TheWeightofYourVote:Participatinginthe2024Election The2024electionisinchingcloserand,despiteassassinationattemptsandlastminutedropoutsfromtherace,a presidentfromoneofthetwomajorpartieswilltakeofficethiscomingyear.Amidstglobalcrisesandtensions betweenthevoicesofcitizensandbigbusiness,anti-votingsentimenthasleakedintopublicdiscourse.Retired ProfessorofEducationandSeniorUniversityScholarattheUniversityofIllinoisWilliamAyersaddressesthis opinioninablogpost,titled“TheLesserofTwoEvils:ANoteonVoting2024.”Beyondhiscareerineducation, Ayersisandalwayshasbeenanactivist,cofoundingtheWeatherUnderground,aleft-leaningmilitantorganization formedinoppositiontotheUSinvolvementintheVietnamWar.Readhissentimentonthecrucialityofvotingthis November,“TheLesserofTwoEvils”below.
TheLesserofTwoEvils:ANoteonVoting2024 Twodifferentthingscanbetrueatthesametime:thelesseroftwoevilsisstillevil;thelesseroftwoevilsislesser.More thanonethingishappeningatonce.Contradiction theuniversalexperienceofallhumanity.
Thinkaboutthecomingelection:Therearemany,manyreasonsnottovote:perhapsyou’redisconnectedfrom politicsandturnedoffbyallthephoninessandmindlessbickering;perhapsyourecognizethattheoptionsarealmost indistinguishableonthebigissues achoicebetweenTeweedledumandTweedledummer andyouagreewithKarl Marxthatbourgeoisdemocracyoffersnothingmorethanaritualtodecide,ineffect,whichmemberoftherulingclass willmisrepresentus;perhapsyouseethewaysthatvotingiscorruptedbybigmoneyandmanipulatedbypower,and younote thatthepoliticalclassrepresentsamoniedminorityandthattheelectoralcollegemakesvotingirrelevant;or perhapsyou’reorganizingandactingtowardmoresubstantivechange,andyouembraceRosaLuxemburg’sinsight thatifwecouldbringaboutarevolutionthroughelections,votingwouldbeillegal.
Igetallthat.
Still,I’llgooutandvoteonelectionday,asIalwayshave.AndIalwayswill.Here’swhy:
~~BecauseIworkasanorganizer,activist,andengagedcitizen,andIfightforaworldatpeaceandinbalance,a communitybuiltonjoyandjusticeandpoweredbylovefor365daysayear,andbecausevotingtakes15minutesand innowaydistractsmefromthesubstantiveworkI’mcommittedtodoingdayinanddayout.
~~Becauseformevotingis,inthewordsofRebeccaSolnit,achessmoveandnotavalentine.Myvoteisnotalove lettertoanycandidate,anditneverhasbeen.Itis,rather,atacticaldecisionaboutthepreferredlandscapeon whichI’llcarryoutmypoliticalwork mymovement-making,community-building,abolitionistorganizing,and pivotstopeace.It’salsoarecognitionthat,whilethedifferencebetweenthetwomajorcapitalistpoliticalpartiesis onlyaninch,alotofvulnerablepeopleexistwithinthatinch.IalsolikeBarbaraRansby’sanalogy:votingislike brushingyourteeth ittakesonlyafewminutes,butifyoudon’tdoit,badthingscouldhappen.
~~Becausenon-votingdoesn’tstrikeablowforreformnordoesitdoathingtodiminishorabolishthecorearchaic institutionsofanti-democracy theelectoralcollege,thesupremecourt,thesenate nordoesitgesturetowarda robustorparticipatorydemocracy.Acoordinatedcollectivecampaigncanbepowerful themovementtowritein “Undecided”or“Gaza”duringthe2024DemocraticPartyprimarywasabrillianttactic,andpartofalargerstrategy toputgenocideandoccupationonthenationalagenda.Butnotvotingdoesnotstickittotheman itdoesn’t even sendamessage.
~~Becauseyoumaynotbeinterestedinpolitics,butpoliticsisinterestedinyou.Seecataclysmiccapitalistclimate collapse,foroneclearexample,orseetheDobbsdecisionforanother
~~Becausevotersuppressionisreal blatantideologicalgerrymandering,newregistrationandIDrequirements, shortenedvotingperiodsandfewervotingsites,limitsonmail-inballots,intimidationandbullying,felony disenfranchisement,vastsumsofmoneypouredintocolorfulandentertainingbutrarelyeducationalorilluminating ads,andmore it’sclearthattherulingclassdoesn’twantpeopletovote.SoI’llvote.
~~Becausevotingisapractical,notamoralmatter,andittakesnothingawayfrommydeeperandmoresustained formsofengagement:organizing,demonstrating,actingupandactingout.
~~Becausewearelivinginperiloustimes:anewandescalatingcoldwarwithChina;ahotanddestructiveproxywar inEuropeandapreannouncedgenocideagainstthePalestinianpeopleofGazaunderway;ragingandracializedpolice violenceunchecked;environmentalcollapseonfulldisplay;fragileandoftenanemicdemocraticinstitutionsonlife support;religiousauthoritarianismontherise;women’sbodilyintegrityundersustainedassault.Andbecausewe’re alsolivinginhopefultimes twenty-sixmillionpeopletooktothestreetsin2020inresponsetothepolicemurderof GeorgeFloyd,thelargestpublicoutpouringforracialjusticeinhistory;themilitantresistancetotheUSpartnership withandcomplicityintheIsraeligenocideofPalestinians,includingthebrilliantcampusencampmentsandthe widespreadpublicdisruptions;womenacrossawidepoliticalspectrumhaverefusedtoacceptamedievaldefinitionof theirrights;laborhaswonhistoric,game-changingvictories,fromtheWritersGuildofAmericatotheUnitedAuto Workers,andfromAmazontoStarbucks;andbroadforcesareonthemarchworldwidetoresistplunderand extractionandtopreservelifeonearth.Onceagain,morethanonethingishappeningatonce,andsoIwakeupevery dayandglanceatthesewordswrittenonmywall:“Justtobealiveonthisfreshmorninginthebrokenworld.” Contradiction.
~~BecauseIworkedshouldertoshoulderwithpeoplewhofoughtanddiedforourrighttoexercisethefranchise,and Itakethatseriously.IthinkabouttheStudentNonviolentCoordinatingCommitteeandtheCivilRightsmartyrs JamesChaney,MickySchwerner,andAndrewGoodman.Myvoteisablooddebttothem.
~~Becausepeopleallovertheworldaredying literallydying fortherighttovote.Votingisafundamentalright andresponsibilityinafreesociety withouttherighttovote,andwithoutexercisingthatright,we’reallalittleless free.
~~And,finallybecauseIthinkself-righteousnessisannoyingandalwayswrong,andsoIdon’twanttounitewithmy comradesandfriendswhoareactingholier-than-thouastheysmuglyannounce,“I’msosmartandwideawakethatI didn’tevenvote likeyousuckersandpatheticsheep.Howcoolisthat?”Notthatcool.
So,hereweare inaplacenotofourchoosing.Andnomatterwhatyoudo,andnomatterwhatIdo,therewillbea nationalelectioninNovember.Amongotherthings,apresidentwillbeelected.Idon’tactuallythinkdemocracyison theagendaastheDemocratssay andIwishitwere butauniqueAmericanfascismissurelyontheagenda.
HerearefourreasonsyoumightwanttovoteforDonaldTrump:
1. Ifyouthinkthat“Americahasforgottenhowtowinwars,”andthattheAmerican-endorsedandfunded IsraeliassaultonthePalestinianpeoplehasbeentoorestrained,andthatIsraelshould“finishthejob,”then voteforTrump.
2. Ifyouthinkthatwomenshouldhavenorighttocontroltheirownbodies,andthatpoliticiansshould determinereproductiverights,voteforTrump.
3. Ifyouthink“globalwarming”isahoax,voteforTrump.
4. Andifyouthinkthefilthyrichshouldbeallowedtolivetaxfree, andthatcorporationsshouldbeallowed tofunctionwithoutpublicoversight,voteforTrump.
Andherearefourreasonstostayhomeandskiptheelection:
Ifyouthinkthat“Americahasforgottenhowtowinwars,”andthattheAmerican-endorsedandfundedIsraeliassault onthePalestinianpeoplehasbeentoorestrained,andthatIsraelngmassesofpeople;therulingclassadjusted, conceded(abit),andbackedup.Butthecentralworkthen,asalways,wasnotbeggingforchangefromabove,but ignitingandbuildinganirresistiblefirefrombelow.
Whetheryouvoteornot,Ihopewecanallopenoureyesandpayattentiontotheworldasitreallyis,allowourselves tobeastonishedatthebeautyandecstasyineverydirectionaswellastheunnecessarypain exploitation,oppression, degradation thatpeoplesuffer,andthenspeakupandactout.Takeupthemosturgentworkrightnow:joina communityoralaborunion,createacommunitycoop,buildacommunitygrouptomonitorpoliceactivity,planta communitygarden notethattheoperativewordhereis“community.”Movefromapathyandalienationtoengaged participation,fromtoxicindividualismtosolidarity.Diveintothewreckage,arm-in-arm,shoulder-to-shoulder,heartto-heart,andworktoreimagineandrebuildthisbrokenworldonafoundationofgenerosity,grace,andlove.
Let’sgo!
Alice Paul Says, “VOTE AGAINST THE REPUBLICAN PARTY AS LONG AS IT BLOCKS SUFFRAGE” (June 11, 1920)
PROGRESS? AShortHistoryofAmericanSuffrage TheStruggletoVote istheStruggletoControlYourLife VotingintheAmericanColonies OneofthefirstpoliticaleventsthatoccurredinJamestown,America’sfirstsettlement,wastheelectionsforthe colony’slegislativeassembly,theHouseofBurgesses.Thefirstrepresentativegovernmentinwhatwouldbecome America,theHousewasformedtograntsettlersasayinthecolony’slaws.Tworepresentatives,orBurgesses,were electedfromeachplantationinthecolony,andassembledtodiscusspoliticalmattersatleastonceayear.However, franchise,ortherighttovote,wascertainlynotuniversallygranted.EnglishprincipleswereappliedinJamestown, limitingelectionparticipationtoonlyaselectgroupofwealthypeople.Eachcolonyhadtheirownrestrictionsand exceptionsforwhowasgrantedfranchise.Typically,authorityfiguressuchasEnglishofficers,electedoversettlements andcolonies,appointedfranchisesolelytowhitemaleswhoownedproperty.OldEnglishprinciplesrationalizedthat thosewhohadlargereconomicstakehadkeenerinterestinthelong-termeffectsofgovernancethanindentured servants,Africanslaves,ornon-landowningwomen.Ruleswereunclearastohowmuchlandhadtobeownedandfor howlong,allowingseveralmentopurchaseanacreoflandafewdaysbeforeanelectiontoutilizeloopholes.Inthe early18thcenturythisrequirementwasspecified:menhadtoown25acresoflandor100acresofundevelopedland foratleastoneyearpriortotheelection.Althoughvotingwasuncommonatthetime,mostoftheearlycolonistswere restrictedfromdoingsobecauseoftheirunlikelihoodofowningproperty.
RestrictiveandExpansiveVotingLawsintheAmericanColonialPeriod MinimumAge(1699)--Menmustbeover21yearsoldtovote
ExclusionofWomen(1699)--Womencouldnotbeenfranchised.
ExclusionofRacialMinorities(1723) MenwhowereBlack,Mulatto,orAmericanIndiancouldnotbe enfranchised
PropertyOwnership(1736)--Menmustown25acresofdevelopedlandor100acresofundevelopedlandforat leastayearpriortoelectionstovote.EstablishedinthecreationofJamestown,setinstonein1736
Theinfluxofnewservantsandslavessignificantlychangeddemographicsandshiftedthepoliticallandscapeinthe colonies.Electionsdeterminedthepoliticalsystemofthecolonies,butthelawsgoverningwhocouldandcouldnot votelimitedsuffragetoland-owning,wealthiermen.
TheBirthofa“Free”Nation WhoBuildstheVotingClass? In1774electedrepresentativesfromnearlyall13coloniesconvenedinPhiladelphiatodiscusshowthecolonists wouldrebelagainstever-tighteningBritishcontrol.Thegroup,includingdelegatessuchasGeorgeWashingtonand JohnAdams,becameknownastheFirstContinentalCongress,andpromotedfreespeechinanequitable environment.JustonemonthafterthestartoftheRevolutionaryWar,inthespringof1775,theSecondContinental Congressmet.Takingthegreateststridestopreservethestrengthofthecolonies,thedelegatesvotedtoapprovethe DeclarationofIndependence,establishingAmericaasanationseparatefromtheBritishCrown.
TheConstitutionasitisknowntodaywasnotratifieduntil1789,anditleftthequestionofvotingeligibilityupto individualstates.Consequently,andcontradictorytothevoterdemographicsofthecolonies,notallstatesspecified theirvotersaswhitemales.NewJerseywasnotablybroad;initsfirst1776stateconstitution,thegenderofvoterswas notmentioned,norwastheirrace.FollowingthecreationoftheUSConstitution,theNewJerseylawwasrevisedto explicitlystate“heorshe.”Thestatewasthefirsttoopenupitspollstomostofitscitizens,beforeeventuallystripping theirvotingclassbackdowntowhitemalesby1807.
RestrictiveandExpansiveVotingLawsintheWakeoftheAmericanRevolution:
ExclusionofWomenVoters,NewYork(1777):Votersmustbe“maleinhabitants”
ExclusionofBlackandWomenVoters,NewJersey(1807): “Nopersonshallvoteinanystateorcountyelection forofficersinthegovernmentoftheUnitedStates,orofthisstate,unlesssuchpersonbeafree,white,malecitizenof thisstate.”–NewJerseyStateLegislature
ExclusionofIncarceratedVoters,Connecticut(1818):Thefirststatetodoso,Connecticutprohibiteditscitizens fromvotingiftheywereinconvictedofacrime
SuffrageforJewishVoters,Maryland(1828):MarylandallowsitsJewishinhabitantstovoteandholdoffice,was previouslytheonlystatetorestrictthemfromparticipating
ExclusionofBlackVoters,Pennsylvania(1838):Votersmustbe“whitefreemen”
AbolitionofLandowningRequirementforWhiteMen,NorthCarolina(1856):Thelaststatetodoso,North Carolinaallowsallwhitementovoteregardlessoflandownership.
"Wedonothavegovernmentbythemajority. Wehavegovernmentbythemajoritywhoparticipate." ThomasJefferson TheRighttoVoteand theReconstructionAmendments IntheyearsfollowingtheCivilWar,aseriesofamendmentswerepassedthatopenedthedoorsforformerlyenslaved peopletohaveasayintheirgovernment.KnownastheReconstructionAmendmentsaftertheerainwhichtheywere ratified,the13ththroughthe15thamendmentsabolishedslavery, grantedcitizenshiptoAfricanAmericans,andgave allAmericanstherighttovote.Subsequently,overhalfamillionAfricanAmericansregisteredtovote,electingnearly 2,000AfricanAmericanmenintoofficefrom1860-1900.TwoBlackmen,HiramRevelsandBlancheBruce,became thefirsttobeelectedintotheSenate.BothpoliticiansrepresentedMississippi,andwerethelastAfricanAmericansto sitintheSenatefornearlyacentury.Despitetakingsuchgrandstridestowardequitablevotingstandards,oncefederal troopsleftthesouth,votingrightsforBlackmenaswellaspublicofficeroleswerebrutallydiminishedbywhitedominatedpoliticalpowers.Evidently,theUSgovernmentstillhadalongwaytogoingrantingracialminoritiesfair andeasyaccesstothepolls.
ThefirstandmostcriticalstepinlevelingvotingaccessibilitywasincreasingAfricanAmericanliteracy.Inthelate19th century,afterthe15thAmendmentwassetinstoneandallcitizenswerelegallyallowedtovote,80%oftheAfrican Americanpopulationwasilliterate.Thisnumberwascutinhalfby1900,yetsouthernwhitejurisdictionsutilized toolssuchasliteracyteststopreventminoritiesfromregistering.Atypicalliteracytestwasnearimpossibleto complete,letaloneaccurately;theyrequiredtheapplicanttohaveaproficientunderstandingofhowtoreadand write,aswellasinterpretabstractsectionsoftheConstitution.Evenifanapplicantachievedaperfectscore,thewhite pollworkerscouldpassorfailhimsimplybasedonhisrace.
"Ourlivesbegintoendthedaywebecomesilentaboutthingsthatmatter." MartinLutherKing,Jr "IfAmericanwomenwouldincreasetheirvotingturnoutbytenpercent,Ithinkwewould seeanendtoallofthebudgetcutsinprogramsbenefitingwomenandchildren."
CorettaScottKing
ApagefromanAlabamaVoterRegistrationLiteracyTest,1964,LibraryofCongress.
Couldyouregistertovoteviaa1960sAlabamaliteracytest?Tryansweringallofthefollowingquestions correctly(1965,AlabamaLiteracyTest,takenfromJimCrowMuseum):
1. Ifapersonisindictedforacrime,nametworightswhichhehas.
2. Thefederalcensusofpopulationistakeneveryfiveyears.
a. True
b. False
3. Doesenumerationaffecttheincometaxleviedoncitizensinvariousstates?
4. WhatwordsarerequiredbylawtobeonallcoinsandpapercurrencyoftheUnitedStates?
5. Theonlylawswhichcanbepassedtoapplytoanareainafederalarsenalarethosepassedby____,provided consentforthepurchaseofthelandisgivenbythe____.
Answersatthebackofthebook
Literacytestswerenottheonlyobstacleinthesouthernstates;similartacticstodisenfranchiseBlackvotersincluded the“GrandfatherClause,”statingthatapplicantscouldonlyvoteiftheirgrandfathershadvoted,andpolltaxes,
rangingfrom$20-$40intoday’scurrency.AlabamaworkedespeciallyhardtodecreaseaswellasrestrictitsAfrican Americanvoters.In1901,thesouthernstateenactedanewconstitutionfullofvotingrestrictions.Inadditiontothe GrandfatherClauseandpolltaxes,lawmakersdisenfranchisedBlackcitizensontheaccountofcriminalconvictions, “moralfailings,”propertyqualifications,andunemployment,successfullybringingthenumberofAfricanAmerican votersdownfromover100,000in1900to3,000in1908.InMississippi,oneofseveralstatesthatfollowedsuit,the numberofBlackvotersplummetedbelow2%; inVirginia,thenumberwasloweredto15%.
“Thisnewspaperbelievesinwhitesupremacy,anditbelievesthatthepolltaxis oneoftheessentialsforthepreservationofwhitesupremacy.” TuscaloosaNewseditorial,1939 RestrictiveandExpansiveVotingLawsintheWakeoftheCivilWar: 15thAmendment(1869):AllAmericans,regardlessofraceorpreviousenslavement,aregiventherighttovote 1877CumulativePollTax(Georgia):Requiredallcitizenstopaytheirpolltaxesforeveryyearsincethelawwas enacted,oneofthestate’smosteffectivemethodsatreducingBlackvoterturnout 1890MississippiConstitution,1901AlabamaConstitution:Introducedvoterregistrationpoliciesonthe accountofemployment,literacy,the“GrandfatherClause,”polltaxes,andcriminalconvictions
AForgottenHero PhiladelphiawasthecentralhubforfreeAfricanAmericanlife,evenbeforetheCivilWar,producingnotablefigures likeBishopRichardAllen,JamesForten,andFrancesEllenWatkinsHarper.Amongtheseluminaries,Octavius Catto(1839-1871)stoodoutbycampaigningforfreedominacountrythatseverelylimitedthequalityoflife,liberty, andthepursuitofhappinesstoaselectfew,excludingmanyimmigrants,indigenouspeoples,andtheblack community.CattowasacivicleaderwhosignificantlycontributedtoAfricanAmericancivilrights.HeformedaCivil WarrecruitmentcommitteetoenlistAfricanAmericansfortheUnionarmy,whereheachievedtherankofmajor. CattoplayedacrucialroleindesegregatingPhiladelphia’sstreetcarsystem1 andadvocatedforvotingrightsthrough theFifteenthAmendment.Bytheageof32,Cattohadbecomeoneofthefewblackmembersoftheprestigious FranklinInstitute,servedastheprincipaloftheInstituteforColoredYouth,andfoundedthePythians,arenowned baseballteaminan all-blackleague.Tragically,hewasmurderedonthebrutalElectionDayof1871,when Democraticleaderswereutilizingintimidationtacticstosuppressthecity’sBlackvoters.Cattowasshotonhisway homeattheageof33,andhiskillerwasrulednotguilty.Althoughhediedyoung,Catto'sachievementsreflecthis unwaveringcommitmenttoequalityandjustice,leavinganenduringlegacythatshouldnotbeforgotten.
1 The decision in the Plessy v. Ferguson case confirmed the constitutionality of state laws permitting racial segregation.
Catto’slifewasbothinspiringandtroubling,ashisstoryparalleledthatofMartinLutherKingJr.Bothwereeducated Blackleaderswithministerfatherswholednonviolent,human-rightsmovementsfordesegregationandAfrican Americansuffrage,combininglegislativeeffortsandcivildisobedience.However,Catto'seffortspredateDr.King'sby acentury.WhenCattoorganizedboycottsandprotestsagainstPhiladelphia'ssegregatedhorse-drawnstreetcars,his statusasaUnionarmyofficersupportedhiscause.The1867legislativevictoryfordesegregationarrivedduringthe optimisticperiodofRadicalRepublicanism,anticipatingAfricanAmericanenfranchisement.Catto’sefforts demonstratearegressionofracialequalitybetweenhisandKing’slifetimes,asDr.Kinghadtofightforthesecurity andprotectionofrightsthatCattohadalreadywonahundredyearsbefore.Theirstories,andthemovementstheyled colorsamuchmorecomplexandnonlinearnatureofthestruggleforracialequalityandsuffrageintheUS.
WomenReclaimtheRighttoVote Thoughthe19thAmendmentformallysecuredandprotectedwomen’ssuffrage,severalstatesandformerterritories grantedtherighttovoteregardlessofgenderuptohalfacenturyprior.TheTerritoryofWyoming,forinstance, grantedsuffragein1869,assuringthisrightintoitsstatehood30yearslater.In1920,eightstates,Pennsylvania included,didnotofferwomentherighttovote;22statesonlyallowedvotingincertainelections.Theroadtothe 19thAmendment’sratificationwasunnecessarilylong,andcertainlynotsmooth.WithinthecenturyfollowingNew Jersey’srestrictive1807measure,severalwomensacrificedtheirhealthandlimitedfreedomtowintherighttovote.
TheSenecaFallsConvention OnawarmJulymorningin1848,anestimated300womenandmen,predominantlylocalabolitionists,filledinthe WesleyanChapelinSenecaFalls,NewYork,todiscusstherightsofwomeninAmericansociety.Theirmeetingwas thefirstconventionofitssize,knowntodayasoneofthenotableeventsthatstirredsupportforWomen’sSuffrage. AmongthekeyorganizerswereElizabethCadyStanton(1815-1902)andLucretiaMott(1793-1880),twoactivists
whometatanAnti-Slaveryconventionandbondedovertheirdissatisfactionwiththeexclusionofwomeninthe publicsphere.Thetwoagreedtoholdtheconvention,andinthemeantime,Stantonpenned“TheDeclarationof Sentiments,”aplayontheDeclarationofIndependencethat expandeduponthepivotaldocumentbyadding“heorshe,”aswell aslistingseveralwaysinwhichwomenweredeniedfairparticipation inAmericansociety.
“Itisthedutyofwomenofthiscountry tosecuretothemselvestheirsacredright totheelectivefranchise.” –ElizabethCadyStanton, “TheDeclarationofSentiments” Stantonreadher“DeclarationofSentiments”attheconvention,followingitupwith12resolutionsregarding women’srights.Herresolutionsrangedfromunderminingthelawswhichplacewomenasinferiortomento establishingtheimportanceoffemalefranchise.Theattendeesvotedunanimouslyinsupportofallresolutionsexcept suffrage,outoffearthatthetopicwastoocontroversial.Theirworriescametolifewhen,followingthepublicityof theconvention,theabolitionistsfacedseverebacklash.
Reactionstothe15thAmendment Thecreationofthe15thAmendmentin1869,grantingsuffragetoAfricanAmericanmen,splitsupportersofthe women’srightsmovementinhalf:thoseinsupportoftheamendmentasacriticalsteptowardsgrantingallwomen therighttovote,andthosewhoopposedtheamendment,includingkeyactivistSusanB.Anthony(1820-1906),for itsabsenceofgender.Despitetheiranti-slaveryopinions,AnthonyandStantonfeltstronglythatwhitewomen deservedtherighttovotebeforeAfricanAmericans;thisstancecostthemsupportfromcrucialabolitionistssuchas FrederickDouglas.SuffragistssuchasFrancesEllenWatkinsHarper(1825-1911),esteemedBlackpoetand abolitionist,ralliedforthe15thAmendmentasacrucialsteppingstonetowardsgrantingallunderrepresentedcitizens equalrights.Bothsidesestablishedorganizationstofightfortheircause2,butultimatelyshiftedtheirattentionafter theAmendmentwasratified.
The“CrimeofaCitizenVotinginanElection” Duringthe1872presidentialcampaign,Anthonytookonamilitantapproachbypushingwomentoregistertovote ineverystateoftheUnionasamethodofreclaimingtheirrightsunderthe15thamendment.Anthony,alongside
2 theNationalWomanSuffrageAssociationandtheAmericanWomanSuffrageAssociation
severalotherwomen,tooktheprotestevenfartherbycastingaballotforpresidentandcongressmen;theywere consequentlyarrestedweekslater.Inanefforttokeephervoiceheardbeforegoingontrial,Anthonytouredthe countrylecturingonthe“crimeofacitizenvotinginanelection.”Shewasfoundguiltybythejudge,andfined$100. Anthonyrefusedtopay,hopingshecouldfurtherappealhercaseandtakeittotheSupremeCourt,yetthejudge foresawthisintentionandchosenottosentencehertojailtime,endinghercrusade.Thoughhereffortsdidnot manifesttotheextentthatsheintended,Anthony’sprotestbroughttheconversationofwomen’srightstothe forefrontofthemedia.
“Itisadownrightmockerytotalktowomenoftheirenjoymentofthe blessingsoflibertywhiletheyaredeniedtheuseoftheonlymeansof securingthemprovidedbythisdemocratic-republicangovernmenttheballot.” SusanB.Anthony TheNationalAmericanWomanSuffrageAssociation Throughthelate19thcentury,thewomen’ssuffragemovementwasmakinggreatstridestowardsvoicingtheircause inthepoliticalsphere.BothWyomingandUtahhadgrantedtherighttovoteregardlessofgenderby1890,whenthe dividedactivistscametogethertoformtheNationalAmericanWomanSuffrageAssociation(NAWSA),ledby Stanton.Severalyearslater,BlacksuffragistsincludingHarrietTubman,FrancesEllenWatkinsHarper,andIdaB. Wells-BarnettformedanextensiontotheAssociation,theNationalAssociationofColoredWomenClubs (NACWC),fightingfortherighttovotealongsidefaireducation,pay,andchildcareforAfricanAmericanwomen. Despiteworkingforthesamecause,Blacksuffragistscontinuedtofacediscriminationfromtheirwhitecounterparts duringtheturnofthecentury.Inseveralstates,predominantlyinthesouth,AfricanAmericanactivistswerebarred fromattendingNAWSAconventions.
TheToughestSuffragist Oneofthemostvocalactivistsforwomen’ssuffrage,Alice Paul(1885-1977)carriedtheprotestsintotheratificationof the19thAmendmentbyutilizingmilitanttacticssuchas picketingandhungerstrikes.BorninNewJersey,Paulgrew upinafamilywhoembracedequalopportunityineducation andtheworkforce.Hermother,TacieParry,wasa hardworkingsuffragistwhobroughtherdaughterwithherto meetingsofactivists.Paulreceivedanextensiveeducation, attendingSwarthmoreCollege,aninstitutionco-foundedby hergrandfather,ColumbiaUniversity,studiedsocialwork abroadinEngland,andearnedherPhDfromtheUniversity ofPennsylvania.WhileresidingintheUK,Paulbondedwith LucyBurns,afellowAmericansuffragist,andthetwostudiedmilitantprotestmethodstoapplyontheirhomeland.
“WewomenofAmericatellyouthatAmericaisnotademocracy.” AlicePaul ThepairjoinedtheNAWSA,andPaulbecamealeaderoftheWashington,DCchapter;however,Paulquickly becamedissatisfiedwiththestate-by-stateapproachoftheAssociation.Consequently,theinfluentialactivistsplit fromtheorganizationtoformtheNationalWoman’sParty,acollectivefocusedonlobbyingCongressforchange throughparadesandprotests.Paul’slargestparadeoccurredinMarchof1913,thedaybeforePresident-elect WoodrowWilson’sinauguration;anestimatedeightthousandwomenmarchedwithbannersorrodeonfloatsdown PennsylvaniaAvenueforhalfamillionspectatorswhoeithersupportedorharassedtheparticipants.Wilson attemptedtoshutdownPaul’seffortsbytellingherthetimeforanamendmenthadnotyetcome.
“ThePresidentcanpardonusagain…andagainandagain,but… picketingwillcontinue,andsoonerorlater,hewillhavetodo somethingaboutit.” AlicePaul Allbutdeterred,PaulcontinuedtoholdprotestsandfoundedtheCongressionalUnionforWomanSuffrage, targetedatinitiatingchangefromthetopdown.Inoneofhermostextremedemonstrations,thesuffragist,joinedbya thousand“SilentSentinels,”picketedtheWhiteHousefor18months,facingverbalandphysicalviolence.Tension aroseastheUSenteredthefirstWorldWar,andPaulalongsideseveralfellowprotestorswerearrestedandsentenced tojailforsevenmonthsonthechargeofobstructingtraffic.Determinedtokeephervoiceheard,Paulorganizeda hungerstrikeandwasforce-fedbydoctorswhothreatenedtosendhertoaninsaneasylum.Newsofhertreatment sparkedsympathyandsupportinthepublicsphere,andbythefollowingyearPresidentWilsonannouncedhis supportforwhatwouldbecomethe19thAmendment.
Followingtheratificationofuniversalsuffrage,Paulspenttheremainderofherlifefightingforgenderequalityand garneringsupportfortheEqualRightsAmendment,amovementaimedatsecuringallwomenlegalprotectionfrom discrimination.TheAmendmentneverpassed,fallingshortbythreeoftherequired38statesneededtoratify,yether life’sworkensuredheraplaceamongthetoughestwomen’srightactivistsofhertime.
TheCulminationoftheWomen’sSuffrageMovement Theyearsprecedingthe19thAmendment’sratificationwereturbulentforallwomeninvolvedinthefightfor universalsuffrage.JeanetteRankinofMontana,aformermemberoftheNAWSA,tookmajorstridesasshebecame thefirstwomanelectedintoCongress,whilewomeninonly15stateswerelegallyallowedtovoteatthetime.Despite movingforward,thefightcontinuedtofaceviolentresponses,oneofthemostcriticalbeingtheNovember1917 “NightofTerror,”whenguardsataVirginiaworkhousebrutallybeatandharrassed33womenarrestedforpicketing.
Ayearintoherterm,Rep.RankinbroughtthetopicofaConstitutionalamendmentforfemalesuffragetotheHouse floorfordebate.Despitethe19thAmendmentgainingenoughvotesintheHouse,itfellshortintheSenate.Thefinal pushinfavorofwomen’ssuffragecamewithPaul’seffortsfromprisonandWilsonconsequentlyswitchinghis position.Themid-19thcenturythroughthemid-20thcenturyprovedtobeanerachargedbytheunderrepresented voicesofAmericafightingforvolume.AlongsidewomenwereAfricanAmericans,whofacedextremepushbackas theyprotestedfortheirrightful,equalplaceindemocracy.
TheCivilRightsEra andtheVotingRightsAct Anestimated1,000AfricanAmericanswaitinlinetovoteintheDemocraticprimary,thefirstmajorsouthernelectionsincethe1965Federal VotingRightsAct,inBirmingham,AlabamaonMay3,1966.
"There'snosuchthingasavotethatdoesn'tmatter." BarackObama Since1776,intentionalvotersuppressiontacticshavebeenevidentinAmericanhistory.Thefoundingfathers restrictedvotingrightsprimarilytowhitemenaged21andolderwhoownedland,ademographiccomprisingonly10 to20percentofthepopulationatthetime.Ittook80yearsforallwhitementogainvotingrights.Another80years passedbeforeBlackmenweregrantedsuffrage,andanadditional50yearselapsedbeforewomenachievedthisright. Despitethesemilestones,electedofficialsexploitedloopholes.Inthelate19thcentury,Southernstatesimplemented votersuppressiontacticsunderJimCrowlaws,includingliteracytests,polltaxes,voterrollpurges,andthe GrandfatherClause–alawthatrestrictedvotingtothosewhosegrandfathershadvoted.Thesediscriminatory
measuresdisenfranchisedBlackvotersuntiltheVotingRightsActof1965(VRA)outlawedthem.However, safeguardingvotingrightshasremainedacontentiousandongoingstruggleeversince.TheVRAwasconsidereda majorvictoryinthefightforAfricanAmericansuffrage.Ratifiedinthewakeofdesegregation,theVRAprotectedthe 15thAmendment,safeguardingtherighttovoteforracialminorities.Supportforthecriticalactwasbuiltduringthe FreedomSummerof1964andpeakedthefollowingyearafterthebrutalBloodySundaymarch.
FreedomSummerof1964 InanattempttoincreasethenumberofregisteredBlackvotersinMississippi,severalhundredvolunteers, predominantlywhite,tooktotheopenroadinwhatbecameknownasFreedomSummer.Volunteerswerefightingto breakdownobstaclesinBlackvoting,suchasvoterintimidationatthepolls,andridthesouthofliteracytests.Despite beingpreparedforarrests,thegroupfacedatragiclosswhenthreeofitsmembers,MichaelSchwerner,Andrew Goodman,andJamesChaney,werebrutallykilledbyaKKKlynchmobandalocalpoliceman.Theeffortsof FreedomSummerdidnotliveuptoinitialexpectations,withonly1,200Blackvoterssuccessfullyregisteringoutof 17,000applicants.However,thenationalspotlightontheviolenceandinhumanetreatmentofvolunteerssparked supportfordesegregationandtheeventualVRA.
BloodySundayof1965 Intendedtobeapeacefulprotest,ontheBloodySundayof1965over600marcherswereviolentlyattackedbystate troopersandconfederateflag-bearingspectatorsaftercrossingtheinfamousEdmundPettusbridge.Themarchers,led byactivistandChairmanoftheStudentNonviolentCoordinationCommittee(SNCC)JohnLewisalongsideHosea WilliamsoftheSouthernChristianLeadershipConference(SCLC),wereunabletofinishtheir50milejourneyfrom SelmatoBirmingham,thestate’scapital,todemandsuffrage.Footageofthebeatingsspreadacrossthecountry, rallyingsupportfortheprotesters’causeandcallingonPresidentLyndonB.Johnsontotakeaction.Themarchwas attemptedtwomoretimes;duringthesecondofwhichDr.Kingwasarrested.
“ThisisSelmaAlabama.Therearemorenegroesinjailwithmethan thereareonthevotingrolls.” MartinLutherKingJr.,fromtheSelma,ALjail Dr.Kingwasnotfaroff.OfSelma’s15,000eligibleBlackvoters,amere300wereregistered.
TheMississippiFreedomDemocraticParty(MFDP) Formedinresponsetoawhite-dominatedDemocraticPartyinthesouth,theMississippiFreedomDemocraticParty (MFDP)wasfoundedin1964asapartyparalleltothewhite-onlyDemocraticPartyofthesouthandopentoall regardlessofrace.CreatedwiththegoalofstrengtheningAfricanAmericanpoliticalparticipation,theMFDPaimed
toincreasetheregisteredvotersofcolor,allwhileprovingthattheirlackofinvolvementwasnotduetoapathy,but ratherbecauseofintimidation,violence,andotherracistanti-votingmeasures.
TheMFDPswelledinnumbersduringtheFreedomSummerof1964,andtheyconsequentlyplannedtosendseveral delegatestotheDemocraticNationalConventionattheendofthesummer.Thedelegationincludedesteemed activistssuchasFannieLouHamer,VictoriaGray,andE.W.Steptoe;yet,whenPresidentLyndonJohnsonheardof theplan,heshutitdowntoensureapeacefulconference.AcompromiseoftwoseatsfortheMFDPwasreached, thoughtheParty’s68delegateswereunsatisfied.Theireffortswerenotfornaught,astheirpersistenceforcedthe DemocraticPartytoopenparticipationuptowomenandpeopleofcolor.
“FightingShirley” In1968,ShirleyAnitaChisholm(1924-2005)becamethefirst AfricanAmericanwomanelectedtotheU.S.Congress, amajor breakthroughforAfricanAmericansduringatimewhenvoting rightswerehotlydebated.Inhighschool,shedeniedpursuinga politicalcareerasshefeltherraceandgenderhandicappedherfrom reachingsuccess.InitiallyanesteemedNewYorkdaycareteacher,she foundherwayintothepoliticalspherethroughherinvolvementin theLeagueofWomenVoters,theNAACP,andtheUrbanLeague. Shewonherfirstpositioninpublicofficein1964,becomingthe secondAfricanAmericaninNewYork’sstatelegislature.Thecourtorderedredistricting,spurredbyAndrewW.Cooper’slawsuit againstracialgerrymandering,openedthedoorforChisholmtorun foraseatinCongressbycarvingoutapredominantlydemocratic districtinChisholm’sneighborhood.Winningthisracein1968, ChisholmfocusedonexpandingsuffrageandfoughtagainstthedisenfranchisementofAfricanAmericans, evenaftertheVotingRightsActpassed.
“Atpresent,ourcountryneedswomen’sidealismanddetermination, perhapsmoreinpoliticsthananywhereelse.” ShirleyAnitaChisholm Sheintroducedover50billsfightingforracialandgenderequality,endingtheVietnamWar,andaddressing thelivesofthepoor.Anever-presentactivist,ChisholmhelpedestablishtheNationalWomen’sPolitical Caucusin1971,anorganizationdedicatedtoincreasingfemalerepresentationinthepoliticalprocess.She becamethefirstAfricanAmericanwomanseekingpresidentialnominationin1972andfacedseveral discriminatoryobstacles;notonlywashercampaignunderfunded,butshewasinitiallyblockedfrom participatinginlivedebate.Shecontinuedtobreakthenorm,becomingthefirstAfricanAmericanwoman toserveontheHouseRulesCommittee.Knownas“FightingShirley,”Chisholmbuiltanindisputablelegacy thatstoodforwomenandminoritiesinpoliticalarenasofthe1970sandbeyond.
“Theircausemustbeourcausetoo…itisallofus,whomustovercome thecripplinglegacyofbigotryandinjustice.Andweshallovercome.” PresidentLyndonB.Johnson,“SpecialMessage” ThethirdmarchattemptwassuccessfulthankstoprotectionbytheNationalGuardaswellasthepresident,who,by theendofthesummer,signedintoactiontheVRA.Underthisact,jurisdictionswithahistoryofracialdiscrimination wererequiredtoreceivehigherapprovalbeforechangingtheirvotinglaws.Thisprocesswascalled“preclearance,”and wasnotablealongsidestill-prominentSection2,prohibitinglawsthatdiscriminateagainstvotersduetotheirraceor thelanguagetheyspeak.Preclearancewascompletelyremovedin20133,afirststepbackwardsofmany.Intheyears since,stategovernmentshavepassedanalarmingnumberofvotingrestrictions,wideningthegapbetweenvotersof colorandwhitevoters.
3 Shelby County (AL) v. Holder 2013
“Throwingoutpreclearancewhenithasworkedandiscontinuingto worktostopdiscriminatorychangesislikethrowingawayyour umbrellainarainstormbecauseyouarenotgettingwet.” JusticeRuthBaderGinsberg,2013ShelbyCountyv.HolderDissent VotingRestrictionsToday VoterIDLaws Asthe2024electionrapidlyapproaches,votersinnearlyhalfthestatesarefacingobstaclesthatwerenotinplacein 2020.Restrictivelegislationhasnotablytargetedtheregistrationprocessaswellasaccessibilitytothepolls,doingsoby limitingmailvotingopportunities,shorteningearlyvotingwindows,closingpollinglocations,purgingvoterrolls,and passingstrictvoterIDrequirements.ThelastofwhichwasparticularlyattackedinstatessuchasTexas,Mississippi, Alabama,andNorthCarolinafollowingtheremovalofpreclearance.InTexasandNorthCarolina,theselawswere takentofederalcourtsandruleddiscriminatorytowardsvotersofcolorAlthoughfewerstateshaveenactedvoterID restrictionssincethiswaveofsuccessfulpushback,jurisdictionscontinuetoplaceobstaclesinthewayofthepolls.
MailandAbsenteeVoting Mailandabsenteevotingsufferedamajorblowafterthe 2020election,amidstliesaboutvoterfraudaswellasastark increaseintheuseofmail-inballots.Consequently, restrictivepolicybegantofocusonshorteningtheamount oftimeforvoterstorequestanabsenteeballot4 aswellas limitingthevotingassistancethosewithaccessibilityneeds canreceive.ArecentAlabamabill5 characterizesballot harvesting–theprocessofathirdpartycollectingabsentee ballotsanddeliveringthemtopollinglocations–asaClass Bfelony,anothercrimeofthisclassbeingfirst-degree manslaughter.Thoughballotharvestinghasbeenusedtocommitfraudinthepast,itmostcommonlyoccursforthe sakeofincreasingvoterturnout.Asaresult,historicallymarginalizedvoterssuchasAfricanAmericans,theelderly.
low-literacyvoters,andincarceratedvotersareatriskofbeingsilencedthiselection.Further,thosevolunteersand familymemberswhoassistin providingandtransportingabsenteeballotsmaybepunishedfortheirhelpiftheyare compensatedinanyminisculeway.Likeseveralothernewrestrictions,thisbarrierismaskedbypoliticianswiththe claimthatithelpssecuretheelectionprocess.
Gerrymandering Anothermethodofweedingoutunderprivilegedvotersandswayingelection resultsistheprocessofgerrymandering.Onceeverydecadestatesredrawtheir countymapstocreateequallypopulateddistricts.Theprocessmustadhereto theVRA,andpaintanaccuratepictureofthecitizens’politicalaffiliationsin eachrespectivedistrict.However,whenpoliticiansgetinvolvedintheprocess, mapsmaybemanipulatedtoskewthestateinfavorofaparticularpolitical party.Thetwomostcommongerrymanderingtechniquesare“cracking–” dividingupgroupsofvotersinthesamepartyintodifferentdistrictstoweaken theircollectivevoice–and“packing–”orgroupingsimilarvotersintoseveral smalldistrictstosolidifytheirinfluence.
Pennsylvaniaisanotablebattlegroundonwhichgerrymanderinghasbeen weaponized,mostnotablyina2010country-widecampaignbythe
4 Tennessee Bill (SB 1967) was passed February 2024, limiting the number of days prior to an election in which voters can request an absentee ballot from seven to 10
5 Alabama’s recently enacted Senate Bill 1 (SB 1), contains severe restrictions and penalties on nonpartisan civic engagement efforts.
RepublicanPartytowinthemajorityintheHouseofRepresentatives,knownas“REDMAP.”Whatresultedwasa redistrictedPennsylvania,alongsideseveralotherswingstates,thatwerealsogerrymandered.Beforethemostrecent 2021redistrictingcouldoccur,thisPennsylvaniamapwasbroughttostatecourtandruledunconstitutional.What tookitsplacewasanonpartisandistrictmapcreatedbythestatecourt,craftedtoincreasethevalueofvotes.
FelonyDisenfranchisement Thoughstatesapplyavarietyofmeasurestodisenfranchiseracialminorities,suchaspassingrestrictivelaws,oneofthe mosteffectiveandcommonmethodstostriptherighttovoteisthroughtheprisonsystem.Today,anestimated6.1 millionAmericansareunabletovoteduetocriminalconvictions;ofthose,over4millionarelivingoutsideofjail, working,orraisingafamily.ThecitizenscurrentlysittingwithcriminalchargesaredisproportionatelyBlackorLatinx. Infact,oneinfiveAfricanAmericansandoneinsixLatinxmenarelikelytobesenttojailwithintheirlifetime.Felony disenfranchisementdidnotbecomeasignificantbarrierforvotersuntilthe15thAmendmentgrantedsuffrageto racialminorities.Aroundthelate19thcentury,severalsouthernstatespassedaseriesofcriminallawsaimedto incarceratecitizensofcolorinadditiontorestrictivelawsthatstrippedtherighttovotefromconvictedfelons.
Thoughseveralstates6 allowvotingfromjailforcitizenswhoareawaitingtrialor,in44states,forthoseservingtime foraminormisdemeanoroffense,theprocessofgettingaballotsecurelyintothehandsofprisonersisfullofobstacles. Inparticular,incarceratedvotersoftensufferfromalackofinformation,suchaswhentheirlocaldeadlinesare, whetherornottheyareeligibletovote,andiftheyarereceivingthecorrectapplicationformail-voting.Thisbarrier spansbothsidesoftheprocess,aselectionofficialslargelydonotunderstandthevotingeligibilityrulesand registrationprocessforthosewithcriminalconvictionsintheirstate.AseriesofinterviewsfromtheAmericanCivil LibertiesUnionbetween
2005-2008showedthatupto50%ofcountyclerksinstatesfromOhiotoNewYorktoArizonawerenotaccurately awareofthevotingrightsforcitizenswithcriminalconvictions.Inacountrythatvaluesdemocracy,felony disenfranchisementherdsaharmfulnumberofpeopleintoagrayareawheretheymaybefalselysilenced.
InPennsylvania,thefollowingcitizensareallowedtovote:thosewhoareawaitingtrialonafelonyormisdemeanor, thosewerewereconvictedofamisdemeanorinthepast,thosewhowillbereleasedfromacorrectionalfacilityorhalfwayhousebythedateofthenextelection,thosewhoareonprobationorparole,andthosewhoareunderhouse arrest.
6 Maine and Vermont allow all incarcerated citizens to vote. Kentucky and Virginia disenfranchise anyone with a felony conviction unless they are granted permission by the governor. ()
LookingForward: FreedomtoVoteandthe2024Election DespitelimitationsonAmericansuffrageenactedoverthepastdecade,thefutureremainspromising.Afterthe turbulent2020election,DemocratsintheSenateintroducedabill,titledthe“FreedomtoVoteAct,”aimedat creatingnational,equitablestandardsforhowstatesshouldrunelections.TheFreedomtoVoteActwouldeffectively respondtorecentrestrictionsbyensuringallstatessharethesamegeneralvotingprocesses.Theseprocessesinclude, butarenotlimitedto:allowingno-excusemailvotingforeveryone,requiringanearlyvotingperiodofatleast2weeks priortoElectionDay,banningpartisangerrymandering,requiringstatestoprovidesafeballotdropboxes,requiring statestoofferonlinevoterregistration,andmodernizingAutomaticVoterRegistration–aprocessthatautomatically registerseligiblevoterswhentheygivetheirinformationtogovernmentagenciessuchastheDMV.
TheFreedomtoVoteActwouldalsoestablishElectionDayasafederalholiday,oneofseveralmethodstoincrease voterturnout.Theactwouldaddressnearly5millionpreviouslyincarceratedcitizensaswell,grantingconvicted felonssuffrageaftertheyhaveservedtheirsentence.Thosearguingagainstthebill,largelyRepublicans,claimthatthe powertocontrolelectionsshouldremainatthestatelevelratherthanfederal;theyarguethatstatelegislationiscrafted tosecureelections.AlthoughtheFreedomtoVoteActisstillunderconsideration,ithasthepotentialtoopenthe doorsforbothregisteredandeligiblevotersinthefuture.
AnswerstoLiteracyTest: 1. Anytworightslistedunderthe5th,6th,and8thamendments
2. False
3. No
4. “InGodWeTrust”
5. Congress-State,legislature
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Crayton, Kareem. “The Voting Rights Act Explained.” Brennan Center for Justice, 17 July 2023, https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/voting-rights-act-explained. Accessed 15 August 2024. “Criminal Status & Voting | Voting & Election Information.” Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, https://www.pa.gov/en/agencies/vote/voter-support/your-rights-and-the-law/criminal-status-and-voting.html. Accessed 15 August 2024.
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Tachau
Kaiser
