.com. http://www.eltjam.com/ who-ordered-the-mcnuggets/

12.5 The Future of English: Global Perspectives Mina Patel, Mike Solly and Steve Copeland British Council, UK

What is the future of English? In a world transformed by momentous global events, what’s the new reality for the world’s most spoken language? What does this mean for the future of teaching English?

Background

The British Council’s ‘Future of English’ programme aims to identify key trends that will define the role of English as a global language in the coming decade, and the issues and opportunities for countries around the world in achieving their goals for the use of English in their contexts. The programme will provide insights for language policy and education reform interventions, and generate evidence and data to inform those decisions and evaluate their impact.

Our starting point was the 2006 landmark publication English Next by David Graddol. Having analysed Graddol’s predictions 15 years after they were made, we then developed a new set of proposed trends for English for the next ten years. These were interrogated and revised during a series of regional roundtables with 92 policymakers and influencers from 49 countries and territories. We are now developing an open-access research agenda as part of the next phase of the programme.

Our findings

In April 2023, we published a book summarising the programme to date and detailing the eight thematic areas of interest that we have concluded are likely to have a major impact on the future of English. The themes are posed as questions. We realised early on in our analysis that there are still many questions to be answered and our work so far is only the beginning of the conversation. The eight thematic questions are: 1 Will

English remain the world’s most sought-after language?

It seems likely that the current popularity of English as a global language is going to be maintained for the foreseeable future. Other languages are also increasing in use and popularity but English is likely to retain its position as a global lingua franca for at least the next decade or two.

2 W hat role will English play in our multilingual reality?

It is becoming increasingly commonplace in many contexts for a variety of languages to be used, and English has a key role in this. But users of non-dominant

218

The Future of English: Global Perspectives

languages are, it seems, gaining in recognition and confidence. Curricula are beginning to change to reflect this, and teachers will need to be trained to adapt to this changing multilingual reality.

3 W hat is the future of English as a medium of education?

English-medium education (EME) has rapidly developed in the last decade or so. Using English across the curriculum is common in many Higher Education contexts. In basic education there is now a certain rowing back from the demand (sometimes by governments or parents) to teach other subjects through English at a young age, and more attention is, in some contexts at least, being paid to the overwhelming evidence from research that warns of the dangers of introducing EME too early.

4 H ow will teachers remain relevant in future English language learning systems?

All of our roundtable participants agreed that, despite the growing importance of technology, and a recognition that we are on the cusp of big changes with AI, teachers will remain central to the teaching and learning process. However, they will need support through training to be able to adapt to the new opportunities that technology will provide.

5 P ublic and private English language provision: who has the answers?

Public education is varied and often inadequate. This is also true of private education! However, a lot of resources are channelled into private education and this makes expectations high, while creating an equity gap in provision. Public and private sectors could work together to produce a more comprehensive learning system for better all-round provision for learners.

6 C an English assessment meet stakeholders’ changing needs?

Much of the desire from young people to learn English is driven by the potential it offers for better education opportunities and job prospects. In light of changing education and work environments and employers’ needs, assessment practices need to be continuously reviewed to ensure that they reflect the realities of how people now learn by being more creative and contextually innovative.

7 C an technology narrow the equity gap in English language education?

There is the potential for technology to narrow the equity gap in English language education, with the increased affordability of accessibility to online learning and online assessment systems as just two examples. However, there is also the potential for technology to widen this gap if it continues to be available to the few rather than the many. Large-scale investment in infrastructure and training will be needed to stop this gap widening.

8 T o what extent is employment driving the future of English?

Employers are still demanding English skills, but this is now increasingly for a range of roles and not just in management or professional positions. English remains in very high demand in the workplace, and although the types of English required are likely to change, and again for many, multilingual skills may be necessary, there is no indication that employers are putting less emphasis on requiring a knowledge of English.

To continue the conversation at IATEFL Harrogate, we invited participants to share their thoughts and opinions in three different ways: a) by completing a very

219

Chapter 12: Global issues and insights

short online survey called ‘Have your say’ at the British Council stand; b) by writing Haikus at our pop-up session; and c) by completing a handout at our Signature event.

Below we briefly summarise the IATEFL participant responses. In this paper there isn’t scope to discuss these responses in detail, but we think you will agree that they provide a springboard for further discussion and exploration.

‘Have your say’ survey data

Two hundred and fifty participants answered four questions at the British Council stand; below is a summary of the results. We understand that these figures are extremely impressionistic, but they provide an indication of some general opinions about the questions asked.

Definitely

Probably

No

Not sure

Will English remain the most widely spoken language?

105

119

10

16

Will nations that only speak English be disadvantaged in the future?

52

115

45

38

Will artificial intelligence replace English language teachers?

5

117

110

18

Are English learners being taught the right things for their future?

12

146

45

47

What the Signature event participants said

At the Signature event, fifty completed handouts were returned in-person and we had an abundance of contributions from our online audience. We do not have the space here to report on all the aggregated responses to all of the questions. Therefore, we have chosen to focus on participants’ thoughts about education systems in 10 years’ time. Below is a summary of the responses from both in-person and online participation.

Learners The expansion of the use of technology will offer learners more opportunities in accessing content and different ways of learning. As individuals, learners should become active agents of their own learning, exercising autonomy and agency. They should expect learning to be more personalised, focusing on the skills required to succeed in education and work. To meet differing situational needs and accommodate different preferences in formats of learning, English language programmes may need to become more flexible and innovative in terms of content, medium and structure.

220

The Future of English: Global Perspectives

Teachers The majority of participants agreed that teachers will continue to have a major role in English language education. However, there is work to be done to support teachers as learning and the learning environment changes. Most participants stated that training and continuing professional development were the priority for teachers if education systems in ten years’ time were to fulfil their potential. Unsurprisingly, training around technology was seen as most essential, closely followed by training for multilingual classrooms and assessment practices. There were a number of comments about the teacher’s role in the classroom. As learners and learning changes, the teacher’s role might change from being quite prescriptive in some cases to becoming more facilitative and supportive, with the aim of creating opportunities to use the language authentically and helping learners navigate through their learning journeys. This requires teachers to be flexible and creative within the parameters of curricula. These skills need to be introduced in initial training and developed through experience.

Policymakers Responses about policymakers focused on three main areas: decision-making processes; making decisions about academic programmes; and creating and supporting teaching and learning environments. Participants felt that decision-making processes should be more consultative and inclusive with policymakers listening to experts, teachers and learners to make more informed, insightful decisions based on the reality of contexts and stakeholder needs rather than desired ideals. In the area of academic programmes, participant responses suggested that policymakers should assess and adjust curricula to meet the demands of the skills required in changing learning environments and dynamic workplaces. Curricula need to integrate relevant and available technology, reflect the multilingual realities of learners, and cater for the needs of a diverse range of learners. Finally, an important theme to come from the responses was the need for decision makers to create supportive environments that are conducive to effective teaching and learning. This includes thinking about teacher and learner wellbeing in rapidly changing times.

Haiku

We’ve received many wonderful Haikus about the future of English and would like to share just one here: Future of English Is diverse and inclusive Interesting stuff, eh?

Mina.Patel@britishcouncil.org; Mike.Solly@britishcouncil.org; Steven.Copeland@britishcouncil.org

References Graddol, D. (2006). English Next. British Council.

Patel, M., Solly, M., & Copeland, S. (2023). The Future of English: Global Perspectives. British Council. https://www.britishcouncil.org/future-of-english

221

Index of authors Aguilar Bustos, Ma. Begoña 6.2 Aguilera Fuentes, Yéssica 6.2 Allan, Wiktoria 10.5 Anjos da Silva, Jordan Wallace 12.1 Ashley, Sue 6.5 Bailey, Amanda 7.5 Barrantes Elizondo, Lena 1.4 Beadle, Kim 6.13 Berberovic, Vahida 6.8 Biazon Rocha, Ana Paula 8.3 Bilbrough, Nick 5.10 Bowes, Claire 11.6 Broadbent, Laura 11.7 Brown, Steve 12.4 Bustamante Piedragil, América 9.3 Castillo Rosales, Marisol 6.2 Chadry, Mahtab 3.4 Chaudhary, Sajan 5.9 Chi, Anestin 12.1 Copeland, Steve 12.5 Dawson, Iona 3.6 de Chazal, Edward 1.2 de Lima Guedes, Karla K 3.9 Díaz Maggioli, Gabriel 7.1 Dixit, Suyog 12.1 Dost Mohammadi, Younos 12.1 Douglas, Alastair 7.5 Douglas, Jacqueline 7.6 Dukundane, Jean Paul 12.1 Ekangouo Awanga, Abigail 10.2 Ekembe, Eric 11.4 Eraldemir Tuyan, Seden 9.4 Escalona Pardo, Eduardo 9.5 Farag, Sophie 3.2 Fazli, Azmatullah 12.1 Fedoriv, Yaroslava 4.3 Fernández Farías, Vanessa 6.2 Ferreira, Jonathan 2.2 Ferroglio, Laura 8.2 Frendo, Evan 4.1 Fürstenberg, Ulla 9.2 García, Ofelia 1.1 Godfrey, Tom 8.1 Gonthier, Isabelle 6.3 Gras, Christopher 6.6

Hancock, Mark 1.6 Harder, Petra 10.6 Hards, Nadia 3.1 Ibrahim, Awad 2.3 Ichaporia, Neenaz 7.9 Ipadeola, Mairo Hamid 10.3 Isifan, Mohammed 9.6 Ivanenko, Viktoriya 12.1 Jadallah, Haneen 12.1 Jago, Billie 11.7 Joseph, Niki 5.4 Kassimova, Zhananur 6.12 Khaddi, Laura 7.4 Khafagi, Noha 3.8 Koifman, Julia 10.7 Kuheil, Ashraf 5.10 Kvasova, Olga 6.11 Lanickova, Katerina 11.1 Laubacher, Laura 6.9 Leonard, Constance 6.6 Lethaby, Carol 11.5 Lim, Jia Lih 12.1 Loder, Conny 5.7 Loreto Sampaio, Glória Regina 4.4 Lynch, Ciarán 11.2 Mac Kenzie, Tracie 3.6 Madhavan, Divya 9.1 Makhlouf, Sanaa Abdel Hady 3.7 Manea Gultekin, Cristina 3.5 Marcenaro Bonsignore, Gabriela 6.10 Miščin, Evelina 11.3 Mitsaki, Catherine 3.3 Moses, Anju 8.7 Muniz, Serrana 12.2 Mynard, Jo 1.3 Northall, Nicholas 7.8 Onjewu, Martha Ada 10.3 Painter-Farrell, Lesley 2.1 Palavecino, Stella 5.6 Patel, Mina 12.5 Pearson, Susi 7.3 Perwitasari, Arum 6.1 Piñeiro Sorondo, Isabel 6.7 Prewett-Schrempf, Catherine 6.4

222

Price, Beatrix 8.5 Putra, Dany Prima 12.1 Reber, Brigitte 5.8 Riffo-Salgado, Priscila 10.4 Rimal, Bikas 10.1 Rosenberg, Marjorie 8.6 Schumm Fauster, Jennifer 9.2 Schwab, Susanna 7.7 Scott-Monkhouse, Anila R 4.2 Scyner, Gareth Luke 8.4 Setterfield, Ellen 5.2 Skeet, Jason 12.3 Slattery, Linda 6.4 Smith, Kristina 7.2 Sokolik, Maggie 4.3 Solly, Mike 12.5 Subba Dewan, Motikala 10.1 Thorn, Sheila 1.5 Veras, Lucas 2.2 Waddington, Julie 5.1 Wai Tun, Phyo 12.1 Young, Anna 7.2 Zaparucha, Aleksandra 5.3 Zuhair, Zahra 5.5

Subject index ADHD: Allan, 10.5; Koifman, 10.7 AI (Artificial Intelligence): Khafagi, 3.8; PrewettSchrempf and Slattery, 6.4; Ashley, 6.5; Patel, Solly and Copeland, 12.5; bot teachers: Ichaporia, 7.9 Assessment: e-portfolios: Laubacher, 6.9; formative: Marcenaro Bonsignore, 6.10; of speaking: Perwitasari, 6.1; Aguilar Bustos, Castillo Rosales, Fernández Farías and Aguilera Fuentes, 6.2; Gonthier, 6.3; of writing: Prewett-Schrempf and Slattery, 6.4; Ashley, 6.5; Kvasova, 6.11 Authentic communication: Barrantes Elizondo, 1.4; Thorn, 1.5 Automated online education: Ichaporia, 7.9 BELF (Business English as a Lingua Franca): Frendo, 4.1 Business English: Frendo, 4.1; Prewett-Schrempf and Slattery, 6.4; Ashley, 6.5; Laubacher, 6.9; Rosenberg, 8.6; Koifman, 10.7 Capitalism: Skeet, 12.3; Brown, 12.4 CELTA: Khaddi, 7.4; Bailey and Douglas, 7.5 ChatGPT: Hancock, 1.6; Ichaporia, 7.9 Child consultation: Waddington, 5.1 CLIL: Zaparucha, 5.3 Coaching: Madhavan, 9.1; Lanickova, 11.1 Code-switching: García, 1.1; Manea Gultekin, 3.5 Cognitive load theory: Lethaby, 11.5 Collaborative inquiry: Piñeiro Sorondo, 6.7 Collaborative learning: Mitsaki, 3.3; Khafagi, 3.8; Schumm Fauster and Fürstenberg, 9.2; Bustamante Piedragil, 9.3; Isifan, 9.6 Community forums: Godfrey, 8.1 Community of Inquiry: Khafagi, 3.8 Community of Practice: de Lima Guedes, 3.9; Price, 8.5; Schumm Fauster and Fürstenberg, 9.2; Bustamante Piedragil, 9.3; Isifan, 9.6 Conflict: Sokolik and Fedoriv, 4.3 Content teaching: Ferreira and Veras, 2.2; Zaparucha, 5.3 CPD (Continuing professional development): Pearson, 7.3; Douglas, 7.6; Schwab, 7.7; Northall, 7.8; Ichaporia, 7.9; Godfrey, 8.1; Ferroglio, 8.2; Biazon Rocha, 8.3; Scyner, 8.4; Price, 8.5; Rosenberg, 8.6; Schumm Fauster and Fürstenberg, 9.2; Bustamante Piedragil, 9.3; Eraldemir Tuyan, 9.4; Escalona Pardo, 9.5; Isifan, 9.6; Subba Dewan and Rimal, 10.1; Ekangouo Awanga, 10.2

Coursebooks: Kuheil and Bilbrough, 5.10; Schwab, 7.7; Ekembe, 11.4; Brown, 12.4 Course design: Farag, 3.2; Chadry, 3.4; Mac Kenzie and Dawson, 3.6 Course evaluation: Beadle, 6.13; Bailey and Douglas, 7.5 CEE (Critical environmental education): Muniz, 12.2 Curriculum: Ferreira and Veras, 2.2; ScottMonkhouse, 4.2; Sokolik and Fedoriv, 4.3; Kassimova, 6.12; Hornby Scholars, 12.1 Decentring ELT: Ekembe, 11.4; Hornby Scholars, 12.1 DELTA: Douglas, 7.6 Digital literacy: Ichaporia, 7.9 Digital skills: Subba Dewan and Rimal, 10.1; Ekangouo Awanga, 10.2 Displacement: Ibrahim, 2.3 Diversity: Painter-Farrell, 2.1; Ferreira and Veras, 2.2; Hornby Scholars, 12.1 Ecophobia: Muniz, 12.2 EFL worksheets: Ekembe, 11.4 ESD (Education for Sustainable Development): Skeet, 12.3 Educational policy: Onjewu and Ipadeola, 10.3; Riffo-Salgado, 10.4 Elicited imitation: Perwitasari, 6.1 EME (English-medium education): Onjewu and Ipadeola, 10.3; Patel, Solly and Copeland, 12.5 ERT (Emergency Remote Teaching): de Lima Guedes, 3.9 Emotional awareness: Ferroglio, 8.2 Employability skills: Northall, 7.8; Rosenberg, 8.6 Empowerment: Ferreira and Veras, 2.2; Sokolik and Fedoriv, 4.3; Eraldemir Tuyan, 9.4; Isifan, 9.6; Subba Dewan and Rimal, 10.1; Ekangouo Awanga, 10.2; Ekembe, 11.4; Hornby Scholars, 12.1 Engineering: Mac Kenzie and Dawson, 3.6; ScottMonkhouse, 4.2 Environmental issues: Muniz, 12.2; Skeet, 12.3 ESOL: Painter-Farrell, 2.1; Ibrahim, 2.3 Feedback: on writing: Leonard and Gras, 6.6; Piñeiro Sorondo, 6.7; peer feedback: Berberovic, 6.8 Foreign language anxiety: Chaudhary, 5.9 Future of English: Patel, Solly and Copeland, 12.5 Gender: Scott-Monkhouse, 4.2 Global citizenship: Scott-Monkhouse, 4.2

223

Glossaries: Loreto Sampaio, 4.4 Graphic novels: Miščin, 11.3 Grammar: Bustamante Piedragil, 9.3; Lynch 11.2

NESTs/NNESTs: Brown, 12.4 Neuroscience/Neurodiversity: Koifman, 10.7 Newsletters: Lanickova, 11.1

Hearing impairment: Onjewu and Ipadeola, 10.3; Riffo-Salgado, 10.4

Participatory arts: Godfrey, 8.1 Performative pedagogy: Godfrey, 8.1 Picturebooks: Ferreira and Veras, 2.2 Poetry: Skeet, 12.3 Pragmatics: Gonthier, 6.3 PRELIM (Partnered Remote Language Improvement project): Young and Smith, 7.2; Isifan, 9.6 Profit: Skeet, 12.3; Brown, 12.4 Pronunciation: Hancock, 1.6; Palavecino, 5.6; Biazon Rocha, 8.3

Identity: Ferreira and Veras, 2.2; Ibrahim, 2.3; Makhlouf, 3.7; Riffo-Salgado, 10.4 Inclusion: García, 1.1; Painter-Farrell, 2.1; Ferreira and Veras, 2.2; Subba Dewan and Rimal, 10.1; Ekangouo Awanga, 10.2; Onjewu and Ipadeola, 10.3; Riffo-Salgado, 10.4; Allan, 10.5; Harder, 10.6; Koifman, 10.7 IBL (Inquiry-based learning): Ferreira and Veras, 2.2 Interculturalism: Barrantes Elizondo, 1.4; Hards, 3.1; Manea Gultekin, 3.5; Makhlouf, 3.7; Kuheil and Bilbrough, 5.10; Lynch 11.2; Miščin, 11.3; Hornby Scholars, 12.1 Journalism: Sokolik and Fedoriv, 4.3 Leadership: Price, 8.5; Moses, 8.7; Subba Dewan and Rimal, 10.1 Learner autonomy: Mynard, 1.3; Mac Kenzie and Dawson, 3.6; Lanickova, 11.1; Broadbent and Jago, 11.7 Learning apps: Chadry, 3.4; Young and Smith, 7.2; Ekangouo Awanga, 10.2; Broadbent and Jago, 11.7 Learning difficulties: Koifman, 10.7 Listening: Thorn, 1.5; Hancock, 1.6; Onjewu and Ipadeola, 10.3 Machine Translation: Reber, 5.8; PrewettSchrempf and Slattery, 6.4 Managing emotions: Zuhair, 5.5 Managing young learners: Joseph, 5.4; Zuhair, 5.5 Materials: development: Sokolik and Fedoriv, 4.3; Reber, 5.8; Lanickova, 11.1; Ekembe, 11.4; Hornby Scholars, 12.1; digital: Lynch 11.2; Lethaby, 11.5; Bowes, 11.6; Broadbent and Jago, 11.7; exploitation: Ferreira and Veras, 2.2; Palavecino, 5.6; Loder, 5.7; Miščin, 11.3 Memetic communication: Lynch 11.2 Mentoring: Douglas, 7.6; Madhavan, 9.1; Eraldemir Tuyan, 9.4 Mother tongue: Godfrey, 8.1; Hornby Scholars, 12.1 Motivation: Farag, 3.2; Sokolik and Fedoriv, 4.3; Ferroglio, 8.2; Moses, 8.7; Lanickova, 11.1 Multilingualism: García, 1.1; Patel, Solly and Copeland, 12.5 Multimodal literacy: Lynch 11.2; Miščin, 11.3

Race: García, 1.1; Ibrahim, 2.3 Reading skills: de Chazal, 1.2; Khafagi, 3.8; Miščin, 11.3 Reflective skills: Mynard, 1.3; Barrantes Elizondo, 1.4; Farag, 3.2; Scott-Monkhouse, 4.2 Research: action research: Mitsaki, 3.3; Piñeiro Sorondo, 6.7; Berberovic, 6.8; case study: Manea Gultekin, 3.5; de Lima Guedes, 3.9; Waddington, 5.1; Reber, 5.8; Chaudhary, 5.9; Gonthier, 6.3; Pearson, 7.3; Schwab, 7.7; Eraldemir Tuyan, 9.4; Riffo-Salgado, 10.4; community forum: Godfrey, 8.1; ethnographic studies: Ibrahim, 2.3; longitudinal study: Hards, 3.1; Patel, Solly and Copeland, 12.5 Resilience: Setterfield, 5.2; Madhavan, 9.1; Ekangouo Awanga, 10.2 Science: Scott-Monkhouse, 4.2; Loreto Sampaio, 4.4 Screencasting: Leonard and Gras, 6.6 Speaking: Kuheil and Bilbrough, 5.10 Storytelling: Palavecino, 5.6 Sustainability: Setterfield, 5.2; Muniz, 12.2; Skeet, 12.3 Teacher associations: Young and Smith, 7.2; Price, 8.5; Rosenberg, 8.6; Escalona Pardo, 9.5; Isifan, 9.6; Subba Dewan and Rimal, 10.1; Ekembe, 11.4 Teacher cognition: Bustamante Piedragil, 9.3; Riffo-Salgado, 10.4 Teacher research: Scyner, 8.4; Eraldemir Tuyan, 9.4 Teacher training: Painter-Farrell, 2.1; Zaparucha, 5.3; Marcenaro Bonsignore, 6.10; Kvasova, 6.11; Díaz Maggioli, 7.1; Young and Smith, 7.2; Pearson, 7.3; Khaddi, 7.4; Bailey and Douglas, 7.5; Douglas, 7.6; Schwab, 7.7; Northall, 7.8; Ichaporia, 7.9; Godfrey, 8.1; Escalona Pardo, 9.5; Riffo-Salgado, 10.4 Teaching: children: Ferreira and Veras, 2.2;

224

Waddington, 5.1; Setterfield, 5.2; Zaparucha, 5.3; Joseph, 5.4; Palavecino, 5.6; Loder, 5.7; Reber, 5.8; Chaudhary, 5.9; Kuheil and Bilbrough, 5.10; Hornby Scholars, 12.1; immigrants and refugees: Painter-Farrell, 2.1; Ferreira and Veras, 2.2; Ibrahim 2.3; Hornby Scholars, 12.1 TP (Teaching practice): Khaddi, 7.4 Thinking skills: de Chazal, 1.2; Farag, 3.2; Khafagi, 3.8; Scott-Monkhouse, 4.2; Setterfield, 5.2; Ashley, 6.5; Laubacher, 6.9 Translanguaging: García, 1.1; Manea Gultekin, 3.5 Translation: Loreto Sampaio, 4.4; PrewettSchrempf and Slattery, 6.4 Tutoring: Pearson, 7.3; Douglas, 7.6 UBD (Understanding by Design): Kassimova, 6.12 UDL (Universal Design for Learning): Harder, 10.6 UN SDGs (UN Sustainable Development Goals): Scott-Monkhouse, 4.2; Setterfield, 5.2; Skeet, 12.3 Videoconferencing: Barrantes Elizondo, 1.4 Vocabulary: Lynch 11.2 Volunteering: Rosenberg, 8.6; Moses, 8.7 Wellbeing: Pearson, 7.3; Madhavan, 9.1 Workplace English: Frendo, 4.1; Koifman, 10.7

225

226

227

228

229

Conference Selections is IATEFL’s quality, peer-reviewed publication containing a wide selection of articles representing the main threads discussed at the Annual Conference.

Conference Selections helps us fulfil our mission of linking, developing and supporting English language teaching professionals worldwide.

The 56th IATEFL International Annual Conference, Exhibition and Careers Fair was held in Harrogate, UK in April 2023.

www.iatefl.org

info@iatefl.org

International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language

Linking, developing and supporting ELT professionals worldwide

ebook and print versions available

ISBN PRINTED: 978-1-912588-48-0 DIGITAL: 978-1-912588-49-7 230