Hi, Science Issue I (Summer 2022)

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Hello! I’m Renee. I’m a sophomore at Avenues: The World School. For as long as I can remember, science and writing have been my foremost passions. But I was the only person who felt this way.

Everyone thinks that there are just two kinds of people in society—STEM nerds and humanities fellows. At school, STEM and humanities are considered virtually incompatible. Those who are passionate about one shy away from the other.

I hope to do my part in bridging this gap to make science more accessible, engaging, and inspiring for those who nd it hard not to fall asleep in Chemistry class.

That’s why I reached out to my peers of mine at Avenues. I was thrilled to have so many interesting, quirky, and diverse submissions. Included in this rst edition are my fteen earliest contributors. I thank them all for supporting me.

I hope this is a starting point for something much bigger. I have many more contributions from Avenues, and am also soliciting contributions from New York City and beyond.

Happy reading! I hope you discover something new.

Renee Cai Editor in Chief

P.S. Interested in contributing? Want to send us a note?

Reach out to us at editor@hi-science.org. We look forward to your responses!

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8EFPI SJ 'SRXIRXW Zenchang Sun

What if the moon exploded?

Valentina Ménager

Imagine being slowly su ocated to death by a lake…

Ocie Siegell-Gori

Are we alone in the vast universe?

Ava Lennon

Can you save a species from extinction?

Ace Meltzer

Why are we left-handed? Is it some freak of nature?

Valentina Ménager

The Lost Tale of Pompeii: Brain Glass

Zed Green

How Are Fighter Jets Invisible?

Uma Gambhir

What are wormholes?

Calypso Maazel

The Science of Music

Ava Lennon

Are our choices even our own?

Ethan Seiz

Will computers cure Lyme disease?

Arely Peckham

Can AI create self-replicating lifeforms?

Christina Thompson Exoplanet TrEs-2b: “The Dark Knight”

Mya Cahana

Has anyone ever called you bananas?

Elah Amar

Emotions in the Brain

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(And how to survive if it did.)

Picture the meteor shower that killed the dinosaurs. Except it’s us this time. Cities collapse.

Fires spread. All forms of life are incinerated, even those underground. The world known to humankind is destroyed.

First, the Moon explodes into many pieces of debris. These pieces come crashing down on our surface, destroying everything and everyone. Great res spread across the globe. The smoke makes it impossible to breathe. Meanwhile, the big pieces of debris resist Earth’s gravitational pull, staying in space and becoming smaller moons.

If you were smart enough to hide underground, life isn't going to get any better for you. The energy stored inside of the debris turns into heat as it falls through the atmosphere. Within hours, Earth will heat up like a microwave. All forms of life will get incinerated, even those living underground. If you want to survive, you need to escape the planet.

Even if you manage to have a rocket on standby, you will still need to y out of the atmosphere. Gentle reminder: billions of debris are currently falling out of the sky. But that’s no problem. You are the best pilot in the world. Gracefully, you clear the debris. Soon you are surrounded by the in nite blackness of space. You look back at Earth. What will happen to your home?

Slowly, the ames will disappear. The planet we know will be dead. In time, the absence of the Moon’s gravitational pull will cause Earth’s rotational axis to tilt, messing up seasons and temperatures. The North Pole won't be cold anymore. The Sahara Desert will have its own mini ice age. There would be no more tides, either. The water level would remain constant. Oceans would be at.

To nish the show, the remaining debris from the Moon might turn into a ring that rotates around Earth—just like Saturn’s. But no one will be around to enjoy the beauty of the ring.

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-QEKMRI FIMRK WPS[P] WYJJSGEXIH XS HIEXL F] E PEOI This has been the reality for many who have been killed by carbon eruptions.

A limnic eruption occurs when a lake explodes and shoots a cloud of carbon dioxide into the air. This happens when a lake is unable to experience any sort of drainage or movement of water, which typically releases carbon. In the few lakes that are unable to do this, the carbon piles up at the bottom and compresses to the point where it explodes—sending clouds of carbon dioxide into the air. These clouds of CO2 travel quickly with the help of the wind, slowly su ocating surrounding animals and humans by draining precious oxygen out of the air.

A famous limnic eruption is the Lake Nyos explosion. Lake Nyos is a crater lake that runs through the country of Cameroon. After a nearby landslide in 1986, Lake Nyos exploded and sent a 30mph cloud of carbon dioxide toward local villages. 1,700 people and 3,500 livestock su ocated to death in their sleep.

The largest of all these lakes is Lake Kivu, one of the Great Lakes of Africa. Lake Kivu is in close proximity to Africa’s most active and dangerous volcano, Mount Nyiragongo. If Mount Nyiragongo were to erupt, it would create a large enough movement to trigger the explosion of Lake Kivu. The lake hasn’t exploded in recent years, but the threat still looms.

To minimize these eruptions, scientists have been developing and installing machines that allow the water at the bottom of the lake to move. This enables the lakes to slowly release their carbon.

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%VI [I EPSRI MR XLI ZEWX YRMZIVWI# Our galaxy, The Milky Way, has been around for nearly 14 billion years. It is home to at least 100 billion planets. About a third of these planets could potentially harbor life.

Scientists also hypothesize that an advanced civilization could colonize our galaxy in only a couple of million years. If this is true, the Milky Way should have been fully colonized many times. So why haven’t we seen aliens or even evidence of them? We call this the Fermi Paradox.

One theory to this paradox is The Great Filter. The Great Filter is a metaphorical roadblock in the hypothetical timeline of any advancing life form. This roadblock is practically impossible to get past.

So, maybe all of the potential alien civilizations out there have encountered The Great Filter.

This begs the question: Is the lter behind us, or in front of us?

If the lter is behind us, then we are one of a small, recent selection—if not the rst—to pass it. This would mean that some step in our evolutionary process is almost impossible to cross. This “impossible” step could be biological advances such as the creation of special cells to form such a complex brain. Either way, this scenario means we are the rst to achieve this step.

Of course, the second possibility is that the lter is in front of us and we are headed towards impending doom. There might have been civilizations before us that go even more advanced than humans. One of the speculated ideas for our roadblock is our technology turning against us. A second theory is that our barrier is intergalactic space travel, which is close to—if not fully—impossible.

So the question is not whether we are the only life that exists. It is whether we are the only advanced civilization that exists.

Note: When dealing with large numbers, it’s hard to fully understand the scale of which we are talking about. For reference—if every person on Earth was a planet in the Milky Way, the world population would need to increase by at least twelvefold.

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'ER ]SY WEZI E WTIGMIW JVSQ I\XMRGXMSR# There are only two Northern White Rhinos alive on earth. Despite the odds, scientists are trying to bring the species back from the dead.

Najin and Fatu, both female, are the only two Northern White Rhinos on Earth. Driven to extinction by the over-poaching of rhino horns, they’ve both lived in a wildlife conservation habitat in Kenya since 2008. When the last male Northern White Rhino died in 2018, scientists began e orts to revive the species from its impending extinction. Using eggs extracted from Najin and Fatu and specimens collected from the male rhinos before they died, they hoped to impregnate the two remaining rhinos and increase the population from there.

In 2019, the rst viable fertilized egg was produced. But since then, no successful pregnancies have occurred. Scientists have now begun to focus on a very similar species: the Southern White Rhino, which escaped extinction in 1895 and shares an extremely similar genetic structure with the Northern White Rhino. They di er only slightly in their phenotypes (observable characteristics), like the shape of their head and teeth. Both lived in grasslands or tropical savannas, one in north-central Africa and one in southern Africa.

Starting in 2021, this new venture has been using the Southern White Rhinos as surrogates for their Northern counterpart. The only hope is that this plan works out soon—or we may never see the Northern White Rhino again.

De-extinction e orts haven’t only been limited to currently-existing species. Bioscientists are working to bring back the Woolly Mammoth, an enormous elephant-like mammal that has been extinct for nearly 4,000 years. To do this, they are extracting DNA from mammoth fossils and analyzing the DNA structure of the Asian elephant, a common ancestor who shares a similar genetic code.

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;L] EVI [I PIJX LERHIH# -W MX WSQI JVIEO SJ REXYVI# %VI PIJXMIW NYWX [IMVH PMOI XLEX# Surely, at some point, you’ve wondered why you have the dominant hand that you do (or why you don’t have one). Dominant hands are a bit of a mystery, even after extensive research.

Take, for example, the guitar. Why do we do the seemingly easy part—strumming—with our non-dominant hand? Turns out, our dominant hands are more adept at timed tasks, like knowing when to strum a note. Our non-dominant hand is better at simply sitting and holding a pose until moving to the next one (picking the note/chord). Other actions include throwing a baseball or writing, two actions that require accurate timing and movement.

Handedness corresponds with brain hemisphere dominance, as well. Left-handed dominance often corresponds to right hemisphere dominance, with right-handed dominance often corresponding to left hemisphere dominance (each hemisphere controls the muscles on the opposite side of the body). The right hemisphere of the brain is more responsible for visual-spatial skills and emotional intelligence. It is often associated with creativity, intuition, and qualitativeness. The left hemisphere of the brain controls language and speech. It is more associated with quantitative thinking, like logical reasoning and mathematical calculations. While the stereotypical di erences between the right and left hemispheres of the brain are usually blown out of proportion, there remains something interesting about the inner workings of the brain.

The human population is about 90% right-handed, and 10% left-handed, with lefties tending to have more control over their non-dominant hand than righties. Some animals are left-handed too, with most preferring the right—but the preference is much less skewed compared to humans. This lateralism is not just hands, too. Birds have been found to tilt their heads sideways so that one eye looks at the ground and the other looks at the sky, with most birds seeming to favor tilting their head a certain way.

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8LI 0SWX 8EPI SJ 4SQTIMM &VEMR +PEWW Usually, our brains turn into soap as we decompose. Rarely do they turn into glass. This is what happened when Mount Vesuvius erupted over the Italian cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum two thousand years ago, killing thousands of people and permanently encasing them in a thick coat of ash.

In the 1960s, a human in the Collegium Augustinum (an ancient college in Herculaneum) was found lying on a wooden bed, buried by volcanic ash. Scientists soon discovered that the remains of his brain had been replaced by glossy clustered material. This was bizarre—archeologists usually nd that the remains of human cerebral tissues (the brain, brain stem, and portions of the spine) turn into soap.

They tested the fragments and found that the glassy material inside the skull contained several proteins that are found in human brain tissues. This includes fatty acids (adipic and margaric), which are components of human hair and fat. How did this happen?

Well, the charred wooden bed he was found on was estimated to have reached temperatures up to 520°C (968°F). Scientists hypothesize that this extreme heat led to the process of vitri cation. First, his body fat ignited and was vaporized into soft tissue. But after the explosion, there was a rapid drop in temperature. So the tissue was burned and then quickly cooled down.

This is how glass is made.

Note: A more detailed explanation of vitri cation is that the triglycerides (main constituents of body fat and vertebrates) in the victims are converted to glycerol (a fat component found in toothpaste, mouthwash, shaving creams, and soaps).

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,S[ %VI *MKLXIV .IXW -RZMWMFPI# In the past two decades, the technology surrounding military aircraft has substantially advanced. The future of high-tech aircraft is uncertain, but one thing is for sure—jets are becoming stealthy. New innovations have allowed certain aircraft to become nearly invisible to almost all methods of detection. But how exactly can an object become invisible?

How do aircraft become detected?

In order to understand how these aircraft can go undetected, it is rst necessary to understand how they can be detected. There are a few things that make an aircraft detectable: acoustics, thermal, radar, and sight. But once you see or hear a ghter jet, it is probably too late. So, it is important to detect aircraft from far away. Radar is most commonly used for long-distance detection. A radar antenna works by shooting photons outwards and waiting for them to bounce o the aircraft and return to the receiver, which determines the range, distance, and speed of the aircraft.

How can an aircraft work to not be detected by radar?

The simplest way to not be detected by radar is to simply become smaller or use oblique angles. If a radar wave hits an aircraft on a at surface, the particles will bounce directly back to the receiver.

However, if the particles hit an extremely curved or oblique angle, the particles will be directed away from the receiver. Instead of de ecting the radar particles, you can also absorb them. Specialized paints have been developed so that when radar particles hit them, they get absorbed and turn into heat.

However, the nature of these paints is not known—much like the aircraft themselves, there is a high level of secrecy around their undetectable technology.

B-2 spirit bomber, the modern U.S. stealth bomber, re ects so much of the radar particles that when the particles return to the receiver if any, it shows up as a large bird. Keep in mind that the B-2 has a wingspan of 172ft!

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;LEX EVI [SVQLSPIW# On a at surface, the shortest way to get from point A to B is to walk in a straight line that connects the two points. But space is not at, it is curved. To get from point A to B, you would traditionally go the long way on the curvature of space. But using a wormhole would get you there much faster.

Einstein-Rosen Bridges Einstein-Rosen Bridges are bridges between black holes and hypothetical white holes.

Discovered as a solution to Einstein's General Relativity equations, scientists Albert Einstein and Nathan Rosen found that white holes can never be entered, opposite to black holes that pull in all surrounding matter and light. White holes spew out light and matter. As of now, these wormholes only exist mathematically—we have no proof that white holes exist.

Cosmic Strings In string theory, it is hypothesized that the Big Bang caused little wrinkles to be made in the fabric of space. This resulted in cosmic strings. These wrinkles distort the space and time around them, similar to black holes and wormholes. String theorists think that every cosmic string could support a wormhole around it.

What prevents gravity from immediately closing wormholes?

Something has to keep wormholes open. This is where the idea of negative energy comes in. A wormhole has to be lled almost instantaneously with negative energy for it to not collapse immediately.

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8LI 7GMIRGI SJ 1YWMG Music in uences everything. It tells us stories, it allows us to reminisce, and it helps us connect with others. We are all in uenced by the everlasting—and ever-growing— power of music.

Music is created by vibrations, which create sounds or colors. These vibrations are represented by wavelengths or frequencies. Wavelengths that are wider apart have a lower frequency or a lower pitch. Wavelengths that are shorter have a higher frequency or a higher pitch.

See bass guitar vs whistle to the left.

These pitches combine to create chords that evoke a sense of feeling. Minor chords tend to sound ominous, while major chords tend to sound happier and lighter. Our cultural understanding of music in uences this. In the Western World, we have associated these types of chords with their corresponding feelings for so long that we accept this as our own understanding. Think of Lady Gaga’s Bad Romance, written in A minor—dark, displeasing sound, isn’t it?

When listening to chords, it is easy to say some notes sound "good" together and some don't. The terms for this are consonance (pleasing) and dissonance (displeasing). Two notes that sound good together actually have farther apart frequencies compared to two clashing notes. For example, C and G sound good together, since G has a higher frequency while C has a lower frequency in a certain octave.

However, a D and a C don’t sound good together because their frequencies are too similar.

We all have the innate capability to feel and remember music. Every time we listen to music that we like, dopamine is released in our brain. But why can I still remember a tune from my childhood (like Toxic by Britney Spears) but not how to do my physics homework? Why can I hum the melody of a song but forget its lyrics? We seem to remember tunes because of the beat, the rhythm, etc. Music provides an easy cadence that we can remember. Our brain likely stores our memories of music in the auditory complex, which handles information from our ears. But these words don’t really mean much.

The true science of music, of associating feeling with arbitrary notes and wavelengths, is something that we have yet to understand. Perhaps we never will.

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%VI SYV GLSMGIW IZIR SYV S[R# 3V EVI XLI] VSSXIH MR SYV EREXSQ]# As your body grows, so does your brain. Its di erent lobes develop throughout your adolescent years, so that by the time you’re an adult you can think and function correctly. The human brain reaches its complete adult volume at age 10, around a decade before it stops developing. The prefrontal cortex of the brain, which sits behind the forehead, is the last part of the brain to nish maturing (early 20s). Best known for regulating impulses and emotions, the underdeveloped prefrontal cortex of teenagers is often blamed for their reckless decisions and poor judgment.

Since the teenage brain isn’t fully developed to understand consequences and regulate impulses, it has to rely on a di erent part of the brain—the amygdala—to understand decisions. The amygdala, a collection of structured cells in the middle of the brain, is associated with emotional processes: speci cally with the response known as ‘ ght or ight’. Without the logical reasoning of the prefrontal cortex, the use of the amygdala in decision-making can lead teenagers to make emotional and impractical decisions without thinking through the consequences.

Another aspect of decision-making non-speci c to the growing adolescent brain has to do with the formation of neural pathways in the brain that link together ideas, known as heuristics. Three main heuristics, or shortcuts, play a role in our risk assessment and decision making: availability heuristic, representativeness heuristic, anchoring heuristic, and adjustment heuristic. Availability heuristic impacts how somebody understands the situation by recalling past experiences that relate to it. Representativeness heuristic draws conclusions from reinforced stereotypes rather than focusing on statistics and likelihood of occurrence. Anchoring heuristic is the tendency to rely on the rst piece of information learned on a subject. Adjustment heuristic is when the initial information on a subject is adjusted as new information is received, but more often than not, remains close to the anchoring heuristic.

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;MPP GSQTYXIVW GYVI 0]QI HMWIEWI# Lyme disease is a life-threatening illness that is most commonly transmitted by ticks. In the United States alone, the CDC estimates that there are approximately 476,000 cases of Lyme disease per year—a number that has grown roughly 160% in recent years—with more than 1 in 2 ticks carrying Lyme disease in certain areas.

The problem also isn’t just the rate of infection. The true issue lies in the nature of the disease, and how the world hasn’t been able to formally recognize the danger of Lyme disease. For instance, Californian case numbers have grown by 195% from 2015 to 2017— yet, during the same time period, most California hospitals refused to o er antibiotics for Lyme disease.

The longer it takes to treat Lyme disease, the more severe the issue becomes. In fact, if not treated in a timely manner, 10 to 20 percent of patients continue to experience symptoms for months and even years after receiving treatment. The di culty of diagnosis also adds to the problem. Not only do typical symptoms mimic those of more conventional illnesses like the common cold or the u, but blood testing for Lyme is only accurate “29 to 40 percent of the time.” All of these factors cause most doctors to shy away from dealing out Lyme disease diagnoses.

A common preventative measure includes removing embedded ticks before they have the chance to engorge into one’s skin. But this act, known as “tick checking,” isn't foolproof. The sizes of ticks can range drastically, making them hard to identify.

In order to increase the performance of tick checks, scientists have leveraged the integration of arti cial intelligence in order to more accurately detect ticks. Several research papers on this topic have proposed phone applications that use the smartphone’s camera as an input for the AI to output a prediction on.

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'ER %- GVIEXI WIPJ VITPMGEXMRK PMJIJSVQW# Can arti cial intelligence make us immortal? AI allows computers to play GM level chess, drive cars, create interactive NPCs in video games, and seems to read your mind when your phone suggests products for you. Despite these advances, it still sounds like science ction to have a robot that can replicate itself ad in nitum.

First imagine this process . . . but with organic matter.

Scientists have discovered an African frog skin cell that has the ability to replicate itself. From this initial observation, scientists and AI designed xenobots, microscopic fabricated lifeforms that can replicate using cells found in their environment. Xenobots are blobs of frog skin stem cells and cardiac (heart) cells that knit themselves together. After the cells are moved from their normal location on embryonic frogs, they reorganize into balls and repurpose themselves within a few days to swim. Each xenobot has a protrusion (called a “cilia”) that allows it to move around freely. Cell cilia on frogs are used for a di erent purpose than those on xenobots, which demonstrates how well and quickly xenobots adapt.

When xenobots move, they collect loose cells, which form into spheres. These spheres are then used to create more xenobots. This process is a new form of reproduction, known as kinematic self-replication. Previously, this had only been seen in molecules, not in cells or organisms.

Xenobots are groundbreaking—they have numerous possible medical and scienti c uses. This includes clearing microplastics from water, cleaning radioactive waste, repairing injuries, delivering medicines to speci c locations in humans, defeating aging, and so on. The e ect that xenobots would have on life would be astronomical, and an incredible advancement for humans.

In a sense, Xenobots are the world’s rst living, self-healing AI. They are essentially programmable organisms. Are they truly alive? Are they arti cial intelligence? Is it wise to mess with immortality?

These are all important questions, but perhaps ones that we are too afraid to ask.

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)\STPERIX 8V)W F ƈ8LI (EVO /RMKLXƉ Welcome to the planet that is darker than the darkest black on Earth.

Known as “The Dark Knight,” exoplanet TrEs-2b is the darkest planet ever observed orbiting a star. It is 702 light-years from Earth.

This darkness arises from the fact that it re ects only 1% of the light received by its star. Since the planet is so dark, you would think it would be a very cold place. But the opposite is true. The average temperature is 1,800°F—as hot as lava. TrEs-2b’s atmosphere literally burns. Because of this, a few scientists do believe that the planet would emit an ominous, deep red glow.

TrEs-2b is a gas giant, which means it is heavily intoxicated with gasses. It’s gained the nickname “Hot Jupiter.” Compared to this planet, Jupiter is freezing. TrEs-2b is nearly half the size of Jupiter, and shares similar elements like titanium oxide, sodium, and potassium. For a planet so similar, you would expect ammonia clouds—but even this planet is too hot to form those clouds.

If this planet is so dark, then how did astronomers spot it? Well, they didn’t directly. Astronomers found TrEs-2b through a method called “transit.” It’s basically searching for shadows. When a planet passes directly between the telescope and the star it orbits, it blocks some of that star’s light. This tiny change is sometimes enough for astronomers to predict the existence of an exoplanet. 3,854 planets have been discovered through transit, making it the most common method for discovering exoplanets.

Note: A light year is a measure of distance. One light year is how far light can travel in a year. This is 5,878,625,370,000 miles. If we hopped onto a space shuttle and blasted into space at maximum speed, it would take 37,200 human years to travel just one light year. That’s a heck of a long time.

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,EW ER]SRI IZIV GEPPIH ]SY FEREREW# ;IPP XLI]ƅVI RSX IRXMVIP] [VSRK What if I told you that more than 60% of our DNA is identical? Yup, that's right: Humans and bananas are more alike than you think. We share many similar genes, especially those that regulate the cell cycle. This includes genes that replicate DNA and control, cellular division.

Chickens and fruit ies also share a large portion of their DNA with us. The genes found in chickens that build proteins in eggshells are extremely similar to the genes causing bone calci cation in us. Additionally, our response to disease is extremely similar to fruit ies. Almost 75% of genes that cause disease in us are also found in fruit ies.

Scientists have been nding new anti-cancer strategies through fruit y research. Observing ies with cancerous tumors until their death has yielded discoveries of certain chemicals that are produced by tumors which may shorten the life span of the ies.

Since humans and fruit ies are genetically similar, scientists can apply these discoveries to the human body.

All of this information was found in 2003 when the rst human genome was sequenced. Human genome sequencing is used to better understand the way our DNA works. They do this by analyzing our DNA and identifying di erent genes. The rst human genome sequencing cost around one billion dollars. Now, our genomes can be sequenced for less than one thousand dollars. Some companies even claim to have developed the technology to sequence a full genome for just one hundred dollars. If this holds true, we would unlock a treasure trove of genetic information. This data could help uncover and clarify the genetic di erences that set humans apart from one another, which would be crucial for the development of new life-saving medicines and treatments.

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)QSXMSRW MR XLI FVEMR The majority of the brain relies on emotions, particularly the amygdala, insular cortex, periaqueductal gray, and hippocampus—all of which are components of the limbic system.

The limbic system regulates emotion and behavioral responses. The parts of the limbic system adapt to our emotional state. For example, the size of the hippocampus is a ected by moods. When someone is depressed, they have a smaller hippocampus. When someone is happier, they have a larger hippocampus. When someone feels emotion, the brain correlates it to chemical messengers like dopamine, and each messenger is assigned to an emotion which is how the brain recognizes the di erent feelings.

These emotions play a role in our brain's work and even how much we can concentrate. Stress a ects memory and attention span, just like other emotions a ect memory and attention di erently. These variables a ect how we learn, remember or perceive things as time passes on.

There are two di erent ways to remember. First, there is cognitive thinking. Cognitive thinking focuses on retaining outside information. This type of thinking helps us learn more and remember new things. We use cognitive thinking in many di erent aspects of our lives—notably, in school, where we are concerned with learning new topics and facts.

The other way we remember things is through autobiographical thinking. This is more self-induced and mainly about oneself. It involves how you think and react to situations. This is more long-term, consisting of episodes that have been recollected your entire life.

These di erent forms of remembering correlate with our emotions. For example, someone could have a speci c memory that could be autobiographical or cognitive that is associated with emotion and could then be connected with stress. When things are remembered, they connect to speci c emotions, so our brain correlates them together.

The brain is a fully connected system a ected by emotions and di erent types of thinking. Each aspect is a ected by another, and the way we choose to behave changes the productivity and activity of the brain.

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