Dissertation - Christian Maurice Dan-Cuthbert

Identity in Architecture

Christian Maurice Dan-Cuthbert

Bachelor of Interior Architecture Final Year Dissertation 2019

THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Built Environment

Individual Plagiarism Declaration

Student Number

z5120258 Course ID

2411 Session & Year

Family Name

Other Names

DAN-CUTHBERT

CHRISTIAN

Course Name

DISSERTATION Title of the Assessment Task to which this Declaration applies

SESSION 1, YEAR 4

IDENTITY IN ARCHITECTURE DISSERTATION

Lecturer

DR SING D’ARCY

I declare that: •

this assessment item is my own work, except where acknowledged, and has not been submitted for academic credit elsewhere;

•

all reasonable care has been taken to ensure that no other person has been able to copy this work either in paper or electronic form.

I acknowledge that the assessor of this item may, for the purpose of assessing this item: •

reproduce this assessment item and provide a copy to another member of the University; and/or,

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communicate a copy of this assessment item to a plagiarism checking service (which may then retain a copy of the assessment item on its database for the purpose of future plagiarism checking).

I certify that I have read and understood the University rules in respect of Student Academic Misconduct.

10/5/19 Signature

Date

Plagiarism is the use another's work pretending that it is your own. More specifically, in an educational context, plagiarism is endeavouring to obtain academic credit in a course of study for work that is either not individually prepared by you or prepared by you, but for some other purpose, whether paid or unpaid. The following web sites expand more fully on the nature and consequences of plagiarism and must be read prior to submitting this declaration. http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/plag.html http://www.be.unsw.edu.au/student-intranet/assignments-and-plagiarism/

INTA2411 Dissertation, 2019 15

Abstract The relationship between architecture and an individual or collective identity in turn influences the image of the architecture and the place. This image can be formed through either the structural elements of the architecture itself, or through direct human influence over the architecture, with the effect of shaping identity. This notion of identity in architecture is explored with ‘critical regionalism’ used as the basis for discussion and comparison - ‘critical regionalism’ was formulated in the 1800s and has, for many years, been the primary architectural theory on identity in architecture.

Historical and current theories developed to explain, and views on, the relationship between architecture and identity from a range of cultural standpoints are introduced. Alexander Tzonis, Liane Lefaivre, and Kenneth Frampton’s theory of ‘critical regionalism’ and the concept of ‘genius loci’ or ‘spirit of a place’ are central to the idea of identity in architecture. Other architects subsequent views and ideas are compared and contrasted to critical regionalism, with particular reference to the views of Herrle and Schmitz.

Three case studies from Japan, Iran and Australia are used to describe, analyse and illustrate visual representations of how architectural designs have been implemented in practice, with reference in particular to critical regionalism and the perceived success or otherwise of the designs.

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Acknowledgements I would like to thank Dr Bella Dunstan for her constant support and guidance in my architectural writing and theory.

To Dr Sing d’Arcy for his commitment and enthusiasm towards academia and encouragement to push the boundaries of the expected.

And to my family and fellow dissertation piers who have shown support and constructive criticism during this process.

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List of Illustrations Alireza. (2019). Mihrab. [Image] Available at: < https://foursquare.com/v/alghadirmosque-%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%AF%DB %8C%D8%B1/524d6740498edf277578848a/photos > [Accessed 12 May 2019].

Khademian, M. (2019). Dodecahedron Mosque. [Image] Available at: https://archnet.org/sites/711/media_contents/15915 [Accessed 12 May 2019].

Khademian, M. (2019). Kufic Scripture. [Image] Available at: https://archnet.org/sites/711/media_contents/15915 [Accessed 12 May 2019].

Nacasa and Partners. (2014). Capsule hotel bathroom. [Image]. Available at: https://www.archilovers.com/projects/186421/9-hours.html [Accessed 12 May 2019].

Nacasa and Partners. (2014). Capsule hotel exterior. [Image]. Available at: https://www.archilovers.com/projects/186421/9-hours.html [Accessed 12 May 2019].

Nacasa and Partners. (2014). Capsule hotel room. [Image]. Available at: https://www.archilovers.com/projects/186421/9-hours.html [Accessed 12 May 2019].

Nacasa and Partners. (2014). Capsule hotels stacked capsules. [Image]. Available at: https://www.archilovers.com/projects/186421/9-hours.html [Accessed 12 May 2019].

Uluru tours. (2012). Uluru Kata-Tjuta Cultural Centre. [Image] Available at: https://parksaustralia.gov.au/uluru/do/cultural-centre/building/ [Accessed 12 May 2019].

Uluru tours. (2012). Uluru Kata-Tjuta Cultural Centre site map. [Image] Available at: https://parksaustralia.gov.au/uluru/do/cultural-centre/building/ [Accessed 12 May 2019].

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Uluru tours. (2012). Viewing Platform. [Image] Available at: https://parksaustralia.gov.au/uluru/do/cultural-centre/building/ [Accessed 12 May 2019].

Uluru tours. (2012). : Viewing platform panels. [Image] Available at: https://parksaustralia.gov.au/uluru/do/cultural-centre/building/ [Accessed 12 May 2019].

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Contents

Introduction

– Page VI

Chapter One

– Page VIII

Chapter Two

– Page XVI

Chapter Three

– Page XXI

Conclusion

– Page XXXVIII

References

– Page XXXIX

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Introduction

The influence of identity in architecture and the use of architecture as a medium to reaffirm the identity of a particular region, nation, culture or religion has been a part of human social fabric for thousands of years. The interplay of identity in architecture is played out through either purpose built architecture or human intervention architecture. The design language of a particular geographical area or place may have an effect on a community’s local, national or cultural identity and is an important element to consider when creating spaces. “Melucci observes, all identities require the reciprocal recognition of others, they involve permanence and unity of a subject or of an object through time” (Guibernau, 2013, p. 16). Identity could thus be defined as a “reflexive capacity for producing consciousness of action (that is, a symbolic representation of it) beyond any specific contents” (Guibernau, 2013, p. 15).

This dissertation will discuss the concept of identity in architecture through understanding the views and perspectives on identity and identity in architecture.

These views will be analysed to show how architecture, culture and identity are inextricably linked with each having an effect on the other. The use of architecture to better understand the identity of a culture or region will be examined using three case studies: Japan’s capsule hotels; Tehran’s Al-Ghadir Mosque; and Australia’s Uluru Kata-Tjuta Cultural Centre, so as to establish a visual understanding of design implementation in practice.

The first chapter will consider the broader views on identity and identity in architecture to provide an expansive discourse of the elements that encompass the theoretical perspectives on these concept of identity in architecture. By introducing various perspectives on identity in architecture, key theories are identified. The concept of ‘critical regionalism’ by Alexander Tzonis, Liane Lefaivre, and Kenneth Frampton; identity as the set of characteristics by which a thing is recognizable by Ashraf Salama; and, the suppression of history and tradition in the design of modern buildings by Herrle and Schmitz are three ideas that will be introduced. The three case studies in Chapter Three will use ‘critical regionalism’ as a reference point for the concept of identity.

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The second chapter traverses the theory of identity in architecture, distilling the views from chapter one to focus on leading voices on the topic. This chapter makes particular reference to Alexander Tzonis, Liane Lefaivre, and Kenneth Frampton’s theory of ‘critical regionalism’ formulated and published in the book The Grid and the Pathway in 1981. Botz-Bornstein explains how “‘Critical regionalism’ emphasises the importance of ‘placeness’ by considering contextual elements like scenery, historical evidences and light, without falling into imitation and traditionalism” (2017, p. 1). The concept of ‘Critical regionalism’ has formed the basis for subsequent writing and ideas in relation to identity and architecture. The concept of ‘critical regionalism’ will be considered in more depth together with views that align and contrast with this concept.

The third chapter takes account of the ideas drawn from the concept of ‘critical regionalism’ with a focus on identity to better understand the relationship between identity and architecture. The chapter discusses the architecture of three case studies: Japan’s capsule hotels; Tehran’s Al-Ghadir Mosque; and Australia’s Uluru Kata-Tjuta Cultural Centre. These case studies have been chosen to provide three modern and culturally diverse perspectives to establish and illustrate the extent identity in Architecture affects or represents societies. This chapter also explores third party intervention and the, at times variable, results for identity and culture.

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Chapter One

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The predominant theory about identity in architecture is ‘critical regionalism’, which was postulated in the early 1980s by Alexander Tzonis, Liane Lefaivre, and Kenneth Frampton. ‘Critical regionalism’ is defined as “an architecture that can neither be branded as internationalism or as a folkloric or historical concept of region and architecture” (Herrle, 2009, p. 23). Herrle summarises Tzonis, Lefaivre and Frampton’s views and stance on ‘regionalism’ as a “reference to a place in architecture [or] ‘genius loci’ (Herrle, 2009, p. 23), which was in response to culturally specific building techniques and crafts being lost because of the rise of industrialisation (which in turn gave rise to modernism). King defines internationalism as architecture that “must imply something that is present in and/or appropriate to all nations, irrespective of culture, level of economic development or geographical location” (2016, p. 107). Internationalism architecture is similar to that of Modernist architecture, which was believed by Tzonis, Lefaivre, and Frampton to be an architectural movement that dilutes an architecture’s impact on the user and their biological response, which, in turn, shapes how the user identifies with the architecture. The concept of critical regionalism catalysed an ‘identity in architecture’ debate.

Chris Abel stresses the importance of identity in architecture: “‘architecture as identity’ rivals that of ‘architecture as space’ and ‘architecture as language’ as one of the principal metaphors and themes in architectural discourse” (Abel, 2000, p.

23). Norberg Schulz summarises this perspective on the impact of architectural design on people’s identity: “Places have character, that is, attributes which distinguish one place from another, and which lend to a place its unique presence or genius loci.” (Abel, 2000, p. 130). The “presence” and “character” of a place imply that the architecture is living, having human-like qualities that people can relate to and form an identity around. Ashraf Salama, an Arabic architect, agrees with this observational analysis of identity in architecture, arguing: “permanence, recognition, and distinction determine the presence of identity” (Salama and Wiedmann, 2013, p. 139) as “identity can be understood as the collective aspect of the set of characteristics by which an object or the built environment are definitively recognisable.” (Emmons, Hendrix and Lomholt, 2012, p. 177). This means the use of a particular architectural design language allows the people dwelling in a space to identify with the geographical location. ‘Critical regionalism’ however suggests that, although a particular building may be recognisable through its architectural gestures, it should also convey an identity for its inhabitants.

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Turner references how the use of particular building method may create a specific aesthetic that allows for this expression of identity. “Self-built housing … provides opportunities for those expressions of personal identity.” (Abel, 2000, p. 130).

Robert Maguire and Keith Murry suggest how the “cultural role of architecture” must “foster and represent the life within; further the cultural work of architecture; and be expedient and useful to the clients and users.” (Emmons, Hendrix and Lomholt, 2012, p. 149). Representing the dwellers within the architecture resonates with Turner’s perspective of how the inhabitant’s culture, and even possibly their personality, should be represented and expressed through the architecture. This connection between the user and the architecture is necessary as otherwise the user is unable to comprehend the architecture which would then contradict their identity.

Nikolaos-Ion Terzoglou notes that there is a duality between architecture and what it has to achieve: “architecture has to deal with materials and structural technology, in order to build a solid system in space intending to serve human needs. On the other hand, this functional-material-structural order must express immaterial ideas and symbolic meanings, so as to communicate intellectual superstructure, social values, cultural identities and ethnic worldviews” (Emmons, Hendrix and Lomholt, 2012, p.

167). Terzoglou argues that the structural form must respond to the building’s function whilst it must also humanise the building by encapsulating the user’s individual and world values through symbolic representation. These architectural views that the structural form of the building impacts the building’s function clearly align with modernism as ‘form dictates function’ is a design principle of the modernist movement, but, at the same time, recognises that the design language of a building influences the identity of the local and broader community in line with ‘critical regionalism’.

Dagmar Motycka Weston corroborates these views believing that architecture is only successful if it achieves a positive cultural response: “significant architecture has always been the deep expression of a physical and cultural context, providing a living setting for human activities, and durable embodiment for cultural meaning.”

(Emmons, Hendrix and Lomholt, 2012, p. 5). This idea of architecture as a tool for expression has been evident throughout history, with Cicero, a Roman philosopher, supporting this notion, simply stating “‘cultura animi’”, which means to ‘cultivate the soul’ (Emmons, Hendrix and Lomholt, 2012, p. 168). This conveys how architecture

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can be an expression of one’s self, through a physical, emotional and psychological connection to heritage. This bond between heritage and shared cultural values and architecture allows for a design aesthetic to be understood and therefore accepted by both the local and broader community. Correa, an Indian Architect, agrees with Cicero’s philosophical values that architecture should animate people’s soul to be truly connected with and understood. Correa states: “it is natural, a spontaneous process that reflects the spirit of the time and of the place” (Emmons, Hendrix and Lomholt, 2012, p. 177). Here, “spirit” is referencing the inhabitant’s culture being projected onto the built environment to create and strengthen the connection to their immediate, external environment. This connection aligns with ‘critical regionalism’ as both propose the necessity of a personal or cultural bond to the architecture to psychologically allow one to identify with the ethos behind the structure.

Other architectural writers have commented on the discourse between architecture, humans and identity, positing that it is not simply where the structures are placed within an area. Instead, there is a deeper, more complex layer of understanding and relationship between the built form, and the function of the built form. Schulz considers “the relation of man to place is more than simply a matter of being able to orientate oneself to one’s surroundings” (Abel, 2000, p. 130). Weston disagrees with Schulz, suggesting that the ability to orientate oneself within the built form through the use of nodes, landmarks, paths allow for a community that is more connected: “The medieval civic square or cathedral … supplied existential orientation to the community. It enabled the town’s inhabitants to” (Emmons, Hendrix and Lomholt, 2012, p. 5) easily understand and dwell in their world through a shared ethos. This ethos aligns with Kevin Lynch’s views of ‘cognitive mapping for cities’. Cognitive mapping is the use of nodes, landmarks, paths, grid layout, and other features of the built environment that allow a person to orientate themselves within a city or town. These are the fundamentals by which cities are constructed today. Lynch explains: “The significance now attached to the concept of place identity as the interrelation of cognitive processes, social activity and formal attributes is one of the more important results of this research” (Abel, 2000, p. 130) in support of cognitive mapping. These architectural features allow citizens to comprehend and therefore identify with a particular area. The particular aesthetic of these architectural gestures may also form a mental association to that particular area. But, Schultz seems more correct in concluding that a technique such as

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cognitive mapping, whilst it may mean individuals identify with a location, is not the same as the architecture either creating or reflecting the identity of the community.

Another perspective, through critique and observation, dissects modern design and architecture to surmise that modern restoration has digressed, shifting architectural design into a realm where the human experience is not effectively accounted for. As a result, spaces do not encapsulate the necessary elements of a space from which social and national identity can grow. This perspective responds to the idea of ‘critical regionalism’ in suggesting that, for example, heritage restorative design has stopped due to the rise of modernism and contemporary architecture. A leading voice who shares these views is Salama. Salama writes: “the contemporary architectural scene conveys that we still seem to be at odds with the issue of identity” (Emmons, Hendrix and Lomholt, 2012, p. 177) when expressing her thoughts on the duality of Arabic views on identity in architecture. Further, “some voices pose the question of the necessity to refer to cultural or religious symbolism in architecture to reflect a specific identity. Others argue “Arab architecture should embody the collective aspirations of societies in this region” (Emmons, Hendrix and Lomholt, 2012, p. 177). These views portray a society divided in their desired means of representation. This risks a design language that does not resonate with any particular group within the Islamic community. These opposing values then make it difficult for architectural firms to interpret what is needed to be culturally sensitive. Emmons speaks to this concept concerning the architecture and human experience: “Modern architecture is constricting thinking and therefore our connection to the building that is facilitated through our ‘neuronal emotional exchange’”, meaning “thinking will not stop, but the human quest for happiness will be thwarted” (Emmons, Hendrix and Lomholt, 2012, p. 133). Emmons alludes to the idea that modern architecture has neglected the ‘neuronal emotional exchange’, meaning the inhabitants are not undergoing a holistic experience that mentally, physically and emotionally binds them to the space through their interactions.

Instead, Emmons suggests current spaces are dull, lifeless and uninspiring. Alberti comments “anyone who happens to build nowadays draws his inspiration from inept, modern nonsense, rather than proven and much commended methods” (Hollis, 2011, p. 220). In line with Emmons views, Alberti is essentially arguing that modern trends have diluted the architectural design and construction methodology so that they are not inspired and lead by past experience, but instead undergo modern ways of thinking. The design created from this new way of thinking arguably

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narrows the scope of intelligent design, creating a space that does not mentally stimulate people enough to allow the aesthetic to be adopted or identified with by the community.

Lokko established his perspective on the current state of architectural design in his paper ‘Responsibility’, recalling, “race and architecture: two highly overworked and ill-understood terms” (Armstrong, 1995, p. 21). Lokko’s rationale is that the architectural field lacks diversity: “the maker and users of architecture have historically and traditionally been positioned as white” (Armstrong, 1995, p. 21). This dynamic between the architectural design and the architect who designed the building has created a distorted view of the needs and requirements of the users.

This oversight affects the users on a cultural level as “scant attention has been paid to the racial identity of the makers and users of architecture and what mythical identity of the white, male and ‘universal architect’ has had on the discipline” (Armstrong, 1995, p. 21). Jung agrees, writing how architects use “architectural forms as media of identity construction” (2012, p. 17). The culturally appropriate interpretation of race through the medium of architecture dictates if the architectural aesthetic is adopted by the users who experience the space. As Lokko outlines, the white population has primarily been the architects who unsuccessfully press their cultural interpretation of another culture onto that culture’s newly constructed architecture. Lokko agrees, surmising how “The identity of a building does not, then, reside solely in its design. Nor does it reside solely in the materials of which it has been constructed” (British Journal of Aesthetics Volume 54 2014, 2015, p. 135), instead the identity of a building is partially how the people interacting with the building identify with the building. This notion of culturally insensitive architecture is critical as architecture is a means for people to express their individuality and culture.

Braudel explains the two halves of how identity is established through architecture: the “primary cultural role today should be the spatial and dialectical mediation between ‘culture’ and ‘civilisation’” (Emmons, Hendrix and Lomholt, 2012, p. 168)” to result in a space that will be positively received as a representation of their identity by the public. Braudel defines ‘culture’ and ‘civilisation’ as: “human civilisation has two sides, namely a material and spiritual dimension.” “‘Culture’ assumed the dignity of spiritual concerns … and ‘civilisation’ referred to the triviality of material affairs” (Emmons, Hendrix and Lomholt, 2012, p. 168). Salama identifies

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that it “can be observed that identities are constructed in some cases by various cultural, social and political institutions where decisions makers are imposing key differences” (Emmons, Hendrix and Lomholt, 2012, p. 178), alluding to how these differences in fact signpost the relevant architectural practice and at times do not effectively represent the culture for whom the design is undertaken. Architects and critics discuss the depth of this issue, linking it to the trend of reinvigorating a culture’s heritage buildings. Salama references certain architectural firms’ views on this issue: “They believe that simulating the history in contemporary buildings will help establish a sense of belonging and a strong emotional tie between society, place [and] memory” (Emmons, Hendrix and Lomholt, 2012, p. 178). These views highlight how there can be a disconnect between the physical architecture and the cultural needs which directly affects the local community and the users’ identity in line with ‘critical regionalism’.

Salama, along with other architects, disagree with, for example, simulation as a design intent, believing it is an ineffective means to create identity and remember a culture’s history. Cristina Gonzalez-Longo agrees: “the way in which existing architecture is being reused, conserved and transformed in these projects reflects the culture of its time”, however “The dialectics and attitudes of their architects, builders and patrons are expressed in the relationship of the new architecture with the existing” (Emmons, Hendrix and Lomholt, 2012, p. 75). This expression of the architectural firm’s identity being imposed on the building’s design detracts from the cultural importance of the space which is intended to reflect the relevant culture and their identity, not an architectural firm. Robert Adam corroborates this view explaining how some architecture enhances the “sense of identity” gained from a space, whilst other architecture dilutes this connection as it is “highly identifiable or distinctive” (Adam, 2019, p. 228).

Visone and Carughi agree with Salama and Gonzalez-Longo, believing “nations are resorting to heritage preservation, the re-invention of tradition, and the re-writing of history and forms of self-definition” (Visone and Carughi, 2017, p. 367) to be a metaphor of modern society for the facades designed, which will fail to convey a culture’s history. This then creates an illegitimate image that does not reflect the relevant culture. Gonzalez-Longo provides a solution to this endless cycle of unsympathetic architecture. “In order to abandon the current routine of reusing buildings in a new verses old fashion … [we need to] … look at the project on an

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individual basis â&#x20AC;Ś to move on from so many historic buildings becoming museums, thus losing many of their architectural qualities â&#x20AC;&#x201C; [and therefore their visual culture]â&#x20AC;?

(Emmons, Hendrix and Lomholt, 2012, p. 75). Here, Gonzalez-Longo conveys his belief that when viewed individually buildings could be used in a way that is either reminiscent of or more aligned with their history, so as to not lose their cultural or architectural significance. Culturally relevant design will better display the existing cultural values and identity in socially and culturally acceptable ways.

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Chapter Two

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Chapter One outlined a number of opinions on how architecture affects the identity of a community or culture. A more detailed discussion follows on the views of: Alexander Tzonis, Liane Lefaivre, and Kenneth Frampton, Peter Herrle and Hadas Shadar, and Peter Herrle and Schmitz.

Tzonis and Lefaivre’s concept of ‘regionalism’ or ‘post-regionalism’ is used to describe an effective cohesion of architecture and a community or culture’s identity.

Simply phrased as ‘regionalism’, it is “an approach to design giving priority to the identity of the particular rather than to universal dogmas” (Tzonis and Lefaivre, 2003, p. 10 ). However, more importantly Tzonis and Lefaivre’s addition of ‘post’ to regionalism was to establish a discussion on the more “imperative subject [of] long term longevity” (Tzonis and Lefaivre, 2003, p. 10 ) and to therefore distinguish it from past understanding of regionalism in the context of the refurbishment of heritage architecture that was only “skin deep” (Tzonis and Lefaivre, 2003, p. 10 ).

Tzonis and Lefaivre further extrapolate this idea, creating a dialogue between their desire for identity aware architecture and the ancient Greek aesthetic, explaining how architecture was used to unite the people. In the “context of their politics of control and competition between their polis and their colonies - used architectural elements to represent the identity of a group occupying a piece of land” (Tzonis and Lefaivre, 2003, p. 11 ). Tzonis and Lefaivre believe that architecture and design that is categorised under post-regionalism properly addressed the ‘identity’ element of the design. This is predominantly accomplished through what Tzonis and Lefaivre term as “bottom up” (Tzonis and Lefaivre, 2003, p. 13) which means that the architecture is treated in a holistic and complete manner. This term contrasts “top down” (Tzonis and Lefaivre, 2003, p. 13), which was used to describe the heritage architecture that did not account for all necessary elements of design, for instance, the impact on culture and their identity.

A recurring theme within Tzonis and Lefaivre’s texts is a concept that the environment shapes the design and construction of the building façade, the aesthetic developed impacts the inhabitants and local community. “Climate and physical conditions influence buildings, so they influence human beings” (Tzonis and Lefaivre, 2003, p. 11 ), where certain “conditions generate certain types of

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people” (Tzonis and Lefaivre, 2003, p. 11 ). Tzonis and Lefaivre are conveying the importance of the environmental and cultural context that the architecture must address to be and remain a building that resonates with the culture in which it is situated, by appropriately encompassing the community’s identity.

Frampton addresses a key element of post-regionalism that is modernism.

Frampton outlines how modernism and post-regionalism are still taking place today as we embark on a period of “hyper-consumptive” and “hyper-technological” influences, where “modernism continues with unbated voracity at every conceivable technical and structural level” (Canizaro, 2007, p. 376). Frampton agrees with the importance of post-regionalism extending into modern society, recalling how their relationship with design and architecture has changed as the “romance of discovery and invention has lost its popular appeal” (Stern, 1987, p. 20). Frampton’s point is that there is a lack of creativity and ingenuity applied by architects in practice to create architecture that is both exciting and culturally relevant to a community’s identity and heritage.

Herrle and Hadas Shadar define ‘critical regionalism’ sympathetically.. Herrle describes critical regionalism as “an architecture that can neither be branded as internationalism or as a folkloric or historical concept of region and architecture” (Herrle, 2009, p. 23), whereas, Shadar defines it as “the ability to create a sense of place in our time”. That is, “the ability to integrate global architectural and technological developments into contents emanating from the place” (Lefaivre & Tzonis, 1991, p. 229). These definitions convey the importance of the relationship between place and its spatial characteristics that is inherent to the morphology and typology of the space. This is evident in the reference to “genius loci” (Abel, 2000, p.

130). “In Roman mythology a Genius loci was the protective spirit of a place. In contemporary usage, ‘genius loci’ usually refers to a location's distinctive atmosphere, or a “spirit of place” (Vogler and Vittori, 2006). This “spirit of place” (Vogler and Vittori, 2006) is the architectural characteristic that the users and local community are able to connect and identify with.

Herrle and co-writer Stephanus Schmitz however disagree with Alexander Tzonis, Liane Lefaivre, and Kenneth Frampton’s view that ‘critical regionalism’ is the solution to the fragmented relationship between architecture and its impact on individual and community identity. Herrle and Schmitz state three key beliefs as an

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alternate conclusion to that of ‘critical regionalism’. The first is that “‘critical regionalism’ tends to overlook the historic background of countries” (Herrle and Schmitz, 2009, p. 9) forming the “emergence of independent modern architectures in countries as a result of increasing interaction between modernism and tradition” (Herrle and Schmitz, 2009, p. 9). This perspective contrasts with Salama’s belief that the culture being designed for is often neglected, evident in international architectural firms’ buildings and master planning. This oversight results in the community being unable to identify with these new spaces. Herrle and Schmitz’s second belief is that “the concept tends to be based on a static notion of culture and identity, of modernity and tradition” (Herrle and Schmitz, 2009, p. 9). In contrast, “in modern urban societies identity seems to be in a permanent process of being reinvented and re-defined and thereby merging various internal and external influences” (Herrle and Schmitz, 2009, p. 9). The new adaptation of buildings to form a cultural link and establish identity within a community has been viewed by some architects as a way to shape a new historical timeline that only outlines the positive elements of particular country’s history. Finally, Herrle and Schmitz believe: “In modern urban landscapes localities are rarely congruent with cultural domains and cultural patterns (including those that can be traced in architecture) can hardly be identified with localities and delineated from physical boundaries” (Herrle and Schmitz, 2009, p. 9). Here, Herrle and Schmitz argue that the modern adaptation of the built environment rarely works in conjunction with the existing built environment and the culture of that community because of the changing values and ethos of not only modern architects but also broader modern society. These changing values and ethos will evidently have an impact on the identity of the community that identifies with that architecture and its locality.

Similarly, to Cicero’s belief that identity is inextricably linked to the mind and body of each individual, Herrle considers that “identity depends on a certain level of cohesiveness on commonly shared values and thereby allows a reassurance from the ‘other’ [or] ‘self’” (Herrle, 2008, p. 12). Herrle terms ‘cohesiveness’ as the “degree to which the amalgamation of cultural elements of various origins has led to generally accepted norms and standards” (Herrle, 2008, p. 12). Both humans and animals are born with this sense of place and an understanding of their identity. A strong element of identity is dictated by the ‘self’ and is either enhanced or restricted by the environment, in this case the built environment. Herrle supports the perspective that culture is linked to humans and their souls by referring to: ‘The

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Steppenwolf Paradigm’ (Herrle, 2008, p. 12). ‘The Steppenwolf Paradigm’ outlines the realities of how culture and humans interact as: “Every age, every culture, every custom and tradition has its own character, its own weakness and its own strength” (Herrle, 2008, p. 12) which means “human life is reduced to real suffering only when two ages, two cultures and religions overlap” (Herrle, 2008, p. 12). However, as “a whole generation is caught in this way between two ages” the communities “lose the feeling for itself” (Herrle, 2008, p. 12). The rationale is that a visual disconnect with the new aesthetic, in this case the implementation of new architecture creates an unidentifiable built environment that reflects an inevitable incongruence between the merging of two cultures that form an unconsidered design language. This design language negatively impacts the local and greater communities as the community is unable to identify with the building.

However, Herrle also comments on the successful merging of two cultures in a positive manner, stating how countries have adapted and amalgamated their cultures into a singular aesthetic, evident in the built environment. Herrle provides the example of the architects who interpreted the cultural values of the French and African communities to create “Arabesque” (Herrle, 2008, p. 11) architecture “as the interpretation of the local which in turn was further adapted by local architects and further developed as their own” (Herrle, 2008, p. 11). Herrle is conveying how there can be a cohesion between the aesthetic in architecture where the intricacies of both cultures are taken into account to develop an aesthetic sympathetic to the culturally diverse local community.

However, a combination of cultures differs from a combination of new with old buildings in ‘critical regionalism’ as it references the combination of two cultures’ aesthetics, in comparison to the sympathetic implementation of architecture to reflect a community identity in the built environment (new or repurposed) against the backdrop of modernism, with the goal to create a space or spaces that are culturally sensitive and reflect identity.

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Chapter Three

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The relationship between the geographical environment and architecture and the consequent impact on inhabitants is depicted throughout the span of human existence. The buildings humans design and construct shape the way in which humans interact with both the external environment and one another. The shaping of each region’s or nation’s or culture’s specific design language facilitates a particular means of engagement with the designed element, in this case a building.

This interaction with buildings enables inhabitants to form an identity that corresponds with and relates to that building and the geographical or cultural language. Three examples will be examined to discuss architectural design and identity: Japan’s unique capsule hotels; Tehran’s Al-Ghadir Mosque; and, more local, the Uluru Kata-Tjuta Cultural Centre.

Capsule hotels (as seen in Fig. 1) were originally developed to provide cost effective, short term accommodation situated in key areas of Japan for businessmen, with the first capsule hotel opening in Osaka, Japan in 1977. McNeill describes how capsule hotels “are generally located close to major railway stations, designed to service the needs of the businessman” (2008, p. 389). This particular location is designed to facilitate the businessman’s’ short term needs whilst being away from home for business. The capsule hotels are an effective means of accommodation for the Japanese as they have a culture that is accustomed to smaller footprint living spaces, when compared to European countries and America.

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Fig 1: Capsule hotel exterior, Design Studio S, 2014, Japan, Nacasa and Partners 2016, < https://www.archilovers.com/projects/186421/9-hours.html > [Accessed 12 May 2019].

The ability to remain comfortable in a small space may be due to the Japanese desire to accomplish the most refined and perfected experience in all aspects of their culture. The term ‘Kojinmari’ in the Japanese language may be translated to ‘as snug as a bug in a rug’. There is an old folk tale that describes Japan’s most famous tea maker Sen no Rikyu who made each of his tea houses smaller in the goal of refining the ritual art of tea making to the essence of aesthetics, human relations and the cosmos. Eventually, his tea house was of the perfect dimensions to fit the exact amount number of people he desired present for the ritual. This concept of distilling the design down to its core elements to achieve a refined experience is reflected in the capsule hotels as all design elements have been refined in such a way that only the core parts needed to create the desired experience are incorporated into the design. For example, the hotel room space comprises only a sleeping pod - it has no living room or external facilities other than shared bathrooms.

The cultural context for capsule hotels stems from the delocalization of population and activities in the surrounding areas of metropolitan districts. Overpopulation in

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metropolitan districts resulted in the rapid development of expansive and distant suburbs. These new suburbs resulted in a large number of Japanese citizens having to commute to and from work on a daily basis. This shift in city layout partially acted as the catalyst for capsule hotels -businessmen now frequently required overnight accommodation to minimise daily travel. McNeill states how the capsule hotels were inspired by the peculiarities of Japanese urbanism, characterized by long commutes and little privacy in the home (2008, p. 389).

Limited space due to overpopulation and a rapid increase in density of the metropolitan areas significantly restricted the square meterage available within the city centres. The structure and in particular the ‘stacking’ design was the Japanese solution. The capsule hotels modularity and pre-determined format allowed adaptability within any context, particularly a dense city environment. The repetition of a design element to create an aesthetic is seen in the capsule hotels. (as seen in Fig. 2) The repetitive pattern reflects the placement of the sleeping pods.

Macdonald describes how “The capsules are stacked in layers, rather like bunk beds” (2000, p. 146). The pods are designed to maximise every square meter of the site.

The intelligent and refined design of this format is evident in its multi-functionality: “The modular room shape has no corners (surfaces are curved) to facilitate cleaning. Stripping down the format yet further” (McNeill, 2008, p. 389). This ease of cleaning is necessary due to the large volume of people using these capsules on a daily basis together with the smaller spaces. The smaller format of course critically allows more flexibility as to where the hotel could be located. Macdonald writes how capsule hotels “are located … often in converted building” (2000, p. 146), this is to capitalise on the otherwise unused space within the dense metropolitan district.

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Fig 2: Capsule hotels stacked capsules, Design Studio S, 2014, Japan, Nacasa and Partners 2016, < https://www.archilovers.com/projects/186421/9-hours.html > [Accessed 12 May 2019].

Fig 3: Capsule hotel room. Design Studio S, 2014, Japan, Nacasa and Partners 2016, < https://www.archilovers.com/projects/186421/9-hours.html > [Accessed 12 May 2019].

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The conservation of space is further evident in the minimalistic design of the hotel as the capsule hotels are split into a male and female sections, each with shared bathrooms(as seen in Fig. 3). Both sections are identical. This repetition then flows visually to the repetition of the individual capsules. Inside the capsules are also identical, with each capsule, housing a bed, charging point for electronics, TV and lighting. More amenities are unnecessary, and the capsules were designed to only include the necessary elements for the guests (as seen in Fig. 4).

Fig 4: Capsule hotel bathroom, Design Studio S, 2014, Japan, Nacasa and Partners 2016, < https://www.archilovers.com/projects/186421/9-hours.html > [Accessed 12 May 2019].

The capsule hotels have a strong ethos which is inextricably linked to Japanese culture and their concept of Kojinmari, comprising the refinement of an activity or thing to designed core elements. The capsule hotels also reflect the historical, socio-economic context, with the rapid increase in metropolitan population density and long, suburban commutes undoubtedly influencing the development and design of capsule hotels. This intelligent design to extract a refined or core experience from limited space anticipates but also subverts contemporary thinking about the design of a high-density, minimum room-space urban hotel (Macdonald , 2000, p. 146)

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The minimalist capsules respond to ‘critical regionalism’ as the architecture clearly has a strong connection to Japanese culture and ideas but does not conform to the modernist regime. The ingenious design shows an adaptability of the designer and the architects, but in a way which is sympathetic to and identifiable with Japanese society.

Muslims are strongly connected to their Arab and Islamic culture and civilization.

This connection is evident in Islamic architecture with the architecture inextricably linked to their religion, Islam. In this context, Islam can require having to follow strict guidelines and spatial arrangements that dictate the movements and actions of inhabitants. Spaces also have ornate ornaments and are focused around the inclusion of particular rooms and spaces. These rigorous spatial requirements are highlighted in mosques, to allow the inhabitants to undergo the particular routine that is required for their worship.

The strong visual relationship of their religion within the architecture provides a clear connection to the identity of the individual and the broader national or cultural identity. The prominent driving force from Islam in the architecture is evident in the décor, structure and symbology impressed upon the site. These cultural symbols are reinvented as design elements that have become motifs that are incorporated throughout numerous Islamic buildings. This architectural aesthetic underpins Tehran’s Al-Ghadir Mosque. This mosque is the symbiosis of three key concepts that drive architecture in modern society from a cultural standpoint: “traditional Islamic forms with modern materials and contemporary concerns.” (Herrle and Wegerhoff, 2008, p. 438). The balance between these elements is something architects have to traverse in order to implement an historical design in contemporary buildings. In fact, the “Shia Imam Ali Mosque in Hamburg … exhibits stronger parallels to traditional Muslim houses of worship in Iran than the Al-Ghadir mosque in Tehran” (Stegers and Baumann, 2010, p. 51). Modern designed mosques are designed to break away from the traditional layout and structure used.

The Al-Ghadir mosque accomplishes this by expanding the types of functions within the space to incorporate civic spaces with the religious spaces. This modern iteration of the mosque is designed not only to continually engage the inhabitant in a spiritual manner but also to make the experience more engaging and pleasurable.

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The cultural ties and symbology are evident in the mosque, with direct and literal connections to the religious texts and stories that are taught. This is evident in the prayer hall, where the “dodecagonal form is a portentous reference to the number of imams revered in Twelver Shi’ism” (Scheiwiller, 2014, p. 132) (as seen in Fig. 5).

The walls of the entrance also have religious ties, depicting kufic scripture (as seen in Fig. 6). that is engraved directly onto the exterior, brick façade of the prayer hall.

Scheiwiller recalls how this scripture is the primary ornamental element” (2014, p.

132) used to decorate the façade. Within the prayer hall, the use of carved ornamental elements is continued and displayed on the mihrab (the mihrab is the small angular alcove that orientates the worshipers, informing them of the correct direction to face when they pray). The mihrab also displays writing of the families of the prophets and the imams(as seen in Fig. 7). Architecturally, Scheiwiller commends the placement of the mihrab, situated “on an oblique facet of the polygon, while fitting the rest of the complex between the flanking buildings” (Scheiwiller, 2014, p. 133). The polygon on which the mihrab is located is also of significance to Islamic culture and religion as they signify the relationship of God (Allah) and humans. Erzen writes how “The circle symbolizes the perfect form and relates to the heavens and to God, while the square, with its four directions, relates to human existence and to the world. Most Islamic geometric decoration with a polygon and stars is derived from the rotation of the square within the circle.” (2011, p. 130). The use of a polygon and geometric forms resonates with Muslims as these shapes act as motifs through their religious texts.

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Fig 5: Dodecahedron Mosque, unknown, 1979, Teran, Mohammed Khademian, 2019 < https://archnet.org/sites/711/media_c ontents/15915 > [Accessed 12 May 2019].

Fig 6: Kufic Scripture, unknown, 1979, Teran, Mohammed Khademian, 2019 < https://archnet.org/sites/711/media_contents/15915 > [Accessed 12 May 2019].

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Fig 7: Mihrab, unknown, 1979, Teran, Alireza 2019 < https://foursquare.com/v/alghadirmosque--%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1/524d6740498edf277578848a/ photos > [Accessed 12 May 2019].

The aesthetics of a mosque (and other public Islamic architecture) is grounded in the Islamic faith, where every element of the design, be it scripture, symbols or the structural architecture has either a meaning or a purpose that contributes to the overall design aesthetic whilst at the same time resonating with Islamic scripture.

This connection between the architecture and Islam conveys the inextricable link to the Islamic culture and its identity.

Modern mosques, such as the Al-Ghadir Mosque, are more aligned with the idea of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;critical regionalistâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; architecture, as, although they are modern buildings that use modern building techniques, the use of culturally sensitive materiality and form is implemented in a way that the building can be part of the socio-cultural fabric and reflect the identity of the worshipers and other visitors.

Identity is manifested in a variety of ways, dependent on the audience, location or culture. The way in which the design is reflected and received dictates the type of

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identity that is established. For instance, national or cultural identity (represented in the above examples), local identity, geographic identity and perhaps even corporate identity.

The Uluru Kata-Tjuta Cultural Centre in Australia (as seen in Fig. 8) aims to create both local and national identity. Local, as it is a community centre, and national as the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples are the indigenous and traditional land owners of Australia.

The Uluru Kata-Tjuta Cultural Centre has been built with a strong precedence on connection to the land (as seen in Fig. 9) and minimal impact to the area. This decision aligns with the aboriginal belief that the spirits formed the land in a particular way resulting in the physical environment with features such as mountains and rivers. The origin of these geographical features are conveyed through the storytelling of the elder generation. This respect for the land is evident in the designed concrete-stabilised earth from the site that is used to subtlety define the paths between and around the building, whilst blurring the boundaries between the interior and exterior environment. Findely supports this analysis indicating: â&#x20AC;&#x153;this seamless walking surface makes whether one is under cover or not less defining of inside/outside.â&#x20AC;? (Findley, 2006, p. 200) and this technique is used to blend the building into the surrounding environment as a means to pay homage and respect to the land.

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Fig 8: Uluru Kata-Tjuta Cultural Centre, Gregory Burgess, 1990, Australian Dessert, Mutitjulu Community, 2012 < https://parksaustralia.gov.au/uluru/do/culturalcentre/building/ > [Accessed 12 May 2019].

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Uluru Kata-Tjuta Centre map, Gregory 1990, AFig key9:element consideredCultural necessary for site the construction ofBurgess, the site was to Australian Dessert, Mutitjulu Community, 2012 < https://parksaustralia.gov.au/uluru/do/culturaleffectively insulate and aerate the space which is situated in a hostile environment. centre/building/ > [Accessed 12 May 2019].

This was accomplished with the use of local earth to cover many of the exterior walls, a low-lying building height with shaded porches and selective openings to both maximise air flow and create shaded and cooler areas for interaction.

However, many of the key, six spaces are in the open, with each area designed to tell a story of its own. “Each of the six visitor locations offers interpretations of different components of the Indigenous landscape the visitor has entered” write Clarke and Waterton (2015, p. 978). A key exterior space is the primary viewing platform (as seen in Fig. 10) to witness sunrises and sunsets. This space is partially designed by panels that line the horizon. These panels incorporate engraved script as an architectural feature that conveys a message of reflection, “We invite you to continue your journey with your heart and mind open to experience this place both ways” (as seen in Fig. 11). This message conveys the Aboriginal belief that to completely connect and understand the land one must engage both analytically and emotionally (Clarke and Waterton, 2015, p. 981). “This message is repeated on all ten signs that are lined up like soldiers along the Sunset Viewing Area car park” (Clarke and Waterton, 2015, p. 981).

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Fig 10: Viewing platform, Gregory Burgess, 1990, Australian Dessert, Uluru tours, 2010 < https://www.everythingaustralia.com/uluru-sunrise-half-day-tour-uluru-ayers-rock-1228/ > [Accessed 12 May 2019].

Fig 11: Viewing platform panels, Gregory Burgess, 1990, Australian Dessert, Uluru tours, 2010 < https://www.everythingaustralia.com/uluru-sunrise-half-day-tour-uluru-ayers-rock1228/ > [Accessed 12 May 2019].

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Dovey describes the duality of the effectiveness of the cultural centre from the perspective of Anangu elders and other members of the local community.

Perspectives are divided - some feel as though the architectural “form of the building and the manner in which the Tjukurpa stories (law) have been represented” (Dovey, 2002, p. 360) have been accomplished effectively to accurately convey the aboriginal culture; others in the community are of the belief that the project did not fulfil its purpose to create a space that will provide cultural exchange. Dovey writes, “the community design process generated expectations of a space of genuine cultural exchange” (Dovey, 2002, p. 360), with the community believing the project “failed to deliver” (Dovey, 2002, p. 360) and was instead “packaged for the tourist market” (Dovey, 2002, p. 360). This perhaps principally reflects Salama’s comments on the discrepancy of architects’ implementation of symbols into architecture which do not accuracy convey the cultural and religious message of a space.

The Uluru Kata-Tjuta Cultural Centre has been built with the purpose of connecting ‘Europeans’ with the local aboriginal community and to promote a positive identification from the local aboriginal community towards the site. The centre is built upon the premise that the aboriginal peoples share their culture and traditions, and this allows others an insight into the culture of the traditional landowners of Australia.

The spatial organisation of the centre works to create an experience people can identify with and is aligned with Cicero’s concept of “‘cultura animi’” (Emmons, Hendrix and Lomholt, 2012, p. 168) as the space allows the visitor to connect and identify with the space and be provided with insights into the aboriginal culture, albeit perhaps superficially. However, the ‘test’ set by ‘critical regionalisation’ may not be met given the local community feedback on the lack of success of the design and their identity to the centre and it’s purpose – perhaps a goal of ‘connecting’ with short term tourist visitors in a cultural centre was too high.

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Conclusion and Bibliography

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Conclusion Through this dissertation the relationship of identity and architecture has been explored. It is considered that identity and architecture are inextricably linked, both influencing each other. The result of this influence is how a local, national or cultural community identifies with the architecture. The extent to which these communities identify with the architecture then determines whether the aesthetics of the design and building have been effectively implemented to respond to these communities and their identity.

The relationship of how identity and architecture affect each other is traversed through the views and perceptions of key writers in the field of architectural identity.

These key writers have both journalistic and architectural backgrounds and include Alexander Tzonis, Liane Lefaivre, Kenneth Frampton, Ashraf Salama, Peter Herrle and Stephanus Schmitz. Tzonis, Lefaivre and Frampton’s theory of ‘critical regionalism’ is used as the leading view of identity in relation to architecture as it has been most widely accepted since being published in The Grid and the Pathway in 1981. The theory of ‘critical regionalism’ is used to provide a point of comparison to the other views. In doing so, the role of identity in the modern socio-cultural environment is established.

A number of perspectives on identity and the theory of how architecture and identity influence each other is explored. The architectural theory of ‘critical regionalism’ proposed by Tzonis, Lefaive and is defined by reference to the 'spirit of a place'. Writers generally agree that architectural identity is important, if not essential, and agree broadly with the concept of ‘critical regionalism’ and the view that modernism has diluted the connection between architecture and culture, due to industrialisation and the movement away from the craftmanship aspect of architecture.

These writers however have different views on the focus of identity: Salarma talks about 'the collective aspect of the set of characteristics by which the built environment are definitively recognisable’; Turner considers that architecture should show the inhabitant’s culture, and possibly even their personality; Terzoglou argues that the structural form must not only respond to the building’s function but also humanise the building by encapsulating the user’s individual and world values through symbolic representation. Weston sums up the message behind these views

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that identity and architecture are interwoven, but the architecture is only successful if it achieves a positive cultural response.

Braudel explains how identity is established through architecture by reference to both a ‘material and spiritual dimension’. But, many consider that architectural design often fails to establish the appropriate identity. Salama questions whether communities always agree on the appropriate design language for that community and both Salama and Lokko consider that often too much of the identity of the architect is imposed on the design.

Tzonis, Lefaivre and Frampton extended their theory of ‘critical regionalism’ to 'postregionalism' and the need to take a 'bottom up' approach to design which takes account of all the necessary elements of design including the environment to reflect a community's identity. Herrle and Schmitz disagree with ‘critical regionalism’, considering it simplistic and ignoring the realities of changing culture and society, changing architectural norms and both the globalization and dispersal of communities.

The views evident in architecture today on identity and architecture are analysed and shown through the visual analysis of three case studies of: capsule hotels in Japan; Tehran’s Al-Ghadir Mosque; and the Uluru Kata-Tjuta Cultural Centre.

These case studies all relate or respond to ‘critical regionalism’ in different ways.

The case studies convey the potential for disjointed or a wrong understanding the architects designing a building may have about the culture for whom the design is created. These case studies also demonstrate the varying success architectural designs achieve in realising community or cultural identity.

To conclude, architecture and identity are linked, influencing each other. This influence has a ripple effect as it, in turn, affects how a place is perceived.

Guibernau’s definition of identity is that the: “Reflexive capacity for producing consciousness of action (that is, a symbolic representation of it) beyond any specific contents” (2013, p. 15). The architecture must create consciousness to allow people to identify with the space. Architects agree on the importance of identity. However, architects and communities often disagree not only on the extent to which identity relies on traditional, cultural or modern influences in architectural design but equally on the success of individual designs.

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