GOLDEN MILE COMPLEX - THE PURSUIT FOR POLITICAL LEGITAMACY

GOLDEN MILE COMPLEX THE PURSUIT FOR POLITICAL LEGITAMACY Has GMC truly succeeded in re-unifying Singapore?

TOH EU JUIN A0216178B AR2221 Final Essay National University of Singapore 2811 words

Toh Eu Juin A0216178B AR2221 Final Essay T10

*** The utopian planning would be at risk of being in complete contradiction to the postrationalising of ‘democratised’ inhabitant experience. ***

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Toh Eu Juin A0216178B AR2221 Final Essay T10

Abstract Golden Mile Complex (GMC) built in 1973 by Design Partnership, is a “self-contained city”, envisaged to be the “Asian City of Tomorrow”1. (Figure 1 &2)

Figure 1: SPUR, ‘Our Cities Tomorrow’ manifesto sketch showing the stepped megastructure above layers of dense pedestrianised interiors, and an underground subway system, 1966

Figure 2: SPUR, ‘Our Cities Tomorrow’ manifesto sketch showing re-regulated speeds and connections inside the pedestrianised corridors of the linear megastructure, including a hung monorail system along the linear form to the left, 1966 This essay seeks to examine the dynamic nature of Nationalism in GMC, right from the conception and power struggles of championing a utopic agenda, to the deviations from the initial intent of GMC as an icon for nation building through a progression of transnationalism. Yet GMC does not stop at being a Thai ethno-national enclave, but a revival of GMC as a nationalist icon is seen as it reaches its decadence. Signalling of both modernism and nationalism, a strong sense of otherness 2 – King, is omnipresent in GMC throughout the developmental stages of nation building. By tracing the various agencies of alienation across time, I hope to bring greater clarity of the multivalent definitions of nationalism vis-à-vis GMC’s role in the progress towards Singapore’s re-unification.

1

Koolhaas, Rem, and Bruce Mau. “Nature and History, Health and Recreation, Spirit and Soul.” Essay. In S, m, l, Xl, 1057.

New York: Monacelli Press, 1998.

2 King, Anthony D. “Internationalism, Imperialism, Postcolonialism, Globalization: Frameworks for Vernacular Architecture.”

Perspectives in Vernacular Architecture 13, no. 2 (2006). p67

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The Earliest Nationalistic Intent Initially, GMC (Figure 3) was conceived through a collective of Lim’s humanist ideology and Tay’s radical ideas. GMC was a daring experiment in the renewal of the tropical urban context 3 as it not only aimed to create a national icon for the formative years of post-colonial Singapore (Figure 4), but also embodied the blend of an aspiration to the universal and true understanding of the local 4. Despite Lim’s influences from CIAM’s philosophy5, to Brutalist and Metabolist movement in Britain and Japan6, GMC strived to create an autonomous style whilst embracing Tay’s tropical language of Line, Edge and Shade7 (which is later materialised in the late 80s of his career). Such exportation of ‘modern’ idealist designs for post-colonialism (including nationalism) 8 was the first step into establishing an independent urban design pedagogy.

Figure 3: Perspective of Golden Mile Complex

Figure 4: Formative Years of National Independence

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Tropical Architecture: Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization by Alexander Tzonis, Liane Lefaivre, Bruno Stagno (2001) 4 Bauer, Ute Meta, Khim Ong, and Roger Nelson. The Impossibility of Mapping (URBAN ASIA). Singapore: NTU Centre for Contemporary Art Singapore, 2020. p33 5 Seng, “The Podium, the Tower and the ‘People’”, p. 228 6 ‘SHS-Position Paper -Too Young To Die’. Singapore Heritage Society, August 2018. https://www.singaporeheritage.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/SHS-Position-Paper-Too-Young-To-Die-Aug-2018.pdf 7 Powell, Robert, and Kheng Soon Tay. 1997. Line, Edge & Shade: The Search for a Design Language in Tropical Asia.

Singapore: Page One Pub. p16 8 King, Anthony D. “Internationalism, Imperialism, Postcolonialism, Globalization: Frameworks for Vernacular Architecture.”

Perspectives in Vernacular Architecture 13, no. 2 (2006). p70

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“The first phase was one of urgency, to house an overcrowded city…”– Lee Kuan Yew9 Before critiquing on GMC’s relevance in nation-building, one should start by looking at the uneasy relationship regarding urban renewal works in Singapore. The broader context of the ideals of nationalism of the state was skewed towards a developmentalist model – the need to urgently emerge from the depths of poverty and ‘third-world’ socio-economical climate. The national narrative of GMC begins on a macro scale of Precinct N1, an available prime land that was set aside for redevelopment by the private sector through the Sale of Sites programme.10 The state preferred the tabula rasa approach of completely removing the entirety of the N1 Precinct as a bold statement of modernization.

(Figure 5)

Figure 5: Urban Renewal of Precinct N1

Faced with severe limitations and urgent redevelopment needs, the government requested technical assistance from the United Nations. Town planning expert, Erik Lorange strategized a systematic redevelopment of the Central Area. (Figure 6) However, the rashless decision-making by the authorities in hopes of speeding up urban transformation, also see a cherry picking of catalysts for economic development. This includes developmental priority being accorded based on availability of land, possibility of clearance, stage of deterioration and demand for land for development.

9

Warren Fernandez, Our Homes: 50 Years of Housing a Nation (Singapore: Straits Times Press for Housing & Development Board, 2011), 53.

10 2016 Centre for Liveable Cities (CLC), Singapore. All rights reserved. “Urban Redevelopment: From Urban to Global City.”

Accessed November 22, 2021. https://www.clc.gov.sg/docs/default-source/urban-systems-studies/ussurbanredevelopment.pdf.

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Figure 6: Lorange Plan 1962

On the other hand, Singapore Planning and Urban Research (SPUR), a private deregistered civil society group, called on to take up the role of Think Tanks that envisioned new and innovative vision in the design. SPUR attempted to push the limits of hyper-density living to a greater extend, however, a clear structure and chain of command has yet to be established by the authorities due to the lack of resources. As a result, the full extent of the linear city could not be realised.

Evidently, there is a false dichotomy of developmentalist ideas by the state – public improvements (transformation of slum to liveable city, achieving affordable housing stability for the increasingly dense population), compared to the architects’ utopian vision. Rather, the bigger concern was the trade-off between public improvements and private investments. Ultimately, this proved to be too large of a challenge and agencies struggle to achieve both simultaneously.

The fact that global movements in planning has influenced and to some extent, interrupted the original intent of nationalism since the first private land sales in 1966, shed light on the tension between the national housing improvement programme, and the making of a global city. Upon unearthing the multi-faceted layers behind GMC and its international relationships, nationalism in Singapore is way more complex and not simply a transformation through reconstruction.

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Otherness within Authorities – A Political Paradox However, underneath the cosmetic urban renewal, lies a utilitarian pragmatism11 of solely seeking capital to attract global corporations in direct competition with other prominent Asian city, of the Singaporean government. 12 Due to Singapore’s late entrance into industrialisation, a highly competitive and comparative progression is made apparent, while using the western modal as benchmark. But as a result, Singapore had to compromise and suffer considerable social, cultural and moral stresses 13 -- of which the struggles of cultural marginalisation will be discussed in the subsequent topic. Despite the injection of a bold and imaginative utopian planning by SPUR (Figure 7), it was unfortunate that economic development only saw an enthusiastic mimicking of design trends and features from advanced countries.14

Figure 7: Initial Linear City Plan

Pedestrianised urbanism and post-war shopping were key aspects of envisioning GMC, so as to encourage the free movement of commuters, traversing gradually from the ‘global’ functions in the southwestern end of hotels, offices, shops, convention halls, to the ‘local’ functions of flats, ‘local hotels,’ and even a flatted factory towards the north-eastern end of Golden Mile District (GMD) adjacent to public housing. 15 Essentially, a self-sustaining organism which balances the tripartite relationship of work, live and play. Most critically, Lim and Design Partnership (DP) envisioned these global and local functions to coexist and share the same stepped megastructure form.

The genesis of a new building typology was not without numerous experimentations, with a total of 5 iterations over the course of 10 years. The horizontality and mixed-use functions of GMC contrasted strongly with Urban Renewal Department (URD)’s preferred verticality and mono-functional form.

Even though only one of the twin-row of the stepped megastructures depicted in Lim’s master plan 11

Tropical Architecture: Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization by Alexander Tzonis, Liane Lefaivre, Bruno Stagno (2001). p268 12 Wee, H. Koon. “An incomplete megastructure: the Golden Mile Complex, global planning education, and the pedestrian city.“ The Journal of Architecture 25, no. 4 (2020) 13 Powell, Robert, and Kheng Soon Tay. 1997. Line, Edge & Shade: The Search for a Design Language in Tropical Asia.

Singapore: Page One Pub. p46 14 Tropical Architecture: Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization by Alexander Tzonis, Liane Lefaivre, Bruno Stagno (2001). p268 15 H. Koon Wee. “The Emergence of the Global and Social City: Golden Mile and the Politics of Urban Renewal.” Taylor & Francis. Accessed September 15, 2021. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02665433.2019.1581835.

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was built, the GMC experiment would have a very direct influence over this emerging mixed-use typology in Singapore.

GMC also acts as a resistance towards the “slum psychology”16- Lim, where modernist planners would intentionally assess slums based on ill hygiene and exponential crime rate, and the lack of income and education buildings resulting in the fall into disrepair. The promotion of co-existence was a sustainable ideology held true by SPUR where ‘the new will grow side by side with the old.’17 (Figure 8), whereas the state was adamant about a thorough cleansing of the filth Singapore was in.

Figure 8: Sketch showing coexistence of megastructure (right) and existing shop house fabric (left), 1966 Asia Magazine

Greater divisiveness of the direction between both parties were expressed further as seen from the Linear City by DP against the highly privatised advertisement by the state (Figure 9). Profit and social status were incentives to attract consumers -- private owners/expats. But also, as a way of proving to the masses that Singapore was ‘progressing economically’. Using architecture as a statement for socioeconomic growth, URD’s luxury flats was unfortunately rushing to attract global capital without much consideration for the welfare of the locals.

16

H. Koon Wee. “The Emergence of the Global and Social City: Golden Mile and the Politics of Urban Renewal.” Taylor & Francis. Accessed September 15, 2021. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02665433.2019.1581835.

17 Bauer, Ute Meta, Khim Ong, and Roger Nelson. “Fragments of Place and Plurality in William S.W. Lim's ‘Incomplete Urbanism.’” Essay. In The Impossibility of Mapping (Urban Asia), 78. Singapore: NTU Centre for Contemporary Art Singapore, 2020.

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Figure 9: Article from The Straits Times, 20 June 1967

Otherness in Planning – Racial and Income Sensitivities GMC was part of a larger project, Golden Mile District (GMD) (Figure 10), uniquely privatised and aimed at improving the biopolitical lives of the community. As much as GMC’s goal for modernization and transformation of downtown slums into high consumer culture by introducing a new shopping typology (Figure 11), the deeply seated tensions and inequalities were struggles, a newly established government had to face as they attempted to solve the paradoxical relationship social legitimacy and global relevance at the same instance.18 Policy makers are furthermore desensitised to the relocation of the poor, for the sake of urban renewal.

Figure 10: Golden Mile District Plan by SPUR 18

H. Koon Wee. “The Emergence of the Global and Social City: Golden Mile and the Politics of Urban Renewal.” Taylor & Francis. Accessed September 15, 2021. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02665433.2019.1581835.

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Figure 11: Sectional Drawing of GMC

The ambition of GMD was to attract private developers to keep up with the desire of economic acceleration of private and global consumerist functions. Hence the popularizing of a visionary stratatitled shopping typology matched the rise of the consumerist middle-class of Singapore, who had access to affordable shopping and the possibility of gaining ownership of small commercial properties.

Coupled with the “heightened roles of modern technology in popular culture and mass appeal”- Lim19, the capitalist mindset of the state also attempts to convert economically unviable working-class migrants in downtown slums into consumer class citizens.

The game of urban planning in the 1960s was one of government manipulation, in hopes of achieving racial and ideological stability. This was attributed following a series of challenges such as the Operation Coldstore (1963) and 1964 Racial Riots, where the restructuring of a dominant People’s Action Party would leverage on urban resettlement and zoning as a tool to ‘prevent disharmony’.

Instead, GMC intends to promote harmony rather than fleeing from racial and income inequalities.

Acknowledging that GMC was an unprecedented megastructure, SPUR took caution to analyse the existing culture and lifestyle to find the appropriate living pattern of locals – highly conditioned to live in congested areas, whilst respecting cultural obsolescence, to prevent the risk of claustrophobia.

GMC broke the anthropological boundaries, despite critics from Western counterparts “say that there can be no family life at densities above 70 persons per acre”.20 It is then worth questioning, whether the approach by the state was one of divisiveness, where human interactions and wellbeing are compromised for the sake of economic acceleration? Or could it simply be the foresight and vision the government had for the coda of nationalism that led to their decision.

19

H. Koon Wee. “The Emergence of the Global and Social City: Golden Mile and the Politics of Urban Renewal.” Taylor & Francis. Accessed September 15, 2021. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02665433.2019.1581835.

20 Chuan, Koh Seow. Essay. In Spur 65-67, 8. Singapore: SPUR, 1967.

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Otherness within the Local – A Psychological Parasite “We have yet to decolonise our minds.” – Tay, 198521 The government is not solely put to question, but also a rethinking of the responsibility of Singaporeans. Tay’s critiques on the inherent submerging of human sensitivities due to the noninvolvement conditioning, cultural reflexes and migrant values22, have shaped the state of alienation of individuals to society. GMC acts as a form of reflection, if citizens themselves were truly initiative in the efforts of nation building. The dangerous social apathy and un-involved attitude calls for architecture to be mobilised for consolidating communities. 23 Modern critics tend to laud GMC for offering a bottom-up engagement for inhabitants to freely customise their spaces in form of sheltered terraces. (Figure 12)

Figure 12: Customisable Extended Terraces

However, as much as SPUR’s strong innate values of ‘liberal democrats who believe in free public expression and contribution to public discourse’24, little success has been made with translating into the liberation of architectural agency, that of bottom up-engagement, as it still remains as a developer-led, architect-designed development. The utopian planning would be at risk of being in complete contradiction to the post-rationalising of ‘democratised’ inhabitant experience.

21

Powell, Robert, and Kheng Soon Tay. 1997. Line, Edge & Shade: The Search for a Design Language in Tropical Asia.

Singapore: Page One Pub. p14 22 Powell, Robert, and Kheng Soon Tay. 1997. Line, Edge & Shade: The Search for a Design Language in Tropical Asia.

Singapore: Page One Pub. p16 23 Chang, Jiat-Hwee, and Imran bin Tajudeen. “Historiographical Questions in Southeast Asia’s Modern Architecture.” In Southeast Asia’s Modern Architecture: Questions in Translation, Epistemology and Power, edited by Jiat-Hwee Chang and Imran bin Tajudeen, p9 Singapore: NUS Press, 2019.

24 “Chapter 3: THE NATION BUILDING PHASE: 1960s.” Essay. In Rumah 50: Review of Urbanism, Modern Architecture & Housing: 50 Years of Sia, 1963-2013: Story of the Singapore Architectural Profession, 110. SIA Press, 2013.

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Otherness in Thai Ethnonational Enclave – A Transnational Divide As a by-product of Singapore’s booming economy, the influx of foreign Thai workers (Figure 13) that made GMC their home has resulted in the perceptions from locals as urban ‘slums’. 25 From just a “weekend enclave”, to a more static Thai sanctuary (Figure 14, 15, 16), where more of these inhabitants gain permanent residency, through extended work periods or forging family ties with local Singaporeans. GMC was an architectural agent in containing the Thai ethno-national community. GMC becomes this Liminoid Space that reflects the urban marginality within and a broader ongoing and ambivalent social-cultural divide between Singaporeans and large numbers of foreign workers, who form part of a transnational ‘precariat’ and face substantial challenges to their economic and social security26

Figure 13: Thai Migrant Workers Sitting by the Entrance

Figure 14: The Golden Mile ‘Four-faced Buddha’ 25

Wacquant, L. 2008. Urban Outcasts: A Comparative Sociology of Advanced Marginality.

Cambridge: Polity Press.

26 Kevin Tan, “Traversing the Golden Mile: An Ethnographic Outline of Singapore’s Thai Enclave,” Urbanities 8, no. 1 (2018) p3

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Figure 15: Internal Atrium Occupied Mainly by Thai Owners

Figure 16: Internal Atrium in 1980s bustling with Thai Migrants

The growing stigmatism among locals arises from the detrimental impacts (Figure 17) – hygiene and crime concerns on such pluralistic segregations as a source of conflict, addressed by J.S. Furnival. Much resistance against such “dirty ghettoes” reflects the systemic power, both aggressive relocation and redevelopment, and within GMC towards the Thai community in the form of surveillance. The conventional analytics of power to attend to building activities and developmental power associated with post-independence Singapore27, further divide the existing tensions of alienation.

27

Chang, Jiat-Hwee, and Imran bin Tajudeen. “Historiographical Questions in Southeast Asia’s Modern Architecture.” In Southeast Asia’s Modern Architecture: Questions in Translation, Epistemology and Power, edited by Jiat-Hwee Chang and Imran bin Tajudeen, 1–21.

Singapore: NUS Press, 2019.

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Figure 17: Prevalence of Discotheques (seen in negative light)

Furthermore, this reflects the ‘reductionist perceptions of cultural identity’ 28 among Singaporeans, where all Singaporeans were categorized along patrilineal lines of the simplified ‘multiracial’ ‘ChineseMalay-Indian-Other’ (CMIO) system (Figure 18), leaving little room for more complex identifications 29.

Thus the alienation of the ‘unclassifiable’ Thai ethnic, coupled with GMC as a marginalising agent, inevitably exasperate the prevalence of the sense of otherness, while step towards modernism in Singapore.

Figure 18: ‘Chinese-Malay-Indian-Other’ (CMIO) system

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Kevin Tan, “Traversing the Golden Mile: An Ethnographic Outline of Singapore’s Thai Enclave,” Urbanities 8, no. 1 (2018) p15 29 “Rocha, Zarine L. (2011), Multiplicity within Singularity: Racial Categorization and Recognizing ‘Mixed Race’ in Singapore, in: Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs,” n.d. Accessed October 14, 2021. p104

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Resolution for Unification With less than 50 years left on lease, coupled with the negative light shone on GMC by the poor maintenance coupled with Thai National dwelling, GMC faces endangerment. The transient nature of GMC becomes an object of collective emotional attachment (Figure 19), which ties back into the true essence of Tay’s co-operative housing30 and iterates Lim’s understanding of modernity as a state of constant incompletion.31

Figure 19: Efforts by local Heritage Societies to raise awareness for conservation

To consider whether GMC should be conserved, inhabitants and the state alike would question: Is Golden Mile really for the people? Does it benefit Singaporeans’ wellbeing?

Just plainly looking at GMC alone today, one might not see the value it contributes to the current nation-building narrative. But upon looking at the macro scale (Figure 20) – of the district, the series of private buildings arranged towards the central business district (CBD) over the short span of less than 50 years, a once imagined as ‘public improvement’32 – Charles Abrams, unknowingly become the forerunner for globalised economic progress, benefiting each Singaporean.

30

Powell, Robert, and Kheng Soon Tay. 1997. Line, Edge & Shade: The Search for a Design Language in Tropical Asia.

Singapore: Page One Pub. p16 31 Wee, H. Koon. “An Asian Avant-Garde: A Lexicon of Asian Modernity.” Globalizing Architecture: Flows & Disruptions (Washington DC: ACSA Press). Accessed September 15, 2021. https://www.academia.edu/15351074/An_Asian_Avant_garde_a_Lexicon_of_Asian_Modernity . p265 32 Abrams, Charles, Susumu Kobe, and Otto H. Koenigsberger. Essay. In Growth and Urban Renewal in Singapore: Report Prepared for the Government of Singapore, p62. New York: United Nations Programme of Technical Assistance, Dept. of Economic and Social Affairs, 1963.

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Figure 20: Perspective of GMC pointing towards the direction of the city

While the initial approach from the state was one that see no purpose in conserving GMC, deeming it as economically detriment and the potential for such prime location to be redeveloped. Seeing the ongoing reconstructions for many of these strata-titled buildings, including that of Liang Court, the rigid land-use policies and regulatory frameworks had to be re-evaluated in order to facilitate the conservation of modernist structures for adaptive reuse.

Conservation advocates on the other hand, laud for GMC’s unique architype and significance which holds greater sentiments to them. Holding on to a similar spirit to that of SPUR, they are vocal at expressing the need to repurpose GMC. Inhabitants that not only live there, but also the Thai communities, cherish GMC as their home. In all the endeavour and accomplishments GMC has gone through, makes it a living organism that has to be conserved.

Currently, GMC is gazetted as a conserved building and entitled as the first modern, large-scale stratatitle development conserved in Singapore. "Over the past year, URA has refined the incentives, taking in the owners' feedback" – Desmond Lee.33 The development potential of the site is increased with conservation. With more flexible adaptation of land use, we can start to see hints of progress with regards to the prioritisation of economic growth as the sole driver for nation building from governmental agencies, into one that also gives the architecture due respect, rather than treating them as chess pieces to harness their economic value. The slow but steady shift in the attitudes and strategies of urban planning by the state, to one that is less pragmatic and more humane and attentive to various agencies, shows that since GMC’s conception, the divisiveness between various agencies in fact has slowly dissolved, taking a step forward at reunification.

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Accessed November 23, 2021. https://www.businesstimes.com.sg/real-estate/golden-mile-complexgazetted-with-refined-incentives-from-ura.

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Conclusion Despite the instability of definition of Nationalism, due to socio-politico-cultural factors that morph GMC, there is an unexpected fruition of ideologies- that of Tay and Lim on nation building, the pursuit for political legitimacy34and GMC as an icon for the unification of Singaporeans. GMC is a microcosmic reflection of the ongoing urban marginality in Singapore and the varied contexts of ‘otherness’, influencing the nationalistic outcome of GMC and the state at large. However, it must be taken with caution that the analysis of GMC is highly contextual and ever transforming since the developmentalist to conservationist era, as we patiently await the stakeholders in GMC to reach a modus vivendi.

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H. Koon Wee. “The Emergence of the Global and Social City: Golden Mile and the Politics of Urban Renewal.” Taylor & Francis. Accessed September 15, 2021. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02665433.2019.1581835.

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Bibliography Figure 1, 2, 7 & 10: Wee, H. Koon. “An incomplete megastructure: the Golden Mile Complex, global planning education, and the pedestrian city.“ The Journal of Architecture 25, no. 4 (2020) Figure 3 & 15: “Golden Mile Complex.” State of Buildings. Accessed September 15, 2021. https://stateofbuildings.sg/places/golden-mile-complex.

Figure 4: Ho, Hardy, and Hohardy. “Building the Asian Hybrid.” Issuu. Accessed October 14, 2021. https://issuu.com/hohardy/docs/hohardy_history_assignment.

Figure 5, 6, 8: H. Koon Wee. “The Emergence of the Global and Social City: Golden Mile and the Politics of Urban Renewal.” Taylor & Francis. Accessed September 15, 2021. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02665433.2019.1581835.

Figure 9: “GLEAMING 'GOLDEN MILE' The Straits Times, 20 June 1967, Page 7.” The Straits Times.

Accessed November 22, 2021. https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/straitstimes196706201.2.53.1?ST=1&AT=search&k=gleaming%20golden%20mile&QT=gleaming,golden,mil e&oref=article.

Figure 11: Eisen. “Saving the Golden Mile.” History By Eisen, October 9, 2020. https://www.historybyeisen.com/post/saving-the-golden-mile.

Figure 12 & 14: “Golden Mile Complex Will 'Not Be the Same Even If Building Is Kept'.” TODAYonline.

Accessed October 14, 2021. https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/golden-mile-complex-will-notbe-same-even-if-building-kept-say-residents-shop-owners-and.

Figure 13, 16 & 17: “Golden Mile Complex to Be Proposed for Conservation, Incentives Will Be Offered: URA.” CNA. Accessed October 14, 2021. https://www.channelnewsasia.com/singapore/golden-mile-complex-proposed-for-conservationincentives-751596.

Figure 18: “Should Singapore Retain or Stop Using the Chinese-Malay-Indian-Others Framework?”

Singapore Policy Journal, October 16, 2017. https://spj.hkspublications.org/2015/10/04/shouldsingapore-retain-or-stop-using-the-chinese-malay-indian-others-framework/.

Figure 19: ‘SHS-Position Paper -Too Young To Die’. Singapore Heritage Society, August 2018. https://www.singaporeheritage.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/SHS-Position-Paper-Too-YoungTo-Die-Aug-2018.pdf Figure 20: “GMC Exhibition Panels - Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA).” Accessed November 22, 2021. https://www.ura.gov.sg/-/media/Corporate/Guidelines/Development-control/MasterPlan/Proposed-Amendments/r4-10oct20/GMC-Exhibition-Panels-V6.pdf?la=en.

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