Designing Quality Public Space for Health and Well-Being

DESIGNING QUALITY PUBLIC SPACE FOR HEALTH + WELLBEING Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture, Leeds Metropolitan University In collaboration with Gehl Architects, Copenhagen, and 8-80 Cities, Toronto

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“green space in urban areas promotes health and well-being” CABE (2010) pp.17

”For a long time past in Western history, there has been an awareness that greenery in the city may help to promote city dwellers’ health”.

Stigsdotter (2005) pp.10

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Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

Photo: Epping Forest, London, UK

background This piece of work constitutes the Masters thesis for Jennifer Humberstone as part of the Masters in Landscape Architecture at the Leeds School of Architecture, Art and Design at Leeds Metropolitan University, U.K. I am conducting this combined research and design work in collaboration with Gehl Architects in Copenhagen to feed into a live project they are undertaking in Toronto. Gehl Architect’s have been funded by a health grant to survey, analyse and create a vision for Berzcy Park, St. James Park and O’Keefe Laneway in Toronto. This thesis will support their work in investigating relevant academic literature regarding health and green infrastructure and using this to structure a design response to these three sites based on the specific context of Toronto.

This thesis is therefore split into three parts. The first comprises a literature review of the relevant academic literature to date discussing the relationship between green infrastructure and health, and how this can have measurable positive social, environmental and economic outcomes. The second section investigates the Toronto city-wide context in terms of current urban design, health statistics and demographics, and how any improvements to the three proposed sites could impact and relate to broader city networks. The third section looks at the three specfiic sites Gehl Architects have been engaged to create a vision for, and uses these as a case study of how apply in practice the outcomes of analysis of current research into recommended design considerations for positive health and well-being in urban public spaces.

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”Only during the most recent century did we stop living lives marked and influenced by the conditions of nature. [...] Modern city environments may be so unnatural as to cause us to more easily experience stress reactions [...], whereas natural environments allow us to relax and rest”.

Stigsdotter (2005) pp.11

“There are 600 million people in the world aged 60 years or over.

According to the WHO (2004) this is predicted to double by the year 2025”.

Burton and Mitchell (2006) pp.18 8

Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

relevance This thesis aims to draw together the current academic literature relating to green infrastructure, urban public places and the positive impact these places can have on health and well-being as part of a broader urban network. This will culminate in a number of general design recommendations for creating high quality, inclusive, and attractive urban places that can be applied to specific case studies, in this case, two parks and a laneway in Toronto.

This research focus and outcome is especially relevant for a number of reasons.

“low levels of physical activity now represent a significant public health challenge [...] around the world. [...]

Investing in parks and green spaces should be seen as an investment in public health”.

Building Health 2007, pp.4-14

Firstly, contemporary world trends show people are living more sedentary lifestyles involving little physical activity (Stigsdottir 2005, Building Health 2007). This has resulted in a significant global public health risk which could be mitigated through designing urban public places which promote physical activity and provide opportunities for social interaction (Building Health 2007).

Secondly, many countries are experiencing aging populations with currently over 600 million people globally over the age of 60 years, and the associated mental and physical health decline this brings to large proportions of the population (WHO in Burton and Mitchell 2006). Over half the global population also now lives in urban environments which have been linked to stress (Stigsdotter 2005). As such, there is an increasing need to ensure urban public spaces are designed to be accessible and inclusive to enable all members of the community to reap the health and wellbeing benefits of social contact, physical activity and exposure to natural green enviornments.

Thirdly, this research is especially relevant in examining not only how urban green spaces can provide these health and well-being benefits, but also relates the design recommendations found to the less-documented role of the recent phenomenon of ‘pop up’ events and activities. These do not always involve exposure to ‘greenery’ but can still have significant well-being benefits via social interaction in hard-landscape small public spaces. This is relevant in demonstrating how the design recommendations can be applied to often overlooked small areas of hard-landscaped urban public space which exist in all cities, such as the laneway in Toronto, rather than just more traditional formal public places such as the park or street.

This thesis aims to draw together the current academic research to compile general design recommendations for creating restorative urban public spaces, applied to the three sites in Toronto which Gehl Architects’ are working as case studies, but which can be applied to other places in the future. These design recommendations will aim to exhibit key qualities about urban public and green spaces that are particularly beneficial to health and well-being whilst ensuring accessibility and inclusion for all to facilitate these benefits reaching the widest range of the population possible. As such this research is highly relevant in researching and applying in practice how urban environments can be better designed for health and well-being benefit due to the contemporary public health problems relating to increased stress in the urban environment and decreased physical activity.

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“The problem is not so much one of structures and broad principles, but interpretation and implementation - the policy/action gap”.

Building Health 2007, pp.6

”The gap between knowledge and action is hard to bridge.”

Moudan (2006) 10

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integrating research + design This thesis aims to collate relevant academic research for creating urban public places which benefit health and well-being, and synthesise this into practical design recommendations which can then be applied to specific case study sites. This demonstrates how academic research can be integrated with practical design application to create genuinely better urban public places.

Through doing this I hope to show how the insight and knowledge gained from scholarly research can genuinely help to inform the design process to create the best possible urban public spaces, which are not only high in aesthetic quality but also really work in practice to benefit all those who use them. For this reason I am priviledged to have the opportunity to work with Gehl Architects on their live project in Toronto to show how these general suggestions could be applied to a specific case study.

It is important to demonstrate how research and design can be integrated to create genuinely improved urban public and green spaces. As Gehl (2010) discusses, often areas being redeveloped include appealing visuals from the architects showing laughing people

and vibrant graphical presentation to incite an attractive atmosphere of what the project aims to become. Whilst these attractive ideals and visions for these sites can indeed become reality through good design, upon implementation this potential is not always realised if designs are not based in a solid understanding of what works in reality. Jacobs (1961) discusses the fixed ideas planners and architects have of what makes a place successful but need to learn more from examples of when this doesn’t work and why. Academic research, as well as learning from other examples (both good and bad), is therefore a good way to ensure urban public places become the vibrant attractive places they were dreamed to be.

Moudan discusses this importance of such an approach in integrating academic research theories and practical design action to achieve the best results upon implementation (Moudan 2006). This thesis aims to demonstrate how this is possible.

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executive summary This thesis investigates the way careful and considered design of the built environment can act to positively impact upon the health and well-being of both users of these urban public places and those who have views of them. The knowledge gained from this academic literature review is synthesised into design recommendations for designing urban public places to best benefit health and well-being, which are then applied to the Toronto specific context on three case study sites which Gehl Architects are currently creating a vision for. This demonstrates how the wealth of academic literature and research can be condensed into key design recommendations and related to site specific sites, thereby addressing a common problem of high quality academic literature struggling to be applied in practice. This thesis is therefore split into three sections; a literature review, the toronto context, and application of the design recommendations to the three specific Toronto sites.

The academic literature review defined health and wellbeing in this context. Health is defined as “the state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (WHO 1946) and well-being as “quality of life, happiness and

satisfaction” (CABE 2010). These two qualities have been shown to be interlinked and are states which this thesis aims to promote through design of the built environment.

This section also discusses both the historic and contemporary academic literature regarding the built environment and health and well-being. This includes key authors such as Jane Jacobs, Jan Gehl, Roger Ulrich and Kaplan and Kaplan, and touches upon ideas of ‘biophilia’, improved healing times in hospitals with views of green space, and ways in which the built environment can promote health and well-being through encouraging social interaction, green mobility, physical exercise, and reduction in stress through restorative experiences. The literature also examines the importance of creating inclusive and accessible urban public and green spaces to enable all potential users in the community to gain these health and wellbeing benefits. The literature review then examines these key aspects of how the built environment can positively impact health and well-being in individual indepth sections entitled; physical activity, green mobility, restorative environments, specific user groups and social interaction.

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...executive summary The academic literature review also discusses how, given the vast amount of qualitative research supporting the beneficial aspects of urban public and green spaces for public health and well-being, it can be argued that these places have a value. The challenge has come in finding a method to quantitatively value such complex multifaceted spaces and their impact (Genecon LLP 2008, The Trust for Public Land 2009). This section discusses the potential ways to economically value such spaces, giving case study examples.

Through synthesising the consensus found within this academic literature review for those qualities found in places most beneficial to health and well-being, this thesis found 12 key design recommendations for creating urban public places best for good health.

These design recommendations include creating a place which is; sensory rich, has flexible spaces, is walkable, has places for play, a variety of different spaces, is distinctive, facilitates events and activities, is easily navigated, inclusive and accessible, is green and restorative, has excellent facilities and is safe and secure.

In the second section of this thesis, the Toronto context is considered both in terms of the city-wide health context and site-specific survey information for the three sites to which these 12 design recommendations will be applied. This includes a section investigating the statistics for health and well-being in Toronto

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at present, including those health conditions such as obesity and coronary heart disease which can be positively impacted by physical activity or green mobility encouraged by high quality urban public and green spaces. Also examined are Toronto’s statistics for mental well-being as high quality green or public places have been linked to reducing stress and aiding well-being through social-interaction. This section then examines the three sites; Berzcy Park, St. James Park and the O’Keefe laneway in Toronto, in terms of site survey and analysis. This includes investigation of their locations, local green space analysis, healthcare facilities, user surveys, user demographic information, qualitative site surveys as conducted by Gehl Architects according to their own 12 quality criteria, and survey of both active and passive frontages onto these sites.

The final third section of the thesis is the vision for the three sites in Toronto. These three sites are used as case studies which the 12 design recommmendations this thesis suggested are then applied to in practice.

This demonstrates the integration of academic theory and applied practical design to enable the best possible outcomes for, in this case, health and well-being in urban public places. This section includes the design brief for each site based on the site survey and analysis.

It also includes some initial ideas based on ‘what if?’ notions for creating a vision for each space. This third section then applies the 12 design recommendations proposed by this thesis to each site, to create a vision

for how each site could best be designed and improved to promote health and well-being in Toronto.

As such this thesis aims to integrate the synthesised outcomes of the academic literature on this topic to create a set of general design recommendations which can be applied in practice to any specific site.

Whilst the result of the 12 design recommendations’ application will inevitably vary according to each specific site, as has been shown by the three very different sites considered in this thesis, these design recommendations are both flexible enough to work with the different contexts in which they can be applied but also specific enough to provide real guidelines for designing urban public places which are the most beneficial for the health and well-being of the community who will use them. This work could be furthered with supporting complementary investigation of how a place designed according to these principles has economic value in terms of reducing local healthcare spending as well as the other positive economic and social outcomes which have been shown to result from such improvements. In this way, this thesis hopes to not only take a step toward demonstrating how urban public places can best be designed for health and well-being in practice based on an integration of research and design application, but also in arguing for the value of high quality urban public and green places in terms of health, economically and socially.

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L I T E R A T U R E R E V I E W D E F I N I N G H E A L T H + W E L L - B E I N G T H E B U I L T E N V I R O N M E N T + H E A L T H V A L U I N G G R E E N S P A C E T H E I M P A C T O F D E S I G N D E S I G N R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S

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“Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”.

World Health Organisation 1948

“If ‘health’ is a positive state, then ‘well-being’ is the feeling of being in good health”.

Stigsdotter (2005) pp.15

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defining health + well-being For this thesis to discuss how urban public places and green infrastructure can benefit the health and wellbeing of those who experience it, and determine design recommendations based on the findings, it is first necessary to define these terms.

The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines health as “the state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (WHO 1946). This has become a prolific definition of health globally and as such is the definition used in this research. It can also be related to environmental health, in that environmental health is not just the absence of environmental contamination but a more holistic and complex quality (Campbell and Wiesen 2009). This WHO (1946) definition highlights the multi-faceted nature of ‘health’ and ‘well-being’.

Through careful management of open spaces a positive impact can be made on both environmental and human health.

The term ‘well-being’ is complex to define. Stigsdotter (2005, pp.15) defines well-being as simply the “feeling of being in good health”. Halpern (1995, pp.3) relates the term ‘well-being’ to ‘mental health’, which he argues is “the condition of being free of psychiatric symptoms and having a subjective feeling of well-being”. The Centre for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE) uses the term well-being to mean “quality of life, happiness and satisfaction”, which they argue involves physical health, income and wealth, relationships, meaningful work and leisure, personal stability and lack of depression (CABE 2010). Similar to environmental health being more than an absence of environmental contamination, it can therefore also be argued that

‘well-being’ involves more than an absence of mental illness but rather a range of other positive factors which bring about a general feeling of well-being. However, the restorative properties of natural environments and their ability to positively impact on mental illnesses is relevant in that this contributes to the overall, more holistic, sense of well-being and health.

As such it is also necessary to define mental illness.

Halpern (1995, pp.2-3) defines mental illness as “a range of chronic, subjectively unpleasant psychological conditions, which may range from a cluster of mild symptoms such as listlessness, bodily symptoms without organic causes, and feelings of depressed or anxious mood, to gross pathology, such as hearing voices that are not there, feeling that one’s thoughts are being broadcast, or showing grossly disordered thought”. Halpern (1995) reviews mental health literature to suggest that most researchers have found that over the course of a month, around 1 in 3 to 1 in 5 people suffer from some sort of mental illness as shown by symptoms such as fatigue, sleep problems, or irritability. However, research shows that less than 1 in 5 of these people will consult their doctor about these symptoms (General Household Survey, 1980). These symptoms form the vast majority of mental illness and are often termed sub-clinical or undifferentiated neuroses (Halpern 1995). This demonstrates the significant impact urban public and green spaces can have through promoting health and well-being through alleviating the common symptoms of these most common sub-clinical mental illnesses.

There has been shown to be a profound link between the human mind and body (Lerner 1994). As such our

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”Scientific disciplines consider health to be a positive and holistic state encompassing the individual’s entire life situation: biological, cultural, social and [...] environmental aspects”.

physical health can influence our mental well-being, including ability to form relationships, enjoy recreation and work productively. Equally, our emotional states of mind and behavioural patterns can profoundly affect our physiological health (Lerner 1994). Campbell and Wiesen (2009) argue this means through creating public places which foster feelings of security, connection, acceptance and empowerment, we can build places that strengthen community health both in terms of physical health and psychological well-being.

This thesis will investigate how urban public and green spaces are linked to health and well-being, enabling the suggestion for ‘best practice’ design recommendations for creating urban places which are beneficial to community health and well-being. Stigsdotter (2005) argues that during recent decades an increasing number of research disciplines have focussed on ways to positively impact human health in recognition of it being perhaps the most important resource for sustainable development in the modern world. CABE (2010) argues that health and well-being is not only linked to the quality of urban public and green spaces, but also social and economic inequalities, ethnicity, quality of life, relationships and social interaction and leisure and recreation opportunities. Throughout this thesis it will be important to remember that whilst there are discrete definitions for health and well-being, they form part of an interlinked and integrated holistic network of physical and social phenomenon in the urban environment.

Stigsdotter (2005) pp.3

”According to the Swedish government, good health has now become a resource - perhaps even the [...] most important for sustainable development”.

Stigsdotter (2005) pp.3

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“Social interaction has been shown to be good for mental health as well as general well-being.

It is a central part of people’s quality of life.”

Burton and Mitchell (2006) pp.42

“Human health and well-being are intimately connected to a sense of agency that can be cultivated through education and community organizing”.

Campbell & Wiesen 2009, pp.19 Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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“Studies show that people’s everyday environments are of great importance to their stress levels and health”.

Stigsdottir (2005) pp.26

“There is no simple one-to-one relationship between well-being, health and the [...] built environment [...] due to the multidimensional nature of integrated sensuous-aesthetic experiences [...] but this does not diminish [the physical surroundings] significance for our well-being and health” Cold (2001) pp.25-28 22

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the built environment + health There has been a long history of academics linking the built environment with health and well-being.

As long ago as 15BC Vitruvius (1999) contended that health was the first requirement an architect should consider. In Vitruvius’ Ten Books on Architecture (1999, ca. 15BC) he argued that the most ‘healthful’ site for a city was one which is “elevated, not cloudy, not liable to frost, facing those regions of the sky which are neither hot nor cold but temperate” (Stigsdottir 2005, pp.13). Vitruvius also argued the layout of houses and geographical position of the city should ensure winds are excluded from streets/alleys to not only create a pleasant place to live but also to promote health.

More recently 19th Century American Landscape Architects were working with medical practicioners to design parks beneficial to public health prior to germ theory (Campbell & Wiesen 2009). These environments usually included access to sunlight, water, clean air and vegetative diversity based on evolutionary instincts (Campbell & Wiesen 2009). Also around and shortly following this time, Camillo Sitte’s 1889 ‘Der Stadtebau nach seinen kunsterlischen Grundsatzen’ and Le Corbusier’s 1925 ‘Urbanisme’ also considered human health and well-being and how this connected with city forms. However, it was not until the 1943 Athens Charter written by Le Corbusier that health played a more prominent role. The Athens Charter was a modernist text criticising the traditional city in contrast to previous academic such as Sitte. It made recommendations based on geometry, functionality, efficiency of transport movement, and most notably, the importance of ‘green lungs’ in cities to promote health and well-being. This modernist approach has

since been criticised for the creation of tall tower blocks surrounded by large expanses of monotonous grass, as whilst the ideals of creating healthy, dense cities which improved quality of life can be applauded, the methodology for doing this via this modernist typology failed to work in practice in terms of social and environmental quality.

In the decades following modernism, a greater acknowledgement of the holistic nature of the urban ecosystem and our relationship with the local environmental context was found. McHarg (1969) discussed the Eastern ideology of ‘man in nature’ as opposed to the Western notion of ‘man superior to nature’ and argued for consideration of the existing natural processes to create the most suitable urban design and use of the land. There was also increasing academic work relating to the way people experience the urban environment, notably Kevin Lynch’s 1960 ‘The image of the city’, and Jan Gehl’s 1971 ‘Livet mellem husene’ which related people’s needs and environmental psychology. Both Lynch and Gehl combined research with architectural practice to help define how urban spaces can best be designed for the human senses (Stigsdottir 2005). Jane Jacobs (1961) was also influential in arguing a ‘critical mass’ was necessary for the vibrancy of urban streets and that places should be designed to create walkable, dense, liveable places. These academics prompted greater investigation into designing the urban built environment with people’s quality of life and well-being considered.

A greater focus on how the built environment specifically related to health was found from the 1980s with increasing academic interest in the restorative and

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...the built environment + health mental well-being benefits of natural environments.

E.O. Wilson (1984) coined the term ‘‘biophilia’’ to refer to what he and his colleagues hypothesized is a fundamental, genetically based human need and propensity to affiliate with ‘‘life and lifelike processes’’ (Kahn et al 2009 pp.37). This biophilia hypothesis was found to have economic, psychological and health benefits (Kellert et al 2008), and relates to Roger Ulrich’s much cited 1984 study which examined recovery times and pain medication required by patients in a hospital where half the patients rooms had views of a brick wall, and the other of trees. Ulrich (1984) showed that patients with views of trees spent fewer days in their hospital and required less pain medication.

This proved the biophilic aspects of the view itself could work to help heal those in poor health and also sparked interest into the potential economic benefits of improving health using the biophilic hypothesis. This led to interest in how to best integrate natural environments into urban areas through elements such as parks and water to promote community health and well-being.

Following these historic studies of the relationship between the built environment and health, over the last two decades there has been increasing focus on the link between the built environment and mental illnesses such as stress. This has included research investigating how mental well-being can be positively impacted by urban environments designed to mitigate these conditions as a result of primarily biophilic tendancies and social interaction, with an increasing focus on ensuring these spaces are inclusive and accessible to all (Burton and Mitchell 2006, Kellert et al 2008, Halpern 1995, Kaplan and Kaplan 1998, Stigsdottir

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2005). Jan Gehl’s (1987) book Life Between Buildings was groundbreaking in highlighting the importance of streets and other spaces between buildings in creating cities which promote well-being and quality of life through social interaction based on walkable, human scale places. Halpern’s (1995) research looked at a ‘problem estate’ and analysed whether mental health could be improved through environmental intervention.

It was found that refurbishment of the estate caused residents’ mental health to improve, particularly anxiety. Halpern’s (1995) research helped clarify the key ways the built environment can impact on mental health, arguing that there are four main channels of influence. These are as a source of stress resulting from pollution, noise, heat, weather or high social densities, as an influence over social networks and support, through symbolic effects and social labelling, and through the action of participation in the planning process itself. Also particularly significant are Kaplan and Kaplan, whose 1998 book ‘With People in Mind’ aimed to make accessible their results in the field of environmental psychology to the architecture and planning profession, and Kellert et al (2008) who related to the broader theory of biophilic design to argue that through positive references to our evolutionary heritage in design of current habitats, positive psychological and healing benefits can be achieved. More recently, Kahn et al (2009) have built on Ulrich’s (1984) work to conduct research investigating the impact of nature on well-being by sitting subjects next to a glass window overlooking a natural scene, a plasma hi-definitive television showing a similar scene, and a brick wall, then measuring how restorative these views were based on the participants recovery time from stressors.

Kahn et al (2009) found that the brick wall was least restorative, the glass window most restorative, but that the plasma television to be almost as restorative as the glass window. This highlighted the potential for technology to help create restorative environments in where views of ‘real nature’ were not possible.

These are just a selection of some of the most relevant recent research regarding the links between the built environment and mental health and well-being. They form part of a larger network of inter-related literature regarding health and well-being and the factors which can impact either positively or negatively on this. Whilst the built environment is certainly a factor affecting health and well-being, the literature has moved away from a determinist approach to the built environment and health, to instead acknowledge the interconnected complex world we live in, and the many factors which affect our health and well-being (Cold 2001).

Health and well-being have specifically been integrated into wider discussions of sustainable city design by academics such as Jabareen (2006) who incorporate design concepts such as creating walkable cities and ensuring plentiful green space as part of their models of recommended sustainable urban development.

Jabareen (2006) discusses popular contemporary design concepts such as high density, mixed use, greenery, compactness and diversity, and relates these to four types of sustainable urban city form. Jabareen (2006) argues the four types of sustainable urban form include the eco-city, compact city, neo-traditional development and urban compactness. Throughout his work Jabareen (2006) argues that whichever urban

form is adhered to, the benefits of compact, dense and green cities relate to creating walkable, bikeable places which promote social interaction and therefore health and well-being. This ties in with the increasing recent focus on promoting healthy lifestyles through physical activity and green mobility in cities, as a key way to target the contemporary threats to health and well-being of obesity, stress and sedentary lifestyles as well as creating more sustainable city forms (Building Health 2007, DTLH 2002, Jabareen 2006).

This contemporary approach in the literature to the built environment and health ties in with Kelbaugh’s (2001) concepts of ‘everyday’ and ‘new’ urbanism. Kelbaugh (2001) argues that everyday urbanism involves a nonstructuralist, non-utopian approach that focusses on the everyday reality of cities in practice. This relates to Gehl (1987) and Jacobs (1961) work regarding social interaction in public places and how to best design urban places for people in practice, and Halpern (1995) and Ulrich’s (1984) studies about the impact of the built environment on individuals in everyday real life situations. In this way the literature regarding the built environment and health relates to ‘everyday urbanism’.

However because of the academic literature’s implied, at least partial, structural link between a person’s environment and their health and well-being outcomes, together with notions that architects should design for an ‘ideal’ city form that best promotes health and wellbeing, perhaps Kelbaugh’s (2001) description of a ‘new urbanism’ approach is more accurate. New urbanism is based on a combination of structural behavioural links between the built form and social behaviour, notions of an ‘ideal’ utopian city form exhibiting classic

urban virtues such as density, walkability and diversity, and whereby good design is a method to promote inclusion and social interaction. Kelbaugh (2001) also describes new urbanism as aiming to foster social interaction and sense of community, connecting diverse people with the larger culture and natural ecology, and creating pedestrian friendly streets which reduce car use and improve green mobility. In this way, both the contemporary literature on the topic of how the built environment can best promote health and well-being, and this thesis, generally take a new urbanist approach.

Contemporary research therefore integrates the historic literature with more recent academic thinking to highlight the benefits for health and well-being of designing the built environment to promote physical activity, green mobility, social interaction and for specific user groups who most benefit from inclusion and access to well-designed beneficial urban public and green spaces. The key arguments and contemporary academic discussion for each of these elements is discussed in the following section. Whilst this could be considered a new urbanist approach, I intend to avoid Beatley’s (2000) criticism that new urbanism sometimes has a gap between its rhetoric and the result by integrating the academic research with a practical example case study of the Berzcy and St. James Parks and O’Keefe Laneway in Toronto to demonstrate how these ideals can be put into practice.

“Investing in parks and green spaces should be seen as an investment in public health.”

Building Health 2007, pp.14

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“people tend to prefer natural environments more than built environments, and built environments with water, trees, and other vegetation more than built environments without such features�

Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, Kahn et al 2009 pp.37

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“Green space has been linked with environments that are both more walkable and more playable” CABE (2010) pp.12

“The more attractive parks and urban green spaces become, the more people are likely to use them for physical activity, as well as to benefit their mental well-being.”

Building Health 2007, pp.14

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“the layout of towns, cities and buildings can create everyday opportunities to be physically active [...] this has enormous potential influence population levels of physical activity and therefore improve health”.

Building Health 2007, pp.4

“Evidence abounds that interventions in the physical environment are highly effective at influencing health and health-behaviours.

Environmental interventions have [...] been shown to be more successful in influencing physical activity rates than those based on information or media campaigns” Mitchell and Popham 2008 pp.12

P H Y S I C A A C

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Creating an environment in which physical activity is promoted is one way in which the built environment can positively influence health and well-being.

There has been increasing academic focus on the relationship between physical activity and the urban environment, and how cities can be designed to influence opportunities to be physically active as part of our everyday lives (Edwards & Tsouros 2006). As contemporary public health threats have been shown to include obesity and stress (Stigsdottir 2005, CABE 2010, Building Health 2007), there is a strong case for promoting physical activity through investing in high quality urban public places to benefit community health and well-being, reduce expenditure on treating these and associated conditions, and encourage green mobility for more sustainable cities. Increasing physical activity has been shown to help prevent and manage over 20 conditions and diseases, including reduced stress, and reduced risk of stroke, coronary heart disease and obesity (Building Health Report 2007, 2007b). As such there is an increasing drive

to utilise the urban environment to promote physical activity and therefore health.

other passers-by (Gehl 1987, 2010, Building Heatlh 2007b).

The academic literature shows that investing in and creating urban public places with adequate facilities and qualities attractive for physical activity and exercise, both physical health, mental well-being and associated behaviours are promoted. Mitchell and Popham (2008) argue that environmental interventions in improving the built environment are more successful at encouraging physical activity than other methods such as information or media campaigns. This demonstrates how important investment in improving urban public and green spaces is for creating a built environment which promotes physical activity, health and well-being (CABE 2010, Building Health 2007b). Aside from the more wellknown physical health benefits of promoting physical activity outdoors, associated positive behaviours include encouraging exposure to natural environments such as parks which have notable restorative mental health benefits, and increased passive and active social interaction in group exercise activities or observing

Physical activity using urban public spaces includes jogging, children’s active outdoor play, more organised group exercise such as outdoor gym classes, or as part of everyday cycling or walking routes. The benefits of using outdoor spaces for these activities include their democratic and accessible nature as a free resource for physical activity by anyone in the community (DTLR 2002). Through use of publically accessible places to promote physical activity, the widest range of the local community can be included in opportunities for exercise and activities beneficial to health. As a result, the Building Health (2007) report makes the case for investment in public places and parks for physical activity as the best way to address widespread contemporary public health challenges through creating everyday opportunities for exercise by the majority of the population.

“There is evidence [...] urban green space impacts on quality of life through improved health, with key benefits including stress reduction and improved physical activity”

L T I V I T Y

CABE (2010) pp.13

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“Free access to good quality parks and green space enables people to take exercise. [...] Exercise can significantly reduce the risk of strokes, coronary heart disease [...] as well as reducing stress which is the biggest cause of lost days at work” DTLR (2002) pp.12

“The more attractive parks and urban green spaces become, the more people are likely to use them for physical activity, as well as to benefit their mental well-being.”

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“The built environment has a significant impact on health through a number of interrelated issues including the provision of outdoor facilities and opportunities for play, active recreation and sport for both children and adults”.

Building Health 2007b, pp.42

“low levels of physical activity now represent a significant public health challenge [...] around the world. Investing Building Health 2007b, pp.33 in parks and green spaces should be seen as an investment in public health�.

Building Health 2007, pp.4-14

Building Health 2007, pp.4

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Green mobility includes more environmentally sustainable modes of transport such as walking and cycling instead of more traditional vehicular methods of transport.

Urban public and green spaces can help to promote green mobility by creating well-designed pleasant environments and networks of routes for walking and cycling (DTLR 2002). This is also beneficial in promoting health and well-being as a result of encouraging physical activity and social interaction through walkable, liveable, human scale cities built with pedestrians and cyclists in mind (Building Health 2007b, Gehl 2001, CABE 2010). As such, by creating urban places and green urban routes most suitable for cycling and walking, not only does this promote physical health and pschological well-being, but also reduces stress and obesity related healthcare costs, and addresses other sustainable goals such as reducing car usage and mitigating climate change (Building Health 2007b, CABE 2010, DTLR 2002).

The Building Health (2007b) report argues that the 1963 Buchanan report ‘Traffic in Towns’, which argued for segregation of cars and pedestrians for efficient motor

transport movement, was a major cause in creating cities which made walking and cycling unattractive by causing fragmented, degraded public realms. This built on the 1943 Athens Charter by Le Corbusier which advised the same approach. Contemporary academic thought in urban design theory has changed considerably, moving away from modernist ideas and car-dominated realms and instead toward shared spaces and integration of green mobility as a priority in the urban form (CABE 2010, DTLR 2002). Today, there is evidence that the public is in favour of transport policies that support walking, cycling and public transport, even if these disadvantage the private car (Barton and Hill 2005, in Building Health 2007b pp.35).

This public support agrees with contemporary academic thinking and policy reports by organisations such as the UK’s Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE 2010), and the Building Health report (2007) compiled by a range of experts in the field, who advise integrating urban green spaces such as parks with high quality walkable urban public space to create more liveable, walkable cities which promote green mobility and physical activity.

The Building Health (2007b) report argues the three

main problems currently facing urban planning are single-use developments, low densities and poor walking and cycling routes. By addressing these problems, the report argues physical activity can be promoted by prioritising attractive walking and cycling routes, and encouraging high density, mixed use areas to increase local demand for facilities and services within walking distances of homes. Both the Building Health (2007) report, CABE (2010), Gehl (1987, 2010) and Jacobs (1961) emphasise the importance of improving the attractiveness of places to movement on foot by creating “connected, comfortable, convenient, convivial and conspicuous” places (Building Health 2007b, pp.18) with a vibrant street life, human-scale walkable qualities and use of urban green spaces.

Recent literature also suggests that reducing car speeds to 20mph whereby drivers have to be aware of their social context and protocols, and creating shared spaces which enable the type of spontaneous, informal activities most associated with health and well-being are key to creating attractive, liveable cities which promote green mobility and wider health, well-being and social interaction (Gehl 2001, Jacobs 1961, Building Health 2007, CABE 2010).

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“A shift from the car towards walking and cycling would contribute to objectives in physical activity, public health, reducing healthcare costs, climate change, emissions reduction, social inclusion, quality of life, tackling antisocial behaviour, and even security of energy supply”.

Building Health 2007b, pp.34

“parks and green spaces are important elements of safe routes for pedestrians and cyclists, making walking and cycling more attractive to people” DTLR (2002) pp.13

“Green space has been linked with environments that are both more walkable and more playable” CABE (2010) pp.12

I T Y

“‘Walkability’ refers to the general attractiveness of a place to movement on foot. The decrease in walkability over recent years has resulted from decades of planning during which provision for pedestrians and cyclists was prioritised way below that for motor vehicles”.

Building Health 2007, pp.7

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“evidence shows regular physical activity contributes to the prevention and management of over 20 conditions and diseases, including coronary heart disease, certain forms of cancer, being overweight and obesity”.

Building Health 2007, pp.4

“Open space should be accessible for pedestrians, cyclists and public transport, and have adequate cycle parking, and promote active travel.”.

Building Health 2007, pp.17

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“the layout of towns, cities and buildings can create everyday opportunities to be physically active [...] this has enormous potential influence population levels of physical activity and therefore improve health�.

Building Health 2007, pp.4

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R E S T O R A E N V I R O “research has consistently shown the benefit of green space to cognitive restoration, self-discipline, reduced aggression and reduced crime” Kuo and Sullivan (2001a, 2001b) in CABE (2010) pp.13

“There is now considerable evidence that contact with nature can promote improved mood, improved attention, reduced stress and anxiety and reduced severity of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in children.”

CABE (2010) pp.13

“today, more and more people are feeling stressed and need places where they can find rest and experience recovery”.

Stigsdotter (2005) pp.29

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T I V E O N M E N T S There have been a number of significant academic studies since the 1980s investigating the relationship between natural environments and human health and mental well-being. These are based on the biophilia hypothesis (Wilson 1984), Attention Restoration Theory (Kaplan and Kaplan 1989), and various studies providing evidence that exposure to natural environments improves mental health and well-being through improved concentration, work productivity, faster healing times and reduced stress and anxiety (Ulrich 1984, Building Health 2007, CABE 2010, Stigsdottir 2005, Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, Kaplan and Talbot 1983). This has created a strong case for investing in high quality urban public green spaces and integrating carefully considered natural greenery into the urban realm where possible to help mitigate common public health challenges such as stress, anxiety and depression and promote health and wellbeing (Stigsdottir 2005, Building Health 2007b, Kaplan 2005).

Two of the most significant benefits of natural environments for human well-being have therefore been found to be reduction in stress as originally

argued by Roger Ulrich (1984) and in restoring the capacity to focus attention as based on Attention Restoration Theory (Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, Kaplan and Talbot 1983). Research has shown that both stress and blood pressure can be reduced by either visual contact or prescence in green spaces, which are both psychologically and physiologically ‘restorative’ (Mitchell and Popham 2008, pp.3). Kaplan (1995) describes how stress can manifest when one feels pressured, anxious, exasperated or tired, and that this ‘stress’ actually refers to both stress-related and attentional components of the feeling which lead people to seek restorative experiences. As such stress can be reduced by experience of restorative natural ‘green’ environments both in terms of reduced anxiety and restoration of attention. Kaplan and Kaplan (1989), and Kaplan (1995) in turn, discuss Attention Restoration Theory, which is based on William James’s (1892) concept of ‘voluntary attention’ or ‘directed attention’ whereby an individual may become fatigued by deliberately paying more attention and focussing on something despite distractions. As long ago as the 19th Century, Landscape Architect Frederick Law Olmsted (1865) realised urban environments may cause fatigue

due to greater instances of required directed attention due to work, navigating the urban environment or stress, and used promoted natural environments through park design to enable urban dwellers to recover their capacity to focus and reduce stress (Olmsted 1865, Kaplan 1995). Kaplan (1995) argues Attention Restoration Theory allows analysis of the kinds of experiences and environments which allow restoration of capacity for directed attention. Kaplan (1995) argues that views or presence in natural environments are best for regaining this capacity as they instead allow ‘indirected’, ‘involuntary’ or ‘fascination’ attention, thereby promoting human effectiveness, concentration, reflection, restoration and well-being.

Cooper-Marcus and Barnes (2005) argue research has shown restorative environments can promote health and well-being in four ways; by viewing natural scenes, horticultural therapy, the experience of being ‘in nature’, and outdoor environments chosen as stress-reducing settings. A number of significant studies, such as that by Roger Ulrich (1984), have shown the impact of greenery and viewing nature on healing times in hospital and in improving mood. Rachel Kaplan’s (1973) and Kaplan Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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and Talbot’s (1983) studies also showed outdoor activities such as gardening or horticultural therapy promoted biophilic feelings, sensory joy, and tranquillity, resulting in positive mood changes (Kaplan 1973, Kaplan and Talbot 1983). This agrees with Oliver Sacks contention that ‘hortiphilia’ promotes health through environmental stewardship of the land and Campbell and Wiesen’s (2009) argument that environmental stewardship can have a positive impact on mental health and well-being through enabling community projects which provide employment and capacity building, youth empowerment, social interaction and health food promotion in a more reciprocal act of caring between people and landscape (Campbell and Wiesen 2009). This also supports the findings of both CABE’s (2010) report and the Building Health report (2007) which highlight the multiple additional benefits of community activities outdoors in public or green spaces for promoting social interaction, inclusion, physical activity and engagement as well as restorative pschological benefits. The positive psychological effects of experiencing immersion in natural environments has been further investigated in significant research by Kaplan and Talbot 1983, Kimball 1983 and Ewert 1990 into (Cooper-Marcus and Barnes 1995).

However, urban public and green spaces need to be carefully designed to maximise their restorative and well-being properties. Kaplan (1995) argues a restorative environment must involve ‘being away’ and free from mental activity requiring directed attention.

Traditional examples included large ‘wild’ environments mountains or forests, but can also be found in the urban context where the localised environment is rich and coherent enough to constitute a ‘whole other world’ (Kaplan 1995). Stigsdotter (2005) argues that not all gardens or green spaces have healing restorative properties, and as such need to be carefully designed from an evolutionary perspective to best promote health. Kaplan (1995) also highlights that there is no one ‘ideal’ restorative environment, rather there are some common features that appeal to most people but each individual will have a subjective compatibility with certain types of environment. Commonly beneficial elements, however, include environments which provide ‘soft’ fascination such as clouds, sunsets, or the movement of leaves which can effortlessly hold attention. This thesis aims to use those aspects of natural environments which most benefit restorative experiences and apply these in design recommendations for the urban public realm.

”For a long time past in Western history, there has been an awareness that greenery in the city may help to promote city dwellers’ health”.

Stigsdotter (2005) pp.10

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“natural environments [are] particularly rich in the characteristics necessary for restorative experiences”.

Kaplan 1995, pp.169

“people who live in the greenest neighbourhoods experience lower allcause mortality and lower mortality from circulatory diseases than similar people living in less green neighbourhoods.

This [...] demonstrates that living in a literally greener and leafier neighbourhood is good for your health.”

Mitchell et al (2008) in CABE (2010b) pp.11

“The [restorative] environment must have extent, [...] be rich enough and coherent enough so that it constitutes a whole other world, [...] of sufficient scope to engage the mind” Kaplan 1995 pp.173

“there is no disagreement over the point that [...] stress reduction is aided by natural environment experience” Kaplan 1995 pp.169

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“studies indicate that the prescence of natural greenery in a scene has a high correlation with stress reduction”

“local facilities for sport and play [should] be accessible to all groups, including those who may have difficulty in travelling distances, such as the young, the elderly, the disabled and low-income earners” Wheway and John (2004) in Building Health 2007b, pp.50

Ulrich, 1984, Cooper-Marcus and Barnes 1995, pp.2

“The built environment is causally implicated in the aetiology of mental illness, and especially in the types of mild psychiatric and somatic symptoms that are common in the community”.

Halpern (2005) pp.205

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The academic literature discussing the built environment’s impact on health and well-being not only relates to its impact on the population as a whole but can also have particular importance for certain user groups. The built environment can have a highly beneficial effect on health and well-being through enabling passive and active social interaction, providing a restorative environment, and promoting physical activity (CABE 2010, Building Health 2007). However for these benefits to reach all potential users it is important to ensure the urban environment is inclusive and accessible to all members of the community, including those older people, younger people and those with physical, sensory or psychological impairment who may need additional facilities or consideration in designing barrier-free environments (Burton and Mitchell 2006).

Burton and Mitchell (2006) argue the importance of creating an urban environment which caters for people of all ages, including those who are older and may subsequently have reduced physical or psychological ability. Burton and Mitchell (2006) argue that traditionally the built environment has been designed with the average, young, healthy, male in mind. With currently

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over 600 million people in the world aged 60 years and over, and this predicted to double by the year 2005 (WHO 2004, in Burton and Mitchell 2006, pp.18), it is important to design environments suitable for those with sensory impairments such as declining hearing and vision, experiencing physical decline in terms of strength and stamina, or mental decline such as dementia or difficulty navigating which can restrict their use of outdoor spaces. These cognitive impairments or reduced physical ability can manifest themselves as concerns about being knocked over in busy environments or on narrow or uneven footpaths, fear of being attacked, a need for facilities such as publically accessible toilets in urban public spaces, more frequent seating opportunities, a need for easy way-finding to prevent disorientation, clearly signalled public buildings, gently inclining slopes, and a need for local shops and other facilities to be within easy walking distance.

Burton and Mitchell (2006) found in their research of older people’s experience of public space that going out is a huge importance of many older people with five key benefits; promoting sense of freedom and autonomy, dignity and self-worth, providing fresh air and exercise for physical health, pyschological wellbeing and enjoyment in terms of social interaction and

achieving tasks. Green public spaces such as parks or streets with trees are also particularly beneficial to older people in hot climatic conditions by cooling temperatures by up to 3 degrees Celsius (DTLR 2002).

Where the built environment is not seen as accessible through inclusive design, barriers to use are created whereby older people may be reluctant to venture outside into urban public places, which could otherwise have had a beneficial impact on their health and wellbeing (Burton and Mitchell 2006). Academic research

by Stigsdottir (2005) supports this contention, finding that elderly residents did long to be outdoors in urban public places such as the park, but that their ability to do this depended on both physical and psychological accessibility, such as clear routes to enable finding their way back home, and plentiful benches (every 25m) should they need to suddenly sit down (Stigsdottir 2005). As such, for older people to gain the health and well-being benefits of experiencing urban public and green spaces it is necessary to remove barriers and create inclusive, accessible urban environments which everyone can enjoy regardless of physical or cognitive impairment.

Younger people, particularly children are discussed

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“Until the design of the built environment takes into account the diverse needs of all users, many people will continue to be restricted or excluded from the outside world”.

Burton and Mitchell (2006) pp.19

“The improvements people want to see in urban green spaces are [...] related to good design and management focused on meeting people’s needs, overcoming barriers to use, and providing a high-quality and varied experience for the range of different groups in the community as a whole.”.

Building Health 2007b, pp.42

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“daytime temperatures have been found to be about 2-3oC lower in a large urban park than the surrounding streets” DTLR (2002) pp.13

“People with dementia, and others with cognitive impairment, are constantly unnecessarily disabled by incomprehensible environments”.

Burton and Mitchell 2006, pp.1

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in the academic literature as a group who have the potential to benefit from use of outdoor public spaces in terms of play and the physical activity and subsequent positive health impact this can have. However, younger people are a specific user group who need to be carefully considered in inclusive design of the built environment. It has been argued by both CABE (2010) and the Building Health (2007) report that it is particularly important for children to have safe and local facilities for outdoor play which are located close to their homes. This is argued to be the best way to encourage use of these urban public places by younger people and the health and well-being benefits associated.

The Building Health (2007) report highlights factors prohibiting young people from engaging in outdoor play as including lack of outdoor play provision, cost of using facilities, and centralised facilities. By providing free and accessible outdoor play facilities in urban public places, such as can be found in Mile End Park in East London, this would promote health benefits in young people associated with outdoor play. The DTLR (2002) report also argues that provision of high quality urban green spaces which enable community engagement and provide welcoming environments for all members

of the community create valuable opportunities for vulnerable groups such as children and wheelchair users to become involved in and experience urban green places which they may not otherwise have.

As such, for younger people to reap the health and well-being benefits of urban public and green spaces it is necessary to create inclusive environments with localised play facilities which enable and promote participation in physical activity outdoors.

Those with other specific physical, sensory or psychological impairments may also experience barriers to using urban public places which could otherwise benefit their health and well-being. According to the social model of disability, rather than seeing people as having disabilities, instead they are seen as being disabled by the environments and products provided for them (Burton and Mitchell 2006). In the example of those experiencing temporary physical impairment such as those recovering from illness in hospital, it is actually these groups who could significantly benefit from restorative experiences of immersion in nature or views of ‘greenery’, as this can speed healing times, yet, conversely, it is these specific user groups who may

“There is a huge appreciation of nature, trees, plants and wildlife among older people. [...] Some use trees and planting as cues for wayfinding.”

Burton and Mitchell (2006) pp.40

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find it hard to access these green public spaces (Ulrich 1984). Stigsdottir (2005) makes the differentiation between healing gardens aimed specifically at speeding recovery to health and well-being such as this, and urban public spaces which fortify the general community’s everyday health and well-being through more general benefits such as stress reduction, physical activity and restoration of directed attention. As such, whilst there is a distinction to be made between urban public or green spaces for ‘healing’ and the wider urban environment which should be made accessible, barrierfree and inclusive to all members of the community to enable everyone to reap the more general health and well-being benefits, it can be argued that design of all built environments should ensure that all individuals, regardless of physical, sensory or psychological impairment can use, enjoy and be fully included (Building Health 2007, Burton and Mitchell 2006).

There are other specific user groups whose experiences of the built environment, and subsequent impact on their health and well-being, may vary due to a number of factors. These include those groups who have been shown in recent academic research to have

“disabled children need local [outdoor play] facilities much more than largescale, ‘destination’ facilities” Wheway and John (2004) in Building Health 2007b, pp.50

either less access to local green public spaces due to its poor proximity or related fear of crime, or for whom the quality of their local urban public spaces is often below average (CABE 2010). These groups include those on lower incomes in deprived neighbourhoods or of certain ethnic minorities. The CABE Urban Green Nation report (2010b) showed that in urban areas, poor communities typically have a worse quantity and quality of local green space than those who are better off.

This relates to the added value local high quality green space can add to property values, boosting the income needed to live in areas with more and higher quality public green space (CABE 2010, DTLR 2002, The Trust for Public Land 2001). This has a resultant negative health impact on those people living in deprived areas. The CABE (2010) Community Green report highlights how ethnicity relates to both fear of crime and use of green space, with a subsequent effect on health. Ling Wong’s (2007) research found that owing to increased fear of crime, black and minority ethnic groups experience disproportionately more ill health consequences resulting from isolation and sedentary lives. This demonstrates how certain specific user groups may experience different health and well-being

benefits relating to the differing quality and proximity of their built environment and urban public green spaces available to them.

This section has demonstrated how different specific groups of users, as well as individuals, may have different experiences of the built environment due to their age, ability, impairment or socio-economic background affecting accessibility or inclusion, and therefore receive differing levels and types of health and well-being benefits. Burton and Mitchell (2006) argue there are six main principles by which urban environments should be designed for maximum accessibility to all users. These are familiarity, legibility, distinctiveness, accessibility, comfort and safety. By aiming to create accessible, inclusive and high quality urban public and green spaces designed to best benefit health and well-being through physical activity, social interaction and restorative experiences, both these specific user groups and the more general public can benefit from these spaces.

“Inclusive design means designing products, services, environments that as many people as possible can use, regardless of age of ability”.

Burton and Mitchell (2006) pp.5

“The potential health benefits of outdoor play in natural settings include: increased levels of physical activity and fitness; positive views towards taking physical activity; activation of higher cognitive processes and healthy brain development; and promotion of and improved healthy well-being through childhood and young adulthood.”

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“everyone ages, [...] people of all ages benefit from design that helps older people to use, understand, enjoy and find their way around local streets.”

Burton and Mitchell (2006) pp.50

“Accessibility refers to the extent to which streets enable [...] people to reach, enter, use or walk around places they need or wish to visit, regardless of any physical, sensory, or mental impairment” Burton and Mitchell (2006) pp.92

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“older people have reported feeling trapped in their own homes yet the positive effects of fresh air and exercise, social interaction and even just being out on the street amongst people should not be underestimated” Burton and Mitchell (2006) pp.31

“playing fields (or sports and recreation grounds or other local outdoor facilities) should be within three-quarters of a mile (1.2km) of where people live.”

National Playing Fields Association (2001) in Building Health 2007b, pp.50

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“The more webs of human relationships a neighborhood has, the stronger, safer, and more successful it is. [...] This human web, which Jane Jacobs termed “social capital,” is strengthened in some cities by parks. [...] Parks offer opportunities for people of all ages to interact, communicate, compete, learn, and grow.”

The Trust for Public Land 2009, pp.9

“In lively, safe, sustainable and healthy cities, the prerequisite for city life is good walking opportunities. However, the wider perspective is that a multitude of valuable social and recreational opportunities naturally emerge when you reinforce life on foot.”

Gehl 2010, pp.19

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Lawson and Liu (2010) define social interaction as a collection of specific verbal and non-verbal practices.

Hávamál, a Icelandic Eddic poem which is over 1000 years old, says “man is man’s greatest joy”. Gehl (2010) argues that this is indeed the case, and that the streets and other public places of the city demonstrate this fact through their historic use as places for social interaction in its various forms. Gehl (2010) argues that if the quality and conditions of the built environment are favourable, public city spaces become social spaces, used for various forms of social interaction including meeting others, attending events, exchanging news, displaying power, demonstrating, and seeing and hearing others in society (Gehl 2010).

Whilst ‘city life’ and its associated active or passive social interaction has historically been an important and valuable addition to urban public places, Jane Jacobs argued in her 1961 book ‘The Death and Life of American Cities’ that through an increasing focus on rationalist planned cities with separation of uses and car-dominated urban design rationale, social interaction and its associated well-being benefits was declining. Jacobs (1961) argued instead for mixed use neighbourhoods to activate streets throughout the day, short blocks with high pedestrian permeability and dense city planning to promote social interaction through urban planning. More recently there has been a resurgence in the academic literature, arguing for

more walkable, pedestrian and bicycle oriented cities, designed at the human scale with accessible, inclusive urban public places which encourage the vibrant city life Jacobs (1961) advocated (Mandanipour 2004, Gehl 1987 and 2010, CABE 2010). For example, Dines et al (2006) argue streets and urban public space are important for social interaction, in terms of both casual and organised encounters. Ellin (1996) also points to creating high-quality public space, with a “return to the streets, moving away from the shopping mall to bring vitality back to street life” (Ellin 1996 p.209). Ellin goes on to state that there should be increased attention on the provision of traditional public space parks, plazas and squares and the quality of their landscaping (Ellin, 1996). However, contrary to Ellin, Hajer, and Reijndorp (2002) argue that the discussion about promoting social interaction through urban public space design is too focused on traditional urban spaces such as cafés, streets, squares and parks. Hajer and Reigndorp (2002) argue that we have changed the way we use public space and instead argue that it is more important to focus on the ‘public domain’ where an exchange between different social groups is possible. (Hajer & Reijndorp, 2002). They advocate giving more attention to spaces which have a less defined use and where activities happen unexpectedly (Hajer & Reigndorp 2002). As such Hajer & Reijndorp (2002) would support the increasing use of urban public spaces, and especially those less conventional small pieces of

hard landscaped poorly used areas for pop-up events and temporary activities which both promote social interaction and cultural and commercial activity.

Social interaction is also an important phenomenon to facilitate through high quality, inviting built environments because of its role in creating inclusive communities which fully represent all members of society (Burton and Mitchell 2006, Madanipour 2004, Building Health 2007b). Madanipour (2004) argues that this aids social integration as encountering different people helps develop notions of community. Gehl (2010) argues that the social interaction which can take place in urban public space includes all types of communication between people, such as passive ‘see and hear’ social interaction in terms of observing other users, to more active forms of social engagement such as exchanging of greetings and pleasantries through change meetings of acquaintances information with others at points Lawson or and Liu of waiting such as bus stops or benches, or points of organised activity or interest such as market stalls, events, meetings, demonstrations or parades (Gehl 2010). Gehl (2010) argues that the design of the built environment is most important in encouraging the largest form of social contact, i.e. the everyday ‘see and hear’ contact which gives us a background idea of society and acts as a springboard to other forms of social contact. Lawson and Liu (2010) found that social interaction leading to inclusion and participation

“man is man’s greatest joy” Hávamál (in Gehl 2010, pp.23)

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“As streets become less attractive, people are less inclined to spend time in them for social activities, and walking and cycling rates decline�.

Building Health 2007, pp.10

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“Neuroscience is pointing to physical, mental and social activities as the best means of avoiding problems such as dementia later in life. The social role of parks therefore should be given greater attention in landscape planning and design.”

“Another very important factor is the physical quality of city space. Planning and design can be used to influence the extent and character of outdoor activities. Invitations to do something outdoors other than just walking should include protection, security, reasonable space, furniture and visual quality.”

Gehl 2010, pp.21

Lawson and Liu (2010), pp.15, Valenzuela (2009)

“in cities there is so much more to walking than walking! There is direct contact between people and the surrounding community, fresh air, time outdoors, the free pleasures of life, experiences and information.”

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were most successful in urban public places coded as social spaces for ‘showing’ something to others, which prompted conversations between ‘outsiders’ to the activity and the potential to then become involved and participate, especially in health and fitness activities.

Lawson and Liu (2010) argue that social activities help to avoid mental health problems such as dementia and reduce stress. As such, Lawson and Liu (2010) contend that a greater focus should be placed on the role that social interaction in urban places such as parks play in conjunction with other regular social-interaction for longterm health benefits.

Social interaction can also be promoted through design of the built environment and governmental policy to provide environments and facilities whereby local community engagement projects can take place and greater responsibility in maintenance and management is passed to local people (Campbell and Wiesen 2009, CABE 2010, Building Health 2007b). Through providing urban public and green places suitable for these types of organised community events and activities, increasing shared knowledge and governance of local public spaces is fostered whilst also promoting social inclusion and interaction between diverse groups in society (Madanipour 2004, CABE 2010, Burton and Mitchell 2009). Examples of this increased citizen

knowledge and participation are shown by individual volunteers helping to maintain urban public spaces, housing blocks with residents’ community gardening groups, and ‘friends of’ groups for local parks. Examples of this include the Barbican Wildlife Group in London who maintain a community garden whilst promoting social interaction between residents, or the very active ‘Friends of Hampsted Heath’ group who organise and participate in events, activities, maintenance and management of Hampstead Health public green space near central London. Campbell and Wiesen (2009) argue that this type of program of citizen stewardship and caretaking of the land not only promotes health but is essential for the urban ecosystem to function. The CABE report (2010) argues the importance of projects such as this, which engage communities in urban green space. The report reviewed over 50 recent projects and found that most of these documented outcomes of improved community cohesion, reduced anti-social behaviour, improved mental health and opportunities for relaxation, self-expression and enjoyment, improved physical health and motivation, increased skills such as horticulture, increased confidence, promotion of sustainability in terms of reduced car use and improved quality of urban public spaces. The Trust for Public Land (2009) argues that through renewing, improving or saving elements of the built environment such as local

“Unpredictability and unplanned, spontaneous actions are very much part of what makes moving and staying in city space such a special attraction. We are on our way, watching people and events, inspired to stop to look more closely or even to stay or join in.”

Gehl 2010, pp.20

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parks as a community, enormous levels of social capital can be built. Environmental stewardship such as this often involves physical land management, advocacy, promoting citizen engagement, environmental health and environmental education (Campbell & Wiesen 2009). There are an increasing number of projects working to promote health, as well as social and economic conditions in this way through citizen stewardship. Campbell & Wiesen (2009) argue that human health and well-being is connected to this sense of agency cultivated through education and community organising, which is especially true when focussed on under-served populations such as young or homeless people, racial and ethnic minorities, inmates and exoffenders. Even in war situations, community gardens have been shown to provide income, food security and common spaces where people can interact, or act as living memorials for remembrance, such as in the UK during World War II or in the U.S.A. following the 11 September attacks (Campbell & Wiesen 2009).

The CABE report (2010) also highlights the benefits of open green space in generating a sense of nostalgia and familiarity associated with belonging and well-being.

This can be found through associations with certain plant species, opportunities for social gatherings and a connection between cultures for those people who have recently relocated from overseas and are another way

in which the built environment can contribute to wellbeing and social interaction (CABE 2010).

The academic literature therefore demonstrates the importance of various aspects of the built environment in promoting social interaction, social inclusion and the associated well-being benefits by encouraging use of outdoor public green spaces which have subsequent positive restorative and stress-reducing impacts or physical health benefits resulting from physical activity.

The contemporary literature builds a case for designing attractive and appealing urban public places which are accessible, inclusive, walkable, bike friendly, provide facilities to promote use by all members of society, and which provide opportunities for spontaneous and informal social interaction to develop in both traditional and less conventional places in the public built environment. In his book ‘Life Between Buildings’, Gehl (2001) argues there is a direct connection between street quality and street activities. For example, a 100% increase in seat numbers was shown to encourage 88% more seated activities in Melbourne in 1988. As such by creating good quality outdoor spaces and traffic-free zones the numbers of pedestrians can be significantly increased, as can the average length of time spent outside (Gehl 2001). Gehl (2001) discusses the types of activities that can take place in the urban

environment as including necessary activities, such as going to work or the grocery shop, optional activities which are dependent on suitable facilities and appealing places such as sitting, and social activities such as chatting which result from a combination of necessary and optional activities, where good urban design conditions are provided. As such by designing the built environment to provide better spaces for optional and necessary activities, such as creating pedestrian friendly streets designed at the human scale, social activities and interaction which are beneficial to health and well-being are promoted. Lawson and Liu (2010) also argue that social interaction can be encouraged through provision of certain facilities and environments for optional activities as they observed most social interaction was generated near to food outlets, in places marked as social with other activities to observe or become involved in, or where watching others.

The contemporary literature therefore demonstrates a definite link between the built environment and how considerate urban design can improve social interaction and activities to promote well-being.

“A theme across the existing research is the ability of urban space to promote social integration [...]

Residential streets, the local park or the local market are valued for both casual and organised encounters. [...]

The vibrancy of streets and markets is uplifting and associated with curiosity and novelty” Madanipour 2004, Dines et al 2006, in CABE (2010) pp.15

“The more attractive parks and urban green spaces become, the more people are likely to use them for physical activity, as well as to benefit their mental well-being. Parks and green spaces have further advantages: they are a widely distributed resource; they offer opportunities for volunteer and community engagement; and they provide respite from pollution and noise, contributing to improvements in respiratory health and reductions in stress.”

Building Health 2007, pp.14 Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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“If conditions for being outdoors are good, people engage in many necessary activities and also an increasing number of optional ones. Walkers are tempted to stop to enjoy the weather, places and life in the city, or people emerge from their buildings to stay in city space. Chairs are dragged out in front of houses, and children come out to play.”

Gehl 2010, pp.20

“Social activities include all types of communication between people in city space and require the presence of other people. If there is life and activity in city space, there are also many social exchanges.

If city space is desolate and empty, nothing happens.”

Gehl 2010, pp.22

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Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

“Designing parks with a focus on sociality [...] rather than functionality may address the retreat of local people into private and remote recreational places�

Lawson and Liu (2010), pp.18

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“expressing the social, environmental and health benefits that [green spaces] bring to society as a financial value is something that has attracted an increasing amount of interest from researchers�

CABE (2010b) pp.36

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Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

valuing green space The academic literature reviewed has shown that there is much qualitative research evidencing the health and well-being benefits which can result from urban public and green spaces. Given this value to public health it can be argued that these green spaces in particular, but also any urban public space promoting well-being through social interaction, as well as a multitude of other economic and social benefits, has a value. The challenge has come in finding a method to quantitatively value such complex multifaceted spaces and their impact (Genecon LLP 2008, The Trust for Public Land 2009).

Historically, parks were thought to promote public health and therefore made economic sense for investment through taxes or other means. For example, in the second half of the 19th Century parks were funded by public subscription in the UK and were enabled by successive governmental Public Health Acts (Building Health 2007b, pp.41). With increasing budget constraints on many governments globally in recent years, there is now a greater necessity to demonstrate quantifiably the reasons it is beneficial to invest in urban public and green spaces for both reasons of health and their wider positive impact (Building Health 2007b, Genecon LLP 2008).

Two recent reports aiming to put an economic value on urban public and green spaces in an attempt to quantify their benefit, include The Trust for Public Land’s (2009) Economic Benefits of Open Space Index report and ‘Parks Health Benefit Calculator’, and the Genecon LLP’s (2008) Green Infrastructure Valuation Toolkit.

The Genecon LLP (2008) Green Infrastructure

Valuation Toolkit was written by a steering group including Design for London, CABE and Natural England. It argues that well designed, planned and managed green infrastructure can bring wide ranging benefits to local communities and places including sustainable economic growth (Genecon LLP 2008). The report highlights eleven key benefits, climate change mitigation and adaptation, biodiversity value, enhancing place and communities, health and well-being, labour productivity, stimulating growth by providing facilities and environments for activities and recreation, stimulating investment by increasing property values and influencing business location choices, providing increased stormwater storage thereby reducing flood risk, and opportunities for exercise and green mobility.

This approaches the ecosystem services approach which argues natural environments provide value in terms of regulatory natural processes, providing products resulting from the ecosystem, and cultural non-material benefits including those linked to health and well-being. The report goes on to demonstrate how the eleven identified benefits can be quantified based on data including visitor numbers to the green infrastructure in question, The Trust for Public Land’s 2009 report ‘Measuring the Economic Value of a City Park System’ describes the seven key attributes of a city park system which they argue provide economic value and are measurable.

These are property value, tourism, direct use, health, community cohesion, clean water and clean air.

Other factors which the report argues are hard if not impossible to quantify include the mental health value of walk in such ‘natural’ settings and the social capital gained from increased social interaction. The Trust

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...valuing green space

for Public Land’s (2009) report used methods such as examining medical conditions which inversely correlate with physical exercise to measure residents’ collective economic and healthcare savings through use of parks for exercise with their Parks Health Benefit Calculator to try to quantify these benefits. The Trust for Public Land (2009) also argues that city parks have great value in fostering community cohesion and social capital’. Whilst hard to quantify, the report aims to find an indicative economic ‘community’ value added by parks through totalling park volunteer hours multiplied by the value assigned to volunteerism, donations to ‘friends of’ groups and money invested in parks and associated community organisations.

The UK’s government advisor for the built environment, the Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE) have also published a number of reports investigating the economic and social value of urban public and green spaces which have been insightful in providing additional information and related quantifiable evidence relating to green space. Most notable of these are CABE’s (2010b) ‘Urban Green Nation: Building the Evidence Base’, and (2010c) ‘The Value of Public Space: How high quality parks and public spaces create economic, social and environmental value’. CABE Space’s 2010 report ‘Community Green’ investigated the relationship

between urban green space, inequality, ethnicity, health and well-being which provided key data about users behaviour, enabling more accurate valuation of urban public and green spaces economics. CABE’s (2010c) report ‘The Value of Public Space’ created a powerful case for why urban green public spaces provice economic, social and environmental value.

This report pulled together previous literature to argue that urban green public spaces are good for business, add to property values, generate tax revenue, benefit groups such as children through play and recreation, reduce crime and fear of crime, promote social inclusion through events and interaction, enables healthier forms of green mobility such as walking and biking, reduces traffic and promotes biodiversity. This CABE (2010c) report was particularly valuable in attributing quantifiable statistics to add to the existing qualitative literature, creating a stronger economic case for valuing urban public places and green spaces.

There is much agreement between these studies and reports regarding the key economically valuable benefits that urban public and green places can provide. In addition to the health and well-being benefits already discussed, the literature agrees that the additional benefits include climate change adaptation and mitigation in terms of temperature regulation and reduction in urbanised areas, providing shade, storing

carbon, providing sustainable urban drainage to reduce flood risk and help store stormwater runoff, providing landscape or visual amenity, community cohesion, opportunities for exercise, reducing stress, improving air quality, increased property values including an uplift premium in terms of property value rise from investment in local urban public green space, encouraging inward investment through improved area image, improved labour productivity resulting from benefits to mental and physical heatlh and reduced absenteeism, increasing tourist visitor numbers and income, providing opportunities for recreation, and supporting ecosystem services and biodiversity (Genecon LLP 2008, CABE 2010b, CABE 2010c, The Trust for Public Land 2009).

The specific statistics and data found in these reports and ressarch makes a very strong case for investment.

“Well designed, planned and managed green infrastructure can bring a wide range of benefits to local communities and places – and can underpin sustainable economic growth.”

Genecon LLP (2008) pp.4

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Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

“Determining the economic value of a city park system is a science still in its infancy.”

The Trust for Public Land 2009, pp.15

“Proving the economic, social and environmental value of urban green space is not straightforward. In addition to the dearth of robust [...] data, analysis is complicated by the fact that green space value consists of elements that are not easily measured.

Green spaces are by their nature multifunctional.”

Mitchell et al (2008) in CABE (2010b) pp.4 Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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Bishopsgate Street, London - no seating, trees or green space 60

Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

the case for investment

“greater investment in urban parks and green spaces is worthwhile; not only in adding value to regeneration, renewal and housing development, but also in saving costs in other policy areas such as health, education and environmental management”

Whilst research determining the economic value of urban public and green space to society is still in its infancy, the work done so far demonstrates significant economic incentives for investment in both green spaces, and those often overlooked small urban public places which provide services to the population (The Trust for Public Land 2009). There have been challenges in economically valuing some of the benefits these spaces provide due to their intangible, subjective or multi-faceted nature (CABE 2010b). For example it is much easier to economically value the increase in property values following improvements to a proximate green space than the subjective value a person attributes to walking through a pleasant green space (The Trust for Public Land 2009).

However, the academic research is increasingly furthering methodologies to measure these variables, strengthening the case for investment in parks from a purely financial view.

As demonstrated by The Trust for Public Land’s (2009) and Genecon LLP’s (2008) reports and work by CABE (2010, 2010b, 2010c), the key services green infrastructure and other quality public places provide with associated measurable economic benefits include reduced healthcare costs, direct use value to users, increased property values, stormwater management and flood risk reduction services, investment due to business locational choices, increased tourist and visitor revenue, and ecosystem services such as cleaning air, reducing pollution and urban cooling. Whilst these are all entire topics of considerable academic research in themselves, this section highlights the key findings and

statistics demonstrating how these benefits of quality urban public and green spaces can provide economic incentives for investment in urban areas.

The case for investment can be made based on the benefit to health and well-being as quality urban public and green spaces have been shown to promote and improve health and well-being regardless of an individual’s age, sex or socio-economic status, resulting in public healthcare savings (Stigsdottir 2005). This occurs because quality urban public and green spaces promote physical activity and recreation which inversely correlate with the occurence of current public health challenges such as obesity and coronary heart disease as well as non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, osteoarthritis and some forms of cancer (Building Health 2007, DTLR 2002, The Trust for Public Land 2009, Genecon LLP 2008). For example, the Building Health (2007b) report argued the cost of physical inactivity to society globally is significant, giving the example of the UK’s Department of Health who estimated the cost of inacitivity in just England to be £8.2 billion a year. This is based on financial implications including healthcare costs treating chronic conditions such as diabetes, coronary heart disease and economic costs of sickness absence from work (DTLR 2002, Building Health 2007b). This demonstrates the financial implications to both health services, the economy and personal wellbeing which are associated with low physical activity and could be reduced through investment in urban public green spaces.

In addition, by providing restorative environments

DTLR (2002) pp.8

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urban public green spaces not only reduce stress and anxiety which are the biggest cause of lost days at work but also increase productivity and efficiency (Ulrich 1984, Genecon LLP 2008, Kaplan 1995, DTLR 2002).

Stigsdottir (2005) actually argues that the greatest contemporary health problems are psychological and affect the gainfully employed between the ages of 15 and 60. This demonstrates the importance for restorative environments such as urban green spaces readily accessible in urban locations proximate to people’s work and homes.

Various reports also make the case for investing in urban public space due to reduced healthcare costs.

The CABE (2010 pp.38) report found statistically significant relationships between increased satisfaction with green space [...] and better overall general health, quality of life, higher physical activity levels and increased social well-being. This makes a poweful case for investing in public spaces to improve their quality and appeal, thereby also positively effecting physical health and mental well-being and reducing associated healthcare costs. Research by the 2010 IUFRO World

Forestry Congress in Seoul also argues investment in trees and public green spaces in cities could help cut health care costs. They found significant evidence that maintaining trees and green areas in cities promote health and healing by reducing stress and boosting immunity whilst also increasing productivity and as such hold an economic value to society (EMAX Health 2012). Wanless (2002) reports that over the longer-term demands on public health services are likely to increase due to population rises, increased life expectancy, and increased health awareness and desire to maintain good health through additional doctor visits. As such investing in quality urban public places which benefit health and well-being will be increasingly important in the future. Stigsdottir (2005) agrees, arguing that health will be increasingly valued as a resource essential for sustainable development in the future, giving the example of Sweden where ill health currently costs society 258 billion Kroner per year (Stigsdotter 2005).

As such, Stigsdottir (2005) argues that it makes economic sense for landscape architects and planners to improve health through design and provision of

greenery in the city.

Typically these healthcare cost savings are accrued by either the government through reduction in use of public healthcare systems or by individuals with private healthcare. Equally it is local businesses or the local economy who may economically benefit from less sickness absence due to stress and increased productivity of workers. As such whilst the benefit to society as a whole is large, creating a strong financial case for investment when looked at holistically, these savings may not be made by the same stakeholders investing in the improvements to the public green space in the first place.

There is also a case for investing in quality urban public and green spaces based on their encouragement of green mobility. The CABE (2010, pp.26) research found that the public park is the most visited of all types of green space with 90% of people visiting such places, and with 78% of people happy to walk there. This demonstrates the importance of local green space as

“Free access to good quality parks and green space enables people to take exercise. [...] Exercise can significantly reduce the risk of strokes, coronary heart disease [...] as well as reducing stress which is the biggest cause of lost days at work” DTLR (2002) pp.12 62

Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

... the case for investment a local destination and the role it can play in promoting walking as a physical activity related to health. The report also showed that people were prepared to walk further to green public places of higher quality, such as those that had been awarded a Green Flag in the UK, highlighting the impact improving the quality of green space can have on green mobility by promoting walkable urban environments (CABE 2010). Creating walkable, bikeable neighbourhoods and urban districts through investment in creating high quality urban public and green spaces, especially where these form a consistent and attractive network of routes, can promote physical activity, reduce traffic, mitigate climate change and promote health and well-being There is also an economic case for investing in quality urban public and green spaces due to the increase in property value they bestow upon nearby dwellings.

Talav Era (2012) argues that from an economic point of view, the positive externalities quality public spaces generate make them worthy of investment, citing authors such as Correll, Lillydahl and Singell (1978);

Luttik (2000); and Kong et al (2007) whose research highlighted how areas near public space with high quality or urban green space tended to get greater sale prices (Talav Era 2012 pp.2). This is due to parks’ ‘hedonic’ value, the exact impact of which depends on the quality and proximity of the park in question (The Trust for Public Land 2009). Research has shown that having a quality park nearby can add up to 15% to the property value of a dwelling, with an 18% rise in property value where there is a view of quality urban green space (Ecotec 2008), whereas having a poor quality park or urban public place nearby can decrease values by up to 5% (The Trust for Public Land 2009).

The Trust for Public Land (2009) argues that the increase in property value which arises from a nearby park results in direct additional income for governments such as the U.S.A. with a property tax. Investing in quality urban public and green spaces, especially green infrastructure, can therefore provide economic incentives for an urban area.

A number of studies, including by Ecotec (2008)

argue that investment in green infrastructure is also worthwhile due to other aspects of economic growth and investment generated. Businesses attract and retain more motivated staff in greener settings, labour productivity increases where there are public green spaces near workplaces, sickness absence is reduced, and jobs and revenue have been shown to increase (Ecotec 2008, The Trust for Public Land 2009).

Research by Genecon LLP (2008) agrees, finding that accessible well planned green infrastructure near workplaces made workers more patient, improved productivity and problem-solving skills as well as improving companies ability to attract staff. A 2004 study of a case study hospital in the U.S. by The Centre for Health Design found that following green infrastructure investment staff turnover was reduced from 30 percent to below 12 per cent and there was a 6 per cent increase in this case study hospital’s market share (Genecon LLP 2008). In addition to these benefits to local businesses and the economy based on worker productivity, The Trust for Public Land (2009) found that the number one priority for small businesses when

“parks tend to add 15 percent to the value of a proximate dwelling; on the other hand, problematic parks can subtract 5 percent of home value.”

The Trust for Public Land 2009, pp.1 Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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“health is positively affected by stays in city parks and gardens regardless of the visitors sex, age, or socioeconomic status”.

Stigsdotter (2005) pp.27

“Preserving trees and green areas in cities can help lower blood pressure, relieve stress and help people recover faster from illness, leading to lower healthcare spending” EMAX Health 2012

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“More than 30 studies have shown that parks have a positive impact on nearby residential property values.

Other things being equal, most people are willing to pay more for a home close to a nice park.”

The Trust for Public Land 2009, pp.1

“Trees and shrubs remove air pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, and some particulates. Leaves absorb gases, and particulates adhere to the plant surface, at least temporarily. Thus, vegetation in city parks plays a role in improving air quality and reducing pollution costs.”

The Trust for Public Land 2009, pp.13

“there is monetary value in reducing health care costs and boosting productivity that can comes from maintaining trees and green areas in cities” EMAX Health 2012

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... the case for investment choosing a location was based on proximity to a park or urban public green space. In fact, a study by Whitehead et al (2006) showed that in response to urban quality improvements, office rents increased by between 15 and 35 percent, with a mean uplift of 24 percent.

This demonstrates the importance of high quality urban public green spaces in marketing an area to both businesses, potential property buyers, and outside visitors such as tourists, who are all incentivised to locate or visit an area based on its inclusion of a nearby quality green space (CABE 2010c). CABE (2010c, pp.4) argues that the presence of high quality urban public places constitute “a vital business and marketing tool” which subsequently attract businesses, customers, employees and services. This can create inward investment in an area as well as additional revenue from tourist and visitor spending (Genecon LLP 2008, The Trust for Public Land 2009). CABE (2010c) therefore agree with the studies by Ecotec (2008), Genecon LLP (2008) and The Trust for Public Land (2009) in arguing that investing in a high quality public realm can have a significant impact on the economy

of urban areas at various scales. In their 2005 report, CABE (2005) suggests that there is recognition that high quality green spaces can help businesses build a good image and reputation, which will encourage inward investment and employment into an area. The CABE report ‘The Value of Public Space’ (2010c) also found that when improvements to parks were taken as part of a wider urban design strategy in a city, such as the introduction of pedestrianised areas, clearer signage, new public spaces and better street furniture, footfall could be increased by up to 25% on Saturdays. This has a subsequent positive impact on trade and local businesses, and creates a good case for investment in quality urban public spaces as a networked whole through strategic thinking to benefit the economy and public realm of an entire urban area.

The case for investment in quality urban public and green spaces can also be made in terms of the ecosystem services, such as pollution reduction, flood risk reduction, and stormwater runoff storage enabled by increased vegetation in these spaces (Genecon LLP 2008, CABE 2010c, The Trust for Public Land 2009

“The public realm and green infrastructure in and around particular investment sites can help attract and retain companies.”

Genecon LLP 2008, pp.44

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and Ecotec 2008). Green infrastructure such as urban public parks or green roofs with vegetation can help intercept, store, evaporate and transpire stormwater runoff, as well as facilitating natural drainage through permeable vegetated spaces or SUD elements which help reduce excess runoff volume draining into traditional urban sewer systems (Genecon LLP 2008).

Certain vegetated elements of urban green space, such as reed beds, can also be used to treat wastewater.

By intercepting runoff which would otherwise have drained from impermeable hard landscaped surfaces into traditional sewer systems, green infrastructure can reduce the risk of flooding during extreme rain events.

For example, Gill’s 2006 study in Manchester showed that a 10 percent increase in green space meant a 5 percent reduction in surface runoff (Genecon LLP 2008). Pollution reduction is an additional ecosystem service provided by urban green space and results from the removal of air pollutants such as sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide by trees and shrubs, which benefit health and well-being in terms of decreasing instances of asthma and heart disease and the associated healthcare costs (The Trust for Public

Land 2009, Ecotec 2008). Other economic benefits of urban public green spaces include ecosystems services such as urban cooling and the associated savings in heating costs this provides (DTLR 2002). For example, a large urban park with vegetation has been shown to reduce temperatures by 2-3 degrees Celcius compared with the predominantly hard-landscaped area around it (DTLR 2002). This also has additional health and wellbeing benefits in summer in reducing environmental stressors such as uncomfortable heat and in providing shaded cool places for individuals otherwise as risk from high temperatures such as older people who may be disincentivised to go outdoors when conditions are not favourable (Kaplan 1995, Burton and Mitchell 2006). The CABE Urban Green Nation (2010b) report argues that to reap these benefits, and the associated economic savings that result, it is important that both the quantity and quality of green space in cities is improved through investment. The quantity of the green space available is significant in the provision of essential environmental services by creating a networked landscape of living roofs, large trees and soft landscape areas large enough to absorb heavy rainfall

and provide flood protection, cleaning and air cooling functions (CABE 2010c). The ability of green spaces to deliver these services effectively is then influenced by the quality of these spaces (CABE 2010c).

There is also a case for investing in quality urban public and green spaces with facilities for local residents based on the direct use savings residents and visitors make by urban public places for recreation, physical activities and leisure that might otherwise have a monetary value. The Building Health report (2007b) argues that this free resource is important in ensuring maximum access and inclusion in these activites to all members of society, and the associated health and wellbeing benefits that result. However part of the economic benefits of a quality city park system are these direct savings profitted from by city residents through use of public space facilties for either recreation or physical activity. For example, resarch in the U.S.A. by the Trust for Public Land (2009) has calculated that parks in the city of Philidelphia alone contribute $1 billion to their users as financial benefits resulting from direct use (CABE 2010b pp.36). The The Trust for Public Land

also completed a study of the value Boston’s parks gave to users through direct recreational use of these urban green spaces (Genecon LLP 2008). The research showed that the average value attributed to each use of the parks were $1.9 for general use such as walking, $3 sports use such as cycling, and $9 for special uses such as golf (Genecon LLP 2008). The Trust for Public Land (2009) argues that in addition to these financial benefits to local residents and visitors of direct use of quality urban public green spaces as a free recreational resource, there are additional financial health benefits associated with exercise facilitated by the park reducing medical costs, and a community cohesion benefit of people assembling to improve their neighbourhood park which subsequently reduces antisocial problems and associated police and fire services costs, prison, counselling and rehabilitation costs (The Trust for Public Land 2009). Ecotec (2008) argues that these leisure and recreation activities such as walking and cycling encouraged by provision of footpaths and cycle-paths in quality urban green spaces not only enable healthy low-cost recreation, but also improve quality of place, create biodiversity value in terms of habitat provision,

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“The more attractive parks and urban green spaces become, the more people are likely to use them for physical activity, as well as to benefit their mental well-being. Given the current poor condition of most green spaces, this cannot be achieved without additional resources.�.

Building Health 2007b, pp.42

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“Small businesses choosing a new business location rank open space, parks and recreation as a number-one priority.”

The Trust for Public Land (2001) in CABE (2010c) pp.5

“A high-quality public environment can have a significant impact on the economic life of urban centres big or small, and is therefore an essential part of any successful regeneration strategy. [...] The presence of good parks, squares, gardens and other public spaces becomes a vital business and marketing tool: companies are attracted to locations that offer well-designed, wellmanaged public places and these in turn attract customers, employees and services” CABE (2010c) pp.4

St. Paul’s Cathedral Garden, London is adjacent to the new One New Change shopping centre Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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... the case for investment and climate change adaptation by countering increasing urban temperatures (Natural Economy Northwest 2012) This section has discussed contemporary studies, reports and research regarding the economic valuing of urban public and green spaces to examine the case for investment. It has been shown that these benefits include creating attractive locations for businesses, increasing property and rental values, increasing worker productivity, reducing healthcare costs, increasing physical activity, fostering social inclusion and community development, countering pollution, and mitigating climate change (DTLR 2002). The Urban Green Spaces Taskforce 2002 report for the Department for Local Government and the Regions (DTLG) in the UK agrees, and argues parks and urban green spaces make such an important contribution in improving quality of life in urban areas and providing social, economic and environmental benefits that they should be at the heart of government policy and investment. The research has shown that through investment in improving these urban public and green

spaces with improved facilities, creation of a more appealing public realm, and increased quantity and quality of urban public green spaces, user numbers and diversity increase promoting well-being and social inclusion, physical activity such as walking and cycling increases reducing healthcare costs, and there are increased financial benefits from enhanced ecosystem services, improved property values and inward investment (DTLR 2002, Building Health 2007b, CABE 2010c, The Trust for Public Land 2009). CABE (2010, 2010b) conducted user research to demonstrate that 95% of people think it is important to have green space where they live, 9 out of 10 people use their local green space, and that if facilities were improved through investment in this way 46% of people would use their local urban public green space more. This demonstrates the increase in economic benefits such as healthcare savings that could be made as more urban green spaces are invested in to enable these improvements.

the recent shift in thinking from regarding green infrastructure in terms of ecology to economics and managing sustainable growth whilst meeting social goals (Natural Economy Northwest 2012). Based on the research to date, it seems clear there is a wealth of qualitative data and increasing quantitative data to support investment in urban public places and especially green infrastructure. The main challenge remaining is how future research can capture the holistic multi-faceted quantifiable positive impact of quality urban public and green spaces to secure investment from stakeholders who may not be the main party benefitting from such investment.

The increasing research examining the economic benefits of investing in green space demonstrate

“Research on the benefits of environmental enhancements to investment showed that the quality of the location had a direct impact on investment�

Genecon LLP 2008, pp.44 70

Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

“ [there is a] need for each site to be seen as part of a continuous network of urban green spaces which serves the needs and aspirations of communities” DTLR (2002) pp.9

“as a society we continue to undervalue public space in all its guises – streets, squares, parks, gardens, and the wide variety of incidental open places found in our towns and cities” CABE (2010c) pp.3 Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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9 10 24 %

the mean uplift in office property rent values following investment in urban quality improvements

Genecon LLP 2008, pp.46

15

5C

$19.8 million

o

Genecon LLP 2008, pp.20

%

is the amount a park adds to the property value of a proximate dwelling

5

%

is the amount property value is reduced by a problematic park proximate to a dwelling

The Trust for Public Land 2009, pp.1

Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

The Trust for Public Land 2009, pp.8

the amount trees and green spaces can locally cool urban temperatures

The Trust for Public Land 2009, pp.1

72

the healthcare savings made as a result of physical activity by users of Sacramento’s park system

95

%

of people think it is important to have green spaces near to where they live

out of

37

%

of people would use urban green space more if safety were improved

$354 million

CABE (2010) pp.36

the direct use value parks in Boston were found to provide to users based on economic values for the free services provided

The Trust for Public Land 2009, pp.6

CABE (2010b) pp.4

10 25 %

the amount call centre staff in Sacramento’s memory function and recall improved with a view of vegetation Genecon LLP 2008, pp.49

46

%

$5.9 million

£3.8 billion

the cost per year to society in the UK alone as a result of the 6.7 million working days lost each year due to stress

Genecon LLP 2008, pp.37

48

%

of people use green spaces once a week

CABE 2010, pp.27

the stormwater retention value Philidelphia’s park system provided in 2007 based on increased pervious area

The Trust for Public Land 2009, pp.12

of people would use their local green space more if it had better facilities CABE 2010, pp.39

8

%

the amount a house price rises due to a view of a park

people use green spaces 1.3 % CABE (2010c) pp.5

CABE (2010) pp.36

the amount of energy a single tree can save a building in heating energy costs through sheltering it from the wind

Genecon LLP 2008, pp.20 Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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“health is positively affected by stays in city parks and gardens regardless of the visitors sex, age, or socioeconomic status”.

Stigsdotter (2005) pp.27

“Studies demonstrate that exposure to natural environments, or ‘green space’ has an independent influence on health and healthrelated behaviours” Mitchell and Popham 2008 pp.2

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the impact of design It has been shown that there is a clear case for investing in urban public and green spaces due to the economic, social and environmental benefits which result from creating high quality, mixed use, dense, walkable, networked, urban places which promote social interaction, inclusion, green mobility, physical activity, restorative experiences and subsequently health and well-being. However, for any investment in urban public places to achieve the best possible outcome in terms of health and well-being as a result of these contributing factors, it is necessary to examine the literature regarding the ways in which design of the built environment can actively positively influence both physical health and mental well-being, as well as encouraging a wider range of users to benefit from these spaces. This section will discuss how a number of key academics have argued this can be done through design. The following section will then synthesise these academic findings to create a set of general design recommendations for creating urban public places which best promote health and well-being and can then be applied to any specific site.

“studies indicate that the prescence of natural greenery in a scene has a high correlation with stress reduction”

Preference studies are relevant to the discussion of how to best design urban public places to benefit the health and well-being of a community using these spaces. Preference studies can be described as “investigating common human, cultural and individual preferences relating to certain situations and places [...] hypothesising that people feel well when they are surrounded by an environment or environmental elements they like and prefer” (Cold 2001, pp.18). An extension of this when applied to urban design would

infer that if there are certain common preferences for environments which contribute to us feeling well, then it must be possible to design places based on these principles to best promote well-being. Ulrich (1983) and Kaplan (1992) argue this includes a spontaneous aesthetic preference rooted in the evolution of man which has led to a common ‘preferenda’ (Cold 2001).

As such, preferences studies and our evolutionary ‘preferenda’ have been influential in the academic literature and design recommendations for urban places promoting health and well-being. They have informed various academics to try and define what criteria should be present to best create places that adhere to these preferences and therefore promote well-being and health.

When designing the built environment for psychological well-being, Cooper-Marcus (1995) argues that there are three aspects of design details which are critical in facilitating a change of mood and lowering stress.

These are the presence of a variety of green, growing and living things, the stimulation of the senses, and the availability of a variety of settings for both social interaction and quiet introspection. As such CooperMarcus (1995) suggests design recommendations for a theraputic outdoor environment as including noninvasive sensory stimuli to draw our attention away from the initial feeling state to an external focus, which facilitates physical and psychological movement with pathways or vistas through to a variety of spaces thereby shifting perspective, and providing both areas for safe seclusion as well as social interaction to help think and work through issues. Cooper-Marcus (1995)

Ulrich, 1984, Cooper-Marcus and Barnes 1995, pp.2 Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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specifically suggests achieving these qualities through lush, colourful planting because plants, trees and greenery were found to be the most significant positive characteristic for well-being found in the research conducted (Cooper-Marcus 1995). Kellert et al (2008) agree, discussing Alexander et al’s (1977) ‘Pattern Language’ which argues we should connect human beings with nature as a source of mental and physical nourishment. Pattern Language (1977) argues for locally located green spaces which are allowed to grow wild rather than being under artificial control, with semisecluded seating to enjoy this restorative environment, with water, fingers of green space extending through the urban area, flowers at eye level, paving with gaps and cracks for plants to grow into, and climbing plants up walls and gardens which are neither completely hidden or exposed. These suggestions agree with the previous academic literature discussed relating to use of natural environments and less demanding involuntary attention to allow reduction of stress and anxiety through restoration of directed attention, as per the Attention Restoration Theory (Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, Kaplan and Talbot 1983, Ulrich 1984). Kaplan and Kaplan’s (1989) Attention Restoration Theory also supports

Cooper-Marcus’s (1995) design recommendations for features that attract birds, butterflies and other wildlife, fountains to create soothing ‘white background noise’, as well as trees because of their foliage moving easily and drawing users’ attention to patterns, shadows and light to create a soothing meditative reaction. Whilst Cooper-Marcus (1995) argues these suggestions with a healing garden in mind, they also provide useful design recommendations to ensure other urban public spaces are best designed to both promote health and wellbeing and are also accessible and inclusive to all those in the community, including those experiencing illness or fragility.

A number of academics have made design recommendations for urban public places which promote health and well-being based on creating walkable, sensory rich environments. Cooper-Marcus (1995) makes some specific design recommendations on this point, suggesting flowering trees, shrubs, and perennials should be used to enforce a sense of seasonal change, contrast and harmony in texture, form, and colour, meandering paths for strolling and contemplation with a variety of vistas, levels of shade

and textures of planting, smooth wide paving surfaces for wheelchair users and accompanying pedestrians, electrical outlets for events promoting use by a wider range of users, and lighting at night to promote increased temporal possibilities for use. Kellert et al (2008) agree with these recommendations for creating inclusive pedestrian environments that are sensory rich, arguing that spaces should be designed so that physical and sensory interaction with plants are possible rather than just having them in line of sight.

To do this Kellert et al (2008) argue it is necessary to design green spaces so that they are physically accessible and welcoming and pleasant to enter as a pedestrian. This also agrees with Gehl’s (2001, 2010) academic works which argue that we should design urban places for people to be walkable and based on the human senses, and Jacobs (1961) argument for creating vibrant pedestrian-friendly streets and public places for city life. Gehl (2001) argues that senses and scale are important when designing urban spaces. He proposes that city architecture is made of movement spaces and experience spaces and that human mobility and the human senses should be a starting point for designing cities. For example, our social field of vision

“A theme across the existing research is the ability of urban space to promote social integration [...] Residential streets, the local park or the local market are valued for both casual and organised encounters. [...] The vibrancy of streets and markets is uplifting and associated with curiosity and novelty” Madanipour 2004, Dines et al 2006, in CABE (2010) pp.15

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... the impact of design is limited to 100m, with 25m being the threshold within which emotion and facial expression can be decoded.

As such spaces within 25m are good for peoplewatching and the positive well-being benefits this passive social interaction has (Gehl 2001). Gehl also argues that life’s events and activities happen when we walk in urban public places. As such, he believes good walking opportunities are a prerequisite for city life with a multitude of valuable social and recreational opportunities which subsequently benefit health and well-being. Gehl argues we should therefore improve conditions for pedestrian traffic to increase numbers of pedestrians and city life, and also facilitate contact outside the house where all groups of society can meet.

This not only provides general and accurate information about the society we live in, but also provides more social interaction in an increasingly private world. Gehl (2001) gives examples of Copenhagen, Melbourne and New York as cities which recognise the importance of this city life, and the street as an attractive, informal and democratic meeting place based on human scale and sensory considerations. To assess the urban public environment’s suitability for pedestrians and creating a ‘walkable’ city, Gehl Architects use a 12 point criteria

to assess public spaces. If all criteria are satisfied this means Gehl Architects believe it to be a 100% pedestrian oriented and designed space. These 12 criteria include protection against vehicular traffic, crime and violence, and unpleasant sensory experiences, comfort in terms of possibilities for walking, standing and staying, sitting, seeing and hearing/talking, possibilities for play, recreation and interaction, both day and night-time activities, and seasonal activities, and enjoyment in terms of human scale, enjoying the positive aspects of climate, and aesthetic qualities and positive sensory experience. Kellert et al (2008) also make recommendations for more responsive urban design based on biophilic principles and sensory qualities to maximise neurological well-being. These include achieving the smallest possible scale using the detailing of natural materials or fine-grained texture and a scaling hierarchy where elements on the next larger scale are between two to five (ideally approximately three), times as big to create a fractal connective effect as is found in natural phenomenon.

Similarly, Kellert et al (2008) also describe symmetry and pattern as essential to design at the small and intermediate scale (though not the larger overall scale),

and recommend demonstrating construction systems and detailing visually and through touch to increase the engaging neurological informational loads which aid well-being (Kellert et al 2008). Whilst they argue pattern and symmetry are important to design neurologically engaging environments which benefit well-being, Kellert et al (2008) also recommend that those craftsman constructing the built environment should be allowed to mould the smaller scales of the structure, thereby replicating the infinite and subtle variations found in natural structures. Kellert et al (2008) recommend that 95% of a development could be built with regularised components which fit into the geometric fractal scale, with the remaining 5% irregular shaped to provide neurological engagement and a pleasing aesthetic.

Rather than seeing it as decay, Kellert et al (2008) also recommend providing complex natural geometries such as native plants growing wild and encouraging the natural evolution of buildings, structures and the built environment in a responsive direction for the same reason. Kellert et al (2008) argue that on the broader urban scale we should design complex natural areas integrated throughout the urban space, rather than creating homogeneous green spaces with similar plant

“green spaces have the unique ability to offer simultaneously many factors that can facilitate good health - [...] such as daylight [...], activities and exercise [...], stimulation of the senses [...], and aesthetically pleasing experiences”.

Stigsdotter (2005) pp.26

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restorative trees, climbing plants + ‘greenery’

sense of getting away + a whole other world

Assistens Kirkegard // Assistens Cemetery, Copenhagen - provides pleasant walking and cycling routes, a green restorative environment, and opportunities to spend time and either passively or actively socially interact in the heart of Copenhagen’s Norrebro district 78

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appealing sensory-rich pedestrian routes

public social main routes + secluded private spaces

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species, thereby preserving and reproducing the visual and biological complexity found in natural environments.

Through using biophilic design principles as advocated

by Kellert et al (2008), and ensuring other forms of sensory engagement and interest for pedestrians at the human scale, urban public places can be designed to promote psychological well-being through engagement with natural phenomenon and more interesting, sensory-rich urban public places (Kaplan 1995, CABE 2010, Gehl 1987). This also has a resultant effect in creating more interesting, walkable and distinct routes and places for pedestrians which increases physical activity and potential for social interaction, thereby improving both health and well-being (Building Health 2007b, Gehl 1987, 2010, Jacobs 1961).

The academic literature reviewed also contends that urban public places should be designed to be adaptable for a variety of uses and create different spaces for different activities and sizes of group to claim. Burton and Mitchell (2006, pp.91) recommend designing “small, informal, welcoming and understandable local open spaces with varied activities and features”. CooperMarcus (1995) agrees, arguing that design of urban

public places should consider how both the spatial design and also elements such as seating, provide a range of spaces which can be claimed territorially by different users or provide flexible adaptable places.

This enables a wider range of different users to benefit from the health and well-being benefits associated with urban public and green spaces. To do this, CooperMarcus (1995) makes specific design recommendations including arranging seating at right angles to best promote social interaction, that seating should have fixed backs, material appealing to touch, space for one or two people who can ‘claim’ the space, be moveable to allow different size clusters to be formed and placed where the user prefers, that designs should include bench or platform seating with a back so people can put their feet up, tables with moveable chairs for meetings, and that seating should be faced toward a view to facilitate psychological movement out of the space thereby reducing negative psychological states, and should be placed either near entrances or partially enclosed by planting on the perimeter of key social spaces. Cooper-Marcus (1995) goes on to argue that to engage diverse users in urban public spaces, ideally the space should be divided into a range of ‘rooms’ with

differing levels of privacy, from public to semi-private, to allow for a range of users who may want to sit, talk, meet or take part in activities, as well as providing movement routes and more active spaces for those users wishing to walk, cycle or jog. This enables those people wanting to seek a space alone to find it but also provides a space for those who would like to seek social interaction, whether active or passive (Cooper-Marcus 1995). Post-modernist academics such as Gehl (1987) and Jacobs (1961) agree with Cooper-Marcus (1995) and also argue that it is important to promote a wide range of users in urban public spaces to promote social interaction, vibrant city life and different spaces for a variety of activities, including a range of public, semipublic and private spaces where people can meet.

To best design urban public places for health and wellbeing it is also important to ensure that all members of the community can access and feel welcome and included in these spaces. By promoting inclusion through urban design all members of a community can use and benefit from the health and well-being effects of experiencing quality urban public places. A number of academics argue that to promote inclusion in urban

“There is increasing public awareness and appreciation of the value of good quality parks, play areas and green spaces in regenerating town and cities, improving the health and wellbeing of local people, and providing educational opportunities for children and communities.”

DTLR (2002) pp.7

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... the impact of design public spaces it is important to ensure that the design of the built environment mitigates extreme climatic factors such as heat, wind, cold, or rain, and creates a welcoming environment.

Cooper-Marcus (1995) is one key academic highlighting the importance of designing inclusive outdoor spaces.

To do this Cooper-Marcus (1995) argues it is important to design with the local microclimatic factors in mind, thereby creating places which all people feel comfortable, including those more sensitive to extreme conditions such as people who are older or in ill health. To do this, Cooper-Marcus (1995) specifically recommends adjustable umbrellas to allow people to control the amount of sun or shade they are exposed to, and structures such as wind-shelters, heat-reflecting surfaces or shade-producing arbors to mitigate seasonal climates and ensure the public places can be used for a greater proportion of the year. Burton and Mitchell (2006) agree with Cooper-Marcus (1995) that it is important to design the built environment to be inclusive to the whole community by mitigating extreme microclimatic and seasonal climatic factors. Burton and Mitchell (2006) argue that it is important for people to feel comfortable so they can enjoy places without

physical or mental discomposure. They argue that this can be achieved through providing small, quiet, welldefined open spaces away from traffic, with seating, lighting, toilets and shelter, with alternative routes to avoid crowds, streets with enclosed transparent bus shelters with seating, acoustic barriers such as planting to reduce traffic noise, and seating at least every 100125m made from materials which do not easily conduct heat or cold. It is also important to ensure urban public places feel welcoming to potential users to enable them to benefit from the health and well-being benefits associated. Cooper-Marcus (1995) highlights that one way to create a welcoming urban public green space is to focus maintenance and management on showing green spaces are cared for and a friendly place but not overly-maintaining with ‘straight lines’ and ‘perfection’ which can be intimidating. As such design can play a key role in creating quality urban places which are both inclusive, accessible and welcoming, thereby increasing the number of potential users and amount of people who can benefit from any positive health and well-being outcomes attributed.

The academic literature also highlights the importance

of creating distinctive places where people feel safe and which are familiar but also enable discovery and surprise. Cooper-Marcus (1995) argues that it is important to create distinctive, interesting and intriguing public places with a sense of mystery and discovery.

To do this, Cooper-Marcus (1995) argues that it is advisable to add small-scale glimpses and intriguing focal points to create movement and mystery, and in green spaces provide at least one eye-catching unique feature such as a sculpture to anchor memories of the restorative qualities of this particular place. Burton and Mitchell (2006) also argue that it is important to design urban public places and streets which are distinctive and “reflect the local character of the area and have a variety of uses, built form, features, colours and materials that give the streets and buildings their own identity within the overall character of the neighbourhood”. These routes and spaces are preferred both by people with dementia, experiencing mental health decline and others as they create more interesting, pleasant and distinctive cities. As such, by designing distinctive urban places which aid those experiencing psychological impairment, the quality of the urban public realm is improved for all users.

“In order to feel well we need both the safety in the well-known and allurement to be able to make discoveries.”

Cold (2001) pp.301 Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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walkable + sensory- rich urban public place

Covent Garden, London - A well-known safe historic market famed for its restaurants, shops, stalls and spontaneous discovery of street performers. Always bustling and busy, cafes locate seating outside for ‘people-watching’ and it both a destination and meeting point that feels safe and familiar whilst allowing discovery.

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familiar + safe with potential for discovery

passive + active social interaction Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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Promoting feelings of safety are also important in facilitating people to use urban public places, especially those who feel particularly vulnerable to attack such as those in older age (Burton and Mitchell 2006). The CABE (2010) report argues that the main mechanism influencing people’s usage of open space is perception of safety, and that this has an indirect impact on health.

Their research in the UK showed that 37% of people would use their local public green spaces more if safety were improved (CABE 2010). Burton and Mitchell (2006) also argue that creating safe places is important.

They argue that this can be done by ensuring buildings face onto the space as passive frontages, there are separate clearly signalled bike lanes for cyclists, and wide, well-lit, plain, smooth footpaths for pedestrians.

This helps alleviate fears of being attacked, falling, or being knocked by cars or bicycles (Burton and Mitchell (2006). Burton and Mitchell (2006) also argue that it is important to ensure there is natural surveillance of pedestrian routes, mixed use spaces, and adequate street lighting for those with visual impairment to promote feelings of safety. Cooper-Marcus (1995) agrees that creating a sense of safety and security is

important in promoting increased and prolonged use of public green spaces, enabling the health and well-being benefits which can result. Maas et al (2009) argue that even the presence of open unenclosed green space in the urban environment (as opposed to purely hard landscaping) enhances feelings of social safety. As such there is a range of academic research supporting ways to improve perceptions of safety in urban public spaces, and therefore increase use of these places and the physical health and mental well-being benefits that result.

There is consensus in the academic literature reviewed that clear way-finding and navigation in urban public places is important to ensure easier use of these places by those experiencing age-related psychological decline such as dementia, or those not functioning so well psychologically due to emotional stress (Cooper-Marcus 1995, Burton and Mitchell 2006). Cooper-Marcus (1995) specifically recommends easily navigatable pathways and clear destinations to encourage these user groups to engage in urban public space. Burton and Mitchell (2006) agree, arguing that the use of landmarks, such as historic buildings or structures, civic buildings,

“People with dementia, and others with cognitive impairment, are constantly unnecessarily disabled by incomprehensible environments�.

Burton and Mitchell 2006, pp.1

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distinctive structures, and places of interest and activity such as parks are key to aiding navigation, especially by those people with dementia. This can help reduce the confusion and disorientation which can result if places are not easy to read or are completely re-developed rather than having incremental improvements to the built environment (Burton and Mitchell 2006). Burton and Mitchell (2006) also argue that familiarity, the extent to which streets are recognisable, is important for older people to navigate. This can be aided through design by using established forms, open spaces, buildings, and design features. Street blocks lined with frontages facing onto the street are also encouraged as this provides a familiar traditional street design, creates a visually interesting street frontage and clear distinction between public and private space which aids legibility (Burton and Mitchell 2006). Improving legibility and ensuring clear way-finding in urban public places through design can therefore help encourage certain groups, such as those with dementia, to access urban public space where they might otherwise have felt intimidated. By promoting accessibility and inclusion in quality urban public spaces, these new users can experience the health and well-being benefits of

... the impact of design social interaction, physical activity and restorative environments involved.

Another way the academic literature suggests that the built environment can be designed to best promote well-being in particular is through creating a sense of getting away. This is especially important in urban environments where stressors such as noise, heat, crowded pavements, traffic, and other factors can negatively impact on well-being. Cooper-Marcus (1995) argues that by creating a sense of enclosure or separation from the outside world provides the largest therapeutic benefit, suggesting the use of plant ‘buffers’ between the interior and exterior public or private spaces. This ties in with Kaplan’s (1995) research which argued that for green spaces, such as those found either in the urban public realm or more traditionally ‘natural’ environments, to be considered restorative environments positively benefitting well-being, they “must have extent, [...] be rich enough and coherent enough so that it constitutes a whole other world” (Kaplan 1995, pp.173).

It can also be argued that the urban built environment

can be designed to best promote health and well-being, not only through design recommendations aimed at increasing numbers of users and their duration of stay in environments which are either restorative, promote social interaction or physical activity, but also by considering those who have a view of such quality urban public places or streets. Kellert et al (2008) argue that the boundary between indoors and outdoors should be rethought, with ‘windows becoming doors’ so that indoor spaces communicate better with outdoor spaces. Kellert et al (2008) argue this would ensure access to views, daylight, sunlight, fresh air, natural comfort, passive surveillance of outdoor spaces and activities, and increasing connection with season, climate and nature’s sounds, smells and life which has a positive mental health output. Kellert et al (2008) also recommend extending and integrating both indoor and outdoor spaces so they become less delineated and thought of as separate entities. From an urban design perspective, this theory implies public spaces should be carefully designed to increase their connection with existing buildings and vice versa, to create more flexible types of space which enable especially the stress-reducing and other well-being effects of viewing

natural environments to be further integrated into indoor environments (Ulrich 1984, Kaplan 1995). This connection will benefit both those users in outdoor spaces where feelings of safety and active spaces are promoted through increased surveillance and social interaction, and indoor in buildings where views of nature promote well-being (Kaplan 1995). This can be especially beneficial for building users with a view of nature as advocated by Roger Ulrich (1984) and Mendall (1991) (Kellert et al 2008). CooperMarcus (1995) agrees with Kellert et al (2008) that the relationship between those buildings bordering the urban public space and the outdoor space itself is important, arguing that urban design should aim to create complementary contrasts between open public spaces and more private spaces. For example a large public space should be complemented with private space in adjacent buildings, or inversely, small semiprivate outdoor spaces would complement adjacent buildings that have public functions (Cooper-Marcus 1995). This highlights the importance of considering both the context surrounding an urban public place when designing, both in terms of promoting the health and well-being of those with a view outdoors, as well

“ [natural scenery] employs the mind without fatigue and yet exercises it, tranquilises it and yet enlivens it; and thus, through the influence of the mind over body, gives the effect of refreshing rest and reinvigoration to the whole system”

Olmsted (1865) in Kaplan 1995 pp.174 Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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flexible + adaptive spaces for seating, events + activities

views of green space from nearby offices promote well-being + reduce stress Spittalfields Market, London - The urban public realm surrounding the Spittalfields Market provides high quality green space within 500m of the busy financial district of City of London. It is a flexible adaptable space popular at lunchtimes with workers and other times of day for play or recreation.

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sense of discovery + play space

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as creating flexible spaces that provide for a range of activities to complement those available nearby. This also demonstrates the wider impact each public space can have on the urban network it is integrated with, and how each space fits into the cities social, movement and ecological networks as a whole.

Various research and reports have also recommended improving the design and proliferation of various facilities to attract more diverse users to urban public places, including those facilities which encourage physical activity or enable specific user groups with additional needs to use public spaces they might otherwise have avoided. Research by CABE (2010) has showed that some of the key ways to encourage better use of urban green space include providing more facilities such as a cafe, toilets, sports and play areas (especially for younger and older people), more events and better paths (CABE 2010, pp.36). If these improvements were made, 60% of people thought it would improve their overall physical health, 48% their mental health, and 46% their relationships with family and friends (CABE 2010). The Urban Design Compendium (2006) argues that by providing better

quality facilities for bicycles such as more bike racks and bike lanes at least 1.75m wide and connected to an attractive neighbourhood or city-wide network, both green mobility and use of public spaces for physical activity and healthy lifestyles are promoted. Burton and Mitchell (2006) also discuss the importance of facilities but in terms of their role as destinations and driving factors for bringing people to certain urban public places or out into the street environment. This promotes the physical activity of walking and therefore health, as well as the mental well-being which results in the passive and social interaction that can occur in the public realm and for those elderly people with dementia the positive feeling of independence and achieving goals (Burton and Mitchell 2006, Jacobs 1961, Gehl 2010). Burton and Mitchell (2006) argue that in the wider urban environment, services and facilities should be located close to individuals’ homes to enable access for all of the population. They recommend for the urban public realm to be designed so that there is a telephone and post box within 125m, no more than 500m to essential services such as green space, a doctors surgery, post office, bank and food shops, and secondary services such as a place of worship, larger open space, library,

dentist, optician and community facilities within 500800m, and public seating along the route every 100125m (Burton and Mitchell 2006). This is similar to the Urban Design Compendium, who argue a park should be located within an even closer distance, between 250 and 400m of a person’s home. The academic literature therefore demonstrates the importance of providing a range of facilities for the variety of potential users who will be drawn to urban public and green spaces, and their associated health benefits, as a result. Key facilities CABE (2010, pp.37) found that users would like in urban public places included events, sport, urban farminig, seating, toilets, cafes, play areas and dog-free areas. The DTLR (2002) report agrees with CABE’s (2010) findings that facilities are important features to users in urban public and green spaces, discussing the findings from the University of Sheffield’s research into what participants would like their ‘ideal’ park to consist of. The qualities mentioned included facilities such as toilets, seating, shelter, and play provision for younger people as well as a variety of experiences, vegetation including trees, greenery and flowers, water in all forms, and sensory stimulation in scent and colour. Through provision of these facilities and qualities, design can

“local facilities for sport and play [should] be accessible to all groups, including those who may have difficulty in travelling distances, such as the young, the elderly, the disabled and low-income earners” Wheway and John (2004) in Building Health 2007b, pp.50 88

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... the impact of design therefore impact on user satisfaction with urban public or green spaces. The CABE (2010 pp.38) report found that “statistically significant relationships were found between satisfaction with green space [...] and better overall general health (self-reported), better overall quality of life, higher physical activity levels and higher levels of social well-being”. This makes a strong case for investing in public spaces to improve their quality and appeal through enhanced facilities and activities, thereby having a knock-on effect on both physical health and mental well-being.

Equally, whilst the academic literature has made best practice recommendations for designing urban public places to promote health and well-being through increased users or more restorative, social or physically active experiences, it is important to know which design approaches disincentivise use of these places or have a negative impact on health and well-being. The CABE (2010) report found that barriers to using local green space included fear and feelings of insecurity resulting from anti-social behaviour, drug-dealing, drug-taking and fear of personal attack, presence of dogs and associated fouling or attack, poor design with high

perimeter walls preventing views in and out, heavy vegetation and lack of lighting, inadequate maintenance and management leading to litter, graffiti, and drug paraphernalia, failure to acknowledge and provide for diverse needs of a mixed community (such as places provided for Muslim women to meet away from men), lack of facilities for young children and teenagers, having nowhere to sit, and removal of well-used and valued facilities such as football and cricket pitches.

These are therefore important factors to remember when aiming to design better urban public places which incentivise users to take part in behaviours which promote health and well-being.

This section has examined the academic literature and specific design recommendations for creating urban public and green places to best promote health and well-being. As the literature has shown, this can be done by encouraging a greater range of users through spatial design and provision of facilities, encouraging more physically and socially active behaviours, designing restorative environments, and creating distinctive, inclusive, walkable, navigatable, sensory-rich public places. Cooper-Marcus (1995)

also argued that to ensure maximum health and wellbeing benefits from these outdoor spaces in the future, a management and maintenance approach should be a adopted which includes making those living, working or in healthcare facilities nearby aware of the urban public and green spaces and their potential for health and well-being, and encourage engaging local people in these spaces through community engagement and education activities and groups. Having examined the impact of design on creating urban public places which most benefit health and well-being, the next section will synthesise the findings of the academic literature to create a set of design recommendations for creating inclusive, distinctive, sensory-rich, restorative, walkable, navigatable, social, active, adaptable, safe, and intriguing public places to promote health and wellbeing.

“The built environment has a significant impact on health through a number of inter-related issues including the provision of outdoor facilities and opportunities for play, active recreation and sport for both children and adults”.

Building Health 2007b, pp.42

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inclusive design + distinctive places for natural play + discovery

presence of water + restorative environment 90

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appealing pedestrian focused routes

cared for but ‘wild’ vegetation

BO01 The Western Harbour, Malmo, Sweden - This neighbourhood was built on ecological principles to integrate sustainable urban drainage with a high quality living environment. The resulting presence of water, cared for but over-maintained vegetation, non-linear layout and places for natural play create a playful place with favourable conditions for restorative experiences, social interaction and physical activity.

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passive + active social interaction enabled

pedestrian oriented flexible spaces adaptable to size of group 92

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Covent Garden, London - a walkable, pedestrian-oriented space providing a mixture of potential uses and environments for activities, events and social interaction. Events and activities provide vibrant city life and a sense of discovery.

design recommendations Based on the academic literature reviewed regarding how the built environment can best promote health and well-being, this section synthesises the over-arching design recommendations that have emerged from the literature.

Whilst many academics would argue against an absolute deterministic structural link between design of the built environment and human behaviour and experience due to the complex subjective aspects and other factors involved, there is considerable evidence that there are realisable behavioural and experiential implications resulting from the way public places are designed. As such, these general design recommendations aim to condense a broad and deep academic literature investigating this topic, into the key outcomes found for the way design can positively impact health and well-being in urban public places.

improvement works to best benefit health and wellbeing. However, rather than being absolutes, their application should still respect and consider the existing site context and how these places will fit into the broader urban environment. This will be demonstrated later in this thesis through their application to the three sites Gehl Architects are creating a vision for in Toronto, St. James Park, Berzcy Park and the O’Keefe Laneway.

The aim of creating and highlighting the synthesised design recommendations suggested in this section of the thesis is so that these general recommendations can be applied as guidance for the design of specific urban public places or sites under redevelopment or

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12 DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS 94

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... design recommendations

S E N S O R Y

R I C H

F L E X I B L E

S P A C E S

W A L K A B L E P L A C E S

F O R

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P L A Y

O F

S P A C E S

D I S T I N C T I V E E V E N T S E A S I L Y

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A C T I V I T I E S

N A V I G A T E D

I N C L U S I V E G R E E N

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A C C E S S I B L E

R E S T O R A T I V E

E X C E L L E N T S A F E

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F A C I L I T I E S

S E C U R E

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1 HOW?

Plant selection to include those with colour, touchable texture, scent and both seasonal and year-round interest.

Consider textural qualities of materials, patterns created by shadows, human-scale interest and fine detailing. Design areas for passive social interaction with maximum dimensions of 25m and larger spaces no more than 100m.

S E N S O R

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Y R I C H

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2 HOW?

Urban public places should be flexible and adaptable to different uses both now and in the future. Adaptable, flexible places provide space for temporary events such as markets or ‘pop ups’ which benefit well-being through social interaction. They also ensure places are best used by different users, for different activities at different times.

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3 HOW?

Design public places with pedestrians as priority. Urban public places should be barrier-free, human-scale, with appealing pedestrian and cycling routes which link into the wider urban network. The walking surface should be at least 2.0m wide, bicycle lanes a minimum of 1.75m, and slopes with a maximum gradient of 1:20.

W A L K A

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4 HOW?

Places to play should be located in local parks within 400m of a young persons home, and larger publically accessible sports facilities should be located within 1.2km. Natural play outdoors has been shown to be beneficial to children’s neurological development and in promoting physical activity.

P L A C E

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F O R P L A Y

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5 HOW?

Create a series of different ‘rooms’ in urban public places which allow for different environmental conditions which appeal to different users. These clusters of space should include a range of public and more private spaces, enabling a choice of activity and degree of social interaction.

V A R I E T

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6 HOW?

Design of urban public places should consider and respect the local context and unique features and character that already exist, whilst also creating new distinctive features and landmarks.

Create a sense of discovery with vistas, glimpses of views and activities. This helps create a sense of place and with way-finding and navigation.

D I S T I

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7 HOW?

Create spaces suitable for differing size events and activities such as markets, concerts, and pop-up cultural and artistic projects. Encourage educational and community activities and events with dedicated areas maintained and managed by local groups. This promotes social interaction and encourages use of public urban green spaces.

E V E N T S A C

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8 HOW?

Ensure easy-wayfinding for all but especially to benefit those who are older or experiencing psychological impairment. Design should include clear destinations and routes, distinctive landmarks such as large trees or distinctive features, active frontages onto the urban public space, and clear differentiation between types of space.

E A S I L Y N A V

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9 HOW?

Create inclusive spaces by considering the needs of all users. Provide seating every 100-125m for those unable to walk long distances, ensure gates and public toilet doors have a maximum pressure of 2kg, ensure surfaces are level and wheelchair accessible, provide alternative quiet routes away from crowds, provide acoustic barriers with planting, and mitigate uncomfortable microclimatic factors through provision of shade, wind protection and vegetation to reduce urban heat by up to 3oC.

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10 HOW?

Provide a variety of trees, shrubs, perennials and other vegetation, as well as water, to create soothing stressreducing effects and the sense of a whole other world and ‘getting away’ from urban environments. Maintenance should be minimal to give a wild, yet cared for, aesthetic, and extend and integrate this approach throughout the city.

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11 HOW?

Provide facilities such as cafes, toilets, and play areas in local urban public or green spaces and ensure a park is within 400m of homes to provide for the widest range of users and encourage use. Larger sports or outdoor gym facilities should be within 1.2km of homes. Seating should be provided every 100-125m. Ensure bike paths are a minimum width of 1.75m and footpaths are at least 2.0m wide to make more appealing pedestrian and biking routes.

E X C E L L F A

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12 HOW?

Create safe and secure feeling public places to encourage increased users.

Light spaces at night and ensure natural surveillance through building frontages facing onto the public space and providing a mixture of uses and therefore people using the spaces at all times of days.

S A F E

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12 DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS S E N S O R Y

R I C H

F L E X I B L E

S P A C E S

W A L K A B L E P L A C E S

F O R

V A R I E T Y

P L A Y

O F

S P A C E S

D I S T I N C T I V E E V E N T S E A S I L Y

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A C T I V I T I E S

N A V I G A T E D

I N C L U S I V E G R E E N

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F A C I L I T I E S

S E C U R E

... summary of design recommendations HOW?

Plant selection to include those with colour, touchable texture, scent and both seasonal and year-round interest. Consider textural qualities of materials, patterns created by shadows, humanscale interest and fine detailing. Design areas Urban public places should be flexible and for passive social interaction with maximum adaptable to different uses both now and in dimensions of 25m and larger spaces no more the future. Adaptable, flexible places provide than 100m. space for temporary events such as markets Design public places with pedestrians as priority. or ‘pop ups’ which benefit well-being through Urban public places should be barrier-free, social interaction. They also ensure places human-scale, with appealing pedestrian and are best used by different users, for different cycling routes which link into the wider urban activities at different times. network. The walking surface should be at least 2.0m wide, bicycle lanes a minimum of 1.75m, Places to play should be located in local parks and slopes with a maximum gradient of 1:20. within 400m of a young persons home, and Create a series of different ‘rooms’ in urban larger publically accessible sports facilities Design of urban public places should consider public places which allow for different should be located within 1.2km. Natural play and respect the local context and unique features environmental conditions which appeal to outdoors has been shown to be beneficial to and character that already exist, whilst also different users. These clusters of space children’s neurological development and in creating new distinctive features and landmarks. should include a range of public and more promoting physical activity.

Create a sense of discovery with vistas, glimpses private spaces, enabling a choice of activity of views and activities. This helps create a sense and degree of social interaction. of place and with way-finding and navigation.

Create spaces suitable for differing size events and activities such as markets, concerts, and pop-up cultural and artistic projects. Encourage Ensure easy-wayfinding for all but especially to benefit educational and community activities and events those who are older or experiencing psychological with dedicated areas maintained and managed by impairment. Design should include clear destinations local groups. This promotes social interaction and and routes, distinctive landmarks such as large trees or encourages use of public urban green spaces. distinctive features, active frontages onto the urban public Provide a variety of trees, shrubs, space, and clear differentiation between types of space. perennials and other vegetation, as Provide cafes, toilets, and play areas and ensure well as water, to create soothing stressa park is within 400m of homes to provide for the reducing effects and the sense of a whole widest range of users. Larger sports or outdoor other world and ‘getting away’ from urban gym facilities should be within 1.2km of homes.

Create inclusive spaces by considering the needs of all environments. Maintenance should be Seating should be provided every 100-125m. users. Provide seating every 100-125m for those unable minimal to give a wild, yet cared for, Ensure bike paths are a minimum width of 1.75m to walk long distances, ensure gates and public toilet aesthetic, and extend and integrate this and footpaths are at least 2.0m wide to make more doors have a maximum pressure of 2kg, ensure surfaces approach throughout the city. appealing pedestrian and biking routes. are level and wheelchair accessible, provide alternative quiet routes away from crowds, provide acoustic barriers Create safe and secure feeling public places to encourage increased with planting, and mitigate uncomfortable microclimatic users. Light spaces at night and ensure natural surveillance through factors through provision of shade, wind protection and building frontages facing onto the public space and providing a mixture vegetation to reduce urban heat by up to 3oC. of uses and therefore people using the spaces at all times of days.

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T H E T O R O N T O C O N T E X T T O R O N T O H E A L T H S T A T I S T I C S S I T E S U R V E Y / / L O C A T I O N + A N A L Y S I S / / G R E E N S P A C E / / H E A L T H C A R E / / U S E R S U R V E Y S / / U S E R D E M O G R A P H I C S / / Q U A L I T A T I V E / / F R O N T A G E S

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Photo by Gehl Architects: Toronto Waterfront 124

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toronto health statistics This thesis will use the 12 design recommendations suggested for creating high quality urban public places which best promote health and well-being, and apply these to three case-study sites in Toronto, Ontario, in Canada as part of a collaboration with Gehl Architects.

As such it is important to examine the Canadian and more local Ontario and specifically Toronto health context in which these recommendations would be applied.

Ontario, the province of Canada in which Toronto is based, was forecast to have a total healthcare expenditure of $77,438,000,000 in 2011 (CIHI 2012).

This figure is up from $71,811,000,000 in 2009 and shows an increase in healthcare expenditure. Total health expenditure includes “any type of expenditure for which the primary objective is to improve or prevent the deterioration of health status� (CIHI 2012, pp.91).

As the earlier literature review has shown, healthcare expenditure could be reduced through investment in well-designed urban public or green spaces such as parks and the subsequent positive impact this can have on health and well-being in the general population (Building Health 2007b, CABE 2010b).

Mortality from preventable causes is a subset of potentially avoidable mortality, and represents deaths before the age of 75 that could potentially have been prevented through primary prevention efforts. These include encouraging health promoting behaviours as can be promoted through improvements creating high

quality urban public places. Ontario has a preventable mortality rate of 101 deaths per 100,000 population.

This compares favourably with Canada’s national average of 120 deaths per 100,000 people (CIHI 2012) but still shows significant potential to reduce preventable mortality through improvement to the urban realm which promote health and well-being.

Presence of physical health problems such as diabetes, high blood pressure and obesity are inversely linked to local availability of quality urban public and green spaces which promote positive health behaviours such as increased physical activity (Building Health 2007b).

As such it is important to look at current statistics for occurance of these conditions in Toronto, Ontario and Canada as a whole to see the potential benefit that can result from improving urban public places.

The proportion of household population age 12 and older that reported being diagnosed by a health professional as having diabetes was found to be 7.2% in Ontario, compared to a national average for Canada of only 6.4%. This higher figure for Ontario demonstrates the importance of tackling preventable diabetes deaths through promotion of physical exercise as a result of improvements to urban public and green spaces in this Canadian province (CIHI 2012).

Ontario also has a higher proportion of preventable mortality resulting from people with high blood pressure than the national average. In Ontario the proportion of

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52.

514

average patient days per 10,000 population for mental illness hospital visits in Ontario

50.4 %

CIHI (2012)

preventable deaths per 100,000 population in Ontario CIHI (2012)

proportion of household population age 12 or over with ‘active’ or ‘moderately active’ lifestyles

20.1 %

proportion of household population age 12-17 in Ontario with a BMI of 25 or over

CIHI 2012

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101 CIHI (2012)

%

of people aged over 18 described their life as ‘quite’ or ‘extremely’ stressful in Canada

CIHI (2012)

17.6 %

proportion of household population age 12 or over diagnosed with high blood pressure in Ontario

CIHI (2012)

.6

%

7.2 %

proportion of household population age 12 or over diagnosed with diabetes in Ontario

CIHI (2012)

8.3

average number of days lost to absenteeism due to illness or disability in Ontario Dabboussey & Uppal 2012

40 %

of people age 18 or over have a BMI of above 25 in Ontario CIHI (2012)

of Canadians described their lives as ‘quite stressful’

Statistics Canada (2004)

$77,438,000,000 Ontario’s total healthcare expenditure in 2011

CIHI (2012)

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household population age 12 and older that reported being diagnosed by a health professional as having high blood pressure was 17.6% compared to 17.1% for Canada as a whole (CIHI 2012). The percentage of people in Toronto with high blood pressure was 15.1% (Statistics Canada 2012). This is lower than the average for Ontario but higher than those for Canada as a whole. High blood pressure is also known as hypertension and is related to stress, can increase the risk of stroke, heart attack and kidney failure, narrow and block arteries, and weaken the body’s organs (Statistics Canada 2012). As the literature review has shown, investing in quality urban public and green spaces creates restorative environments and social interaction which has been shown to promote well-being and reduce stress as well as encourage physical activity to help prevent illnesses such as this (CIHI 2012). Therefore figures for high blood pressure could be reduced more in line with the national level if not further through improvements to urban public spaces in Toronto, Ontario in line with the 12 design recommendations suggested.

Both youth and adult body mass indexes were found

to be higher in Ontario than the Canadian national average. The proportion of household population age 12 to 17 with a body mass index (BMI) of 25 or greater was 20.1% for Ontario, compared to a Canadian national average of 20.0% (CIHI 2012). The proportion of household population age 18 and older with a body mass index (BMI) of 25 or greater was found to be 52.6% for Ontario, compared with 52.3% for all of Canada (CIHI 2012). Toronto has a lower proportion of people who are overweight than the national and provincial averages, however the figure of 42.8% overweight or obese is still very high and constitutes a serious health problem with associated physical and mental health conditions. This comprises 28.7% of people living in Toronto who are overweight, and 14.2% who are classified obese. According to the World Health Organization and Health Canada guidelines, a BMI of 25 or greater is classified as overweight or obese, which is associated with increased health risk.

Obesity was described by Stigsdotter (2005) as a global public health challenge, and is a condition which can be reduced through increasing physical activity which is promoted by high quality urban public places, walkable cities and appealing green space.

The proportion of household population age 12 and older that reported active or moderately active levels of physical activity in Ontaria was found to be 50.4%. This is 1.7% less than the Canadian national average of 52.1% (CIHI 2012). In Toronto only 41.9% of people were found to be either ‘moderately active’ or ‘active’ (Statistics Canada 2012). These results by the Canadian Community Health Survey by Statistics Canada (2004, 2012) were based on individuals’ responses to questions about the frequency, duration and intensity of peoples participation in leisure-time physical activity over the past three months. This demonstrates currently there are less physically active lifestyles in Ontario than compared to Canada as a whole, and significantly less in Toronto itself, where less than half the population is ‘moderately active’ or ‘active’. Physical activity can be promoted through improvements to urban public and green spaces, such as provision of better facilities, more walkable and bike friendly routes, creating a network of green mobility routes and ensuring there are a variety of welcoming spaces for different activities in public places (Building Health 2007b).

“Stress carries several negative health consequences, including heart disease, stroke, high blood pressure, as well as immune and circulatory complications. Exposure to stress can also contribute to behaviours such as smoking, over-consumption of alcohol, and less-healthy eating habits.”

Statistics Canada 2012

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... toronto health statistics

It is also important to examine the current mental health statistics for Toronto, Ontario and Canada as a whole, as the built environment has been linked in the academic literature to mental health and well-being.

The Canadian Community Health Survey 2009/2010 for Statistics Canada (2012) found 73.2% of people living in Toronto perceived their mental health status to be very good or excellent. This means 26.8% of Toronto residents perceive their mental health to be either fair or poor. Toronto’s population is 2,615,060 (Statistics Canada 2011), of whom it can therefore be assumed approximately 700,836 people perceive themselves have only either fair or poor mental health. Residents in Toronto were found to perceive themselves as having poorer mental health than those in Ontario as a whole, for which 1.1% less, i.e. 25.7%, of people described their mental health as fair or poor. These figures show the prevalence of poor mental health in Toronto and therefore the large number of people in Toronto who could potentially benefit from a positive impact on their mental health, as can be promoted through the design recommendations suggested earlier in this thesis.

When adjusted for age, the average number of patient days in general hospitals for reasons of mental illness per 10,000 population age 15 and older for Canada as a whole was found to be 678 days. This is a higher statistic than for the Ontario region, where there was an average of 514 patient days per 10,000 population (CIHI 2012). This indicator may reflect differences between jurisdictions, such as the health of the population, differing health service delivery models and variations in the availability and accessibility of specialized, residential and/or ambulatory and community-based health services. However, regardless of the reason for the difference in statistics between Ontario and Canada as a whole, this demonstrates there are a significant number of people who could benefit from the psychological well-being that can result from experiencing high quality urban public or green spaces with a restorative impact.

Stress is also an important influence on well-being and health. Research by Statistics Canada (2004, 2012) showed that many Canadians experience stress. In response to the 2000/01 survey, 26% of Canadians

aged 18 or older described their life as “quite stressful” or “extremely stressful,” and another 40% reported it to be “a bit stressful” (Statistics Canada 2004). Toronto has a higher rate of perceived life stress than the national average, with 26.5% of people living in Toronto over the age of 15, describing most days in their lives as ‘quite a bit’ or ‘extremely’ stressful (Statistics Canada 2012). Toronto also has higher figures for stress than Ontario as a whole, for which only 24.0% of people perceive their everyday lives as ‘extremely’ or ‘quite a bit’ stressful (Statistics Canada 2012).

Stress is associated with mental health problems such as depression and psychological distress, and can also enhance the potential onset and progression of physical health problems or illness (Statistics Canada 2004, 2012). Physical illnesses which can be triggered or worsened by stress include colds and influenza, auto-immune diseases, coronary heart disease, insulin dependent diabetes, cancer, and HIV (Statistics Canada 2004). Stress can also lead to behaviours such as over-consumption of alcohol, less healthy eating habits, and smoking which can cause further health problems (Statistics Canada 2012). As such the provision of high quality urban public or green spaces which can provide

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50,993,670

calculated total number of people living in Toronto not in good or full functioning physical or mental health Statistics Canada 2012

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26.5 %

proportion of Toronto residents who describe most days of their lives as ‘extremely’ or ‘quite a bit’ stressful Statistics Canada (2012)

42.8 %

of people in Toronto are overweight or obese Statistics Canada (2012)

26.8 %

proportion of Toronto residents who rate their mental health as only ‘fair’ or ‘poor’ Statistics Canada (2012)

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... toronto health statistics restorative environments and reduce stress have a potentially very significant positive effect on reducing a wide-range of both mental health and physical illnesses.

Incidences of both physical illness and mental health conditions such as stress can lead to absenteeism and lost days from work. Absenteeism can be defined as “absences that are avoidable, habitual and unscheduled”, and can be disruptive to proper work scheduling and output, and costly to organizations and the whole economy (Dabboussey & Uppal 2012).

On average 7.7 days were lost per full-time employed worker in Canada in 2011 due to illness or disability.

This figure is higher in Ontario where 8.3 days are lost on average to absenteeism (Dabboussey & Uppal 2012). Whilst this figure includes those work days lost due to disability in addition to poor health (which is the focus of this thesis), this shows an indicative figure for the potential impact on worker absenteeism and the economy illness can have. Absenteeism has been shown to result from a number of factors such as job-stress, difficulty with relationships or child care, but significantly also from the physical environment (Dabboussey & Uppal 2012). This demonstrates the

potential to reduce physical and mental health problems and absenteeism using the positive health and wellbeing impact of high quality urban public places that adhere to the 12 design recommendations previously discussed.

It is also important to consider those people who are, at any one time, not able to participate fully in activities at school, home, work or leisure due to a physical, mental or health problem. Statistics Canada’s (2012) figures show those who are unable to participate in daily life in this way due to a condition lasting at least 6 months. In Toronto it was found 22.2% of people cannot participate in daily life activities such as these, compared to 28.2% for Ontario as a whole (Statistics Canada 2012). In addition, in Toronto it was found that 80.5% of people were in good to full functioning health, compared to 79.9% in Ontario as a whole (Statistics Health 2012).

Functioning health is a measure based on the Health Utility Index which consists of the 8 dimensions of functional health; vision, hearing, speech, mobility, dexterity, feelings, cognition and pain (Statistics Canada 2012). As such this demonstrates that there are, at any one time, 19.5% of people living in Toronto who are not

“Research shows a high correlation of sense of community-belonging with physical and mental health”

Statistics Canada 2012

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in good or full functioning health, and are experiencing problems with one of these physical or mental functions.

Based on a population of 2,615,060 (Statistics Canada 2011) this is a total number of 50,993,670 people who should be especially considered in design of the built environment to ensure full participation, inclusion, and enrichment of experience for those experiencing these health or well-being problems. As well as improving access to urban public places, these design considerations have been shown by the literature to actually help heal or reduce some of the physical and mental health conditions causing this reduction in health function in these individuals.

The earlier literature review showed that certain engagement and participation initiatives in urban public places such as parks and community gardens have been shown to have a positive impact on a person’s sense of belonging, community, involvement, autonomy and local pride, as well as improving social interaction. As such it is important to investigate the statistics for sense of belonging and community in Toronto. Only 65.7% of people in Toronto reported their sense of belonging to their local community was ‘very

strong’ or ‘somewhat strong’, compared to an average of 67.4% for Ontario as a whole (Statistics Canada 2012). Research shows a high correlation of sense of community-belonging with physical and mental health, and as such high quality urban public and green spaces and the local community initiatives they can support are important in improving health locally in Toronto (Statistics Canada 2012).

Having examined some key Toronto health statistics, it is clear that there is great potential to improve both physical and mental health through improvements to the built environment in Toronto, as well as Ontario and Canada as a whole. The three case study sites in this thesis are in central Toronto and will demonstrate how the 12 design recommendations can be applied to create local urban public places to best promote health and well-being with wide-ranging positive impacts.

700, 836 the calculated number of people in Toronto who perceive their mental health as ‘fair’ or ‘poor’ Statistics Canada 2012

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Photo: St. James Park, Toronto - Gehl Architects 2012 134

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site survey // context This section will analyse the local context into which the three sites fit. This involves surveying the location, local green spaces, healthcare facilities, quality of active and passive frontages, users demographics and behaviours.

This data has been collected from a variety of sources. Copenhagen based Gehl Architects and 8-80 Cities, a non-profit Toronto based Canadian organisation, conducted a number of workshops and survey research of the three sites; St. James Park, Berzcy Park and the O’Keefe Laneway in July 2012.

Prior to their site visits I discussed this anticipated research with Gehl Architects and made my own recommendations and suggestions for useful data which would be beneficial to best analysing these spaces during a project meeting in July 2012. Since then I have kept in touch with both Gehl Architects and 8-80 Cities regarding their research findings. I have analysed the primary data collected in Toronto in July for a number of the survey aspects to draw my own conclusions and observations. In addition to this research I also conducted my own desktop

research and surveying by distance from London to familiarise myself with the sites and accumulate additional information I thought relevent to the site survey prior to making design recommendations for these spaces. This included statistical analysis of neighbourhood demographics, surveying passive and active frontages in greater detail using Google Streetview, and further analysis of these three sites from photographs, and governmental publications.

This section is split into a number of important aspects of the site survey; location, local green spaces, nearby healthcare facilities, qualitative user survey findings, user demographics and analysis of adjacent frontages on to the space. These factors are important in determining how to best improve these spaces to promote health and well-being based on existing user behaviours, the potential for new users, the benefit improvement could bring to users of local healthcare facilities, and how these spaces could form a linked network with other nearby high quality public places.

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The three sites to which the suggested 12 design recommendations will be applied are located in central Toronto. Toronto is the capital of the Canadian province of Ontario, and is located on the northwest shore of Lake Ontario at Latitude 43 39 N, Longitude 79 23 W (Land Information Toronto 2012). Toronto has a population of 2,615,060 (Statistics Canada 2012).

All three sites are located to the East of the central business district of Toronto and consist of Berzcy Park, Saint James Park and the O’Keefe laneway. The sites will provide a variety of different urban spatial contexts in which to apply the design recommendations, as they include two very different parks, and a currently poorly used backstreet.

The O’Keefe Laneway is located leading South from the busy, bustling and lively hard landscaped Dundas Square to the North, across Shuter Street where this back lane becomes a dead-end to the South enclosed by the backs of the surrounding buildings. This backstreet is located immediately to the West of St. Michael’s Hospital and has

good transport links with the Dundas Street Metro station to the North West. It is surrounded by heavily trafficked commercial streets of Yonge Street, Dundas Street East and Victoria Street.

Berzcy Park is located on a central island between the roads Wellington Street East, Scott Street, and Front Street East which provide some barriers to pedestrian movement and limit the parks connectivity to the more active sidewalks on the facades opposite. Immediately to the West of the park is the Gooderham Building which features a mural facing on to the park with space for standing and gathering outside.

St. James Park is located to the North East of Berzcy Park to the West of the business district and is encompassed by Jarvis Street, Church Street, Adelaide Street East and King Street East.

This larger park includes the Cathedral Church of St. James within the park, and is adjacent to the Toronto Sculpture Garden and St. Lawrence Markets to the South although connectivity is limited by poor crossings to gain access across the surrounding roads.

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O ’ K E E F E

L A N E W A Y

S T . J A M E S

O N

B E R C Z Y

P A R K

P A R K

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It is important to establish the context of central Toronto in which the three proposed sites are situated in terms of green space. Two of the sites, Berzcy Park and St. James Park constitute key local green spaces in central Toronto, lying immediately to the West of downtown. As such it is important to establish how these sites fit into the wider context of green space in the city.

in the area to ensure any proposed ideas for improvements in these parks provide the widest range of activities and facilities for potential local users, particularly if these are not found elsewhere nearby. This is especially true for facilities such as sports, play and in providing a high quality restorative environment which gives a sense of being away from the surrounding urban environment.

The academic literature review revealed the importance of creating appealing cycle and walking routes integrated throughout the urban environment to promote everyday physical activity and therefore health and well-being.

It is therefore also important to investigate how these parks could be integrated at the strategic level with other urban public and green spaces in Toronto to enable these routes to be ocnsidered and potentially created.

The O’Keefe laneway is also important to consider in this context as although it is a hard-landscaped backstreet it has a potential to not only integrate more vegetation in its esign, but also fulfill certain functions and activities to promote social interaction that have historically been more associated with parks or in more formal urban public places such as markets or squares. As such, many of the health and well-being benefits which can result from use of parks could also be provided in this unconventional public space given the right design considerations.

It is also interesting to note the availability or dearth or other similar public green spaces

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D I S T R I B U T I The local area surrounding the three case study sites of Berzcy Park, St. James Park and the O’Keefe Laneway include a variety of green public spaces. The previous literature review demonstrated the importance of green space in providing restorative spaces which can reduce stress and provide a place for relaxation and rejuvenation away from the stressors of a busy, hectic, noisy, hot, crowded and high-pressure urban environment. As such it is important that there are high quality urban public green spaces for workers to sit in on their lunch breaks or after work, or for local residents of all ages and abilities to enjoy. The earlier literature review argued that a local public green space such as this should be located within 400m of those wishing to use it, and provide a variety of ‘rooms’ and spaces for different activities to suit the widest range of users. These spaces should therefore provide adequate facilities and types of space

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to enable those wishing to engage in uses such as play, engage in sporting activities, sit and read a book quietly, socialise as a group, or sit and observe others walking past whilst eating lunch for example. Ideally these spaces should be designed according to the 12 design recommendations for maximum benefit to health and well-being and to encourage most use of these spaces.

All three sites are immediately to the East of the central downtown area of Toronto. As such they are key green spaces for use by local workers as well as residents and should be careful to consider the mixture of demands and potential for use this places on the sites.

In central urban areas such as this, green space is often at a premium so there is a great potential to improve the quality of these spaces and for this to impact a large number of potential and existing users.

O N

O ’ K E E F E

L A N E W A Y

S T . J A M E S

B E R C Z Y

P A R K

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P U B L I C

G R E E N

S P A C E

There are a number of other designated public green spaces in the local area. These include the larger Moss Park and Allan Gardens as well as smaller public green spaces nearby such as the Sculpture Garden adjacent to St. James Park. These provide a number of recreational green options as a reprieve from stressors of the surrounding urban environment. However the quality of a number of these spaces could be improved and there are not sufficient to provide a local park within 400m of each worker or resident as the literature review recommended.

However, given the high land value in this very central area of downtown Toronto this is perhaps not surprising.

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P U B L I C L Y A C C E S S I B L E P R I V A T E G R E E N S P A C E There are several privately owned green spaces but which are accessible and available for use by the public due to their design and positioning. These provide valuable additional green spaces for local workers and residents to enjoy being outside.

They include several high quality spaces owned and maintained by private companies or organisations often with the aim of providing green space for their workers and improving the built environment immediately outside their building’s footprint and the prestige that accompanies this first impression for visitors visiting these buildings.

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The private green space is predominantly located in the Northern, Eastern and North-Western areas outside of the most central and Southern downtown area. These outer areas have greater amounts of residential land uses compared to the commercial central and Southern areas where land values are higher and skyscrapers and other more dense forms of building proliferate. This demonstrates there is a large number of smaller sized privately owned green space owned by either residents or smaller organisations, but that this space is not accessible to the general public and as such cannot have a positive resotrative impact on the local public’s health and well-being or be linked as part of the network of bicycle and walking routes to promote physical health.

M I X O F P U B L I C

H A R D + S O F T L A N D S C A P E

There a small number of spaces which are publicly accessible space but are a mixture of hard landscaping and vegetation.

These public places can be important for facilitating passive and active social interaction and events and activities which can benefit mental health and well-being, but also include some vegetated green elements which have also been shown to have a beneficial effect on health and well-being. As such this other typology of public space plays an important role in promoting health and well-being where it is well-designed and high quality.

There are relatively lfew areas defined in this way, none of which are particularly close to the three sites in question.

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L O C A L It is important to investigate what other urban public and green places are within 400m of each of the three sites, as this was shown by the literature review to be the maximum distance any person should have to walk to gain access to a local green space. As the adjacent map demonstrates, St. James Park, Berzcy Park and the O’Keefe Laneway currently have very few other quality urban public places or parks within the immediate vicinity. As such the development of these three sites and their connection to the wider urban context is important. This will enable an integrated network of quality green and public places for this neighbourhood, therefore promoting walking and cycling as well as other well-being and health benefits. It will be important to ensure that these spaces are connected in this way to integrate green spaces and high quality places continuously throughout the urban area rather than seeing these parks and public places as ‘islands’.

It is also useful to examine any other green spaces within a 400m radius of each space to ensure that any facilities or activity spaces proposed in suggested design improvements for Berzcy Park, St. James Park and the O’Keefe Laneway fit well into the context and best address the demands of users to create a high quality urban realm as a whole. This also means that rather than ‘doubling up’ on those facilities such as specific arts, sports or play amenities potentially already available in other nearby public or green spaces in

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fact ensuring the widest range of activity spaces are available for the rich variety of new potential users. This helps provide inclusive places and spaces suited to the widest range of users nearby.

Of note are the Toronto Sculpture Park immediately to the South of the St. James Park which provides arts and culture based interest and could be better connected with the larger St. James Park as part of a walking or cycling route. There are also potentially improved links with the St. Lawrence Market along a pedestrianised street to the East of the St. Lawrence Hall on the South-East corner of St. James Park. Berzcy Park is the closest publicly owned and accessible other urban public green space. As such better linkages in the urban realm between these parks would be beneficial for walking and biking routes.

The O’Keefe Laneway has few urban public green spaces nearby. Only two fall within 400m; the St. Michael’s Church gardens adjacent to St. Michael’s Hospital and Trinity Gardens to the West. The O’Keefe Laneway does not provide green space at present but with improvements to this urban public realm it could become a unique and appealing tucked away place of discovery, featuring interest, human scale, arts and cultural activities, and opportunities to stop and stay with associated well-being benefits, away from the busier surrounding streets.

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As the previous academic literature review has shown, those people experiencing psychological or physical health problems can significantly benefit from engaging in various activities in urban public or green spaces. This include improved healing times (Ulrich 1984), reduced stress and anxiety (Kaplan 1995), and if physical activity is engaged in such as sports, play, walking or cycling then a variety of physical health benefits and prevention of serious conditions such as obesity or coronary heart disease (Building Health 2007b).

The active or passive social interaction involved in participating in these activities or being in these public green spaces can also have a positive impact on well-being as well as a restorative psychological effect. This can

be particularly valuable for those experiencing mental health problems, those who have minimal social contact with others, or are older in age.

It is therefore important to investigate the location of any nearby healthcare facilities to the three sites; Berzcy Park, St. James Park and the O’Keefe Laneway to establish who potential users may be of these spaces and the way these public places could best be tailored to best benefit their health and well-being. Both larger hospitals with a variety of users and smaller more specific healthcare and well-being related facilities and organisations are found within the area.

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H E A L T H The academic literature review highlighted the importance of having a local public green space of high quality within 400m of a person’s home. This was shown to be important for use by all members of the community and the positive health and well-being impact these environments can have.

In particular, those groups of people experiencing heatlh or well-being problems may benefit most from their local places being improved or those urban public and green spaces that they may use due to their proximity to healthcare facilities they are attending.

The map demonstrates there are a range of healthcare facilities within a 400m walk. The largest of these is the St. Michael’s Hospital which a range of users with both physical and mental health problems attend, as well as their relatives and friends who may be experiencing emotional stress and in need of restorative, peaceful green spaces. The Youthdale Treatment Centres, Older Women’s Network, Salvation Army and CML Healthcare facilities are also within 400m of Berzcy Park, St. James Park and O’Keefe Laneway and provide for a range of users whose particular circumstances, abilities and situations should be considered in any redesign of these sites and a desire to make them as accessible and inclusive as possible to a range of users. For example potential users at these facilities may include older adults experiencing age-related decline, those with mental health or well-being problems, vulnerable adults or those with physical health problems.

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Y O U T H D A L E C E N T R E S

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F A T R E A T M E N T

S A L V A T I O N

A R M Y

C M L H E A L T H C A R E

O L D E R W O M E N ’ S N E T W O R K

C I L I T I E S O ’ K E E F E

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User surveys were carried out at all three sites; St. James Park, Berczy Park and the O’Keefe laneway. Surveys were carried out at a minimum of four times throughout the day to give a more representative account of how each space is currently used at different times during the day. User activities and the reasons people may wish to use these urban public places will vary depending on the time of day, for example lunch-time users from nearby offices versus those early in the morning, so it is important to ensure that all types of activities are recorded.

This allows assessment of which activities these urban places currently provide suitable conditions for. In all three sites potential was found to increase the conditions for optional

activities such as sitting and spending time, particularly at the O’Keefe laneway. Through improving the facilities, quality and sensory attraction and interest of these three sites, a wider range of users may be attracted, including those who would engage in longer activities in these spaces such as physical activity or sitting and meeting friends. These optional activities have been shown by the literature to promote social interaction, physical activity levels and therefore also health and well-being.

The following pages detail the results of the user surveys at each site.

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B E R C Z Y Berzcy Park was surveyed at 9.30am, 11.30am, 1.30pm and 3.30pm to gain information about user activities in the park.

The most prevalent activities included sitting on benches surrounding the central fountain, sitting on secondary seating close to the Scott Street and Eastern entrances, and standing at all entrances. There were also significant numbers of people sitting on the grass in groups. These activities were most noted at 1.30pm implying the use of the park as a location for spending lunchtime, potentially by local workers. The presence of these activities demonstrates the park has some favourable conditions enabling its use for a range of optional activities and social interaction rather than simply being a transit route or ‘shortcut’ for necessary tasks.

However, there were very few numbers of users engaging in activities which imply longer

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times spent in the park, such as lying down or reading. There were also few numbers of children playing. This may be the result of a lack of formal or natural play opportunities and facilities for children in the park, combined with potential concerns about safety due to the nearby roads. There are also no toilet facilities at the park which can be especially useful for parents with young children. However, the fountain does provide a source of play and was the location where children were seen playing.

The reasons for longer times not being spent in the park may be due to a lack of desired activity spaces and facilities, lack of interest and variety in the vegetation structure, or the small size of the park making it hard to create favourable conditions away from the hustle and bustle of the exterior urban environment.

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The 9.30am survey results showed use of the park for primarily a mixture of sitting on secondary seating, standing near focal points such as the fountain and entrances, and some sitting on benches. There were also three people seated on benches reading at this time, and one person lying down. Stopping to use the park in this way demonstrates it has some favourable environmental, climatic or social conditions for stopping and spending time. Those standing clustered around the Gooderham Building to the East may be attracted to this location in part due its focal point near the Eastern entrance and landmark mural on its wall.

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The 11.30am survey showed reduced use of the park compared with 9.30am. Uses included sitting on benches in the central area around the fountain, sitting on secondary seating along key routes and footpaths, and some scattered people standing. There were also a smaller number of users reading both along paths and on the grass, and one child playing.This demonstrates the importance of different spaces for the preferences of different users, including those wishing to sit on more formal or informal seating, those people-watching on the main paths or seeking more isolated locations on the grass. People were found to cluster at key focal points such as around the fountain, in front of the Gooderham Building and at entrances.

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The 1.30pm survey showed a significantly large number of people using the park for sitting on secondary seating possibilities. This included larger numbers of people seated in groups or alone on the grass, or at key focal points at the East or West entrances. There were also more people than the 11.30am survey seated on benches, in particular around the central fountain. In addition to these uses there were an additional number of people standing along the main paths both inside and outside the park, one person reading and one child playing. This is likely due to use of the park for lunch by nearby workers or residents. The clusters of users seated together suggested the parks use as a place to meet.

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The 3.30pm survey showed increased use of Berzcy Park by people seated on benches around the fountain, those standing in particular around the Scott Street entrance, and children playing in the fountain. There were a smaller number of people sitting on secondary seating possibilities and no-one lying down or reading.

Both this and the 1.30pm survey showed increased overall usage in the afternoons but a distinction between lunchtime use of secondary seating in groups on the grass, and later afternoon use seated on more formal seating around the fountain. The 3.30pm survey showed the least number of people gathering around the Gooderham Building.

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raised walled grass areas provide secondary seating

fountain provides sensory interest + play opportunities

few easy road crossings to integrate the park in walking routes

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location next to noisy road with few vegetative buffers

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S T . J A M E S User surveys were conducted at St. James Park at 9.30am, 11.25am, 1.25pm, 3.30pm and 9.45pm.

The user data found showed that consistently throughout the day there were few users engaging in physical activities such as jogging, cycling or sports. The causes for this are likely to be that St. James Park does not have the sports facilities or connection to a wider network of walking, jogging or cycling paths throughout the city that mean that these physical activities are engaged with more in this park.

The park is located with four busy roads around its perimeter and no designated cycling route or easy jogging route across these barriers to enjoy the park easily for moving sports such as this. Aside from the expanses of grass for physical activities such as yoga or tai chi there are also no sports facilities or play areas enabling other types of physical activity. There are also no play facilities for children which may form part of the reason few children were found to be using the park for either informal or formal play.

There were also few users lying down in the park, the presence of which can indicate longer times stayed due to favourable conditions. As such whilst the park currently functions well in many respects, there

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may be possible improvements to promote the park as a place to spend longer periods of time. Longer exposure to quality green space was shown by the literature to have a more restorative and stressreducing effect.

Most use of the park was seen at 11.25am with consistent but reduced use in the afternoons. This demonstrates a potential to promote use of the park throughout the day through additional provision of facilities and sensory interest creating a more appealing destination.

The survey found similar numbers of those seated on benches and more informally on the grass throughout the day. This most likely shows a desire for a mix of seating possibilities including those with arm and back supports facing onto the paths where passive social interaction is most enabled, and more informal places to relax on the grass away from more active forms of social interaction.

Of all the surveys, the fewest number of users were in the evening in the 9.45pm survey. This demonstrates the park is not used to its fullest extent throughout all times of the day and night and

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therefore indicates a potential to increase its use and its potential health and well-being benefits.

The literature review demonstrated use of better lighting, facilities and activities, and improving feelings of safety could help promote use of public spaces such as this in the evening.

By looking at the pattern of users throughout the day it becomes clear that the benches positioned along the axial paths through the park are popular for sitting, and those sitting on informal secondary seating possibilities choose locations on the grass usually closer to the centre of the park than the noisier perimeters. This supports the literature which suggests urban public green places are most attractive where they provide a sense of ‘getting away’ from the stressors of the urban environment, or opportunities to engage in either passive social interaction such as people-watching along the paths or active social interaction sat in informal groups on the grass.

Other conditions such as reduced temperatures due to vegetation may also provide more favourable conditions closer to the centre of the park.

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The 9.30am survey showed minimal use of St. James Park except for a small number of people sitting on benches along key paths, and sitting using secondary seating possibilities on the grass. The main park area to the East is significantly better used than the Western area at this time of day.

There were no people seen engaging in physical activity such as jogging in the park.

This is perhaps due to the time of day but may also indicate that the does not currently form a good jogging destination or part of a wider urban network of routes suitable for jogging or cycling.

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The 11.25am survey showed dramatically increased use of the park compared to the 9.30am survey. The two most dominant uses were sitting on benches along three of the main paths, and sitting mainly in groups on the secondary seating possibilities the grass provides. There were also a number of people lying down and engaging in physical activities on the grassed areas of the main park. This demonstrates the use of the park for optional activities involving social interaction and spending longer periods of time here due to favourable conditions. In addition, the Eastern area of the park was used for sitting on benches and for secondary seating at this time.

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The 1.25pm survey showed reduced use of the park compared to the 11.25am survey but demonstrated a consistent mix of uses.

These were mainly sitting on benches along paths and key routes and a similar number of users sitting on secondary seating possibilities such as the grass and central bandstand. There were also a smaller number of people either standing at the park periphery or lying down on the grass more centrally. This demonstrates the importance of a mix of more formal and informal seating at the park, and that conditions are favourable for optional activities and social interaction to a certain extent.

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The 3.30pm survey showed a similar number of users to the 1.25pm survey, again predominantly engaged in sitting on secondary seating on the grass or more formal seating options along the main paths. Again the corner of King Street East and Church Street is popular for sitting on benches due to the benches positioned around a tree at this location. There are no users engaging in physical activity and only two people lying down on the grass and two people standing on the periphery.

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The 9.45pm survey shows minimal use of the park except by one group of five seated on the grass in the main park area to the East of the Church, two people sat on the bandstand, and another group nearby engaging in physical activity. This demonstrates a potential for increased use of the park in the evenings by creating more favourable conditions such as improved facilities, activities or lighting. One of the main reasons the literature review found for people not using parks in the evening particular were concerns about safety. As such perhaps a safer atmosphere needs to be created at St. James Park to promote use at this time.

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little vegetation structure + few vegetative sensory buffers to the outside urban environment

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park is open to the surrounding urban traffic and noise few users stay to engage in longer activities in the park at certain times of day

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O ’ K E E F E User surveys were conducted at the O’Keefe Laneway and along Yonge Street at 9.30am, 11.30am, 1.30pm, and 3.30pm.

The majority of users observed when surveying the O’Keefe laneway were observed standing on the Western side of Yonge Street outside the Toronto Eaton Centre or engaged in a mixture of standing or commercial activities on the O’Keefe laneway.

This demonstrates the use of the O’Keefe laneway currently as a backstreet for logistical commercial functions for those commercial buildings facing on to Yonge Street and Victoria Street. As such, there are few active frontages facing on to the O’Keefe laneway and it is used more by those engaging in necessary activities in the space or for standing activities by those users working in the adjacent buildings.

There are also a smaller number of users sitting on secondary seating possibilities on the Yonge Street entrance to the O’Keefe laneway demonstrating more favourable conditions for optional activities and passive

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social interaction at this location.

This demonstrates a great potential for improvements to the O’Keefe laneway to help promote a greater variety of uses in the space, particularly those optional activities which require a higher quality environment or drawing factors such as events, activities and a more appealing green environment with more active frontages. There is also significant potential for this space to be used for temporary events and activities such as markets or cultural events due to the high footfall on surrounding streets. Social interaction occurring from events such as this has been shown to promote health and wellbeing.

Due to the enclosed nature of the laneway, there is a great potential for improvements to this urban public place to enable creation of a higher quality environment which gives a sense of ‘getting away’ from the surrounding urban environment, thereby having a positive impact on well-being through stress reduction as the previous literature review showed.

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The 9.30am survey showed users engaged in a mix of predominantly commercial activity along the O’Keefe laneway and standing along the Eastern side of Yonge Street. A smaller number of people were also stood in a few spots along the Western side of the O’Keefe laneway. The dominance of commercial activity relates to the laneway’s function as a backstreet for the commercial land uses facing on to Victoria and Yonge Street. Those standing on Yonge Street are located outside the entrance to the Toronto Eaton Centre which forms a natural clustering point with shop facades facing onto the street.

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The 11.30am survey showed dramatically reduced use of the O’Keefe laneway itself for commercial functions such as delivery and rubbish collection, presumably because this activity occurs earlier in the morning.

Instead the main use of the area are by people clustered standing on Yonge Street where the most active frontages and interest lies. There are, however now minimal uses of the O’Keefe laneway for physical activities although in general use of this backstreet has been reduced significantly.

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The 1.30pm survey shows almost no uses on the O’Keefe laneway or Yonge Street except for standing activities. These are still centred around the entrance to the Toronto Eaton Centre and other active frontages. Only 6 users were observed in the O’Keefe laneway, all of whom were standing rather than engaging in other optional activities such as sitting which demonstrate more favourable conditions promoting longer stays. This demonstrates the potential for improvements to this urban public place to enable a wider range of usage activities.

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The 3.30pm survey showed a much greater variety of usage activities on both Yonge Street and the O’Keefe laneway. There was much reduced standing activities on Yonge Street at 3.30pm, instead a mix of commercial activity, sitting on secondary seating possibilities, standing and waiting for transport. The O’Keefe laneway is used for a mixture of commercial activity, standing, sitting on secondary seating possibilities and physical activities. Use of secondary seating is particularly significant at the entrance of Yonge Street where conditions for optional activities are best.

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Active frontages provide interest + variety on Yonge St

Toronto Eaton Centre provides natural cluster point for standing

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Yonge St. entrance to O’Keefe laneway - view blocked by low tree canopy

location of most users engaging in secondary seating

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Qualitative surveying of the three sites; St. James Park, Berzcy Park and the O’Keefe Laneway, were carried out by Gehl Architects and 8-80 in July 2012. This involved observing, photographing, and experiencing each site before evaluating the strengths, weaknesses and potential for improvements. Where applicable I have added to these findings from my own assessment of the sites by distance using photographs, street-views, maps and other information.

Gehl Architects use a method for assessing sites such as these using 12 key criteria for creating high quality public places. Each site is then compared to these ideal criteria and conditions for quality public spaces to assess its current condition. Out of these criteria it is then clear what needs to be improved at each site to improve the quality of the urban public realm. The 12 key criteria include creating a place which is safe, secure, reduces unpleasant

sensory aspects, is walkable, provides places to stand and stay, seating, views, places to talk and listen, play and exercise, at a human scale, which enables enjoyment of pleasant climatic factors, and enhances those positive sensory aspects such as colour, texture and detailing interest.

It is worth noting that the 12 Quality Criteria used here for qualitative site survey purposes are a separate survey tool used by Gehl Architects as their standard method of qualitatively assessing sites independent of my study design. This is a separate way of assessing the more general quality of existing public spaces, as opposed to the aforementioned 12 design recommendations this thesis suggests, which are guidelines resulting from the synthesis of the academic literature reviewed to concisely put forward 12 ways to best design urban public places specifically for health and well-being.

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S T R E N G T H S

Trees provide shade from the sun Plentiful metal benches and secondary seating on walls/grass Main entrances and the fountain provide focal points Feeling of safety and security due to well-maintained vegetation Popular with local workers for lunch and to smoke at park entrances

W E A K N E S S E S

Stone walls and metal benches material means users can’t sit for long Only one wooden bench providing more comfortable seating Predominant use by local business workers for lunch Pathways provide access but divide the park and create barriers High numbers of pigeons create waste on walls and seating Few places to comfortably stand due to seating arrangements Fountain acts as focal point but underutilised Some brick walls too high for people to sit on

P O T E N T I A L

Additional rubbish or recycling bins and ashtrays required Additional activities around the fountain to promote social interaction To create a multifunctional park more cultural and physical activities Possible extension of the restaurant patio into the park Possible partnerships with local groups e.g. Canadian Stage Company to provide events and free performances Increase safety with addition of lighting on pathways to the fountain Addition of more benched seating on park periphery facing street

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S A F E

PROTECTION AGAINST TRAFFIC + ACCIDENTS Quiet and limited traffic on Front St. and Wellington St. Scott St. has limited or no traffic. Parked cars on park periphery provide protective barrier from the road.

S E C U R E

SAFETY FROM CRIME + VIOLENCE, LIGHTING, SURVEILLANCE, LIVELY Canadian Stage Company on Front St with boutiques and restaurants on Wellington St provide surveillance. Tall building to the North and 2 storey buildings to South provide passive frontages onto the space. However, limited street lighting in the park and little use at night outside of usage hours by local business workers.

R E D U C E

S E N S O R Y

PROTECTION AGAINST WIND, RAIN, NOISE, HEAT, POLLUTION Average/good control of negative climatic factors. Tree canopy coverage along pathways provides shade against the sun. The fountain provides noise to mask the sounds of the urban environment around.

W A L K A B L E

ACCESSIBLE, GOOD SURFACES, WIDE PATHS, INTEREST Good conditions. Lots of accessible pathways allowing routes across the park.

Street art on pathway next to Gooderham Building and fountain provides lively interest. Uneven brick and cement jointed walking surface.

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INTERESTING FACADES, EDGE EFFECT/ACTIVE ZONES

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BENCHES + INFORMAL, UTILISE SUN, VIEWS, PEOPLE

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UNHINDERED + INTERESTING VIEWS, LIGHTING

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OPPORTUNITIES TO TALK AND LISTEN, LOW NOISE

S T A N D + S T A Y

Poor conditions. Few opportunities to lean against wall or buildings. Some standing in grassed areas. Some benches and one wooden bench but mostly concrete and brick walls.

S E A T I N G

Not enough seating during peak lunchtime hours. Walls provide secondary seating but could be improved. Additional seating in the shade needed. Fountain provides interesting sitting spot.

V I E W S

Average. Clear sightlines across the park. Streets and fountain are interesting focal points. Periphery lit at night but not inside the park.

T A L K S C A P E S

Low noise levels generally but difficult to talk around the fountain. Mainly small groups and couples sitting in a line.

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P L A Y + E X E R C I S E

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, STREET ENTERTAINMENT + PLAY Fountain provides spot for children to play. Paths dominate the landscape making other activities difficult. Few dog walkers.

Improvement in summer months however.

S C A L E

BUILDINGS AND SPACES DESIGNED TO HUMAN SCALE On Wellington St. mid-rise buildings have decorative facades. Scott St. has high rise buildings and Front St. has mid-rise buildings of similar height to Wellington St. Despite high-rise buildings feels safe due to clear sightlines across the streets.

C L I M A T E

ENJOYMENT OF POSITIVE; SUN, SHADE, HEAT, COOL, SHELTER Plentiful shade from the sun. No wind tunnels creating a draft from surrounding buildings. The fountain provides enjoyment and cool water.

E N H A N C E

S E N S O R Y

MATERIALS, VIEWS, TREES, PLANTS, WATER, DETAILING

Well maintained green space with lots of detailing on the periphery and pathways but sensory qualities could be further enhanced.

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P A R K Tree canopy provides shade from the sun

Fountain provides play, cool in summer + a focal point

Potential for additional activities and events

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Lower noise levels further from the fountain

Passive frontages onto the park provide some surveillance

Low walls provide secondary seating but not long stays

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S T R E N G T H S

Good mix of users Busy and high density area ensures high numbers of potential users Few parks in the area so valued green space Much potential for programming (e.g. events or sports) due to large size Well designed and attractive areas to the South and East

W E A K N E S S E S

Poor quality and variety of seating Unsafe feeling - lack of visual and physical connection to its surroundings Poor maintenance to the North side Few amenities for children and play Poor accessibility along the sidewalks and paths

P O T E N T I A L

Improvement of the building facade at pedestrian level on Church St. and Adelaide St. Greater connection and access needed between the street and park.

Increase the variety of seating and talking spaces.

Better integration of and interaction with art pieces.

Greater visual and physical connections within the park.

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P A R K

Photo: Gehl Architects 2012

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S A F E

PROTECTION AGAINST TRAFFIC + ACCIDENTS Average. Adelaide St. and Jarvis St. have a few trees between pedestrians and cars but Church and King St. do not. There is frequent jay-walking threatening pedestrian safety

S E C U R E

SAFETY FROM CRIME + VIOLENCE, LIGHTING, SURVEILLANCE, LIVELY Poor. There are a limited number of people walking along Jarvis St. and Adelaide St. Lighting is too dim along the perimeter streets as well as in the grassy areas of the park. Alcohol users in the park threaten perceived safety.

R E D U C E

S E N S O R Y

PROTECTION AGAINST WIND, RAIN, NOISE, HEAT, POLLUTION Poor. Good amount of shade for sun protection. However, no shelter from cold or rain aside from the gazebo. Many people sit on the ground - mud would limit this opportunity and deter park use.

W A L K A B L E

ACCESSIBLE, GOOD SURFACES, WIDE PATHS, INTEREST Average. Several different textures in the pavement surrounding the park and 75% of store frontages around the perimeter are attractive for pedestrians. However the path through the park is very narrow.

S T . J A M E S 5

INTERESTING FACADES, EDGE EFFECT/ACTIVE ZONES

6

BENCHES + INFORMAL, UTILISE SUN, VIEWS, PEOPLE

7

UNHINDERED + INTERESTING VIEWS, LIGHTING

8

OPPORTUNITIES TO TALK AND LISTEN, LOW NOISE

S T A N D + S T A Y

Poor. Art and heritage features in the park are not attractive features for people to stay and observe. Gaps of facade do not encourage standing or staying. Limited features to lean or stand against.

S E A T I N G

Average. Multitude of benches although poor in quality. No seating along Jarvis St. Good use of ground under the shade of trees for seating.

V I E W S

There are differences in the textures of buildings along King St. but little store-front activity to see. The facade of the perimeter’s North-East corner is very passive.

T A L K S C A P E S

Average. Benches are constantly occupied with additional people sitting on the ground. Most benches at a social distance with limited spaces for conversation unless using secondary seating.

9 10 11 12

P L A Y + E X E R C I S E

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, STREET ENTERTAINMENT + PLAY Poor. Space to accommodate physical activities such as frisbee. Most physical activity involves people running, cycling or walking through the park. However, there are no facilities for people to stay and exercise or play.

S C A L E

BUILDINGS AND SPACES DESIGNED TO HUMAN SCALE Good. Good building to street proportion. Park surrounded by 3 to 8 storey high buildings. Designed at human scale with good building facades and detail design. Good street design. Feeling of proximity and visual connection.

C L I M A T E

ENJOYMENT OF POSITIVE; SUN, SHADE, HEAT, COOL, SHELTER Good. Variety of exposed and protected spaces. Gazebo and trees allow for coverage in case of snow or rain. Presence of the water fountain aids on hot summer days. Park is surrounded by mid-height buildings which offer protection from the wind.

E N H A N C E

S E N S O R Y

MATERIALS, VIEWS, TREES, PLANTS, WATER, DETAILING

Average. The South-East corner is well maintained and designed and compensates for the rest of the park. Wide variety and texture of vegetation. The fountain and overall design of the South side works well.

Northern area of park lacks investment, site furniture and security.

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Good shade protection from hot sun by trees but little rain protection

Few amenities for children and play

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Central busy location ensures plentiful potential users

Some jogging + walking but no dedicated facilities for sports

Potential to increase variety of seating and spaces for interaction Photo: Gehl Architects 2012 Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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S T R E N G T H S

Prime location leading to Yonge St. and Dundas Square.

Easily accessed by public transit.

A few listed and designated historical buildings with interesting architectural elements.

Relatively little here already - almost a blank slate with huge potential.

W E A K N E S S E S

Safety issues involving the lack of pedestrian activity and visibility.

Narrowness of the laneway.

Unsafe for pedestrians due to trucks and commercial activity.

Unpleasant and unkempt atmosphere - noisy, smelly, dirty.

No trees, plants or public art for visual interest.

P O T E N T I A L

Repaving the laneway with cobble sets or painting it would indicate the area is for pedestrians. This could relieve the congestion on busy Yonge St. which runs parrallel to the laneway. This increased pedestrian use would make the street feel safer and provide possibilities for interaction.

Removing boards on windows, adding glass doors and building additional windows would create more natural surveillance of the laneway. The suspended link between the Ed Mirvish theatres could also be renovated in glass with a glass floor to add safety and visual interest to the area. Small businesses such as cafes could open in the back garages of the buildings. The laneway has great potential for inclusion of green space, public art, street furniture, lighting, seating, rubbish bins.

Potential as Graffiti Zone. Collaboration with local businesses to regulate hours of loading vehicles and garbage collecting would allow a fully pedestrianised street with moveable bollards to block vehicles at certain times. Depending on pedestrianised hours the laneway could be used for a regular farmers market or other events, or new bars and nightlife in the evening. The new residential development proposed in the laneway will provide a mix of functions and should be designed with active frontages onto this backstreet. There is potential to link the laneway to the South end of St. Enoch’s Square where there is little traffic and room for seating and tables.

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L

A N E W A Y

Photo: Gehl Architects 2012

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G E H L A R C H I T E C T S ’ K E Y Q U A L I T Y C R I T E R I A

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S A F E

PROTECTION AGAINST TRAFFIC + ACCIDENTS Average. High traffic environment of Yonge Street runs parallel with the busy road separated from wide footpaths. The O’Keefe laneway is quieter but with no separation between cars and pedestrians, no protection from cars, and is a very narrow one way backstreet with trucks frequently backing out.

S E C U R E

SAFETY FROM CRIME + VIOLENCE, LIGHTING, SURVEILLANCE, LIVELY Poor. Very few pedestrians and non-commercial activity. Adjacent buildings have few active frontages onto the laneway so do not contribute to surveillance.

Many boarded up windows on the first two storeys of adjacent buildings, and few children, older adults and women use the laneway. This contrasts adjacent Yonge St. which has a lively public realm, lighting and overlapping functions.

R E D U C E

S E N S O R Y

PROTECTION AGAINST WIND, RAIN, NOISE, HEAT, POLLUTION Laneway is used for rubbish disposal and litter causing bad smells. Lots of noise pollution from commercial activities such as loading, cleaning and trucks backing out. Very few elements to offer protection from wind, rain and snow. This contrasts the enclave on Yonge St at the Toronto Eaton Centre which provides shelter.

W A L K A B L E

ACCESSIBLE, GOOD SURFACES, WIDE PATHS, INTEREST Poor. No separate pedestrian lane, many obstacles and very narrow. Many accessibility issues. Pavement surface is in poor condition. This contrasts Yonge St. which has a variety of interesting facades and wide sidewalks creating a more attractive pedestrian environment.

O ’ K E E F E 5

INTERESTING FACADES, EDGE EFFECT/ACTIVE ZONES

6

BENCHES + INFORMAL, UTILISE SUN, VIEWS, PEOPLE

7

UNHINDERED + INTERESTING VIEWS, LIGHTING

8

OPPORTUNITIES TO TALK AND LISTEN, LOW NOISE

S T A N D + S T A Y

Poor. Not an attractive location for standing. Only the Firkin Pub with an attractive facade with glass door. This contrasts Yonge St. which has a lot of interesting facades, window displays and wide sidewalks and is a more attractive place to stand and stay.

S E A T I N G

Poor. No seating at all. Some secondary seating on adjacent Yonge St. but here seating options are poor too. This demonstrates a need for increased seating in the area.

V I E W S

Poor. No interesting views. Few and unattractive lighting. Views hindered by ugly back building facades. Some designated heritage buildings back on to the laneway but have little interest from the back. This contrasts Yonge St. which has unhindered views and plentiful lighting.

T A L K S C A P E S

Poor. No street furniture at all. Traffic on nearby Yonge St. is loud preventing easy talking and listening.

9 10 11 12

P L A Y + E X E R C I S E

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, STREET ENTERTAINMENT + PLAY Poor. No space for activities. Too narrow almost for pedestrians and vehicles.

S C A L E

BUILDINGS AND SPACES DESIGNED TO HUMAN SCALE Poor. Not designed to human scale. No details on buildings within the first two storeys. Mid-rise buildings but which seem taller due to the narrowness of the laneway.

C L I M A T E

ENJOYMENT OF POSITIVE; SUN, SHADE, HEAT, COOL, SHELTER Poor. Buildings provide some protection from the elements but there are no additional features.

E N H A N C E

S E N S O R Y

MATERIALS, VIEWS, TREES, PLANTS, WATER, DETAILING

Poor. There are no design elements such as planters, trees or benches.

The laneway is unkempt with litters, boards, bars on windows, vents and exposed wiring. There are lots of pigeons and some rats.

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Back facades and entrances not attractive

Lane used for commercial activities and deliveries

Bad smells originate from rubbish bins and litter Photo: Gehl Architects 2012 188

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Boarded up windows, vents and few active frontages provide little surveillance

No street furniture for interest or seating and little lighting

Lane used for necessary not optional activities. Few pedestrians or people sitting.

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To better understand the users for the three sites in question; Berzcy Park, St. James Park and the O’Keefe laneway, the demographic characteristics have been analysed of both Toronto as a whole and the ‘Church-Yonge Corridor’ in which these sites are located.

This corridor includes all three sites and encloses the area between Jarvis Street, Yonge Street, Bloor Street, and Front Street.

Statistics Canada (2006, 2011) conducted a census of both this area in particular and Toronto as a whole in 2006 and 2011 from which recent data can be gathered about the demographic structure of residents in this area and how this compares to city-wide figures.

This is important to give an indication of the age structure, ethnic origin, languages spoken, gender and identities present in the area local to the three sites in question. For example information about the age structure present in the area is important to consider when designing inclusive accessible public places, and how this compares to Toronto as a whole.

Whilst urban public places should always be designed to be accessible and inclusive for all groups in the community, however small a proportion of the total population they constitute, it is useful to know the proportions of certain age groups and other demographic aspects to enable adequate provision of certain facilities and activity spaces.

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R A P H I C S Photo: Gehl Architects 2012

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U S E R S

T

RS

The Church-Yonge corridor area is a long narrow area to the East of the business district of Toronto. It contains a mixture of land uses and functions. The three sites; Berzcy Park, St. James Park and O’Keefe Laneway are all in the Southern end of this area. User demographics including age, gender, ethnic origin, home language and identity have been examined to give an indication of the population living in the Church-Yonge corridor, for many of whom the two parks and laneway could become their local public spaces.

T

S VIS JAR

G YON

E ST

O BLO

O ’ K E E F E

L A N E W A Y

S T . J A M E S

B E R C Z Y

P A R K

FR

O

NT

ST

P A R K

The Church-Yonge corridor has a different demographic structure compared to Toronto as a whole. For example, there are a signficantly lower number of children aged 0-14 years. Whilst this may indicate reduced demand for play facilities in the area’s local urban public spaces, it is important to remember that amenities such as local places to play were shown by the literature to be very important for health and well-being of young people. As such, whilst there may be la smaller proportion of children living in the area compared to Toronto as a whole, those children that do live here still have the same need for play facilities to be provided, and should not be overlooked due to their reduced numbers.

The largest group of potential users in the area are those aged 25-64 years, of working age. This should be considered in design suggestions for local urban public places. However, whilst this group constitutes the largest number of potential users and therefore most demand it is important

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100%

100%

65+

TORONTO CITY

25-64

AGE

to design urban public places to be accessible and inclusive for all groups in the community, regardless of their numbers (Burton and Mitchell 2006). In this case the largest group (25-64yrs) are likely to be least vulnerable to some physical and mental health conditions resulting from age related decline or in need of certain facilities such as play due to young age, however it is important adequate facilties are also provided for those older or younger. Those of working age may however experience workrelated stress and therefore require urban places which have a particularly restorative effect.

15-24 0-14

Toronto city has a total population of 2,615,070. Of this wide-ranging group, there are 57% people of working age (25-64 years), 13% youth aged 15-24, 15% children aged 0-14, and 14% seniors. The city should provide accessible, inclusive public spaces which provide a range of activities, functions and conditions suitable to the needs of all these people.

Dependent on the particular neighbourhood the balance of these proportions changes, however it is important to note the demographics of Toronto as a whole as people do not always stay within their neighbourhood, and may travel to use other public spaces elsewhere.

CHURCH-YONGE CORRIDOR

65+

25-64 15-24 0-14

The Church-Yonge corridor in which the three sites are located, shows a demographic of predominantly 25-64 year olds (71% of the local population). This figure is 23.8% above the Toronto city average and demonstrates the importance of the three sites to provide restorative urban places to retreat from the stresses of urban life, especially work-related stress. The neighbourhood consists of 16% youth aged 15-24 years, which is 23.7% more than the Toronto city average. This shows the need for facilities to engage these users in urban public places such as through provision of physical activity or cultural events. There are only 4% children aged 0-14 years in this corridor of the city, a total of 72.4% less than the Toronto city-wide average. Whilst this means less children live in this area than the city average it is still important to provide play facilities and opportunities for this group of 1,120 children local to their homes. There are 9% people aged 65 or over in this area. This is 37% less than the Toronto city-wide average but still represents 2,580 people (Statistics Canada 2011) who should be considered in terms of designing public places which are accessible and inclusive to those who are experiencing age-related decline.

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CANADIAN CITIZENS

100%

100%

194

Toronto city has a total population of 2,615,070. Of these people 52% are female, a total of 1,359,831, and 48% are male, a total of 1,225,228 (Statistics Canada 2011). This shows a typical male to female ratio with slightly more females than males.

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8%

14%

NON-PERMENANT RESIDENTS

36%

NON OFFICIAL HOME LANGUAGE

IMMIGRANTS

FEMALE 44.3%

The Church-Yonge corridor has a population of 23,665 people. Of these people 44.3% are female, a total of 10,100, and 55.7% are male, a total of 13,565 (Statistics Canada 2011). This is a higher male to female ratio than in Toronto as a whole.

CHURCH-YONGE CORRIDOR

FEMALE 52%

MALE 55.7%

IDENTITY

TORONTO CITY

GENDER

MALE 48%

CHURCH-YONGE CORRIDOR

85%

Those people surveyed in the Church-Yonge Corridor in the 2006 Toronto census showed a diverse range of non-mutually exclusive identities (Statistics Canada 2006).

85% of residents were found to be Canadian citizens. 6% of people were non-permanent residents and as such may live in the area for a shorter potential period of time. 36% of people were immigrants, of whom 8% were recent immigrants. 14% of people speak a non-official Canadian language at home.

6%

100%

100%

OTHER FRENCH OTHER NORTH AMERICAN

OTHER 14.4%

Of the total population of 23,965 of the Church-Yonge corridor, the most common ethnic origin is the British Isles which 9,435 people identified their ancestors with. The second highest was found to be European (8,800 respondents), followed by East and South-East Asian (4,235 respondents), Other North American (3,690 respondents), French (2,215), South Asian (1,400), Caribbean (1,125), African (930), Latin, Central and South American (600) and West Asian (525 people). This represents a diverse community.

CHURCH-YONGE CORRIDOR

BRITISH ISLES

FRENCH 1.4%

HOME LANGUAGE

CHURCH-YONGE CORRIDOR

ETHNIC ORIGIN

SOUTHEAST + EAST ASIAN

EUROPEAN

100%of 14.4%

MULTIPLE LANGUAGES

POLISH ARABIC PERSIAN HUNGARIAN TAGALOG JAPANESE RUSSIAN KOREAN SPANISH

ENGLISH 82%

CHINESE

The Church-Yonge corridor has a diverse range of home languages spoken. English is by far the most common home language, with 82% of homes speaking English on a regular or usual basis. French is the second most spoken language, with 1.4% of homes regularly speaking French. The other 14.4% of languages spoken at home are diverse, including Chinese (4.6% of homes), Spanish (1.7%), Korean (0.94%) amongst others. There are also a number of homes where multiple languages are spoken (1.9% of homes). This shows the diversity of the local community in terms of language (Statistics Canada 2006).

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It is important to investigate the type and quality of the facades facing on to the three urban public places in question. This not only gives information about the type of potential users that may wish to use these spaces, but active and passive frontages can also provide surveillance which promotes feelings of safety, thereby increasing use of the parks or public places.

The literature reviewed earlier in this thesis also demonstrated that positive health and well-being benefits can be experienced not only by users of the park themselves, but also those who have a view of natural scenes or social interaction. As such the impact of any improvements to the three sites in question will also have the potential to positively impact upon those nearby with a view of the spaces.

As such it is important to evaluate how many both active frontages, which can enliven a place and provide feelings of safety, ‘eyes on the street’ and an increase in users, and passive frontages such as windows looking out onto these areas, there are

at each of the three sites.

Of course the methods by which evaluating passive frontages such as window counting are carried out are subjective and can vary. For the purposes of this assessment the counting technique was consistent between all three sites to ensure a fair comparison of the numbers of potential passive viewers of the space. Equally whilst this method counts windows with a potential view, these windows may be used to different extents or be located in rooms with different functions and so cannot be assumed to all have an equal effect on well-being. For example a window overlooking a park from an office building which a person sits at their desk next to for 40 hours a week is more likely to have a positive restorative impact on that person’s well-being through reducing stress and increasing work productivity than a similar window in the same building but which is located in a rarely-used meeting room which all chairs face away from. However, as an indicative method of evaluating the frontages of different facades onto these sites, this method is useful, if approximate.

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B E R C Z Y 308

WINDOWS

168

WINDOWS

45

WINDOWS

P A

Berzcy Park has three main facades facing on to the park. These are mostly a mix of commercial shops and smaller shops on the ground floors with residential or office space above, and a number of taller high-rise buildings with large numbers of windows overlooking the space. This density and proximity to the park provides a huge number of potential users and passive viewers of the space, and therefore the potential importance of this space for a variety of functions. Local office workers may wish to use the space for lunch breaks and the large amount of passive frontage shows there are a significant number of people with views of the park who may benefit in terms of health and well-being.

In total there are 521 windows viewing the space.

Assuming there is one person with a view from each window on average, this would mean 521 people could benefit from passively viewing this public green space in addition to those users resulting from footfall to the active frontages of the buildings facing on to the park.

The Wellington Street East facade consists of one large high rise building providing 254 windows overlooking the park, and another facade of lower mid-rise buildings with shop-fronts and commercial uses on the ground floor and offices and residential above. This provides a significant both active frontage with shop doors opening out onto Wellington Street East, and passive frontage with a total of 308 windows overlooking Berzcy Park. This demonstrates a huge potential number of passive observers of the

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R K space who may benefit from improvements to the quality of this urban green space, as well as potential business worker users at lunch time.

The Scott Street facade consists of two commercial food outlets and their entrances on the ground floor, and a number of entrances to high-rise buildings with a considerable number of both storeys and windows. In total 168 windows were counted on this facade, providing a great amount of passive frontage for surveillance of the park and potential for benefit from views of this public green space.

Front Street East has a total of 45 windows with views of park. It also has a number of groundlevel shops which provide an active frontage below. The St. Lawrence Centre for the Arts and Canadian Stage company on this street also has its entrance and a long recessed but continuous glassed window facade on the ground floor providing both an active frontage and passive views of the park to a significant number of potentail users. However above the ground floor this building provides little passive frontage onto the park with few windows. As such the Front Street East facade has both active and passive elements to it and provides signficant surveillance posibilities, despite the distance and both physical and psychological barrier of the Front Street East road between this facade and the park.

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S T . J A M E S 76

112

137

WINDOWS

WINDOWS

WINDOWS

87

WINDOWS

St. James Park is surrounded by four main building facades. These feature predominantly mid-rise buildings, some with interesting detailing and character. The ground floor frequently provides active frontages with commercial activities such as shops facing on to the street with large windows. There are also a number of mixed residential and office spaces on the higher storeys, with windows facing on to the park. There are parts of most of the facades which have less natural surveillance due to reduced numbers of windows and entrances, however on the whole there is a good mix of active and passive frontages. A feature of note is the Toronto Sculpture Garden which opens onto King Street East and could be better linked across the road to St. James Park, possibly as part of a new biking or walking route.

Adelaide Street East has a total of 137 windows facing on to St. James Park. Of these, 70 are on the first two floors and therefore enable people to have a greater benefit from not only passive social interaction in addition to the restorative impact of viewing natural green space. This facade is a mix of commercial and office spaces on the ground floor and residential and office spaces on the floors above. There are a number of entrances providing active frontages.

Church Street has a total of 112 windows creating a passive frontage on to the Western side of the park. These windows are primarily from the eight storey building to the south of this street which has commercial land use on the ground floor. As such there is less surveillance of this side of the park, especially the North-West corner. This may lessen

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feelings of safety. Only 42 windows are on the lower two storeys of this building, restricting the numbers of people benefitting from passive social interaction observed in the urban public space outside.

King Street East consists of mid-rise buildings which is why the reduced total number of windows viewing the park on this facade. However, these 87 windows are lower down, with 66 on the first two storeys, increasing the quality of the view of the street and public space viewed from them. As such more positive benefit may be found from these windows than other facades such as Church Street which has a larger total number of windows but fewer on the lower storeys. King Street East is a mix of offices, commercial and residential with many active frontages on the ground floor. The Toronto Sculpture Garden is located along this facade and provides a high quality space and active frontage. This could be better connected to St. James Park whereas at present the road divides this.

The facade on Jarvis street is limited in active and passive frontages to the Northern end of the street facing on to the park. The facade of buildings to the South has, however, 76 windows forming a passive frontage onto the park, in addition to a number of active frontages resulting from the commercial functions on the ground floor. Of these windows, 42 are on the first two storeys indicating more passive social interaction and benefit from the restorative qualities of the urban green space.

Photo: Gehl Architects 2012

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12

WINDOWS

12

24

14

11

O ’ K E E F E WINDOWS

The O’Keefe laneway has very few active or passive frontages at present. However a new residential development is proposed for the South end of the laneway which will increase those passively viewing the street.

This will provide additional surveillance and thereby improve feelings of safety. However a key issue to address on this backstreet will be opening up of boarded up windows which currently face onto the laneway. Whilst the numbers on the accompanying diagram give an indication of the total number of windows facing on to the laneway, the majority of these are currently boarded up.

Currently the laneway acts as a backstreet for the shops and commercial buildings which face onto Yonge St. and the other surrounding roads. As such the only active frontages are those with back entrances to these shops and amenities where workers take their breaks, receive deliveries or take out the rubbish. The laneway is narrow and has great potential, however it will be essential that these facades are opened up to increase surveillance, create a more lively street and create the conditions necessary for increased pedestrian flow which could help to relieve the busy surrounding streets. The height of some of the buildings surrounding the narrow laneway could become an advantage by creating a cosy smaller scale space for small bars, cafes, activities and a higher quality public realm.

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V I S I O N D E S I G N B R I E F + I N I T I A L I D E A S D E S I G N R E C O M M E D A T I O N S A P P L I E D C O N C L U S I O N

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Based on both the academic literature review and the site survey research the following section details the design brief suggested for each of the three sites. Whilst each site will have a separate design brief, the approach taken is to also suggest a network of interconnected public green and activity spaces throughout the urban environment which promote health and well-being through encouraging green mobility, physical activity, social interaction and restorative experiences accessible to all.

In addition to the design brief for each space, the initial thoughts and ‘what if?’ scenarios for

each space are also considered in this section as part of the visioning process for each site.

These initial thoughts are based both on the previous academic literature review in terms of how these spaces could potentially be used to promote health and well-being, and based on the site survey information gathered including analysis of their strengths, weaknesses and potential recommended improvements.

These ‘what if?’ scenarios therefore form the beginnings of a design concept or approach which could be taken for each site when the 12 design recommendations this thesis proposes are applied in the next section.

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B R I E F Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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B E D E S I G N

B R

BETTER PEDESTRIAN CONNECTIONS INCREASE FEELINGS OF SAFETY ENCOURAGE CULTURAL + ARTS EVENTS IMPROVE SEATING MATERIALS + OPTIONS INCREASE SENSORY+TEXTURAL INTEREST PROVIDE DIFFERENT EXPERIENCE SPACES INCREASE VEGETATION STRUCTURE + SCREEN EXT

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R C Z Y

P A R K

R I E F

TERNAL URBAN ENVIRONMENT Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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?

WHAT IF

WELLINGTON STREET EAST WAS PEDESTRIANISED?

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CREATE ADDITIONAL SPACE FOR SEATING + ACTIVITIES + EVENTS

IMPROVE CONNECTION BETWEEN PARK AND SURROUNDING FACADES

Wellington Street East to the North of Berzcy Park is currently used mainly for parking with little moving traffic, yet it is a wide street which currently acts as a barrier between Berzcy Park and the active and passive frontages to the North of the park.

Pedestrianising this street would both extend this small park into a larger area whilst also enhancing walking and cycling routes and thereby promoting green mobility and physical health.

The diagram above demonstrates the large additional area which could be reclaimed from use exclusively by cars to provide more valuable and better used spaces for a range of activities for local

users which benefit their health and well-being.

Assessment of the Berzcy Park showed a need for a greater range of seating opportunities and experience and activity spaces. These could be provided along this area through a mix of hard and soft landscaping.

The additional space could also be used to facilitate cultural and social events and activities which include participatory working with local businesses and community groups. For example the Canadian Stage Company and St. Lawrence Centre for the Arts on Front Street.

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Currently the fountain acts as a focal point and provides some interest and play opportunities.

However there is a lack of adequate seating and play facilities. Social interaction could be promoted if more comfortable moveable seating were added to allow clusters of people to sit and interact more flexibly and easily, as well as the addition of drawing factors such as temporary events in this area to help start conversations.

?

WHAT IF

MORE ACTIVITIES WERE LOCATED BY THE FOUNTAIN?

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The fountain or similar water element should be maintained as a focal point and key landmark for way-finding for those experiencing age-related psychological decline such as dementia as supported by the earlier literature review. The fountain also provides valuable play opportunities for children but these could be extended with additional facilities and opportunities throughout the park.

MAINTAIN THE FOUNTAIN AS A LANDMARK + FOR PLAY BUT ENHANCE THE AREA AROUND

LARGE EXPANSES OF AREA COULD BE USED FOR SEATING + EVENTS SUCH AS MARKETS

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Currently there is little variation of experiential spaces for users in the park. The landscape is dominated by hard landscaped paths with grassed raised areas surrounded by raised walls and trees in between. Whilst these spaces do provide wide movement routes and areas for informal seating in good weather, a greater variety of sizes and types of spaces with additional functions, activities and events would cater for the widest range of users.

?

WHAT IF

THERE WAS A GREATER VARIETY OF EXPERIENCE SPACES?

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The fountain provides a range of sensory qualities including the noise of water which helps screen the surrounding urban environment, a sense of movement and interesting reflections. Additional spaces would benefit from additional textural and sensory qualities to provide increased interest and attraction.

What if the layout of the park was adapted to include areas which provided shelter from unfavourable climatic conditions, spaces for physical activities or events, and more flexible spaces which enabled a wider range of temporary uses? These newly enhanced areas could include improvements to lighting, use of higher quality and more suitable materials and promote feelings of safety by providing increased surveillance at a variety of times of day and night.

WHAT IF THERE WAS MORE THAN JUST GRASSED SPACES OR BENCH-LINED PATHS?

INCREASE THE VARIETY OF ACTIVITIES POSSIBLE + CREATE LIVELY INTERESTING ALTERNATIVE SPACES

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S T . J D E S I G N

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PROVIDE PLAY + PHYSICAL ACTIVITY SPACES BETTER CONNECT + INTEGRATE PARK WITH EXTERI IMPROVE SEATING OPTIONS + QUALITY CREATE AN ACCESSIBLE + INCLUSIVE GREEN SPAC INCREASE SENSORY+TEXTURAL INTEREST PROVIDE DIFFERENT EXPERIENCE SPACES INCREASE VEGETATION STRUCTURE + SCREEN EXT

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A M E S

P A R K

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IOR URBAN ENVIRONMENT

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TERNAL URBAN ENVIRONMENT Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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WHAT IF

THE PARK INTEGRATED WITH A WIDER NETWORK OF GREEN ROUTES? 218

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ALLOW GREEN TO INFILTRATE THE EXTERNAL URBAN ENVIRONMENT

RATHER THAN BEING AN ‘ISLAND’ OF GREEN, CONNECT THE PARK TO A WIDER WALKING + CYCLING NETWORK

Currently the St. James Park is surrounded by four major roads which create barriers to pedestiran movement. Whilst the park provides a destination it could be improved with additional programming and events and better incorporation with its surrounding context. Through extending ‘fingers’ of green space beyond the park and into the surrounding streets as part of a ‘green network’ of high quality public spaces, an integrated series of appealing walkable and biking routes are created.

This green network would both increase exposure to the sensory colour, texture and fragrant qualities of vegetation and restorative green environments

and also benefit health and well-being by creating accessible, inclusive routes which encourage healthier physically active lifestyles and enable vulnerable groups to better navigate the hazards of busy urban environments. Provision for seating along these appealing routes would provide high quality movement spaces which also function to serve those business lunchtime users of local green spaces such as St. James Park, whilst also providing larger ‘destination’ spaces such as St. James Park where a greater variety of spaces and activities act as factors to draw people to these places.

In addition to public green spaces there are also a number of other key destination points which could be incorporated along these green walking, biking and event-space routes. These include the nearby business district with a large number of workers who could sit outside for lunch, Union Street station, the St. Lawrence Market, the esplanade including David Crombie Park, Berzcy Park and the waterfront as well as the Toronto Sculpture Garden immediately South of St. James Park.

By connecting these places up the city becomes much more walkable, liveable and healthy due to the green mobility promoted.

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WHAT IF

THE PARK INTEGRATED WITH A WIDER NETWORK OF GREEN ROUTES? 220

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BUS

O’KEEFE LANEWAY + DUNDAS SQUARE

SINESS DISTRICT

MOSS PARK ST. MICHAELS GARDENS

ST. JAMES PARK ST. LAWRENCE MARKET

ESPLANADE BERZCY PARK

WATERFRONT Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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WHAT IF

THE PARK INTEGRATED WITH A WIDER NETWORK OF GREEN ROUTES? 222

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It may be particularly beneficial to encourage greater pedestrian connection on King Street East between the park and both the Toronto Sculpture Garden and pedestrianised route leading to the St. Lawrence Markets to the South. This could be achieved with an introduction of pedestrianised crossings at strategic points to make pedestrian routes the priority rather than the road. This would better connect St. James Park with other nearby local attractions and promote walking and cycling routes encompassing this green space.

A more strategic overview and creation of green mobility networks will also be necessary to connect St. James Park with the wider fabric of green spaces and high quality pedestrian friendly public place routes. Key linkages are shown in the adjacent diagram.

O’KEEFE LANEWAY + DUNDAS SQUARE

MOSS PARK ST. MICHAELS GARDENS

ST. JAMES PARK ST. LAWRENCE MARKET

ESPLANADE BUSINESS DISTRICT

BERZCY PARK

WATERFRONT

SCULPTURE GARDEN

ST. LAWRENCE MARKET

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Currently St. James Park has little in the way of soft programming. Whilst conditions are favourable, such as a sunny summers day, there are a range of activities available to users such as sitting on the grass or benches, standing or walking, when climatic or seasonal factors cause the grass to become wet and muddy and little shelter from rain, user activities are reduced to walking through the park or sitting on wet benches. which do not inspire lingering. What if the St. James Park became a destination for a wide variety of activities and events, with places for shelter from the rain, higher quality seating made of more welcoming materials, and with lighting at night to increase perceptions of safety and inspire a sense of discovery?

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WHAT IF

THE PARK BECAME A DYNAMIC EXCITING HUB OF ACTIVITIES? 224

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Through a combination of increased access, connectivity and inclusivity, and enabling a greater range and temporal possibilities for events, the park could become enlivened throughout the day and evening, increasing natural surveillance, promoting its use for social interaction and physical activities which promote health and well-being.

MORE THAN JUST WALKING + SITTING WHEN IT IS SUNNY - A RANGE OF ACTIVITIES FOR ALL USERS IN SUN OR RAIN, DAY OR NIGHT, SUMMER OR WINTER

IMPROVE POSSIBILITIES FOR ACTIVITIES, EVENTS, PLAY + EXERCISE DAY+NIGHT AND YEAR-ROUND WITH EVENT SPACES, LIGHTING, SHELTER, AND FACILITIES

PLACES TO PLAY, BETTER LIT PATHS, IMPROVED SEATING AND A WIDER RANGE OF USERS Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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O ’ K E E F D E S I G N

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OPEN UP FACADES TO CREATE ACTIVE + PASSIVE F ENCOURAGE OPTIONAL ACTIVITIES + PLACES FOR P IMPROVE HARD LANDSCAPE QUALITY + INCREASE G PROVIDE ACTIVITY SPACES FOR CULTURAL + ARTS ENCOURAGE USE AS ALTERNATIVE PEDESTRIAN RO IMPROVE LIGHTING + SENSORY QUALITIES PROVIDE SAFE PEDESTRIAN ENVIRONMENT + COMM

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L A N E W A Y

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FRONTAGES PEOPLE TO SIT + STAY GREENERY EVENTS OUTE + SECRET ‘CUT-THROUGH’

MERCIAL FUNCTION Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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The O’Keefe laneway is currently tucked away as a backstreet, forgotten by many, a currently poorly used narrow passageway with unpleasant smells, use for purely necessary commercial activities such as rubbish collection, and relegated to the ‘behind the scenes’ of the surrounding busy interest-filled glitzy city.

What if this was turned around, and this forgotten neglected alleyway became the place to be? A place to discover and tell your friends, a place of hidden treasures, street art, cultural events, trendy cafes and discovery? With vines creeping up the walls, places to sit and enjoy this secluded spot from small cafes and bars opening up on to the laneway, and both daytime and evening cultural and art events by local artists and organisations?

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WHAT IF

THE LANEWAY DREW USERS IN TO A PLACE OF DISCOVERY? 228

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The laneway’s secluded hidden location becomes its asset, and the small human scale of this narrow route enables close appreciation of the materials making up its historic fabric and encourages social interaction and smaller more ‘cosy’ events. It becomes a desirable pedestrianised cut-through between the bigger more mainstream surrounding roads and bustling traffic, a place for those more alternative local grass-roots arts organisations and cafe/bars and events to contrast the chain-stores and busy roads that surround it. Like entering another world enclosed by tall buildings it hides from the outside but simultaneously invites people in to discover.

SNIPPETS OF VIEWS FROM THE SURROUNDING BUSY STREETS ENTICE PEOPLE TO USE THIS ALTERNATIVE PEDESTRIAN ROUTE

INTRIGUE + DISCOVERY LEAD PEOPLE TO INVESTIGATE THIS ATTRACTIVE NEW HIDDEN URBAN TREASURE Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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The O’Keefe laneway could be transformed from a neglected backstreet used for lorries and rubbish vehicles with smelly rubbish bins and poor quality hard landscaping, into a place which promotes restorative naturebased experiences, provides sensory delight in colour, texture and form, and becomes a ‘whole other world’ where all users, including those from nearby St. Michael’s Hospital and other potentially stressed urban workers can find a secluded restorative spot to reduce stress levels, rejuvenate directed attention, relax and escape from the stressors of the surrounding urban world.

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WHAT IF

THE LANEWAY BECAME A HIDDEN VERTICAL GARDEN? 230

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Creating urban public green spaces which provide a sense of ‘getting away’ from bustling urban environments with environmental stressors and enable experience of natural greenery were shown by the preceding literature review to improve health and wellbeing. This could be achieved in the O’Keefe Laneway through creation of a ‘hidden’ vertical garden. Vines and climbing plants selected for shade tolerance could take advantage of the currently neglected and boarded up backs of the buildings to create vertical green walls and more structurally varied vegetation could take advantage of the many pockets of space the laneway provides, whilst still maintaining a clear route for necessary vehicles, perhaps during a dedicated time period for refuse collection and deliveries. The rubbish bins would still be necessary for those surrounding buildings but these could be contained within wooden sculptural containers which fragrant plants and climbers are allowed to grow through and over to mask unpleasant smells and improve their aesthetic. The undesirable back street turns into a pleasant and appealing spot away from the city outside.

VINES CREEPING UP THE SURROUNDING FACADES

SENSORY TEXTURAL + FRAGRANT INTEREST AT EYE-LEVEL

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Currently the O’Keefe Laneway is used almost solely as a place for necessary activities such as vehicles for deliveries or the place to which the back door of the larger shops and other commercial buildings leads for taking out rubbish.

Occasionally workers from these shops may take smoking breaks in the laneway or stand outside on their break but aside from this there was very little sitting or staying activities observed in the laneway during user surveying. The laneway does not presently provide appealing conditions for longer stays than this and is certainly not a local destination for optional or recreational activities.

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WHAT IF

THE LANEWAY BECAME A PLACE TO STAY + ENJOY? 232

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However, through improvement and enhancement of the sensory qualities, quality of the hard and soft landscape, and provision of seating and pleasant places to stay with interest and activities, the O’Keefe Laneway could be transformed into a place that users actively choose to come and enjoy and stay in for longer periods of time. This would enable the full potential fo this site to be reached and would encourage use of the laneway as an attractive pedestrian-oriented cut-through between surrounding busy streets. This would therefore promote green mobility, provide a potentially restorative environment and increase possibilities for social interaction and en.hanced well-being.

IMPROVEMENTS TO THE SOFT + HARD LANDSCAPE WOULD BE NEEDED TO CREATE ATTRACTIVE PLACES TO SIT AND ENJOY

A VARIED SERIES OF EXPERIENCE SPACES COULD BE CREATED IN THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE LANEWAY

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There are a number of designated heritage buildings with facades onto the O’Keefe laneway.

Whilst these primarily have their backs facing on to the laneway there is a great amount of character, interesting material textures and qualities and architectural features of interest which could be better highlighted. By making hard and soft improvements to the laneway, such as potentially cobbling the street or painting certain parts of the hard landscaping and encouraging modernstyled artwork on some of the less characterfilled facades, this would contrast the historically important and human-scale interest of the features of these more traditional buildings.

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WHAT IF

THE LANEWAY REVEALED THE QUALITIES OF THE EXISTING STRUCTURES? 234

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The laneway has the potential to reveal the character of these heritage structures whilst also creating a vibrant, modern and alternative art-based landscape which would create an interesting, sensory rich and lively place to attend events, sit and enjoy the space and sit in a number of small cafe/bars which would be encouraged to provide more active frontages onto the laneway.

THE LANEWAY SHOULD ENHANCE THE EXISTING CHARACTER + SENSORY QUALITIES OF HERITAGE BUILDINGS FACING ON TO THE SPACE

THE MATERIALS + TEXTURES OF CERTAIN INTERESTING SURROUNDING BUILDINGS COULD CONTRAST A DESIGNED REPAINTED FLOORSCAPE WITH A MODERN AESTHETIC + USE OF LESS ATTRACTIVE BUILDING FACADES BY LOCAL ARTISTS Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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This section will take the 12 design recommendations which this thesis found to be the outcome of the literature reviewed, and apply them to the three sites in question and their specific design briefs to create a vision for each site based on creating urban public places which both promote the widest range of users and have the maximum possible benefit to health and well-being.

1 2 D E S I R E C O M M E A 236

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G N N D A T I O N S P P L I E D Jennifer Humberstone MA Landscape Architecture

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12 DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS S E N S O R Y

R I C H

F L E X I B L E

S P A C E S

W A L K A B L E P L A C E S

F O R

V A R I E T Y

P L A Y

O F

S P A C E S

D I S T I N C T I V E E V E N T S

+

A C T I V I T I E S

E A S I L Y

N A V I G A T E D

I N C L U S I V E G R E E N

+

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A C C E S S I B L E

R E S T O R A T I V E

E X C E L L E N T S A F E

+

F A C I L I T I E S

S E C U R E

HOW?

Plant selection to include those with colour, touchable texture, scent and both seasonal and year-round interest. Consider textural qualities of materials, patterns created by shadows, humanscale interest and fine detailing. Design areas Urban public places should be flexible and for passive social interaction with maximum adaptable to different uses both now and in dimensions of 25m and larger spaces no more the future. Adaptable, flexible places provide than 100m. space for temporary events such as markets Design public places with pedestrians as priority. or ‘pop ups’ which benefit well-being through Urban public places should be barrier-free, social interaction. They also ensure places human-scale, with appealing pedestrian and are best used by different users, for different cycling routes which link into the wider urban activities at different times. network. The walking surface should be at least 2.0m wide, bicycle lanes a minimum of 1.75m, Places to play should be located in local parks and slopes with a maximum gradient of 1:20. within 400m of a young persons home, and Create a series of different ‘rooms’ in urban larger publically accessible sports facilities Design of urban public places should consider public places which allow for different should be located within 1.2km. Natural play and respect the local context and unique features environmental conditions which appeal to outdoors has been shown to be beneficial to and character that already exist, whilst also different users. These clusters of space children’s neurological development and in creating new distinctive features and landmarks. should include a range of public and more promoting physical activity.

Create a sense of discovery with vistas, glimpses private spaces, enabling a choice of activity of views and activities. This helps create a sense and degree of social interaction. of place and with way-finding and navigation.

Create spaces suitable for differing size events and activities such as markets, concerts, and pop-up cultural and artistic projects. Encourage Ensure easy-wayfinding for all but especially to benefit educational and community activities and events those who are older or experiencing psychological with dedicated areas maintained and managed by impairment. Design should include clear destinations local groups. This promotes social interaction and and routes, distinctive landmarks such as large trees or encourages use of public urban green spaces. distinctive features, active frontages onto the urban public Provide a variety of trees, shrubs, space, and clear differentiation between types of space. perennials and other vegetation, as Provide cafes, toilets, and play areas and ensure well as water, to create soothing stressa park is within 400m of homes to provide for the reducing effects and the sense of a whole widest range of users. Larger sports or outdoor other world and ‘getting away’ from urban gym facilities should be within 1.2km of homes.

Create inclusive spaces by considering the needs of all environments. Maintenance should be Seating should be provided every 100-125m. users. Provide seating every 100-125m for those unable minimal to give a wild, yet cared for, Ensure bike paths are a minimum width of 1.75m to walk long distances, ensure gates and public toilet aesthetic, and extend and integrate this and footpaths are at least 2.0m wide to make more doors have a maximum pressure of 2kg, ensure surfaces approach throughout the city. appealing pedestrian and biking routes. are level and wheelchair accessible, provide alternative quiet routes away from crowds, provide acoustic barriers Create safe and secure feeling public places to encourage increased with planting, and mitigate uncomfortable microclimatic users. Light spaces at night and ensure natural surveillance through factors through provision of shade, wind protection and building frontages facing onto the public space and providing a mixture vegetation to reduce urban heat by up to 3oC. of uses and therefore people using the spaces at all times of days.

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B E R C Z Y BETTER PEDESTRIAN CONNECTIONS INCREASE FEELINGS OF SAFETY ENCOURAGE CULTURAL + ARTS EVENTS IMPROVE SEATING MATERIALS + OPTIONS INCREASE SENSORY+TEXTURAL INTEREST PROVIDE DIFFERENT EXPERIENCE SPACES INCREASE VEGETATION STRUCTURE + SCREEN EXTERNAL URBAN ENVIRONMENT

DESIGN BRIEF

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P A

R K

1

S E N S O R Y

R I C H

Berzcy Park currently has predominantly grassed areas and trees and would benefit from a greater variety and structure of vegetation. This could also be used to screen the noise of surrounding roads and create different atmospheres and spatial environments for different activities. Plant selection to include colour, touchable texture, scent and both seasonal and year-round interest. In addition, any further redevelopment to the hardlandscaped paths and furniture should ensure pleasant textural qualities of materials such as wooden benches, patterns created by shadows from trees and structures, human-scale interest and fine detailing. Berzcy Park would benefit from increased variety of spaces for both passive social interaction (with maximum dimensions of 25m) and larger flexible and adaptable spaces no more than 100m diameter for additional cultural and arts events and physical activities.

2

F L E X I B L E

S P A C E S

Berzcy Park could benefit from additional soft programming for events and activities which would draw a more diverse range of users to the park, for longer periods of time and both during the day and night, summer and winter. Overlapping functions such as this would supplement the current use of the park during lunchtime by nearby workers and would increase surveillance and feelings of safety. By ensuring Berzcy Park is flexible and adaptable to different uses both now and in the future through creation of different activity spaces and facilities would not only enable temporary events such as markets or ‘pop ups’ which benefit well-being through social interaction and increased use of the park but would also ensure Berzcy Park is best used by different users, for different activities at different times.

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W A L K A B L E Berzcy Park is enclosed by three roads which act as barriers. By pedestrianising Wellington Street East this extends the walkable environment of the park and creates additional space for seating, events and activities as well as better connecting the park to other walkable routes. The creation of appealing pedestrian and cycling routes linking Berzcy Park to the wider urban network will help create a more walkable neighbourhood as a whole. Any new walking surfaces should be at least 2.0m wide, bicycle lanes a minimum of 1.75m, and slopes with a maximum gradient of 1:20.

4

E V E N T S + A C T I V I T I E S There are currently few activities and events in Berzcy Park. The improved park should include spaces suitable for differing size events and activities such as markets, concerts, and pop-up cultural and artistic projects which would come about through partnership working with local organisations and people. These flexible spaces should be multifunctional to enable their use for other functions such as seating when no events are taking place. Community activities and events should be encouraged with at least one dedicated area maintained and managed by local groups. This promotes social interaction and encourages use.

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P L A C E S

F O R

P L A Y

Places to play should be located in local parks within 400m of a young persons home, and larger publically accessible sports facilities within 1.2km. Currently there are no play facilities at Berzcy Park or within 400m. Natural play outdoors has been shown to be beneficial to children’s neurological development and in promoting physical activity and would create additional activity spaces and user-inclusion in Berzcy Park. Redesign of the park could include use of topography and other features for natural play, thereby promoting inclusion for use by a wider demographic shown to live in the area than at present.

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8

V A R I E T Y

O F

S P A C E S

Berzcy Park has a limited typology of spaces. Enhancement of the park would involve creating a series of different ‘rooms’ with various environmental conditions which appeal to different users. These clusters of space should include a range of public and more private spaces, enabling a choice of activity and degree of social interaction.

If complete redevelopment is not possible, use of vegetation on some of the grassed areas could be used to achieve this, and a more pleasant seating environment next to the Gooderham Building.

E A S I L Y

6

D I S T I N C T I V E Berzcy Park should keep the fountain which is used as a distinctive feature for way-finding and orientation. The local context and existing use by certain user groups such as office workers for lunch should be respected but there is potential to add new distinctive features in a new high quality landscape. A greater sense of place should be created with vistas, glimpses of views and activities to create possibilities for discovery. To do this the existing path infrastructure should be rethought.

N A V I G A T E D

As the local demographic research showed, there are a significant number of older adults living near Berzcy Park. To ensure easy-wayfinding for all the enhancements to Berzcy Park should include clear destinations and routes, maintain the distinctive landmark of the fountain, and encourage active frontages and wide paths onto the urban public space as can be done by pedestrianising Wellington Street East. The different activity spaces proposed for events, activities and more private versus more public spaces should be clearly differentiated through changing materials or form.

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I N C L U S I V E

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A C C E S S I B L E

Berzcy Park could be made more inclusive by considering the needs of all users. Improvements could be made by providing plentiful seating to ensure there is somewhere to sit every 100-125m even in busy periods for those unable to walk long distances. The public toilets proposed should ensure toilet doors have a maximum pressure of 2kg. Improvement to the walking surface should be made to ensure it is level and wheelchair accessible. Whilst existing paths are already wide, providing a hierarchy of routes including alternative quiet routes away from crowds would reduce fears of older adults about being knocked over.

Acoustic barriers from the road should be created with planting. Uncomfortable microclimatic factors should be mitigated through provision of shelter structures, shade, wind protection and vegetation to reduce urban heat.

E X C E L L E N T

F A C I L I T I E S

Berzcy Park currently has poor facilities. Through provision of a cafe where people can buy food and drink to take and sit in the park, toilets, and additional natural play areas the widest range of users can be encouraged to use the park and it will become accessible to a wider demographic than those office workers who are currently the predominant users at lunch. Seating should be provided every 100125m within the park and if possible the nearby urban environment. Ensure bike paths are a minimum width of 1.75m and footpaths are at least 2.0m wide to make more appealing pedestrian and biking routes which incorporate Berzcy Park.

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G R E E N

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R E S T O R A T I V E

Berzcy Park could be improved by providing a variety of trees, shrubs, perennials and other vegetation to increase the diversity of vegetation. Additional water to the fountian could be added for its soothing stress-reducing effects and to increase play opportunities for children. Together through careful design this could create the sense of a whole other world and ‘getting away’ from stressors encountered in the urban environments. Maintenance should be minimal to give a wild, yet cared for, aesthetic.

Through increasing connection and extending and integrating this approach through the city the creation of green walkable pedestrian and biking routes could be created.

S A F E

+

S E C U R E

Berzcy Park could be made to feel more safe and secure to encourage increased users. Improvements to lighting would help activate spaces at night, thereby increasing users and ensuring natural surveillance. This would also be helped through the pedestrianisation of Wellington Street East which would ensure building frontages face directly onto the public space rather than being across the road. By making Berzcy Park feel more safe and secure it ensures a wider mix of uses and therefore creates a positive cycle with more people using the spaces at all times of days thereby increasing natural surveillance.

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B E R C Z Y CAFE PROVIDES A DESTINATION WITH FOOD + DRINK WITH MOVEABLE FLEXIBLE CHAIRS FOR SEATING AND VIEWING THE PARK. OPPORTUNITIES FOR PLAY WITH WATER +NOISE FROM WATER FEATURES SCREENS URBAN ENVIRONMENT OUTSIDE

MIX OF MORE ACTIVE SPACES FOR PLAY, PEDESTRIAN + BIKE MOVEMENT ROUTES, QUIETER SPOTS TO SIT ALONE OR AS A GROUP, AND FLEXIBLE HARD + SOFT LANDSCAPED AREAS FOR TEMPORARY EVENTS + ACTIVITIES VARIETY OF SPACES INCLUDING GRASSED AREAS FOR PEOPLE TO SIT IN BUSY PERIODS OR ENGAGE IN GROUP ACTIVITIES SUCH AS FRISBEE RICH SENSORY QUALITIES IN PLANTING USING COLOUR, TEXTURE AT EYE LEVEL AND ABLE TO TOUCH, AND SCENTED VEGETATION

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P A

R K TREES + VEGETATION SCREEN POORER VIEWS + NOISE FROM THE SURROUNDING CITY

MAINTAIN THE DISTINCTIVE LANDMARK FEATURES SUCH AS THE FOUNTAIN DISTINCTIVE ARCHITECTURAL SHELTER PROTECTS USERS FROM WIND, RAIN AND SHADE FROM SUN IN SUMMER RANGE OF BENCH DESIGNS FOR SOCIABLE SEATING + THOSE WISHING TO BE ALONE

SMOOTH WIDE PATH AT LEAST 2.0M WIDE TO BE EASILY ACCESSIBLE TO ALL

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S T . J A M E S PROVIDE PLAY + PHYSICAL ACTIVITY SPACES BETTER CONNECT + INTEGRATE PARK WITH EXTERIOR URBAN ENVIRONMENT IMPROVE SEATING OPTIONS + QUALITY CREATE AN ACCESSIBLE + INCLUSIVE GREEN SPACE INCREASE SENSORY+TEXTURAL INTEREST PROVIDE DIFFERENT EXPERIENCE SPACES INCREASE VEGETATION STRUCTURE + SCREEN EXTERNAL URBAN ENVIRONMENT

DESIGN BRIEF

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P A R K

1

S E N S O R Y

R I C H

The roads surrounding St. James Park are busy and the exterior urban environment is noisy. This could be screened using acoustic barriers such as vegetation and moving water.

Addition of more varied vegetation structure would also selection of plants to include those with colour, touchable texture, scent and both seasonal and year-round interest.

Structures for shelter, event spaces and activities should consider textural qualities of materials, patterns created by shadows, human-scale interest and fine detailing. A more varied typology of spaces should be created including areas for passive social interaction with maximum dimensions of 25m and larger spaces no more than 100m.

2

F L E X I B L E

S P A C E S

St. James Park is a valued large park for the local area with great potential for activities and events. Through careful designing and creation of flexible spaces adaptable to different uses both now and in the future the greatest range of users will be catered for, and who may engage in different activities at different times. This helps create a multi-functional park which is active throughout the day, creating a more safe atmosphere through natural surveillance. Adaptable, flexible places such as this also provide space for temporary events such as markets or cultural and art ‘pop ups’ which benefit well-being through social interaction. The nearby St. Lawrence Market and Toronto Sculpture Garden may be interested in developing partnership working for temporary market and arts events.

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W A L K A B L E By connecting St. James Park to a wider urban network of pedestrianpriority walking and biking routes a more walkable neighbourhood would be created. In particular, St. James Park could be better connected with the Toronto Sculpture Park and St. Lawrence Market to the South and Berzcy Park to the South East. This should be done through barrierfree, human-scale, appealing pedestrian and cycling routes which link into the wider urban network. Within the park, both paths for more direct movement and opportunities to wander off the path should be facilitated.

The walking surface should be at least 2.0m wide, bicycle lanes a minimum of 1.75m, and slopes with a maximum gradient of 1:20.

4

E V E N T S + A C T I V I T I E S St. James Park could become a popular destination for a year-round programme of temporary cultural and art events in partnership with local organisations, as well as physical activities such as outdoor gym classes and community engagement events and activities such as community gardening which promote autonomy and well-being if dedicated facilities and management were provided. This would require spaces suitable for differing size events and activities such as markets, concerts, and pop-up cultural and artistic projects as well as areas of the park managed by local groups. These events and activities would promote social interaction and encourage use of this public urban green space.

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P L A C E S

F O R

P L A Y

There are currently few places for children to play in or around St. James Park. Whilst this is likely due to the area’s proximity to the business district and demographic of fewer children it is still important to have places to play located in local parks within 400m of a young persons home, and larger publically accessible sports facilities within 1.2km. If carefully positioned, St. James is of a large enough size to accommodate more formal physical activity spaces for local residents however more informal natural play and pleasant routes for jogging or cycling should be the priority. Natural play has been shown to be beneficial to children’s neurological development and in promoting physical activity.

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V A R I E T Y

O F

S P A C E S

Despite the small size of the laneway it should be possible to create varying clusters and more linear movement route spaces to create variety, focal points and places for different users. For example the opening of small cafes and bars turning the back facades of buildings into active frontages would provide places to sit and relax and passively observe passers by, whilst he narrower parts of the laneway could become pleasant movement routes with interesting textural and sensory qualities of materials and vegetation, with climbers growing up the nearby walls and with views out ot the busier urban environment beyond. There could also be clusters of spaces for temporary events and activities and other landscaped places providing informal seating. This would enable users to choose their participation in activities and degree of social interaction desired.

E A S I L Y

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D I S T I N C T I V E Design of St. James Park could make the most of existing unique features and character by enhancing views toward the church central to the park. This central feature acts as a local landmark and gives character to the park. However, new distinctive features could also be created through creative design of new facilities such as public toilets, wind and rain shelters, or play areas. This helps create a sense of place and with way-finding and navigation.

N A V I G A T E D

St. James Park could provide better navigation and way-finding to create a better urban environment for all users but especially to benefit those who are older or experiencing psychological impairment. Design enhancement should include creating clear destinations and routes, ensuring distinctive landmarks such as the church are framed in views and a focal point, and that there is clear differentiation between types of space. Use of additional facilities such as a cafe, play areas or toilets could aid navigation by providing distinctive high quality structures.

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A C C E S S I B L E

St. James Park could encourage a greater range of users and become a more inclusive space by ensuring seating is provided every 100-125m for those unable to walk long distances, that any public toilets built have doors with a maximum pressure of 2kg, ensuring surfaces are level through improvements to the hard landscaping, and wheelchair accessible. It will also be important to ensure that alternative quiet routes away from crowds are possible for users who may be afraid of being knocked over. This could be done by creating a hierarchy of routes.

Introducing better acoustic barriers with planting would help reduce noise from the four roads which surround St. James Park, and uncomfortable microclimatic factors such as rain which prevent seating on the grass or heat in summer could be mitigated through provision of shade, sheltering structures from wind and rain and use of vegetation to reduce urban heat.

E X C E L L E N T

F A C I L I T I E S

St. James Park would benefit from a cafe either as a new standalone structure in the park or to activate a new active frontage facing on to the park. This would provide opportunities for outdoor seating, with moveable chairs for better social interaction possibilities and provide another function and reason for using the park. This would also increase natural surveillance and feelings of safety. The provision of toilets for those with young children as well as other users should also be considered. There are currently no play facilities in the park or nearby. Play opportunities in a local park should be within 400m of homes to provide for the widest range of users. Seating should be improved with wooden materials rather than metal, and provided at least every 100-125m. The park should be connected to nearby walking and bike paths, which should be a minimum width of 2.0m and 1.75m wide respectively.

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R E S T O R A T I V E

St. James Park could provide increased health and well-being benefits to users by creation of a green and restorative environment to get away from the surrounding urban environment.

To better enhance this park for this function it will be necessary to provide an increased variety and structure of trees, shrubs, perennials and other vegetation with good sensory properties such as colour and texture. Water could also be added for natural play, as a focal point and for its soothing stress-reducing effects. Together this helps create a sense of a whole other world and ‘getting away’ from stressors in the urban environments. Maintenance should be minimal to give a wild, yet cared for, aesthetic.

S A F E

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S E C U R E

St. James Park would benefit from creation of multi-functional spaces to ensure natural surveillance of the park during the day and night, and improved lighting along pathways as well as of key features. This would help promote a safe and secure feeling and encourage increased users. It would also help facilitate use of the park in the evening for events.

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S T . J A M E S MAINTAIN EXISTING LANDMARKS SUCH AS TREES USED FOR WAY-FINDING AND NAVIGATION BUT INTRODUCE NEW SPECIES WITH MORE VARIED AUTUMN COLOUR, EVERGREEN QUALITIES AND SENSORY-RICH COLOURS OR FRAGRANT FLOWERS

VARIETY OF DIFFERENT ‘ROOMS’ AND SPACES WITH DIFFERENT ATMOSPHERES AND SUITABILITY TO DIFFERENT PEOPLE’S PREFERENCES

INFORMAL SPACES TO SIT IN BUSY PERIODS AND FOR BUSINESS WORKERS AT LUNCHTIME GENTLE MOVEMENT OF FLOWERS, LEAVES AND OTHER VEGETATION SOOTHES AND RELAXES AND RESTORES DIRECTED ATTENTION + REDUCES STRESS SENSORY RICH YEAR ROUND WITH VEGETATION WITH COLOUR, SCENT, TEXTURAL INTEREST AND HUMAN SCALE. SPECIES ALSO FOR WILDLIFE.

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P

P A R K VIEWS TO DISTINCTIVE LANDMARKS AND ENHANCE EXISTING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PARK AND AREA

SHELTER FROM WIND AND RAIN PROVIDES SEATING IN POOR WEATHER + SHADE FROM THE SUN IN SUMMER CLUSTERS OF MULTIFUNCTIONAL GRASSED SPACES OF VARIOUS SIZE AND CONDITIONS FOR PHYSICAL ACTIVITY OR INFORMAL SEATING VARIED TOPOGRAPHY + OPPORTUNITIES FOR NATURAL PLAY CREATE ACTIVITY SPACES FOR CHILDREN

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O ’ K E E F E

OPEN UP FACADES TO CREATE ACTIVE + PASSIVE FRONTAGES ENCOURAGE OPTIONAL ACTIVITIES + PLACES FOR PEOPLE TO SIT + STAY IMPROVE HARD LANDSCAPE QUALITY + INCREASE GREENERY PROVIDE ACTIVITY SPACES FOR CULTURAL + ARTS EVENTS ENCOURAGE USE AS ALTERNATIVE PEDESTRIAN ROUTE + SECRET ‘CUT-THROUGH’ IMPROVE LIGHTING + SENSORY QUALITIES PROVIDE SAFE PEDESTRIAN ENVIRONMENT + COMMERCIAL FUNCTION

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A N E W A Y

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R I C H

The O’Keefe Laneway currently is not a pleasant place to experience because of bad smells, being dark at night and little interest. However, through careful management of the necessary rubbish bins and delivery times, a pedestrian environment which is sensory rich could be created. The inclusion of carefully selected plants for to nclude those which are shade tolerant but also have colour, touchable texture, scent and both seasonal and year-round interest could increase the positive sensory qualities and mask or hide the rubbish bins. Climbing plants could be used to create vertical green walls. The textural qualities of materials, patterns created by shadows, human-scale interest and fine detailing should be promoted, taking advantage of heritage buildings and the narrow dimensions of the space to engage users in these sensory qualities.

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S P A C E S

The O’Keefe Laneway is an unconventional urban public place and can be carefully designed to be both flexible and adaptable to different uses both now and in the future. It holds great potential for temporary events such as ‘pop up’ art and cultural events which benefit wellbeing through social interaction. For example, an ‘urban art’ night here could work with new small cafes and bars in the laneway to create mural artwork on the facades by local artists and provide an ‘opening night’ to the space with music and DJs. By creating the potential for a range of activities in the laneway the space can be used by different users, for different activities at different times, increasing natural surveillance and feelings of safety.

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W A L K A B L E The O’Keefe Laneway could become a desirable new walkable route between the surrounding busy roads. Through designing the laneway with pedestrians as priority so it is barrier-free, human-scale, and with interesting sensory qualities for those on foot, a unique and pedestrian-friendly environment can be created. This will require scheduling use of the laneway by vehicles for deliveries and rubbish collection at a certain time of day, perhaps in the early morning to allow entirely pedestrian use of the space the rest of the day. This will also enable use of the laneway for certain events and activities.

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E V E N T S + A C T I V I T I E S A variety of small and locally-run arts and cultural events and activities would work well in the O’Keefe Laneway following improvement works. The laneway’s status as a cosy alternative route with high quality urban and street art decorating the facades, increased vertical green space and historic material qualities and facades would promote the laneway as a good location for art and cultural temporary events, openings and as a street festival venue. This would be aided by the transformation of several of the existing building facades into small cafes and bars to create a multi-functional lively space. These events and activities woudl promote social interaction, community participation and well-being.

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P L A C E S

F O R

P L A Y

Places to play should be located in local parks within 400m of a young persons home. Natural play outdoors has been shown to be beneficial to children’s neurological development and in promoting physical activity. Whilst the O’Keefe Laneway may not be suitable or large enough for more formal play areas, there are few quality urban public places suitable for these facilities within a 400m radius.

As such there may be potential to create some smaller natural play opportunities or at least a stimulating environment for children to explore that is safer than the heavily trafficked roads which predominate in this area.

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S P A C E S

The creation of a greater variety of spaces would allow for different environmental conditions which appeal to different users. These clusters of space should include a range of public and more private spaces, enabling a choice of activity and degree of social interaction. This could be achieved through integration of natural play facilities as one area, smaller clusters of space with seating and vegetation of good sensory interest throughout, as well as more hard landscaped multi-functional areas for temporary events, larger expanses of grass for flexible and adaptable spaces for either informal seating, ad hoc physical activity or other events.

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D I S T I N C T I V E The O’Keefe laneway could become a distinctive and unique small public space with an intriguing quality. Not onlly a walkable cut-through between busier roads, but that almost feels like another world, protected from the noise and hustle and bustle of the busy exterior urban environment, and protected in a smaller, redesigned and enhanced public place which provides pleasant sensory experiences, places to sit and relax, opportunities to engage in temporary ‘pop up’ art events and activities. This helps to create a sense of discovery with vistas, glimpses of views and activities which forms a sense of place.

N A V I G A T E D

Design improvements for the O’Keefe laneway involve making clear the cafe/bar and event/activity destinations within the laneway and its status as an appealing walking route to cut through to other larger roads.

Glimpses of views at the end of parts of the laneway provide navigation, and more active frontages could be created by opening up windows which have been boarded up and turning the back entrances of adjacent buildings into the fronts of small cafes and bars with seating/standing room outside.

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A C C E S S I B L E

To ensure the O’Keefe laneway is inclusive and accessible to as many users as possible, it will be necessary to provide seating every 100-125m, where possible, for those unable to walk long distances. The design should ensure all surfaces are level and wheelchair accessible. The literature recommends providing alternative quiet routes away from crowds with acoustic barriers from urban noise. This is exactly what the O’Keefe laneway could facilitate through creation of a walkable quiet route away from the busy Yonge St and Victoria St. The laneway could also mitigate uncomfortable microclimatic factors through provision of shade and wind protection.

E X C E L L E N T

F A C I L I T I E S

Due to the minimal size of the O’Keefe laneway urban public space, the facilities which can be provided are limited. However, some of the currently poorly activated building facades adjacent to the laneway could be transformed to provide cafes or bars. Smaller more informal play spaces could be created and the creation of an attractive pedestrian route can be created.

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R E S T O R A T I V E

Through provision of a mixture of carefully chosen, sensory-rich vegetation, climbers up the building facade walls to create a vertical garden in the heart of a bustling city, and hidden-away nature of the space, a sense of a whole other world and ‘getting away’ from the urban environment can be created. This has been shown to have a restorative impact on users well-being. The space should have a cared for yet slightly ‘wild’ aesthetic, with plants growing up the walls and plentiful green corners where possible.

S A F E

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S E C U R E

A major consideration for the O’Keefe laneway will be to ensure it feels safe and secure to encourage use. This can be done by increasing the number of users in the space and natural surveillance, as can be achieved through introduction of events, activities, ensuring mixed use and multi-functional spaces, creation of a generally more pleasant urban environment, and cafes and bars looking out onto the laneway to provide active frontages and users in the space at all times of day.

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O ’ K E E F E MURALS + LOCAL ARTISTS PARTICIPATORY EVENTS TO DESIGN + PAINT CERTAIN BUILDING FACADES TO CREATE NEW ACTIVE FRONTAGES TEMPORARY EVENTS, ACTIVITIES AND SMALL BUSINESSES ENCOURAGED TO UTILISE THE LANEWAY + ITS FLEXIBLE SPACES

LANEWAY FLOOR SURFACE COULD EITHER BE PAINTED VIBRANT COLOURS OR COBBLED

INCREASED SEATING OPTIONS PROVIDE PLACES TO STOP AND STAY IN THE LANEWAY

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A N E W A Y HANGING SCULPTURAL LIGHTING HELPS ENHANCE THE ATMOSPHERE AND AESTHETIC OF THE ALLEY CLIMBING PLANTS CREATE A VERTICAL GARDEN, MAXIMISING THE POTENTIAL OF THE NARROW ALLEY FOR SENSORY-RICH GREENERY WITH SCENT

LOCAL ARTISTS EVENT TO PAINT + GRAFFITI MURALS + STREET ART ON DISUSED BUILDING FACADES OUTDOOR STREET CAFES + BARS FILL THE LANEWAY WITH LIVELY CHATTER + ‘EYES ON THE STREET’ PROMOTING FEELINGS OF SAFETY

RUBBISH BINS STILL FUNCTIONAL BUT SCREENED

BY SCULPTURAL WOODEN REMOVABLE FRAMES

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conclusions This thesis was split into three parts. The first comprised a literature review of the relevant academic literature to date investigating how green infrastructure relates to health, and the positive social, environmental and economic outcomes of users spending time in places such as this.

The second section investigated the Toronto citywide context in terms of current urban design, health statistics and demographics, and how any improvements to the three proposed sites could impact and relate to broader city networks. The third section looked at the three specific sites Gehl Architects have been engaged to create a vision for, and uses these as a case study of how apply in practice the outcomes of analysis of current research into recommended design considerations for positive health and well-being in urban public spaces.

The literature review found that green infrastructure as can be found in many urban public places, can be beneficial to health and well-being in a number of ways. These centre on key themes of restorative environments which reduce stress, increase productivity and concentration, and soothe and restore directed attention, those urban public places which provide appealing walking and cycling routes or spaces for sports which improve health through physical activity, and those places which provide passive or active social interaction or community engagement which can boost well-being. In this way, both more traditional publicly accessible green infrastructure such as parks, as well as those less convention places for public social interaction such as markets or temporary events in hard-landscaped areas can also have a positive well-being impact.

This is particularly relevent given the recent trend for temporary events and activities such as ‘pop up’ markets or arts and cultural events and the positive impact they can have in engaging the community, promoting social interaction and a sense of pride in local places and talent. These often occur in both public green and more hard-landscaped places but currently are not as discussed in the academic literature for their positive well-being and quality of life attributes compared to more traditional ‘green’ spaces which are better known for promoting behaviours good for health and well-being.

There is a need for more research into the quantitative aspects of the health and well-being benefit that investing in urban public and green spaces can provide. More quantitative data would help support the existing qualitative benefits discussed in the literature review and statistics already touched upon in the ‘case for investment’ section, to make a more solid economic argument for investing in improving the quality of the built environment. Given reductions in government budgets in many countries in recent years this would help provide quantitative financial analysis of the benefits of continued and improved investment in the urban public realm and green spaces in terms of reduced healthcare spending, increased property values, promoting local business investment, increased worker productivity, and reduced numbers of working days lost to stress. This would supplement the more established positive qualitative aspects investment in urban public and green spaces has been shown to relate to, such as improved quality of life, experience and sense of place, better

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...conclusions community and social cohesion, and more welcoming and inclusive places. The literature highlighted the disparity between those investing in urban public places such as this, often government, and those who benefit financially from them; a variety of stakeholders including individuals’ increased property values or private healthcare bills, local businesses, the larger economy due to promoted investment and reduced worker absence days and the individual themselves in terms of increased well-being and health. As such the total economic case for investment needs a holistic approach, and as such makes financial sense for investment, what will be harder to prove is the case for individual stakeholders, such as local government, to invest in a local green or public place from which they are not the only economic beneficiaries.

This is something which I would have liked to investigate further in this thesis, relating the quantitative case for investment and financial benefits this would reward specifically to the three case studies sites in Toronto. This would have provided not just design recommendations for how to design these three sites best in terms of health and well-being but also the economic case to back up how these changes would be a worthwhile investment for local government or other stakeholders. However, given the time constraints of a just a couple short months for this piece of work I feel to have done this justice would require a longer time frame, such as a PhD, to investigate. Only then could the vast amount of data and range of positive both economic and health

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impacts be looked at in the detail they deserve.

Instead this thesis has suggested 12 design recommendations based on the relevant academic literature to suggest how urban public places, whether the more convention park, or a movement space like a street, laneway or even scrap of ‘leftover’ hard-landscaped urban public land, can be best designed to promote health and well-being. I feel this was both relevant and important to do as these design recommendations drew together the main key points from across a wide range of literature to create a synthesised, concise list of recommendations agreed upon by all literature reviewed to best design these urban public places for health and wellbeing. These design recommendations are general guidelines but which can be applied to any specific site in the urban context. In this thesis I applied them to the three case study sites which Gehl Architects are currently creating a vision for. This demonstrated the way they can be applied to a range of spaces, in this case two very different parks and a currently poorly used laneway.

Overall I feel this thesis has been a success. It has synthesised the relevant academic literature to date regarding the relation of health and well-being to the built environment to create a series of 12 general design recommendations and case for investment in urban public places which can be applied to specific contexts. Both these aspects were important because whilst there does seem to be a clear case for investing in urban public and green places, if

this is to be done primarily for the health and wellbeing benefit this set of design recommendations suggested should be adhered to for the best possible impact. This is why there needs to be both an economic case for investment to complement and supplement the existing academic literature supporting the more qualitatively based known reasons that these places are important. However, if I were to have a longer period of time to investigate this topic I would very much like to conduct more in-depth research to further the quantitative case for investment in urban public and green places based on the positive economic and health and well-being impacts urban public places can have through careful and considered design.

Whilst I acknowledge this thesis has just touched the surface of this broad and interesting topic, I hope it has been a step toward increasing the academic base of knowledge supporting the best possible design and use of urban public places to support health and well-being in cities. I would like to thank both Gehl Architects in Copenhagen, Denmark, and 8-80 Cities in Toronto, Canada, for collaborating with me on this thesis and giving me the chance to practically apply my proposed 12 design recommendations to three very interesting live sites in Toronto. I would also like to thank the tutors on the MA Landscape Architecture course at Leeds Metropolitan University, England, for which this thesis is written, for all their help and support.

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meeting notes With Simon Keith Goddard - Gehl Architects Initial meeting to discuss collaboration May 2012 Simon and I discussed which ideas and focus my research could take to contribute best towards Gehl Architect’s upcoming project for the O’Keefe Laneway, St. James Park and Berczy Park in Toronto.

This included focus on how investment in quality green public space and spatial design improvements could enhance the liveability and experience of these places and the broader network, as well as promoting healthy lifestyles through increased walking and cycling and mental well-being. We decided it may be useful for my research to focus on the health aspect due to the relevance of St. Martin’s Hospital and other healthcare practices being located nearby, and because grant funding for the project is tied into health. As such I proposed to investigate the relationship between physical and mental health and well-being and improvements to public spaces such as parks. This could also tie in the benefit produced by designing predominantly hard landscaping, such as the O’Keefe Laneway, to accommodate popup events, festivals, cafes and other temporary or permanent facilities which enable passive or active social interaction.

We discussed a timescale for my research so it could best fit in with the project schedule, as well as my

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university deadlines. I will have completed the initial literature review by the 20th June, ready to build upon for the next stage of the research. Another meeting with Gehl Architects was proposed (either by Skype or in person) in late June or early July to discuss the research so far and also to discuss any empirical tools I would suggest to be used during one day’s research by four students in Toronto during Gehl Architect’s visit to site 1st-7th July. Following this Simon suggested I come to Copenhagen to have a face-to-face meeting in Gehl Architects’ offices approximately one week after the project manager returned from Toronto in mid-July to discuss the initial findings from the site visit. Following this we proposed I would stay in touch via email and Skype until the deadline of early September to enable feedback on the research prior to submitting the finalised thesis in early September.

With Ewa Westermark - Gehl Architects Project Manager for the Toronto project Introductory meeting - June 2012 Ewa and I had an introductory meeting to discuss how the site survey research and participant workshops were to be conducted in Toronto in the following week. This included discussion of their methodology, including Gehl Architect’s 12 Quality Criteria for qualitative assessment as well as my

suggestion for additional empirical tools and research to be conducted to specifically aid my research regarding how these places could be improved for health and well-being. This included suggestion of measuring the noise level in decibels both inside and outside the park or laneway sites to establish current differentiation between the outside urban environment compared with the internal, ideally quieter environment. Other information suggested included numbers of joggers or those participating in other physical activities currently in the parks or laneway, and the number of both active and passive frontages, such as numbers of windows, facing on to these spaces. This is important to measure as the academic literature suggests that views of nature can also be beneficial for health and well-being and as such any improvements to these spaces could have a positive effect on those numbers of people estimated to be viewing the spaces from active or passive frontages such as this. In this meeting we also arranged my subsequent project meeting with Ewa and Johan in Copenhagen in July 2012.

With Ewa Westermark and Johan Stoustroup Gehl Architects, Copenhagen Project Meeting - Toronto Visioning Project July 2012 For this meeting I visited the Gehl Architects

offices in Copenhagen for a project meeting for this Toronto-based visioning project. Ewa had just arrived back from Toronto where she had been leading the researchers on the site suvey work and also collaborating with 8-80 Cities on participation workshops for the three sites. In this project meeting Ewa and Johan summarised their initial findings from the site research the week before. We then discussed my thesis progress and the outcomes of the academic literature review and how this would best contribute to Gehl Architect’s report. We established a plan of action for the coming weeks and discussed the adjusted deadline of the end of August for the majority of this work to align with 8-80 Cities’ deadline in Toronto.

St. James Park visioning report to be submitted in October.

Between these meetings contact was maintained through email and Skype between myself and Ewa at Gehl Architects, and Emily Munroe at 8-80 Cities.

In addition guidance from my tutor Chris Royffe at Leeds Metropolitan University, primarily by email, occurred between May and September 2012.

Ewa Westermark and Emily Munroe Gehl Architects & 8-80 Cities (respectively) Submission of final thesis August 31 and September 6, 2012 Final submission of the main part of the thesis was sent to Ewa and Emily on 31 August to meet their deadline for incorporating any parts of this they felt suitable in their three reports and vision for Berzcy Park, St. James Park and the O’Keefe Laneway.

The finalised thesis was then also provided to both Emily and Ewa on 6 September 2012 for use in the

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