HSA Board of Directors
Amy R. Schiavone President
Linda Lange Vice President
Maryann Readal Secretary
Gladys McKinney Treasurer
Gayle Engels Botany & Horticulture Chair
Betsy Smith Education Chair
Open Development Chair
Casey King Membership Chair
Rie Sluder Nominating and Awards Chair Past President
Chrissy Moore Honorary President
Membership Delegates
Jackie Johnson Central District
Pamela Goetsch Great Lakes District
Kim Labash Mid-Atlantic District
Roxanne Varian Northeast District
Bill Varney South Central District
Sharon Hosch Southeast District
Lisa-Marie Maryott West District
Administrative Staff
Laura Lee Martin Executive Director
Cheryl Skibicki Development/ Membership Coordinator
Karen Kennedy Education Coordinator
Amy Dawson Archivist/Librarian
The Herbarist
Debbi Paterno Publication Design, Debbi Paterno Graphic Design
SP Mount Printing Printer
The Herbarist Committee
Maryann Readal Secretary
Lois Sutton, PhD Chair
Jean Berry
Shirley Hercules
Gayle Southerland
Barbara J. Williams
Susan G. Wood
The opinions expressed by contributors are not necessarily those of The Society. Manuscripts, advertisements, comments, and letters to the editor may be sent to:
The Herbarist, The Herb Society of America
9019 Kirtland-Chardon Rd., Kirtland, Ohio 44094 440.256.0514 www.herbsociety.org editorherbarist@gmail.com The Herbarist, No. 86 © The Herb Society of America
It is the policy of The Herb Society of America not to advise or recommend herbs for medicinal or health use. This information is intended for educational purposes only and should not be considered as a recommendation or an endorsement of any particular medical or health treatment. Please consult a health care provider before pursuing any herbal treatments.
uring our recent months of pandemic and civil unrest, Americans returned to the garden in numbers not seen since the Victory Garden era during World War II At that time seed and food shortages led to a new age of self-reliance and sacrifice . Recently, many of us discovered the joys of engaging with nature, growing a garden, and getting our hands in the dirt Needing new outlets to work through the stresses of the world (while still providing dinner), we began turning compost, kneading bread, and building new gardens from the ground up
I had just set up an exhibit for the March 2020 Boston Flower Show when the gravity of the pandemic’s severity hit The show ended abruptly, and I left behind the flowery landscapes to enter a bleaker world . Back at home, I found sorrel and rhubarb, the first signs of my faithful herb garden, pushing up to remind me that there is always hope for the intrepid gardener . Where there’s rhubarb, there’s pie! Sorrel became soup, and soon early violets topped my salads and became syrups and even candied confections that
have brightened my days through all the seasons that followed As months passed, my “quarantinis” (cocktails with a splash of violet syrup) sweetened Zoom gatherings with friends who had been baking herbed focaccia, cooking from the garden, and experimenting with delicious methods of preserving garden botanicals for the seasons ahead
Once our gardens began to yield, many came to understand for the first time just how gratifying it can be to eat the fruits of your own labor at peak ripeness For many of my friends and peers in the world of horticulture, extended time at home and in the garden led to new passions and lucrative cottage industries . One friend began making a line of botanical bitters, another fermented kimchi and sauerkraut, and one buddy became a baker . A married couple found new creativity brewing botanical kombucha and making cheeses with
herbal rennet Some farmer friends created a local farm distribution hub to shift from dwindling restaurant sales to safe home delivery A neighboring beekeeper began growing and foraging flowers to supply the local market, while another began selling botanical cosmetics and cards online I even made forays into the local marketplace with herbal salves and wreaths; the proceeds helped to underwrite house repairs . Success of the local agriculture movement had already helped to set the stage, but during the pandemic, local produce, meat, fish, and beer reminded us just how delicious fresh food can be
Even among those who continued to do their daily work, many discovered the pleasures of things that are homemade and a lifestyle that freed up time to tend a garden, educate a child, spend time in nature, or prepare a meal with love from scratch .
My generation was taught to “binge watch,” shop until we drop, go to a gym for exercise, and not to even bother cooking because frozen food companies did it better But in the process of coping with quarantine, many of us recalled what it means to be engaged happily in the hands-on processes of daily living . We began building wattle garden beds, planting fruit trees, raising chickens, eating seasonally, and even appreciating the difference chicken manure makes in our gardens
When my publisher asked if I would write a book on garden history, I knew it had to be something more than that; the problems of the world seemed too large simply to look backward and recount events of the past . I felt that I needed to use my voice and knowledge of historical context for a greater purpose I’m no Wendell Berry, but as a gardener, my superpower is knowing how to grow good things from dirt . Career and life have taught me that heirloom seeds carry lessons of history, stewardship, diversity, and resilience, so I accepted the writing challenge as a way to teach from the past and help create a more sustainable future
Garden historian Mac Griswold once said, “gardening is the slowest of the performing arts ” The pandemic beckoned me, a slow artist, to write The Heirloom Gardener – Traditional Plants and Skills for the Modern World.
On the surface it may appear that there are few things citizens of this nation agree upon, but I find that a large number of us hunger for meaningful discourse and authentic experiences, nearly as much as we look forward to getting together with friends and loved ones . My answer for this is to celebrate the renaissance that is happening beneath consumer culture radar screens—the return to locally sourced, artisanal food, and sustainable craftsmanship that is moving us to buy local, reminding us why we should care about the air, soil, and water quality where we live and garden .
I began writing to honor that return to the land and our newest forays into farmers markets, online sites, community building, and the real, honest-to-goodness flavor that we cultivate along the way from seed to table . As the pandemic raged on, I observed that some of the most resilient economic survivors were tied to the land—like the agritourism center down the street making elderberry tonics and syrups to bolster immune systems, and my friend’s local grain distillery, which turned production on a dime to provide our community with hand sanitizer . I saw the same resilience among farmers, fishmongers, and butchers They rallied to keep us safe at home and provided foundational alternatives during uncertain times .
There are historical lessons (from both sound and flawed environmental practices) that can help us navigate into a more sustainable future I wanted not to romanticize the past, but to celebrate sound lessons from history I wanted to teach lessons from our ancestors, across cultures and across time, that can reconnect us with the planet and places that nourish us The past offers us a toolkit for making every backyard and kitchen table a vibrant habitat, and a banquet for mind, body, and soul It forces us to rekindle old ways of strengthening community bonds and our reciprocal relationships with the natural world I wanted to write a book that would remind us that transformational change can begin with little seeds and intentions that every one of us is capable of planting
Viewed through a lens of ethnobotany and environmentalism, I chose to use an essay format to offer bite-sized and tasty glimpses into the world of plants and crafts that can enrich our lives To echo heirloom biodiversity, I wanted to create a work suggesting
activities that can directly help foster resilience Describing seasonal artisanal crafts, storied plants, and historic foodways, the essays help to make “home” work a rightful livelihood—and life a celebration I wanted to focus on cottage industries and horticultural wisdom that can help reshape the face of American industry My goal was to present a library of traditional plants and skills that we can preserve by growing and/or bringing them to market . The marketplace can be broadened through agritourism and the internet, enticing many of us to make a living working once again from home, and the land .
For herb enthusiasts, the book explores herbalism which blends horticulture, foodways, folkways, art, and science for the sake of wellness Think about traditional herbs like angelica, beebalm, heartsease, dandelion, elder, kelp, milkweed, nasturtium, rosemary, sage, sorrel, strawberry, and valerian . Crafts such as botanizing, making cordials, distillation, using edible flowers, herbalism, and making herbaria, teas, tonics, and wreaths can partner with our contemporary lifestyles and help bridge generations, communities, and cultural divides
One such storied plant profiled in the book is yarrow . An excerpt from that essay exemplifies the melding of traditional knowledge, personal experiences, and science found throughout the book:
Plants are storytellers that draw us into the natural world, and some of these botanical revelations can be
formative. When I was little, I cut my leg while chasing a dragonfly through a nearby field, and in response, some old Yankee neighbors introduced me to yarrow. They matter-of-factly plucked some yarrow leaves and handed them to me to crush in my fingers and hold against the cut. I was amazed: the bleeding stopped immediately. I’d witnessed magic from the natural world. A veil lifted, and I saw that plants had properties that ran far deeper than fragrance, taste, and beauty. They had deeper, scientific roots—and like people, they had homelands, personalities, names, and ways of expressing themselves. Most importantly, I learned that plants could be my allies…
Modern life can offer an array of technological wonders, but sometimes we must wonder if something meaningful isn’t being lost Are we missing a tangible bond with our natural world, and the deep satisfaction of connecting to the earth that was enjoyed by previous generations? Like opening an old family recipe box, I offer a glimpse into age-old gardening traditions and contemporary success stories from mentors, past and present Who taught you to love gardening? Did he or she teach you how to plant, cook, or preserve healthy herbs?
Sharing stories, like your own, with a generation of kids addicted to technology makes a difference . Studies show that children recognize more than one hundred corporate logos but know fewer than ten animals and plants in their own backyards Whom are you mentoring now? Wouldn’t we all do better to step
away from blue screens and step back out into a green world?
Heirlooms come in many forms, all of which involve a legacy of skill, craft, and memory . They include a cross-stitch sampler, a yellow edged photograph, a sourdough starter, or a seasonal holiday tradition observed across generations Unlike common antiques, heirlooms are artifacts of our life experience that beckon us to preserve them Most come with clues that require our participation—an old jar of bean seeds calling us to plant them, a much-loved quilt in need of mending . When our hands pick up the work, they retrace life skills that, with a stitch in time, can help these timeworn artifacts live on for another generation Heirlooms provide cultural context, common roots, and shared stories that help us to rebuild common ground
Heirloom plants and stewardship make up an undercurrent that runs throughout the book There is a recognition that heirloom plants were grown for flavor, not ease of shipping, and unlike newer varieties, they have proven their sustainability over time In the process of becoming seed stewards, we can also learn to create our own future heirlooms Have no doubt: thousands of preservation efforts like yours and mine all around the world can have a far greater impact than a global seed vault . Planting a garden with heirloom seeds is not only an act of preservation, it’s a living connection to those who have come before us, and a brighter future for those who will inherit what we keep alive Annually, our gardens remind us that with a tiny seed, we can engage a child, we can nourish a family, we can protect our environment Hope for the future can always be found where we plant seeds .
History found embedded in an old rhubarb patch, the remnants of an orchard, or a lichen-covered stone wall helps us read our
surrounding landscapes . Through them, we catch a glimpse of how someone applied craftsmanship and the environmental arts to live in accord with nature As heirloom gardeners rebuilding habitat, we intuitively remember the work our hands were born to do, as a bird follows its migratory path or a newly hatched turtle scrambles to the sea Knowing where we came from gives us firmer footing as we set out on our path forward
Now is the time to build new paths As gardeners we know that it is our responsibility to care for the environment that supports us There is joy and satisfaction in using our herbal roots to do so The environment needs advocates, and every yard affords us habitat . We have the opportunity to provide a helping hand right where we live The bigger the mainstream gets, the more room there is for an undercurrent The stream we restore, the garden we cultivate, or the child we engage all offer a path forward to a more hopeful future .
he unique scent of Persian herbs and spices that emanates from my kitchen cabinet is indescribable . From the sheer number of items, I cannot differentiate the scents without closer inspection . The strong fragrance often reminds me of the delicious dishes my father cooked during my childhood . Though culinary tastes are expanding within the United States, Persian dishes remain unfamiliar to many Americans . I took the opportunity to interview my father, an Iranian native who was a Persian chef in the Washington, D .C . area for more than 20 years, about the traditional herbs and spices he used in some of his most popular dishes .
Zainab Pashaei
For those who want to attempt Persian cooking for themselves, an online search of the dishes my father specifies can provide you with a plethora of recipes from which to choose A few dishes may seem similar or be repeated, but that is because of their importance in Iranian tradition and culture While each dish is unique, regional or personal preference may add further diversity to the time-honored recipes
In addition to their culinary uses, the herbs described have historical medicinal value in Persian culture The 1930’s publication Useful Plants and Drugs of Iran and Iraq (Hooper and Field, 1937) provided the traditional or alternative medicinal practice noted for most of the herbs described For those who are curious about Iranian traditional medicine, the publication is a fascinating resource that serves as a snapshot in history An American anthropologist, Henry Field, from the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, and David Hooper, from the United Kingdom’s Wellcome Historical Medical Museum, were in Iran during King Reza Shah’s reign . They obtained herbarium specimens and documented traditional medicine folklore, which were disappearing with the “rapid advance of westernization” (Hooper and Field, 1937) Those were the priorities for both museums during the expeditions
The herbs are listed by common name with the Iranian name in Farsi script and then in English script So, let’s talk about what herbs Iranians love, what Persian chef, J . Pashaei, has to say about them, and their historical uses in traditional Persian medicine
Saffron/
/Zafran (Crocus sativus L.)
Chef Pashaei says most cooks reserve saffron for food served during celebratory occasions due to the fact it is very expensive and time-consuming to harvest and prepare Each flower produces
only three stigmas The aroma and color are strong, so not much is needed for use in food . Most Iranian saffron comes from the northeast in south Khorasan Kings and rulers in Iran and the neighboring countries used this herb historically in their food as a symbol of status and importance, especially when hosting important guests or celebrating an occasion such as Nowruz (New Year) . Iranians in the United States still use the herb sparingly today because of its high cost You can buy saffron in Middle Eastern grocery stores as well as most other grocers
Culinary Use: Grind the saffron stigmas with a mortar and pestle or a saffron grinder until it becomes a powder You may also grind saffron with a small amount of sugar (1/2 tsp .), which helps it dissolve into liquid or solid food more easily You can gently steep raw saffron (or powdered form) in a minimal amount of water and add to the dish as desired .
Notable Dishes: Zereshk polo ba morgh, saffron rice with barberries and chicken, is a favorite dish often served at celebrations and happy events The colors of the dish—yellow and red—are warm and make a beautiful presentation on the dinner table Gheymeh, which is split pea stew, is another dish that includes saffron The sauce for the stew is tomato-based, and saffron enhances the color and flavor of the stew made with beef or lamb, dried limes, and split peas Gheymeh is typically made during Muharram, a religious month of mourning for Iranian Muslims Since the dish takes a couple of hours to prepare, it is usually cooked in a large quantity and served to others Thinly sliced potato fries are an optional topping for the dish .
Traditional Medicinal Uses: Saffron was a favorite coloring material in medicine and food . It was used as a drug for its stimulant and antispasmodic affects (Hooper and Field, 1937)
Barberries/ زرﺷﮏ /Zereshk (Berberis vulgaris L.)
Chef Pashaei explained that barberries are a tart addition to many Persian dishes . If you eat the berries, the flavor is sour or torsh,ﺗﺮش Iranians love the combination of sweet and sour, so they combine barberries with sugar in cooking or make them into a jam Barberries grow on shrubs in northeast Iran in south Khorasan, the same region where saffron grows Like saffron, barberries are available in Middle Eastern markets . It, too, is often
expensive to purchase .
Culinary Use: Pick through the dried barberries for any impurities or small rocks . Soak them in water and drain after a half hour Rinse thoroughly and add to butter in a pan . On medium/low heat, sauté the barberries with a spoonful of sugar for a very short time—a minute or two—until the mixture begins to bubble . Remove from heat .
Notable Dishes: The most common use of this herb is in zereshk polo ba morgh (see the saffron section above) Another use is in kuku sabzi, like a frittata but with herbs such as cilantro, parsley, and dill The green herbs, called sabzi in Farsi, are baked with scallions or chives and eggs The dish is nutrient-dense, especially when you incorporate fresh herbs rather than dried . Some Iranians cook kuku sabzi with traditional herbs, while Chef Pashaei substitutes these ingredients with spinach and onion, which are more readily available in the U S Kuku sabzi is served at home around the Persian New Year (Nowruz) Although barberries are optional in the dish, the green and red colors contrast nicely for culinary presentation
Traditional Medicinal Uses: Consumption of barberries was a remedy for itchy skin and other dermatological irritations Decoctions of the plant material were useful for general health and creating pleasant smelling breath (Hooper and Field, 1937)
Cardamom/ /Hel (Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton)
Chef Pashaei says that cardamom is the go-to herb for spicing teas served at home It is also an optional ingredient in many dishes and is used to enhance the aroma and flavor of stews like gheymeh mentioned earlier Interestingly, cardamom does not grow in Iran as do saffron and barberries, but the herb is marketed heavily in this tea-drinking nation as a symbol of the culture According to another Iranian native, Abedehalsadat Abdolghafoorian, the herb is popular throughout the country, even as a souvenir in Mashhad, Iran, a pilgrimage city that is located near the border of Turkmenistan and Afghanistan (Pashaei, 2019)
Culinary Use: The cook opens the green seed pods, crushes the seeds, and adds them to the dish Many Iranians flavor their coffee or tea with the open seed pod or crushed seeds .
Notable Dishes: Saffron gives the Persian version of rice pudding, shole zard, its color but its flavor is from cardamom and rose water Cinnamon and thinly sliced almonds garnish this special occasion dessert . The most common use of cardamom is as a flavoring in tea, Iranians’ favorite beverage
Traditional Medicinal Uses: Cardamom was used as a masticatory herb that increased saliva and aided in digestion . It helped freshen the breath In recent years, Iranian scientists from Tehran University of Medical Sciences (Aghasi et al, 2018) conducted experiments to evaluate if cardamom is helpful for those with diabetes in regulating insulin and oxidative stress since cardamom is rich in volatile oils which have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties .
Dill/ ﺷﻮﯾﺪ /Shivid (Anethum graveolens L.)
Dill is native to the Eurasian region and is cultivated across all of Iran It has a unique flavor and often appears in rice to complement fish and lamb meals that Chef Pashaei prepares for his clients Many cooks use a lot of this herb around the New Year because the green color is symbolic of new beginnings and good health . You may purchase dried dill from supermarkets or use it fresh Though cheaper, dried dill loses flavor over time .
Culinary Use: Rinse, chop, and steam in rice dishes . If using dried dill, soak it in water before using You do not need to soak dill in water if the dried dill is being added to a stew or hot liquid
Green cardamom, combined with rosewater, flavor a traditional Persian rice pudding.
Notable Dishes: Sabzi polo, or herb rice, is a common dish that accompanies fish during the New Year celebrations The herb rice dish combines dill with parsley, cilantro, and chives or scallions Another dish, maast-o-khiar, is a yogurt and cucumber dip that utilizes dill and mint . There are many variations of maasto-khiar, and many Iranians simply use their favorite green herbs in the dip in combination with mint, while others make the dip exclusively with mint . The dip is served like an appetizer with bread or rice You may also use the dip on other foods as a condiment, or in a salad . Fresh dill and mint flavors are cool and refreshing, and I enjoy eating maast-o-khiar alongside kashke bademjan, which is an eggplant dip served warm with yogurt whey on top
Traditional Medicinal Uses: Dill was cooked with rice to restore appetite . It offers carminative properties, and Hopper and Field noted that the essential oil was medicinal (Hooper and Field, 1937) . Recent research by the Shaheed Beheshti University of Medical Sciences suggests that an oil-based dill extract may alleviate inflammation (Naseri et al, 2012)
Damask Rose / ﺳﺮخ / Gul-e surkh (Rosa x damascena Herrm.)
This rose, historically grown in Kashan, Iran, is used for commercial production of rose water The flowers, harvested from early May to mid-June, become rose oil and rose water Chef Pashaei uses rose water to flavor many Persian desserts . The dried petals are used for tea or as a garnish in dishes (for example on top of the yogurt appetizer mentioned earlier, maast-o-khiar) Using the flowers to make jam is less common Many Iranians call this rose, gul-e Mohammadi, or Mohammad’s flower Gul, , , is the Farsi word for flower
Culinary Use: Steep the dried rose petals for tea or use as a garnish . Fresh roses are distilled for rose water This product can be purchased at Middle Eastern markets and now in most U S groceries Use the rose water according to the recipe of your dessert dish
Notable Dishes: There are many notable dessert dishes in Persian culture Halva is a traditional funeral dessert . Its sweet and exotic flavor comes from rose water—distilled from fresh roses—and other ingredients such as cardamom and saffron Baklava and shole zard also utilize rose water, but these are more celebratory Zoolbia and bamieh, fried dough balls, with rose water, saffron, and sugar are other delicious sweets Zoolbia and bamieh are sold at Persian bakeries and are eaten by Iranian Muslims as a special treat for fasting in the month of Ramadan
Traditional Medicinal Uses: Rose petals and rose water were used as an astringent, which means it causes cells or tissues to contract and dry, or restricts the secretion of fluids (Hooper and Field, 1937) Mohaddese Mahboubi noted rose water’s varied uses as an antiseptic and antispasmodic as well as a fragrant calming agent for religious ceremonies (Mahboubi et al, 2015)
Fava Beans/ﺑﺎﻗﻼ / Baghali (Vicia faba L.)
Chef Pashaei acknowledges that fava beans have a strong smell and that some prefer lima beans over the Iranian native legume . Fava beans are nutrient dense and complement many meals However, like peanuts, the fava bean is known to cause allergic reactions in some, so caution is important when serving them to guests .
Culinary Use: These beans are steamed and eaten like edamame, although you should remove the beans from the seed pod and peel the skin before they are consumed Boil the peeled beans until thoroughly cooked before adding to rice or other dishes .
Notable Dishes: Baghali polo, or dill rice with fava beans, is the most common dish that utilizes fava beans The dish is served with chicken, lamb, or fish Many Iranians eat the steamed beans as a snack .
Traditional Medicinal Uses: Fava bean shoots were used to awaken people from a drunken stupor Although literature does not elaborate on how a drunk is awakened with the fava bean shoot, I can imagine the strong smell is a factor . The bean was noted as an excellent horse food (Hooper and Field, 1937)
Dried Lime/ ﻟﯿﻤﻮ اﻣﺎﻧﯽ / Limu Amani (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle)
If you ever hear an Iranian refer to dried lemons, Chef Pashaei clarifies that they usually mean limes, because nothing else is readily available in Iran For Iranians, there is no differentiation between “dried lime” and “dried lemon .” Limes are mainly grown in southern Iran in Shiraz, a beautiful city with rich culture
Culinary Use: Pierce a hole in the dried lime and boil in a stew . If you happen to crush the lime, remove the seeds inside or the food will be bitter The dried lime used for cooking is not the seedless Persian lime known to Americans, Citrus ‘Tahiti,’ but Citrus aurantifolia. Lighter-colored limes are better for gheymeh (mentioned above) . Darker colored limes are better for ghormeh sabzi.
Notable Dishes: Ghormeh sabzi, or herb stew, is a nutrientdense dish that is hearty and warm . Some say this is Iran’s national dish It is cooked during all times of the year, and you can find it at almost any Iranian restaurant The sourness from the dried lime enhances the flavor of the herbs used in this dish, which can include parsley, cilantro, fenugreek, leeks, spinach, and scallions For the flavors to infuse with the kidney beans and beef or lamb, ghormeh sabzi requires a couple of hours on the stove, so preparing it for dinner is a labor of love for family or friends Another hearty stew, khoresht karafs, which is celery stew, also utilizes dried limes and herbs It is equally delicious but less popular in Iranian homes and restaurants .
Literature Cited
Dried Limes. Photo credit: Robyn Lee/seriouseats.com
Traditional Medicinal Uses: Useful Plants and Drugs of Iran and Iraq does not note any traditional practices for dried lime (Hooper and Field, 1937) . However, a study from the Isfahan Cardiovascular Research Center evaluated the effects of freshly dried lime peel in animal diets and its ability to slow plaque buildup in arteries (Boshtam et al, 2013)
One important cultural dish for Iranians that was not highlighted above, but is a personal favorite, is fesenjan, a pomegranate and walnut stew with chicken If you like the combination of sweet and sour, give it a try . Iranians consider this a luxury and is popular at weddings
If you have the opportunity to be a guest in a Persian home, please accept the invitation You will enjoy the heartfelt hospitality, delicious food, and fragrant pantry
Medicinal Disclaimer: It is the policy of The Herb Society of America not to advise or recommend herbs for medicinal or health use. This information is intended for educational purposes only and should not be considered as a recommendation or an endorsement of any particular medical or health treatment.
Aghasi, Mohadeseh, et al. 2018. The effects of green cardamom supplementation on blood glucose, lipids profile, oxidative stress, sirtuin-1 and irisin in type 2 diabetic patients: a study protocol for a randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial. BMC complementary and alternative medicine. BioMed Central. Accessed on November 30, 2019. Available from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5772716
Boshtam, Maryam, S. Asgary, J. Moshtaghian, G. Naderi, and N. Jafari-Dinani. Impacts of fresh lime juice and peel on atherosclerosis progression in an animal model. ARYA atherosclerosis. Isfahan Cardiovascular Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, 2013. Accessed on November 30, 2019. Available from http://www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3933061
Hooper, David and Henry Field. 1937. Useful plants and drugs of Iran and Iraq. Chicago: Field Museum Pr. Accessed January 20, 2021. Available at https://www. biodiversitylibrary.org/item/19714#page/3/mode/1up
Mahboubi, Mohaddese. 2015. Rosa damascena a holy ancient herb with novel applications. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine. Accessed on November 30, 2019. Available from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2225411015000954
Naseri, Mohsen, et al. T 2012. The study of anti-inflammatory activity of oil-based dill (Anethum graveolens L.) extract used topically in formalin-induced inflammation male rat paw. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research: IJPR. Accessed on November 30, 2019. Available from www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3813168/
Pashaei, Zainab. 2019. Interview with Abedehalsadat Abdolghafoorian.
Bibliography
Avey, Tori. All About Fava Beans: How to Cook, Soak, Peel and Freeze. Tori Avey: Every Day Inspired by the Past. Accessed November 30, 2019. Available from toriavey.com/how-to/ fava-beans-how-to-cook-soak-peel-freeze
Falkowitz, Max. Spice Hunting: Limu Omani (Dried Limes). Serious Eats: The Destination for Delicious Serious Eats. Accessed November 30, 2019. Available from www. seriouseats.com/2010/10/spice-hunting-iranian-limu-loomi-omani-dried-limes.html
If you want to grow native roses, there is a tangled thicket to wade through first.
The genus Rosa is huge . The Plant List includes 5,370 botanical names that have been attributed to roses over the time since the Latin binomial system was introduced . Currently, 436 species names are accepted (The Plant List) . This does not include all the named cultivars and varieties in the trade and grown in gardens around the world . These add another 20,000, or more .
Many more native species were recognized in the past . Geneticists, taxonomists, and researchers have discovered duplications and have narrowed the number (Bruneau, 2007; Flora of North America, 1993) . There are now just 21 accepted native North American species .
It is especially important to use botanical names when referring to native roses because in several cases separate species have been labeled using the same common name . For example, the names California rose, Virginia rose, Cherokee rose, and woods rose are applied to many different plants . The names prairie rose and pasture rose are perhaps the most over-used, with several species given these common names across many years and locations .
BarbaraThe botanical term for wild rose is species rose, i.e., a rose that occurs naturally, a true wildflower . Species roses have simple flowers with five petals, are often fragrant, and usually bloom once a year in late spring or early summer . Flowers range from white to dark pink They produce colorful hips that last well into winter (University of Illinois Extension)
Naturalized Roses–Wild but not Native
Before discussing roses native to Canada, the United States, and northern Mexico let’s begin with an examination of the many wild roses, some invasive, that have been naturalized for so long that they are often thought native These non-natives arrived here either with early settlers or as root stock of grafted roses where the top growth died and the roots survived
Two of the early introductions are Rosa laevagata Michx (Cherokee rose), introduced in the southeastern United States as early as 1780, and Rosa bracteata J C Wendl (Chicksaw rose), brought here in the 1700s These roses are native to the Far East and arrived here via Europe (Quest-Ritson, 2011)
The major naturalized roses that came here as root stocks and escaped as derelict plants are Rosa multiflora Thunb (wreath rose or seven sisters rose) (Auro, 2002); Rosa canina L (dog rose); and Rosa rugosa Thunb (beach rose) . Actually, dog rose arrived from
Europe through both mechanisms It was brought by early settlers and was a common root stock in the 19th century and in more recent years (USDA NRCS, 20202)
R. canina and R. multiflora are about as invasive as any plant . We need to be careful that these introduced non-natives don’t take over our landscapes
Rosa rugosa Thunb (beach or rough rose) is native to China, Japan, and Korea and was introduced to both Europe and North America . It is now considered invasive in parts of both locales It was first brought here to control beach erosion because it is salt tolerant . Its use as a root stock has allowed it to escape in many other parts of the continent . Three-inch flowers are some of the biggest of any species rose R. rugosa has very fragrant flowers and a long season of bloom, often flowering until frost . Wading further into the thicket requires making the distinction between the problematic R. rugosa species and its many desirable and noninvasive cultivars (USDA NRCS, 20202; Quest-Ritson, 2011)
Rosa rubiginosa L (sweetbrier rose) is native to Europe and western Asia It has naturalized worldwide and is considered invasive in many areas, yet it does have admirable characteristics and is available from many plant nurseries The common name refers to the fact that it is very fragrant . Sweetbrier rose grows best on alkaline soils (Phillips, 1988)
Rosa pendulina L (alpine or mountain rose) is native to the European Alps and in cultivation there since the 1600s . This is a suckering plant, reaching up to six feet, with dark pink flowers The fruit is bottle shaped and hangs downward This accounts for the specific epithet in the botanical name (Phillips, 1988) .
Rosa glauca Pourr (red-leaf rose) is a more desirable, but still non-native plant, with many positive landscape characteristics including round, dark red hips borne in clusters as are the tiny pink flowers It is sometimes grown more for its greyish-purple foliage and red tinged canes than its flowers It is native in higher elevations in southern and central Europe (Phillips, 1988) .
boreal rose, alluding to its growth from the Arctic circle south . Its range extends down the Rocky Mountains as far south as Colorado and New Mexico at higher elevations This demonstrates the Zone 4 (and colder) winter hardiness of R. acicularis. It grows between three and seven feet tall, has deep pink single flowers, and it blooms once in late spring to early summer It is endangered in several New England states .
Rosa blanda Aiton (smooth rose) is a nearly thornless shrub between two and five feet tall . It has pale pink flowers in early summer and a round crown Hips are dark red and globular . It is native in all of Canada (except British Columbia and Yukon Territory), east of the Rockies, and north of a line from Virginia to Nebraska— the northern two thirds of the country R. blanda is threatened or endangered in Maryland and Ohio
Rosa nutkana C Presl (Nootka rose) is named for a Native American tribe of the Pacific Northwest It grows in ponderosa scrub forest from north of San Francisco into British Columbia and Alaska and as far east as Montana and New Mexico . It is found in moist flatland, wet meadows, stream banks, and canyon bottoms It grows up to ten feet tall, often in thickets . Deep pink to magenta flowers are usually single and have a pleasant fragrance . The fruit is bitter
Native Roses By Geographic Areas
North American roses fall into three major groups, the Rocky Mountains forming the major topographical influence on distribution . The mountains were sometimes a barrier resulting in distinct species evolution There are exceptions, as we will see Genetic studies in recent years bear this out (Bruneau, 2007) .
Information on the plants in this section came from the sources listed in the literature citations: Bruneau, Flora of North America, Go Botany, Help Me Find, Ladybird Johnson Wildflower Center, Native Plant Trust, Phillips, and Wild Ones Often information within this article comes from multiple sources making it too cumbersome to list multiple specific sources for each plant within the text . Plant distribution descriptions are from USDA NCRS maps (USDA, 20202)
Species of Northern States, Canada, and Alaska
Rosa acicularis Lindl (prickly or bristly rose) is native to all of Canada, Alaska, the northern tier of states, and the entire circumpolar region . Another common name is
Rosa woodsii Lindl (woods rose or interior rose) is found naturally at 2,500 –11,000 feet where this rose is winter hardy Distribution is at higher elevations from California north to Alaska, eastward in Canada to Ontario, and south from Wisconsin to Texas As the common name implies, R. woodsii does not require full sun, can grow in partly shaded areas, and prefers moist areas Unlike many native roses, it has an inflorescence of up to five flowers rather than single flowers
Species East of the Rockies
Distributed Generally from East to West
Rosa nitida Willd (shining rose), hardy in Zone 4, is native to the Northeastern
United States, north from Ohio and Maryland, and in Canada from Ontario eastward It has medium pink single blooms in June and July, excellent fall foliage color, and cinnamon red canes that are nearly thornless . The shrub is about three feet high and three feet wide . It grows in bogs and swamps
Rosa carolina L . (Carolina rose or pasture rose) is indigenous to the eastern two thirds of the United States and in Ontario eastward in Zones 4 through 8 The shrub grows from three to six feet high with two-inch fragrant pink blossoms appearing once annually in spring or summer Abundant red hips are wider than tall and form a flat oval Typically, it is found in glades, open woods, prairies, and along roads and railroads . It also grows well in wet soils along streams, in swamps, and low areas . It often spreads by suckers to form thickets
Rosa virginiana Mill (Virginia rose), native to the eastern United States and Eastern Canada, occurs along the edges of salt marshes, along roadsides, and in pastures It tolerates clay and prefers a moist situation . It is an outstanding ornamental shrub, according to USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA NRCS, 20201) Its distribution is from Alabama west to Arkansas, north to Newfoundland, and westward to Ontario (Zone 5) The twoinch diameter single pink blooms appear once annually in late spring or early summer . The shrub grows to about seven feet and has purple to red fall color The abundant, round, bright red hips attract birds and small animals
Rosa palustris Marshall (swamp rose) grows from two to seven feet tall with two-inch pink flowers blooming from June to July It is native in the acidic wetlands of the eastern half of the United States and in Canada from Ontario eastward Single pink flowers are borne in clusters as are round red hips . Blooms are very fragrant and generally last six to eight weeks Distinctive large paired downwardly curving spines form at each stem node As with all species of roses, birds eat the hips, thus spreading the seed .
Rosa setigera Michx (climbing rose) is native to the eastern and southern United States It occurs from Texas to Nebraska and eastward in 28 states and in Ontario, Canada It is a facultative wetland plant which means it tolerates wet soil but can also do well in dry locations . It is a woody vine that can climb to twelve feet and can spread and form a hedge because it arches downward and re-roots in the soil . Flowers form in clusters, are two and a half inches across, and consist of five light pink to rosy pink petals from early to mid-summer . Blooms last about a month . The conservation consortium led by the International Center
for Tropical Agriculture monitors the status of just one North American native rose . Rosa arkansana Porter is listed as high priority for conservation in the USA and Canada (International Center for Tropical Agriculture, 2020) .
Rosa arkansana (prairie rose) grows on dry hills and prairies It is native to 21 states in the central United States northward from Texas and into south-central Canada in Zone 4 This rose is threatened and endangered in Ohio (International Center for Tropical Agriculture, 2020) . R. arkansana is exceptionally drought tolerant due to its very deep root system which is in contact with groundwater It gets the common name because it can sprout from the crown after prairie fires . Flowers are single and range from pale pink to red
There are two naturally occurring hybrids in the central portion of the country Rosa xhousei Erlanson (House’s rose) is native to Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, and New York . It is a naturally occurring cross between R. acicularia and R. blanda. Rosa xdulcissima Lunell is a hybrid that occurred naturally between R. blanda x R. woodsii. It is native to five northern states —Iowa, the Dakotas, Wisconsin, and Minnesota—and north of there in Saskatchewan and Manitoba, Canada .
Rosa foliolosa Nutt ex Torr & A Gray (white prairie rose) is a low shrub at one and a half feet, with one and a half inch blooms in May and June . The plant is indigenous to Kansas, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Texas, and Mississippi It grows in sandy oak woods, along fence rows, and railroad tracks in calcareous clay . That means if you have dry, alkaline clay soil in more southern hardiness zones, this might grow well for you . The plant is rhizomatous, has few or no prickles, and bears white blossoms
that may be tinged with pink
Rosa stellata Wooton (desert rose) is native to Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona It is a short shrub, two feet tall with velvety trifoliate deciduous leaves . The large dark pink to purple two and a half inch flowers bloom from June through September It is threatened and endangered It grows in mountain canyons where it receives substantial shade .
Species West of the Rockies
The following section includes plants from Barbara Ertter’s indepth study of native California roses (Ertter, 2001) Some have ranges that extend outside California, but all are indigenous west of the mountains These roses have small ranges, and some are endangered or threatened (USDA NRCS, 20201) . Some west coast nurseries sell plants of a few of them
fruits Our collective image of a rose is of jawbreaker-sized blooms on long stems, cut from plants on perennial life support . Such intensively hybridized roses, as different from their Asian and European wild rose relatives as a Shih Tzu is from a wolf, make peerless bouquets But hybridization robbed them of their fruit, their rampant vigor, and often their fragrance ” (Whitacre, 2018)
Many roses in North American gardens were brought here throughout the last four centuries, numbering among them the hundreds of hybrids and cultivars bred from species found around the world While these plants may fill our gardens, they offer little to the environment . They provide relatively few insect nutrients because pollen and nectar are often in short supply or inaccessible . Manipulated breeding has compromised natural disease resistance, resulting in hybridized garden roses that are chemicaldependent, requiring excessive care often involving powerful toxic pesticides . Gardeners often prune them to establish desired constricted plant shapes and sizes, while native roses have growth habits that provide cover and nesting sites for birds and small animals
We need to resurrect our native roses as the shortcomings of exotics become more apparent . According to an article in National Wildlife Magazine, native rose plants amount to only one to two percent of the rose market This is according to estimates by Henry Conklin, former president of All-America Rose Selections . The article points out that natives make beautiful plantings and provide valuable food sources and protection for wildlife . Native roses provide a full complement of pollen and nectar that attracts birds, bees, and other important pollinators (Mallett, 1999) .
Adding native roses to our gardens requires some effort Most must be raised from seed and don’t transplant well However, since they are not grafted, they will be certain to survive once established, presuming they are grown in conditions similar to their natural habitat (For Wild, 2020) . Native roses require less care in terms of various chemicals, such as fertilizers, pesticides, and artificial irrigation, according to Bruce Stein, senior botanist at The Nature Conservancy (Mallett, 1999) .
The first group contains the thicket forming roses Rosa californica Cham & Schltdl (California wild rose) and Rosa pisocarpa A Gray (cluster rose) Next is a group of roses that are short-growing and rhizomatous species: Rosa bridgesii Cr,p (pygmy rose); Rosa gymnocarpa Nutt (dwarf rose or little woods rose); Rosa pinetorum A .Heller (pine rose); Rosa spithamea S . Watson (ground rose); and Rosa minutifolia Engelm (Baja rose or Ensenada rose)
Why Grow Native Roses
Ben Whitacre has written that “If asked to describe the rose, our national flower, few would answer that it is one of the most indestructible plants in nature . Fewer would describe small, fivepetaled, fragrant flowers, and dense panicles of edible winter
According to Ben Whitacre, native roses can fill almost every landscaping function a gardener could desire because they offer nearly every growth habit imaginable, including dwarfs, climbers, ground covers, and shrubs . They can form living fences and garden borders They grow well in containers because they are extremely tolerant of moisture and drought, heat and cold A container will limit the tendency to spread (Whitacre, 2019) .
To prepare to grow these plants you can use the native habitat descriptions in this article to judge the best species for your local area If descriptions are close to the situation in your garden, you
have a good chance of success If you want to grow natives primarily for their hips, refer to the Ezine article by Rhea Worrell in which she has good descriptions of the hips of each plant I found sources for most of the plants described The following nurseries list at least some of the natives: Fafard Native American Roses, Greenmantle Nursery, High Country Roses, Prairie Nursery, Prairie Moon Nursery, Sheffields’s Seed Company, The Antique Rose Emporium, and Woodbrook Native Plant Nursery Wherever you plan to acquire plants, be sure to assure yourself that plants have not been collected from the wild
Literature Cited
Auro, Patricia. 2002. Columbia University introduced species summary project multiflora rose. Accessed October 15, 2020. Available from: http://www.columbia.edu/itc/cerc/ danoff-burg/invasion_bio/inv_spp_summ/Rosa_multiflora.html
Bruneau, Anne, S. Jolly, J. R. Simon. 2007. Delimiting species boundaries in Rosa Sect. Cinnamomeae (Rosaceae) in eastern North America. Systematic Botany. American Society of Plant Taxonomists: 32(4):818 (abstr.). Accessed October 15, 2020. Available from: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/aspt/sb/2007/00000032/00000004/ art00011
Ertter, Barbara. 2001. Native California roses. Prepared for the Jepson manual: higher plants of California. Accessed February 25, 2021. Available from: ucjeps.berkeley.edu/ ina/roses/roses.html
Flora of North America Editorial Committee, eds. 1993. Flora of North America north of Mexico [Online]. Vol 9 Rosa. New York and Oxford. Accessed October 25, 2020. Available from: nbeta.floranorthamerica.org/w/index.php?search=volume+9+Rosa&title=Special%3ASearch&profile=default&fulltext=1
For Wild. 2020. Why you should choose sustainable landscapes and native plants. Accessed October 21, 2020. Available from: http://for-wild.org/why-choose-sustainablelandscapes-and-native-plants/
Go Botany. Rosa. Framingham MA: Native Plant Trust. Accessed October 20.2020. Available from: gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org/species/rosa
Help me find. Roses. Accessed October 20, 2020. Available from: https://www.helpmefind.com/roses/plants.php
International Center for Tropical Agriculture. Useful plant indicator. Accessed October 26, 2020. Available from: https://ciat.cgiar.org/usefulplants-indicator
Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center. University of Texas at Austin. Accessed October 12, 2020. Available from: https://www.wildflower.org/plants
Mallett, Evan. 1999. To avoid a host of thorny problems, seek out native roses for flower beds. National Wildlife Magazine: Aug 1, 1999. Accessed October 21, 2020. Available from: https://www.nwf.org/Magazines/National-Wildlife/1999/Grow-Native-Roses#:~:text=Many%20native%20rose%20species%2C%20they,sources%20and%20 protection%20for%20wildlife.&text=%E2%80%9CNative%20roses%20are%20better%20because,birds%20and%20other%20important%20pollinators.
Native Plant Trust. Roses in American history. Accessed October 19, 2020. Available from: https://www.cob.org/wp-content/uploads/history-of-roses-in-america.pdf
Phillips, Roger and Martyn Rix. 1988. Roses. Random House: New York. Quest-Ritson, Charles and Brigid Quest-Ritson. 2011. Encyclopedia of roses. DK Publishing: New York.
The Plant List. Rosa. Accessed October 12, 2020. Available from: http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/search?q=Rosa Editor’s note: the entire content of The Plant List has migrated to World Flora, www.worldfloraonline.org.
USDA NRCS. 20201. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture National Resources Conservation Service. Roses of the inland Pacific northwest. Accessed October 21, 2020. Available from: https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_PLANTMATERIALS/publications/wapmctn11818.pdf
USDA NRCS. 20202. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture National Resources Conservation Service. The PLANTS Database. Accessed October 2020. Available from: http://plants.usda.gov
University of Illinois Extension. Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Illinois College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences. 2020. Different kinds of roses: species roses. Accessed October 17, 2020. Available from: https://web.extension.illinois.edu/roses/kinds.cfm
Whitacre, Ben. 2018. Wild roses: history and health benefits. Mother Earth Living: July/August 2018. Topeka, KS: Ogden Publications. Accessed October 24, 2020. Available from: https://www.motherearthliving.com/gardening/plant-profile/wild-rose-history-and-benefits-zm0z18jazols
Whitacre, Ben. 2019. Coming up roses: American native roses. Grit. Topeka, KS: Ogden Publications. Accessed October 24, 2020. Available from: https://www.grit.com/farmand-garden/american-native-roses-zm0z19mjzhoe
Worrell, Rhea. 1999. Rose hips, part II. Ezine: Help Me Find. Herndon, VA: Network Solutions. Accessed October 20, 2020. Available from: https://www.helpmefind.com/ gardening/ezine.php?publicationID=251&js=0
hen I was a kid, the best part of going back to school was getting all new art supplies: crayons, pencils, erasers, paper, and a set of Prang watercolors complete with brush . That was BC (before computers) when we had low-tech materials and used basic techniques . One day the teacher showed us how to make crayon rubbings, and we ran around making rubbings of all kinds of things . My favorite was finding and using leaves .
Gail Selfridge
In that grade school class, however, we learned more than how to make rubbings . We discovered the enjoyment of exploring nature while at the same time creating art And because no one told us we couldn’t make art from nature, we believed that we could It gave me a feeling of what today is called empowerment, and from those humble beginnings, I developed an interest in making scientifically accurate plant drawings that has lasted a lifetime
Leaf Rubbing as Educational Outreach
Based on the positive influence of that childhood experience, as an adult I began to incorporate leaf rubbing into the educational outreach events I conducted At first, I taught 4H leaders and schoolteachers an activity they could use with their students . Eventually the leaf rubbing presentation became a workshop choice at the Master Gardener state conference with representatives from all 105 Kansas counties Throughout these sessions, the participants enjoyed the activity and were enthusiastic about the process They left eager to use it with their students Even though they had heard of leaf rubbing, many of them had never actually done it . I remember thinking that it’s too bad they hadn’t attended my grade school!
I often participated in community events as the Art Director of the Kansas State University Gardens, such as the local garden show where I would set up an area for leaf rubbing The station attracted mostly grade school age children and their parents . The children were enthusiastic about the activity, and the parents, who usually participated as well, often recognized this as an activity that they could easily do at home with readily available and inexpensive materials .
Gardens undertook the development of an Adaptive/Native Plant area . The plan for the new walkway called for imprinting leaves in the concrete as a means of teaching leaf identification to visitors
My part was to create a leaf identification brochure for visitors to use in identifying walkway leaf prints and to create a poster featuring the Adaptive/Native Plant area
The grand opening of the completed Adaptive/Native Plant Garden included tours, refreshments, and activities for visitors
One of the activities was a leaf rubbing station with leaf identification brochures available for visitors to use It was amazing to see the interest both adults and children showed in leaf rubbing and gratifying to note their pleasure in finding leaves in the walkway and identifying them in the brochure
Leaf rubbing opportunities can occur unexpectedly . Because the supplies needed are so readily available, it is possible to take advantage of the moment . While I was Artist-in-Residence at the Huyck Nature Preserve and Scientific Research Station (located in in Rensselaerville, NY), a summer camp for middle and high school age children was in progress . One of the camp counselors saw me as I was doing some rubbings and asked if I would give a demonstration for the staff . We used the science/research area for the presentation Some of the scientists saw what was happening and came over to participate, vowing to take the activity home for their own children to try .
Development of a Program
Artist-in-Residence programs provide artists time away from daily life that includes deadlines, schedules, commitments, and requests from the cat demanding, “Fill my bowl ” This sounds great . It certainly did to me until I was there, semi-alone, experiencing what seemed to this urban kid to be “the wilderness ”
Trees and plants abounded, and because the preserve is a protected area, animals including chipmunks, deer, and beaver ventured close enough to watch them I could see Lincoln Pond with the comings and goings of both water and land birds There were no emergency preparedness warnings, car alarms, ambulances, police or fire sirens; instead, bull frogs serenaded throughout the night . It sounded like millions . Realistically it was probably closer to hundreds It just sounded like millions to someone who was accustomed to city sounds, not to singing bull frogs And there were no streetlights At night the road between the housing residences to the studio was very dark Ultimately it all turned out to be just what I needed .
In addition to these small local workshops, there were other events that included opportunities for leaf rubbing The KSU
While the Artist-in-Residence program does not tell you what to do, there are requirements for participation . You actually have to create something and leave behind either the original work or at least copies I have repeatedly encountered “drawing phobia” among workshop participants, a condition that ranks alongside the fears of math and public speaking I decided to use my time at the Huyck to develop a simplified method for teaching persons who believe they cannot draw to use leaf rubbings to create scientifically accurate drawings . It was the beginning of what later became Colorful Leaves.
Back home I enlisted a few of my friends (who were also cat lovers) to help test and refine my program We met several times, had fun mapping my Nepeta plant collection, gathering specimens of several varieties for making leaf rubbings, and later developing them into drawings that were ultimately used to make note cards These gatherings for this purely unscientific venture provided an opportunity for learning and for exchanging some of our favorite cat stories
with the leaf rubbing process It is important to provide suitable art supplies—sheets of paper, crayons, an assortment of medium size leaves that are sturdy, and a good table or rubbing surface Do not let students/participants bring their own leaves for the rubbings They will frequently choose materials that are difficult to work with and time will be wasted
Be prepared to demonstrate the technique, answer questions, and either show or recommend ways to use the rubbings and/or subsequent drawings . At one of my workshops for presenters a participant admitted to having taught a group in making such images but did not know what to do with the finished rubbings They threw them away! What a waste and what a message to those who had worked to learn and create .
Supplies and Technique
I continue to recommend leaf rubbing for both personal enjoyment and for group activities . The basic process is simple and requires few materials Broken pieces of ordinary crayons are easy to use Next best are pressed crayons like Prang Crayograph and Prang Kindograph . If you can afford it and want to go first class, try gravestone rubbing wax . Black gives the best impression, but various colors can be used for special effects if the rubbing is to be the end product
Artists have about a hundred brilliant ideas every day but implementing any one of them presents not only a difficult challenge but requires facing the reality of how to do it My program needed more than just handing out how-to information sheets I am a long-time member of the American Society of Botanical Artists (ABSA) and applied for, and subsequently received, the 2015 Anne Ophelia Dowden Award to fund the publication of Colorful Leaves.
That was only the beginning of one year of work to prepare the publication for printing . Members of ASBA and the Guild of Natural Science Illustrators received copies, agreed to use the material to give workshops/ presentations, and then send me photos with a brief description of their event The publication was placed for sale on Amazon .com . When all copies were sold, ASBA placed the entire book, with information/images from the workshops, on their official website .
Leaf Rubbing as Group Activity
I have found giving a successful presentation depends on a few planning steps The workshops are often onetime events that are directed to groups of either children or adults Sometimes there will be mixed ages such as children and their parent The presenter needs to be prepared for working at different levels of ability The workshop leader must be experienced
Paper should be smooth and lightweight . Avoid heavy or coated ones Ordinary bond paper is fine, and tracing paper works particularly well to make additional drawings from the rubbings
The top of a leaf is usually smoother than the underside where the ribs and veins are more prominent . Try rubbing both sides to see the difference Place the leaf on a hard, smooth surface, and cover it with paper Press on the paper to hold the leaf in place . Use the crayon to make firm but not hard strokes that bring out the delicate shape . This sounds easy, but it takes a bit of practice Here are a few suggestions:
Use the broad side of the crayon rather than the point and apply even pressure to one small area at a time . With your fingers, hold the paper in place to avoid having it slip To avoid a double line, do not go back over any area that is finished to avoid getting a double line
It is possible to use large specimens or delicate ferns, but to make your life easy, start by selecting leaves that are sturdy and a
manageable size What is available depends upon your location
Some plants that provide good materials include elm, maple, cottonwood, oak, ginkgo, and strawberry Leaves from the herb garden that work well include mint, catnip, lettuce leaf basil, and sage And if you are caught inside during the winter there are always house plants such as pothos and, at Christmas, poinsettia
From Leaf Rubbings to Drawings
Whether you want to make scientifically accurate plant drawings purely for fun or some other dedicated purpose, the beginning of the work is always creating an underlying image sometimes called a sketch, a working drawing, or a preliminary drawing Starting with a leaf rubbing can make creating this preliminary drawing simple . Everything you do afterward relies on this underlying image This is true for works using traditional media (graphite pencils, colored pencils, ink) as well as images created using digital illustration
Overlay the rubbing with a piece of tracing paper . Trace the outline of the leaves or plant with a 2B pencil . This is your first tracing If your rubbing was complete, i.e., no broken leaf edges or missing pieces, this tracing may be used to transfer the copy of the rubbing as the base for your final drawing .
But, if there were missing leaf tips, etc , use the first tracing as the pattern for the transfer image Place another piece of tracing paper over the first tracing Now again draw along the image lines, making any changes needed such as drawing in any missing or damaged parts of the original specimen . This second tracing becomes your preliminary drawing, and you can now use it to transfer the image for the final work .
Transferring an Image
The next step is to make sure you have chosen the right paper for the medium you plan to use in developing your final drawing For example, if you are going to work in watercolors then use watercolor paper Bristol works well for graphite pencils and colored pencils . Any paper you choose should be acid free .
To transfer your preliminary drawing, you need a graphite pencil (I use a 2B); you will use the side of the ‘lead’, rather than the point Turn the preliminary drawing over and rub over the back of the image Evenly cover the whole image—or at least all lines of the drawing to be transferred . Gently smooth over the graphite with a tissue or cotton ball
With the right side up and graphite surface down, place the transfer sheet on top of the final paper . Using a pencil, trace over the drawing to transfer the image You now have an outline from the original rubbing The work is ready to complete in the technique of choice, and the image can be repeatedly transferred and used to explore a series of different materials .
Copy Machines and Scanners
In addition to leaf rubbing, a copy machine or a scanner is yet another way to record leaf shapes . Before scanners were readily available, I recorded many black and white images by placing leaves directly on a copy machine By using a scanner, you capture leaves along with branches, and the image retains colors as well
Leaves can either lay flat on the scanner bed (cover closed) or lay on the glass document table, covered lightly with a large piece of white paper and scanned with the cover left open This cover open method is most useful when recording the shape of specimens with curled edges, and for saving images of branches with leaves still intact
You can use the printed image to create a preliminary drawing or this first tracing can be used as the basis of a second tracing that either omits or adds some features If you have access to a scanner it is worth trying this process . Transfer the final tracing to appropriate art paper using the process described above
Basic Drawing Materials
Graphite pencils are numbered according to their hardness/ softness but for starters you can get by with a 2H, HB, and 2B (from harder to softer) I often work in colored pencils using Berol Prismacolor Art Pencils . They are available in sets but can also be purchased individually Each color has a number and the color
Check List of Suggested Materials
• graphite pencils: minimum
• an assortment of colored pencils
2H, HB, 2B
• kneaded eraser1 and Pink Pearl type eraser
• hand-held sharpener
• bond paper
• pad of drawingmedium-grained paper (9 by 12 inch)
• pad or roll of tracing paper
• a glass jar to hold pencils
can indicate space with darker colors appearing to recede and lighter colors appearing to come forward . Line variation using either colored or graphite pencils can create texture Graphite pencils are often overlooked as a coloring medium, but with their extensive range of hardness/softness they can be used to create beautiful drawings with a mix of subtle gray tones
No matter which medium you are using, start by making color tests on the type of paper you will use for the final work Make notes beside each color indicating what color or combination of colors you used Work from the lightest area to the darkest because you can always darken an image if necessary, but it is more difficult to lighten one Remember, if you are unsatisfied with your final drawing, you can always transfer the image again and start over .
Uses for Finished Rubbings and Drawings
I always find ways to organize and display the rubbings and/or drawings when I work with children . Arrangements can be either purely artistic or as a means of teaching science concepts, e g , how to identify plants by their foliage rather than by their blossoms No matter what the focus or how the finished work is displayed, this is an especially important part of the learning It conveys a sense of accomplishment and value to what has been created Here are some ideas to display your rubbings:
1A kneaded eraser, also called a putty rubber, is made of pliable material with a lower ‘erasing’ factor than a standard hard eraser. The eraser can be shaped by kneading it into a point or roll. This enables the artist to erase only a narrow line or highlight an area by using light eraser pressure. The dirty point can be kneaded back into the putty so that there is no graphite or charcoal residue to smear any other areas erased or highlighted later.
associated with that number does not vary, so if you run out of Limepeel PC1005, that same color can be purchased individually, and it will match exactly the previous Limepeel PC1005 For those wanting to experiment with colored pencils and who desire a less expensive alternative, sets of Prang or Crayola-colored pencils are readily available .
Never underestimate the importance of paper While ordinary bond paper will work, it is wise to invest in quality paper . To stand up over time, drawings need to be made on acid free paper And even when two papers look alike, the appearance of a color will often vary noticeably from one paper to another . To demonstrate that difference, try doodling on several different papers using the same colored pencil and compare the results
Working with Color
Color is a way of giving form and space to leaf images Pencil pressure and layering can define form, and placement of colors
• Cut out rubbings and arrange them on a background
• Organize them either as a simple or technical collection and group by size, shape, or venation
• Keep them in a scrapbook, photo album, portfolio .
• Create a handmade booklet to show the trees/plants in your own yard, in your neighborhood, or in your state .
A bulletin board can hold temporary exhibits To display the rubbings as artwork, mat and frame finished works or mount them on matboard . Create a scroll on a roll of paper, attach it to a dowel, and hang it vertically Use them to illustrate a book or in conjunction with text to illustrate reports and other writings . Create postcards and greeting cards with the rubbings Transfer your designs to T-shirts or tote bags Call upon your personal hundred brilliant ideas!
A Lifetime Activity
Working with leaves can expand your knowledge of various art techniques and of science and nature as well . Even with only a limited knowledge of botany anyone can create accurate and beautiful rubbings and drawings of plants The attention to detail required to depict a plant’s parts increases your knowledge . In addition, leaf rubbing and drawing require a modest investment in materials and supplies, and they are enjoyable activities that can give pleasure for a lifetime
“The first step in wisdom is to know the things themselves; this notion consists in having a true idea of the objects; objects are distinguished and known by classifying them methodically and giving them appropriate names. Therefore, classification and name-giving will be the foundation of our science.”
Debra Knapke
Why Taxonomy?
Taxonomy, simply put, is a model that gives order to a system It is how we arrange our libraries, our recipes, and the schedules of our daily lives Nomenclature is the system of naming the parts of each model: book titles and authors, types of recipes and their ingredients, and what we plan to do from the moment we awaken to the moment we fall into sleep This article focuses on the world of plants—how we order them (taxonomy) and name them (nomenclature)
Linnaeus contended that to classify and name the parts of our world was a scientific endeavor that allowed us to make sense of the earth and our place in it He chose Latin as the language of taxonomy because at the time it was the common language of science Additionally, being a “dead” language—not being used by a group of people in daily life— Latin was essentially unchanging . The objects of our scientific study obviously derive no benefit from this action, but we are more comfortable creating a hierarchy of organisms where everything seemingly has its place .
And herein lies the problem that has plagued taxonomy, and nomenclature to a certain extent, that is, keeping plants in their place! For as long as we have tried to order the world, we also have changed our ideas of how plants should be classified and named The classification and naming systems of today, which are based on evolutionary relationships and genetic information, are very different from the earlier schemes of Theophrastus, Linnaeus, de Candolle, and others These older systems were based on plant habit, placement and number of sexual structures, and natural plant form relationships that included all morphological characteristics (Lawrence, 1951)
Scientific Plant Taxonomy
Think of the levels of plant taxonomy as a hierarchy of boxes that get smaller and smaller as we home in on where a plant fits into the plant kingdom . We determine where a plant belongs by its shared characteristics with other plants .
Taxonomists created a hierarchical system (Table 1) to describe the organization of known species . Starting with the largest group, Domain Eukarya, which contains all
organisms that have a nucleus and DNA contained within a membrane, to the smallest group, Species which contains organisms that are similar enough that they can interbreed (Bidlack and Jansky, 2011) As gardeners, we may encounter the plant’s order but, more commonly, we learn plant groupings by family, genus, and specific epithet .
your local garden center, what would you expect in return? Bluebell
Botanical Names (Plants as they came from the wild)
several different, unrelated plants in the following genera: Scilla, Campanula, Polemonium. Obviously, a more specific name is needed, and this nomenclature, also called the botanical or scientific name, comes
We use scientific or botanical nomenclature to be precise in naming a given plant For example, if you decide that you want a bluebell for your garden and convey this to a worker at your local garden center, what would you expect in return? Bluebell is a common name for several different, unrelated plants in the following genera: Scilla, Campanula, Mertensia, or Polemonium. Obviously, a more specific name is needed, and this is where binomial nomenclature, also called the botanical or scientific name, comes in .
The typical scientific name that is given to a plant has three parts: the two-word binomial (species), followed by author designation . Cultivar names, when applicable from the horticultural world, add yet another component See Figure 2 below
The typical scientific name that is given to a plant has three (species), followed by author designation. Cultivar names, when applicable horticultural world, add yet another component. See Figure 2 below.
indicates that Linnaeus named this plant; often not indicated
indicates that Linnaeus named this plant; often not indicated in popular literature
The genus name, or generic epithet, designates a group of closely related plants which have enough in common to be distinguished from other such groups A genus may include one or more species . The genus name is capitalized . The specific epithet is usually a descriptive word: alba (white), brevis (short), sativa (cultivated), or a person’s name or place name (virginianum). The specific epithet is not capitalized You may see specific epithets capitalized in older literature, but this practice is no longer accepted under the current International Code on Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi, and Plants (Melbourne Code) (McNeil et. al., 2012) .
The genus and specific epithet compose the species name, which is underlined or italicized . By definition, a species is a distinct group with specific characteristics These characteristics are used to identify progeny from generation to generation For example, Lavandula angustifolia has a typical leaf and flower morphology that is unique to that species in the genus There is always variation within a species (species variation) such as slight flower color or plant height differences, but small variations usually do not merit classification as a separate species Sometimes there is a fine line between what qualifies as a variation that justifies the defining of a new species and what does not These in-between variations can be due to a separation of place, changes of the environmental conditions, and more For instance, two species, one growing in Europe and the other in Russia, can still interbreed, but the chemical differences are enough that we append a subspecies, variety, or forma name to the scientific binomial . An example of this is Origanum vulgare subsp . hirtum (Greek oregano) and its sibling Origanum vulgare subsp gracile (Russian oregano) (Tucker and DeBaggio, 2000)
When two different species cross, frequently with man’s intervention, the result is an interspecific hybrid designated by an “×” in front of the specific epithet: Dianthus ×allwoodii (Dianthus caryophyllus + Dianthus plumarius). Less common is the intergeneric cross , for example, × Heucherella tiarelloides (Heuchera sanguinea + Tiarella cordifolia).
Horticultural Names (Names for plants manipulated or developed by man)
The term cultivar was proposed by L H . Bailey in Gentes Hortorum I: “to name a botanical variety, or for a race subordinate to species, that has originated and persisted in cultivation ” It is a combination of the words “cultivated var iety ” The term is now defined as: “…an assemblage of plants that has been selected for a particular character or combination of characters, that is clearly distinct, uniform and stable and when propagated by appropriate means, retains those characters” (Brickell et.al., 2009) . The cultivar name is capitalized It is not italicized or underlined Instead, it is enclosed in single quotes
Many people do not realize that cultivar is not synonymous with clone A cultivar may be propagated sexually, by seed, or asexually, by cuttings, divisions, layering, and tissue culture techniques Sexual propagation results in seedlings that can vary
from the parent plant, while the progeny from asexual propagation are typically copies or clones of the parent plant Cultivars produced from seed can show variation—which seems to counter the definition of cultivar, but this is another point of discussion in the horticulture industry In my own research on lavender, I received plants of Munstead lavender that showed significant variation from the registered description of the cultivar Because of a market driven desire for this lavender, it has been propagated by seed; however, this does not maintain the cultivar as originally defined Thus, I decided to asexually propagate my own plants from a verified Munstead lavender specimen to have a uniform and stable group of plants
What is happening to plant names?
Sometimes the names of plants change . This can be due to misidentification, priority, or reclassification because of learning more information about the plant or the group in which it was placed . The authority for naming all plants that do not involve human intervention is the International Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi, and Plants . It is this group which addresses conundrums as that described below and maintains World Floral Online, a resource for verifying the most current name for plants . This online guide indicates which botanical plant names are accepted or synonyms
Misidentification is self-explanatory, but priority is more of an oversight problem If a plant name is published but later it is determined that the plant had already been given an appropriately researched and published name by a different person, the plant name will revert to the earlier name This happened with sweet autumn clematis .
To me, sweet autumn clematis was always Clematis paniculata J F Gmel I learned in the mid-90s that it would henceforth be called Clematis maximowicziana Franch & Sav This name change came about because of a priority issue; the Clematis had been named and published almost a century before the designation C. paniculata had appeared An infrequent case that the common name turns out to be more stable than the botanical name!
In most cases, name changes indicate reclassification, often a result of research using the techniques of molecular biology combined with cladistic models Cladistics focuses on relationships between organisms based on the rate of changes to the genome, over time, from a shared ancestor . This contrasts to the traditional approaches mentioned earlier that were based on visual morphological characteristics . So, plant names change because of our new understanding of how life changed over time
Changes due to Plant Patents and Trademarks
It takes a lot of time and effort to introduce new plants to consumers For plant breeders to protect their investment and intellectual property, a new plant can be patented and/or trademarked (designated TM or ®) A breeder who patents a new
plant can collect royalties from propagators and sellers of that plant The patent is in effect for twenty years (formerly seventeen years) Once the patent expires, the plant can be freely propagated, and no royalties are due to the inventor .
A trademark is legally defined as a word(s) or symbol(s) which identifies the place of origin of a product . The symbol ® indicates that the owner of a trademarked name has registered the name with the Office of Patents and Trademarks in Washington DC The symbol TM indicates that the user of this name claims the sole right to use it, but it has no legal standing Conard-Pyle’s Star ® trademark is a good example of a legally registered trademark name The consumer recognizes that roses with the Star ® designation are from Conard-Pyle and can assume product quality based on this information
Problems arise when a plant is patented and then is also given a trademark name . Now the plant has a cultivar name, a trademark name, a botanical name, and a common name This may cause a lot of confusion for consumers, and sometimes even for professionals The authority charged with maintenance of names for plants involving human intervention is International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCC) .
Where Did My Herbs & Perennials Go?
Aster Disaster
New information due to genetic analysis of Aster resulted in the genus being split (Shaw, 2014) A taxonomist discovered that Aster was a polyphyletic genus This means that the species within the genus came from more than one point of origin, and therefore needed to be split into groups that each have only one common ancestor It was determined that the New World asters in North America have a chromosome base number of n = 8, while the Old World and South American asters have a chromosome base number of n = 9 (Semple, 2019) The New World Asters were split
into 13 different genera, and there are ongoing analyses that could result in further changes to what was initially published in 1994 as the “new” organization of the genus Aster.
There are times when a change is reversed . A genus that is a cousin to aster presents us with a cautionary tale The Chrysanthemum genus was split into eight different genera, including Argyranthemum, Dendranthema, Leucanthemum and Tanacetum. Dendranthema is now back in Chrysanthemum not because of popular opinion but because the Dendranthema’s type species —the herbarium specimen and description that defines the typical species of a genus—was also used to define the reduced Chrysanthemum genus We’re getting a bit into the weeds here, but the bottom line is that you cannot use the same base species for two different genera So, the autumn-blooming mums are now back in Chrysanthemum. Ignore those marketers who are trying to use the invalid name of Dendranthema to introduce “new” plants (And note that Dendranthema should not be italicized because it is an invalid genus epithet .)
And Now, the Mints
While the splitting of the asters has been inconvenient because of having to learn all those new genera and their plant associations, the possible changes that are being considered for the family Lamiaceae (mint family) is downright personal: this is my favorite family
I heard rumblings back in the late 90s that the mint family needed to be evaluated because many of its genera appear to be polyphyletic The family is large It will be a challenging taxonomic endeavor .
Christian Bräucher, et.al. published research that looked at species in the subtribes of Lamiaceae—Nepetoideae and Mentheae—which include Clinopodium (wild basil and calamint), Satureja (savory), Origanum (oregano), Thymus (thyme), Thymbra (“Mediterranean” thyme), Mentha (mint), and many others . One good outcome of this research is that Origanum and Mentha are monophyletic (of single origin) and are safe from major changes . But Thymus and Thymbra are paraphyletic, indicating that some species that should be in these two genera are missing, and that species from other genera might need to be moved into these two genera Clinopodium and Satureja are both polyphyletic so expect them to be split up into multiple genera . Calamintha has been moved into Clinopodium, but again, this change has not been universally accepted
Consider the genus Salvia, 900-1000 species strong depending on which reference you use Two separate research articles published in 2017 described the genus to be both polyphyletic with four distinct origins, and paraphyletic meaning that there are species in other genera that should be in this genus (Will and Claßen-Bockhoff , 2017; Drew et.al., 2017) . The paraphyletic determination suggested the change of Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary) to Salvia rosmarinus. And hold your breath as this research also supports the movement of five other genera into Salvia, one of those being Perovskia. Currently this is a suggested
change and has not been formally accepted
As I contemplated how these changes could and have affected the horticulture industry and consumers, I remembered a 2018 email conversation I had with John Boggan, taxonomist in the Department of Botany at the Smithsonian Institution Regarding rosemary’s name change, John stated that Salvia rosmarinus had been proposed quite a long time ago, and that at this point in 2018 it was “taxonomic opinion” as to which name was correct He noted that old names are never incorrect unless it is a misidentification of the species and that we are free to use either name depending on whose opinion we favor* . His last comment:
“At least the name under consideration still has ‘rosmarinus’ in it, and the common name of ‘rosemary’ is stable, unambiguous, and universally accepted (in English) . ”
I would like to leave you with a final quote:
“Taxonomy is described sometimes as a science and sometimes as an art, but really, it’s a battleground ” Bill Bryson, A Short History of Nearly Everything
*Editor’s note: The Herb Society of America accepts scientific names published as “accepted” by the World Flora Consortium (WFO, 2021) On that site, Salvia rosmarinus is identified as a synonym of Rosmarinus officinalis but not as an accepted name . Further, it is the policy of The Society to use only currently accepted nomenclature unless a previously used name is included in a quotation from older literature In that case, The Society provides information on the currently accepted name .
Literature Cited
Bailey, L.H. 1923. Various cultigens, and transfers in nomenclature. Gentes Herbarum I: 113-136.
Bidlack, James E. and Shelley H. Jansky. 2011. Stearn’s introductory plant biology-12th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Bräucher, Christian, Harald Meimberg, and Günther Heubl. 2010. Molecular phylogeny of Menthinae (Lamiaceae, Nepetoideae, Mentheae) taxonomy, biogeography and conflicts. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 55 (February): 501-523.
Brickell, C. D., et.al. 2009. International code of nomenclature for cultivated plants (ICNCC), Vol. 151. Belgium: International Society for Horticultural Science (ISHS). Accessed on January 30, 2021. Available at https://www.ishs.org/news/icncp-international-code-nomenclature-cultivated-plants-9th-edition
Bryson, Bill. 2003. A short history of nearly everything. New York: Crown Publishing Group.
Drew, Bryan, Jesús Guadalup González-Gallegos, Chun-Lei Xiang, Ricardo Kriebel, Chloe P Drummond, Jay Walker, and Kenneth J. Sytsma. 2017. Salvia united: The greatest good for the greatest number. Taxon, 66, no.1 (February); 133-145. Available from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.12705/661.7 (Note: access to the full article requires purchase of the article or through institutional access.)
International code of nomenclature for algae, fungi and plants. Available at https://www.iapt-taxon.org/nomen/pages/main/division_i.html
Lawrence, George H. M. 1951. Taxonomy of vascular plants. New York: MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc.
McNeill, J., et.al. 2012. International code of nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Melbourne Code). Regnum Vegetabile 154. A.R.G. Gantner Verlag KG. Hessen, Germany: Koeltz Scientific Books.
Semple , John C. 2019. An overview of “asters” and the Tribe Astereae. Ontario, Canada, University of Waterloo. Accessed January 31, 2021. Available from https://uwaterloo.ca/ astereae-lab/research/asters#South%20American%20and%20old%20world%20Astereae
Shaw, Julian. 2014. The splitting of the aster. The Plantsman, June. Accessed January 31, 2021. Available from https://www.rhs.org.uk/about-the-rhs/publications/the-plantreview/2014-issues/june/the-splitting-of-aster.pdf
Tucker, Arthur O. and Thomas DeBaggio. The big book of herbs: a comprehensive illustrated reference to herbs of flavor and fragrance. Loveland, CO: Interweave Press. 2000. Will, Maria and Regine Claßen-Bockhoff. 2017. Time to split Salvia s.l. (Lamiaceae) - new insights from Old World Salvia phylogeny. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 109 (April): 33-58.
WFO (2021): World Flora Online. Available at http://www.worldfloraonline.org
The author gratefully acknowledges Denise W. Adams for contributing “The Language of Horticulture,” originally used in 1994 for the Herbaceous Plants Class at The Ohio State University and for her permission for the author’s revision used in later classes.
btaining a good understanding of basils (genus Ocimum) can be quite a daunting task There are many different species available and within most species are a multitude of varieties and cultivars with more being introduced each year . Figuring out the “big picture” about these plants can be an understandably onerous task . Perhaps the best means of attacking the situation is to take advantage of the old “divide and conquer” technique and look at smaller groups of basils One such group, the “holy basils,” comprises many plants within multiple species
To Begin – Some Basics
The genus Ocimum is large and belongs to the family Lamiaceae – the mint family . It is native to the Indian subcontinent and from there spread east into Southeast Asia, west into the Near East, and further into the Mediterranean countries and Africa According to The Plant List (theplantlist . org), there are currently 76 recognized species within the genus and 384 varietal or cultivar names that are currently attributed to, or have at one time been attributed to, the genus . Furthermore, within the species Ocimum basilicum L alone, likely the most popular species since it contains the “sweet basils,” one can choose among dozens of varieties and cultivars . Thankfully, there are fewer holy basils, and they are, as a group, an easier concept to grasp
Being tropical and subtropical in origin, basils in general prefer full sun, warm growing conditions, fertile soil, air circulation between plants, and routine watering (neither dry nor wet) . In their native habitats some grow as annuals, some as perennials . In temperate regions of the United States most will behave as annuals or possibly tender perennials if provided protection in the winter .
From left to right: ‘Vana’ – Ocimum gratissimum L.; ‘Rama’ – Ocimum tenuiflorum L.; ‘Kapoor’ / Temperate Tulsi – Ocimum × africanum Lour.
Photo credit: Henry Flowers
Henry Flowers
Almost all basils are easily started from seed or propagated by stem cuttings . A few sterile cultivars such as ‘African Blue’ can only be clonally propagated Basil plants are mainly pollinated by bees and can be promiscuous in crossing . True varieties should maintain genetic traits even when around other varieties, but to maintain purity of a desired cultivar it is often necessary to keep it relatively isolated from others . If different cultivars of basils are grown in a garden and allowed to flower at the same time, a wide range of intermediate hybrids may result from the seeds The best way to keep cross pollination from occurring is to allow only the desired cultivar to flower, or alternatively, to grow only that cultivar .
Many diseases can afflict basils, including Fusarium, Rhizoctonia and, more recently, basil downy mildew caused by the pathogen Peronospora. These diseases are really a topic unto themselves, so I won’t cover them here . However, keep in mind that basils will be less prone to these issues in the optimum growing conditions mentioned earlier
The Holy Basils
Three species of basils are commonly called “holy basils”: Ocimum tenuiflorum L , O. gratissimum L , and Ocimum × africanum Lour . Collectively they are also known as tulsi or tulasi, a name derived from Hindu tradition All are especially prized for their use in making herbal teas, also commonly called tulsis The various types contain a wide range of essential oils (Tucker and DeBaggio, 2009), which give them distinct aromas and tastes
The holy basils of India belong to the species O. tenuiflorum L and within this species there are currently three main cultivars The other two species are both native to Africa but have long been cultivated in India and other regions
Ocimum tenuiflorum L.
Tenuiflorum translates from Latin as “slender flowers ” This species is more tropical, has a greater need for warm growing conditions and a higher sensitivity to cool temperatures In cooler summer regions of the US, it may be difficult to grow cultivars of this species The other two species may do better in these areas O. tenuiflorum has long been classified as Ocimum sanctum and older texts will commonly list it under that name .
Under good growing conditions O. tenuiflorum plants will be in a range of one to three feet in height and in tropical regions it can reach four to six feet and even become woody Arthur Tucker and Thomas DeBaggio describe the leaves as “membranaceous (i.e., thin and pliable), widest at the center with ends equal to parallelsided, 15 to 33 x 11 to 20 mm, tapering to the tip or blunt, with a wedge-shaped base and smooth edges, margins elsewhere smooth or moderately toothed; hairy on both surfaces, especially on the nerves beneath; leaf stalk 7 to 15 mm long .” The flowers are borne in loose terminal spikes, with corollas usually white to pink, and the nutlets (seeds) are small, round to oval, and produce little mucilage when wet (Tucker and DeBaggio, 2009) .
The three main named cultivars of O. tenuiflorum that are
commonly available in the US are ‘Krishna,’ ‘Rama,’ and ‘Amrita ’
The cultivar ‘Krishna’ has rich purple flowers and foliage (the Hindu god Krishna has blue skin —thus the color connection) It is sometimes known as ‘Shyama’ tulsi . This cultivar is a bit open in growth habit and will reach about two to three feet in height Its taste has been described as spicy and pungent (Bown, 2001) I find its aroma to have a hint of clove . Many practitioners of the traditional Hindu medical system, Ayurveda, consider this to be the most potent medicinal form of tulsi because of its high phenolic content and antioxidant activity (Cohen, 2014)
‘Rama’ (also called ‘Ram’) has green leaves, a slightly shorter and more dense growth habit than its cousin ‘Krishna’ and flowers that are a soft purple to white ‘Rama’ is said to be the most grown and used throughout most of India (Cech, 2020) . Its taste is mellow and cooling I find it to be a particularly good pot plant Like many types of basil, it readily reseeds itself in my warm region
‘Amrita’ (meaning immortality) has green leaves and purple highlights and is believed to be one of many “intermediate” forms between ‘Krishna’ and ‘Rama .’ ‘Amrita’ is named after the town of Amritapuri in southern India where it is a prized form of holy basil because of its vigor —growing more vigorously and to a higher stature than either ‘Krishna’ or ‘Rama ’ The flowers have more purple highlights than those of ‘Rama’ but are not nearly as purple as those of ‘Krishna . ’
Ocimum gratissimum L.
The holy basil known as ‘Vana’ falls into this species, Ocimum gratissimum L The Latin term gratissimum translates as “pleasing” and Vana translates from Sanskrit as “forest” or “grove ” This basil is sometimes known as “tree basil” because it gets relatively tall, about three to five feet or sometimes taller It has lightly fuzzy leaves (over all surfaces) that are ovate, serrate, and three to four inches in length . Flowers are a pale greenish yellow and are borne in spikes . Because of its high eugenol content, it has a clove-like aroma which leads to its common name, clove basil . This species is commonly root-hardy in my growing zone (USDA zone 9), so for me it behaves as a herbaceous perennial If allowed to set seed, the seeds may germinate and produce seedlings—thankfully, it seems to do this in a mild manner In India, this plant is more commonly grown in northern, sub-Himalayan, regions (Organic India, 2020) .
According to Tucker and DeBaggio this basil has a variety of distinct chemotypes: thyme-, clove-, lemon-, rose-, cinnamon-, and carnation/herb-scented The most common is clove Deni Bown mentions a variety called viride (commonly known as tea bush or West African basil), which has a thyme-like aroma, but I was unable to find a source for any of its seeds
Ocimum × africamum L.
‘Kapoor’ may be the most grown form of holy basil in this country and if you encounter a plant simply labeled “holy basil” at a nursery, chances are that it is likely this one . The botanical name of this one is tricky I have seen it listed as Ocimum sanctum L , Ocimum americanum var pilosum (Willd ) A J Paton, and Ocimum × africanum Lour According to Richo Cech, an internationally recognized ethnobotanist at Strictly Medicinal Seeds in Williams, OR, its proper botanical name is Ocimum africanum (but properly O. × africanum per The Plant List) It is also sometimes confused in the nursery and seed trade with O. americanum var . pilosum Willd , which is commonly known as ‘Spice’ basil
This plant is easily grown from seed and is not quite as cold sensitive as O. tenuiflorum. It gets about one to two feet in height and has a fairly bushy growth habit Its leaves are lightly fuzzy, ovate, and serrate, but only half the size (about one to two inches) of the leaves of ‘Vana ’ The flowers have a soft purple hue and are
borne in racemes The aroma of the leaves is unique and has been described as “tutti-frutti” or “bubble gum .” I’m not sure I would agree with that description but do say that it is a unique and fruity aroma and is very aromatic when brushed It flowers readily and is a great attractant for bees If allowed (and it is hard to deny it), this plant will go to seed and easily reseed itself It has been growing in the pharmacy garden at Festival Hill (Round Top, Texas) for almost twenty years (originally planted as O sanctum)
and it only needed initial seeding when the garden was first installed .
Cech lists this as his favorite of the varieties for making herbal tea . He calls this plant “Temperate Tulsi,” because of its relative ease of growth in temperate regions when compared to the more tropical tulsis He also notes that the name ‘Kapoor’ is a misnomer (Cech, 2020) Whether or not it is called ‘Kapoor’ or “Temperate Tulsi,” it is a fantastic plant to grow and to use!
Other forms of Holy Basil
Kaphrao is a type of holy basil grown in Thailand . Other names include kra pao, kaprao, krapow; all names simply translate as “basil ” It is a key ingredient in phat kaphrao (pad kaprao)—holy basil stir fry . It is said to be somewhat like ‘Rama’ and has purple tinting Quite possibly it is another intermediate hybrid like ‘Amrita .’ Many restaurants commonly substitute Thai basil (Ocimum basilicum ‘Thai’ or ‘Siam Queen’) known for its rich licorice flavor and its more common availability . True aficionados of phat kaphrao say that it is not the same because it has a different flavor
Propagation
‘Vana’ and ‘Kapoor’ are fairly easy to grow from seed The others are a bit trickier — mainly in that they need lots of warmth to germinate and grow . Basil seeds also need a bit of light to germinate, so only lightly cover their seeds; or, instead, cover them with one layer of newspaper that you can keep damp until they germinate (light passes through the paper and the paper retains the moisture)
Basils are easily propagated by rooting semi-hardened tip cuttings Take four-to six-inch-long tip cuttings that have had a bit of time to age (no longer soft new growth); and stick them in a small, clean pot containing a loose, sterile, and well-draining potting medium Rooting hormones are usually unnecessary Place the pot in a warm and well-lit area that is out of direct sunlight If indoors or in a breezy location, it may be necessary to cover the pot with a loose-fitting plastic bag or a clear plastic bottle with the bottom removed to keep in enough humidity This would be a great project for involving children or grandchildren
Rooted cuttings can be transplanted into individual pots and fertilized until ready to place in the ground I’ve propagated basils any time from mid-spring until mid-fall and even in the winter with access to a heated greenhouse Growing from seed is advised to get many plants, but if you are gifted with propagation skills, you may want to purchase a plant and propagate from it as it grows
Folklore and History
The ancient Vedic Bhagavata Purana text calls tulsi (most likely Ocimum tenuiflorum) “Queen of the Herbs ” It is also known as “The Incomparable One” and “Mother Medicine of Nature” (Cohen, 2014) Tulsi is the embodiment of Lakshmi, wife of Vishnu, the goddess of wealth and generosity She is viewed as
a living gateway between earth and heaven, as well as a manifestation of the divine in the plant kingdom . Most Hindu families revere this plant and grow it in their home gardens In the mild climate of southern India, it can become quite large and woody When a plant dies a natural death, its woody trunk and branches are commonly carved into prayer beads, tulsi malas, used to help focus the mind in meditation and devotional practices (Cohen, 2014)
In a 2008 article in the Times of India, columnist M . Mishra says that “tulsi has also been used in cities to combat air pollution and hundreds of thousands of tulsi plants have been planted around the Taj Mahal in Agra to help protect the iconic marble building from environmental pollution damage ”
Medicinal Uses
The Ayurvedic tradition of medicine has used holy basil for thousands of years to treat colds, coughs, flu, stress, anxiety, and many other issues . It is viewed as an adaptogen which helps to boost the body’s resistance to stress caused by biological, chemical, or physical issues (Cohen, 2014) It is also said to aid the digestive system by alleviating bloating and digestive gases . The various holy basils provide a rich array of essential oils such as nerol, eugenol (clove oil), and camphor, as well as a variety of flavonoids and terpenes (Tucker and DeBaggio, 2009)
Holy basil used in the diet is said to have many other benefits, as stated by Cohen:
“Tulsi has been found to protect organs and tissues against chemical stress from industrial pollutants and heavy metals as well as physical stress from prolonged physical exertion, ischemia, physical restraint, and exposure to cold and excessive noise Tulsi has also been shown to counter metabolic stress through normalization of blood glucose, blood pressure and lipid levels, and psychological stress through positive effects on memory and cognitive function Tulsi’s broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity . . . suggests it can be used as a hand sanitizer, mouthwash, and a water purifier as well as in the preservation of food stuffs, herbal raw materials, and traveler’s health ” (Cohen, 2014)
He continues by saying “Like yoga, tulsi has a calming effect that leads to clarity of thought, along with a more relaxed and calm disposition . The cognitive and memory-enhancing properties of tulsi therefore differ from those of caffeinecontaining beverages Furthermore, tulsi does not produce the same physical dependence as caffeine and can be safely consumed on a regular basis without the fear of withdrawal effects ”
Culinary Uses
The most common use of holy basil is to make tulsi tea . The leaves are usually dried, powdered, and steeped to make a very pleasant and invigorating herbal tea . For those who don’t want to grow and dry their own basil, tulsi tea is available at many grocery stores For example, the brand Organic India has plain and flavored tulsi . Tulsi tea is delicious served hot or cold, and can be added to true teas if you desire caffeine
Plant and Seed Sources
Plants: More herb nurserymen are starting to propagate and sell different forms of holy basils. If you have sources in your area, it will make them easy to try in your garden and kitchen.
Seeds:
Baker Creek Seeds – www.rareseeds.com. Botanical Interests – www.botanicalinterests.com
Johnny’s Select Seeds – www.johnnyseeds.com
Richters Herbs – www.richters.com (Ontario, Canada)
Strictly Medicinal Seeds – www.strictymedicinalseeds.com
‘Vana’ tulsi is one that I love to use in the kitchen for a variety of purposes in addition to using it in herbal teas . I learned many years ago from Madalene Hill about herbs that are good as cold infusions in fruit juices . In addition to mint, lemon verbena, lemon balm, rose geranium, pineapple sage, and other “sweet herbs,” Madalene said that she really liked to use this basil It adds a nice flavor when used alone or with other herbs to infuse into orange juice, pineapple juice, another favorite juice, or a blend of juices Simply take a good handful of fresh, clean leaves, crush them (or wring them) well, place them in a pitcher, and cover with juice Place the pitcher in the refrigerator for at least four to six hours, or overnight Strain out the herbs and it’s ready to serve . Other tulsi basils—basils in general— are also useful in similar infusions
Having a love of ice creams and sorbets I recently tried ‘Vana’ tulsi in ice cream and it is a yummy and unusual flavor addition To get the flavor of any herbs into an ice cream, bring the milk used in the recipe to a simmer, turn off the heat, and toss in fresh or dried herbs Let the mixture steep for 20-30 minutes Then strain and continue with the basic recipe . I have used ‘Vana’ in both vanilla and chocolate ice creams
Seeds in Food
The seeds of holy basils, like those of sweet basil, have become popular for use in beverages, where their mucilaginous coatings (like chia seeds and a good substitute for such) can swell around the seeds They can also be added to smoothies, yogurt, oatmeal, puddings, breads, cakes, ice creams, and more . They may look a bit like hatching frog eggs when in a beverage but are certainly an interesting and conversation-stimulating addition
Warnings:
It is possible that holy basil consumption can have adverse effects on pregnancy (because of the presence of the essential oil estragole) . Women who are, or who may become, pregnant should not use this herb Further, the essential oil of basil should never be taken internally, again because of the high estragole content (Balick, 2014) . “It should always be heavily diluted in carrier oil and never applied directly, in its pure form, to your skin .” (Balick, 2014) .
(It is the policy of The Herb Society of America not to advise or recommend herbs for medicinal or health use. This information is intended for educational purposes only and should not be considered as a recommendation or an endorsement of any particular medical or health treatment.)
By Rickie Wilson, Guest Blogger
Frankenmuth Mid-Michigan Unit
