FMB - Visual and cultural influences - Cultural Appropriation

CULTURAL APPROPRIATION: APPROPRIATION:

The Impact on Fashion Marketing and Branding

2.

Helena Evison N0688998 Word Count: 2315 I confirm that this work has gained ethical approval and that we have faithfully observed the terms of apporval in the conduct of this project.

Signed...................

Date.........................

3.

V 4.

isual landscape is significant in contemporary society because of the constant exposure to

media images. The ubiquity of social

media platforms means that consumers are

constantly

advertisements

being

fed

persuading

images

and

them

to

purchase products and services and may encourage them to acquire certain attitudes. For fashion brands, it provides advertising

and engagement with consumers at no additional

cost. However, it also opens them up to instant

judgement

and potential criticism which could impact their overall image.

W

estern brands that construct images using signs and symbols from minority cultures

are often

accused of cultural appropriation. This can be

defined as “the act of taking or using things from a culture that is not your own, especially without showing that you understand or respect this culture� (Oxford Dictionaries | English, 2018).

5.

T

his sociological concept will be examined and the impact it has on fashion marketing and branding. Specifically, looking at brands that have previously been accused of committing cultural appropriation within their campaigns

and shows. The blurred lines of cultural appropriation and cultural exchange will be explored to understand why some campaigns and shows are considered disrespectful while others are praised for paying

homage to another culture. It should be considered, when

brands are accused of cultural appropriation, whether they were unaware of the offence they could cause or if it was done intentionally in order to drive discussion and brand awareness on multiple

social media

platforms. The legitimacy of these criticisms will also be examined, and furthermore, the effects these criticisms have on brands success.

T

hrough the use of semiotic analysis the essay will attempt to understand how, as theorised by Stuart Hall (1980), signs

and

symbols are encoded by brands, and then

decoded by readers in different ways. Depending on the consumers culture and social group, preferred, negotiated or even oppositional readings are constructed (Durham and Kellner, 2012). is particularly

relevant

to

cultural

Halls

theory

appropriation within fashion

marketing as it involves looking at it from the encoders and decoders positioning to understand the intentions and criticisms.

6.

Two opposing opinions on cultural appropriation have become very apparent in regards to the fashion industry.

One opinion proposes that taking and borrowing elements from different cultures is crucial to innovation and creativity, arguing, “humans have been borrowing — even stealing — from each other’s cultures for thousands of years, much to the enrichment of human experience” (The Business of Fashion, 2017).

7.

In contrast, it is argued that the brands accused of appropriating are presenting it to a consumerist society, resulting in minority cultures being commodified in order for western brands to produce capital (The Business of Fashion, 2017). This could indicate to some that the “style over substance� approach (Breward, 2003), is much more important thus creating the criticism that brands are disrespectful and misunderstand minority cultures.

8.

“Inappropriate, derogatory, culturally offensive or out of context�, are the expressions Terri Janke uses to define appropriation towards indeginous cultures (Janke, 1998). Asserting that brands using symbols and signs that are considered sacred to serious

other offence

cultures and

could create

cause backlash.

9.

10.

VETEMENTS

O

11.

n the dock of the Kai Tak terminal, in an unused airport in Hong Kong, a one day flash sale was held by Denma Gvasalia for Vetements in an attempt to reconstruct the ambience of the Ladies Market in Hong Kong. This

was achieved through the representation of the hand written signage on fluorescent cards, stacked boxes and garments hanging outside DHL lorries conveying a budget, utilitarian and functional aesthetic (High Snobiety, 2017).

One could decode that Vetements has constructed a simulated experience (Banks, et al. 2001), and therefore paying homage to Hong Kong culture by presenting a specific cultural practice to present and sell his designs. Guram Gvasalia stated, “For us, Hong Kong is something personal. From the very beginning it welcomed us and gave us extreme support.� Therefore showing their intentions were to encode a tribute to Honk Kong (Phelps, 2017).

12.

13.

H

owever it could also be read that the event is an imitation of another culture within the location that it exists, presenting their version of the Ladies Market from a western perspective to a mass global audience. Specific signs could

signify a patronising message, for example the use of fluorescent flash cards to price items when it is blatantly obvious a global brand like Vetements could afford more elaborate signage, the same could be said for expensive clothing hanging out the back of lorries.

Furthermore, an offensive interpretation could be gathered because it has the potential to draw an inaccurate picture of the culture that it comes from. Young, (2009) argues the reason the act of cultural appropriation can be harmful is because if the imitation is misinterpreted as a genuine example of the culture, then outside perceptions are more likely to become tarnished and inaccurate (Young, 2009).

14.

A

s well as producing this event in order to gain attention for business purposes they also sold items with extremely high price tags - a distinct difference between an imitation and an actual market in Hong Kong. An article from High Snobiety criticised it as, “selling a community’s culture right back to it at a markup” (High Snobiety, 2017). This could infer that Vetemtents are communicating that they believe their version of a Chinese market is more valuable than an authentic version. Although the Lades market does not necessarily have religious or historical significance it is one of Hong Kong’s most well-known attractions (Reinfrank, 2017) and therefore to paint a false image could potentially detract what draws so many visitors.

15.

H

owever, these criticisms have not effected Vetements success. They are a brand known for making bold statements and deviating from the norm. This

orchestration, which had the potential to cause offence, was logical for them in order to gain a high level of attention, be it negative or positive. They have a loyal customer base who connect globally via social media and target a market who are seeking unexpected experiences which they can share online (Masden, 2017). Therefore, such criticisms will only aid their rebellious brand image and attract non-conforming consumers.

16.

“Everything is an appropriation. We live in a world that is full of references, and references exist to feed us in order to create something new from them�. Denma Gvasalia, 2017

17.

18.

CULTURAL APPROPRIATION DONE RIGHT?

O

skar Metsavaht, the founder and creative director

of

Brazilian

sportswear

brand Osklen, was praised for his spring/

summer 2016 collection

with which

he took

influence from the designs of the Ashรกninka tribe,

indigenous

people

who

reside

in

the

Brazilian and Peruvian rainforest (Varagur, 2015).

He and his team went to the Peruvian rainforest and spent

time with the tribe in order to draw

inspiration for his spring/summer 2016 collection (Varagur, 2015). In repayment for modifying

their

distinct tattoos and traditional materials to adapt into his designs, Osklen compensated the tribe with money, enabling developments within their tribe, such as constructing a school (Varagur, 2015).

19.

20.

R

ichard of

A.

Rogers

identified

appropriation;

cultural

cultural dominance;

four

types

exchange;

cultural exploitation;

transculturation (Rogers, 2006). Metsavaht’s work could be considered to be a form of cultural exchange (Rogers, 2006). He facilitated this by creating a mutual transaction between them, by paying cash for permission to utilise their signs and symbols in his deigns, in turn they were able to use the cash to enhance their lives (Varagur, 2015).

I

nspiration was sought from the tribe in various ways. Some designs were more ambiguous, just using the specific colour tone of a deep red in order to connote the aesthetic of the paint the tribe use to

paint their faces. Others more blatant with an actual image of one the members of the tribe appearing on one dress, another dress includes an image of the of the Amazonian landscape graphically printed over the entire garment (Phelan, 2015). In an attempt to convey a realistic sense of their culture, Metsavaht designed dresses to have a similar silhouette and length to the the actual garments worn by the tribe (Phelan, 2015).

21.

22.

O

sman Amhed commented, “Well-intentioned appropriation can be a force for good, creating a cultural exchange and enriching the available vocabulary for designers, artists

and image-makers. It can be an engine that

drives culture forward and breaks down borders and divisions, rather than dividing them’ (Amhed, 2017). It could

be implied that that Metsavaht has achieved this by visiting the tribe and creating relationships with them which has ‘broken down borders.’ (Ahmed, 2017). By doing business with a culture considered a minority, new kinds of art and imagery have been discovered which in turn, enhance and add to the available styles for the design and fashion industry (Ahmed, 2017).

23.

A

lternatively the campaign could be read as a form of cultural dominance (Rogers, 2006).It could be interpreted that Metsavaht and his team come from a culturally dominant social group and therefore have the capital and resources to impose themselves onto a minority culture. This would suggest that the campaign still presents an

imbalance of power over indigenous people. Furthermore the campaign is still told from a western perspective. Loretta Todd (1990) argues every culture has, “a right to ones origins and histories as told from within the culture and not as mediated from without� (Todd, 1990). In addition to this, it was a mainly white selected cast of models, emphasising the idea that the collection is symbols and signs taken from one culture told from a westerner’s point of view.

24.

H

owever it should be considered that Metsavaht used his platform in a positive way in order to showcase and inform of the rituals, talent and art of the tribe - where the tribe do not have the resources

to do so themselves. Metsavaht was commended by the press because his campaign was considered a unique example of a designer attempting to show respect and understanding to the indigenous tribe he sought inspiration from, as well as compensating them (Varague, 2015). Metsavaht also attempted to draw attention to the Ashåninka’s battle towards the illegal loggers and the deforestation of their native forest (Varagur, 2015).

Throughout the campaign it was made distinctly clear to the consumer where his ideas were drawn from in order to educate on the meaning and sacredness of the cultural products and practices of the tribe. For example on his website it includes an eighteen minute aesthetically eye catching video showcasing the with the tribe, which also featured

during

his

time he spent

show (Osklen, 2015).

HAIR

25.

26.

T

he topic of hair within fashion is becoming growingly prominent owing to the fact that multiple brands are using afro textured hairstyles on their models within shows and campaigns, which is often considered appropriation (Hammond, 2017).

27.

28.

F

or example Marc Jacobs spring/ summer 2017 collection featured a show that included predominantly white models on the catwalk sporting multi-coloured, pastel dreadlocks (Ongley, 2017). Jacobs’ took influence from black culture which was criticised as reflecting a “problematic societal double standard” within the fashion industry (Hammond, 2017). There has been considerable history of discrimination towards black people’s hair, with it being considered the second most visible association of blackness as an encouragement of racism (Owusu, 1999).

Holloway (2016) explains that dread locks have an extensive existence and black people have often been discriminated for having them as they are attached with stigmas such as “drug use or untidiness” (Holloway, 2016).

This suggests the reason Jacob’s choice of hair style was deemed offensive was because he ignored the struggle black people have faced in their culture being accepted. Owusu (1999) claims that, “Race is a constitutive element of social structure and social division, hair remains powerfully charged with symbolic currency”. This further supports why the depth of historic symbolism and cultural significance that afro-textured hair holds meant offence was caused. Holloway (2016) believes brands need to be educated on cultural appropriation and the history of it in order to prevent style being used as a superficial form of generating business with no additional understanding and recognition along side it (Holloway, 2016).

N

evertheless Jacobs idea to reflect the aesthetic of his collection by using dreadlocks was commended by fashion insiders. Hairstylist Guido Palau complemented it as, “taking something that's so street and raw and when it all comes together with the makeup and everything, the thing becomes a total look�

(Hammond, 2017). This highlights how views from the public of cultural appropriation being harmful, often via social media, are frequently contrasted by industry experts. Clearly the negative criticism doesn’t necessarily determine brands failure as evidence by the success of the Marc Jacobs brand.

29.

30.

M

atthes argues that brands are constructing a view of the way minority cultures are represented from their own perspective. This has the potential to be misrepresentations that are likely to influence the masses and can have negative

effects on the way socially marginalised groups are viewed (Matthes, 2016). When brands do this Matthes (2016) claims it complies to the harmful notion that it is not necessary for members of a marginalised group to communicate their own experience, due to their lack of credibility (Matthes, 2016). In this case by Jacob’s using mainly white models it suggests the idea that styles from black culture is better represented though a westernised image.

Furthermore it should be considered that Hall (1980) theorises that texts encoded by the mass media, in this case fashion brands, allow readers to acquire social identities. However, if the readers’ social positioning differs, he claims it is probable that their interpretation will not conform to the intentions of the brand and that the codes will be rejected, forming an oppositional reading (Stuart Hall, 1980). He suggests misunderstandings come from the “lack of equivalence between the two sides” (Durham et al., 2012). For a black women to see a hair style they would normally associate with themselves, being showcased on the catwalk by mainly white women, who have not faced the same cultural struggles as themselves, it may be considered insulting and disrespectful. This may cause an oppositional interpretation (Stuart Hall, 1980) because it is something that they believe belongs to their social group which is being used by a dominant social group as their own, for the purpose of commodification.

31.

32.

CONCLUSION From exploring the subject of cultural appropriation, it can be concluded that the effects within fashion marketing and branding may be positive or negative depending on differing perspectives. The negative criticisms and perceptions do not necessarily equate to the success or failure of brands. Often for brands all publicity is good publicity and any comments, negative or positive increases brand awareness.

The high end brands may appear to be commodifying minority cultures in order to make a profit.

This could lead to the perception that their representation of a minority culture is of a higher value.

Matthes (2016) and Young’s (2009) theories both support the idea that appropriation can lead to false perceptions and therefore these global brands may risk causing harm to some minority cultures.

Rogers (2006) identifies how appropriation can be conducted sensitively and with consideration o f other cultures. Perhaps Metsavaht presented an example of how appropriation can still be a force for driving creativity within the fashion industry, whilst also presenting an element of transparency of where he drew his inspiration from. This has shown that by treating cultural appropriation as a respectful exchange it can enhance innovation, as well as enabling cultural awareness and driving discussion on critical subjects.

REFERENCES

Janke, T. (1998). Our Culture, Our Future: Report on Australian

Ahmed, O. (2017). Why Fashion Needs Cultural Appropriation.

Indigenous Cultural and Intellectual Property,. [online] Terri Janke

[online] The Business of Fashion. Available at: https://

and Company, p.19. Available at: http://www.terrijanke.com.au/

www.businessoffashion.com/articles/opinion/why-fashion-

our-culture-our-future?ref=SaglikAlani.Com [Accessed 4 Feb. 2018].

needs-cultural-appropriation

[Accessed

25

Jan.

33.

2018].

J.

Banks;

J.

Breward, C. (2003). Fashion. London: Oxford University Press, p.22

Discrete-Event

Durham,

M.

Madsen,

cultural

studies.

and

Kellner,

D.

Malden:

(2012).

Media

Wiley-Blackwell,

and p.166.

k.

(2017).

Drawing

cultural

appreciation

and

[online]

Varsity.co.uk.

Available

varsity.co.uk/fashion/12614

the

line

cultural

[Accessed

at: 18

between

(2016).

Eastern

kentucky

(2018).

Nelson;

Simulation.

Vetements

Available

at:

D.

Nicol

Prentice

Fans

Flock

(2001).

Hall,

p.Â

To

3

Limited-

http://www.vogue.co.uk/article/

vetements-joyce-hong-kong-2017

[Accessed

15

Feb.

2018].

appropriation. https://www.

Feb.

2018].

Matthes,

University

(2016).

EH.

Essentialism?. at:

Holloway,

System

B.

Edition Event With Joyce In Hong Kong. [online] Vogue. co.uk.

Hammond,

A.

Carson;

(2016). [online]

Cultural Erich

H.

Appropriation Matthes,

with

pp.5-13.

Cultural Available

https://repository.wellesley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.

cgi?article=1110&context=scholarship [Accessed 7 Feb. 2018].

Cultural Appropriation and Fashion: A Line to Clarify the Line. [online] kentucky. Available at: https://encompass.eku.

Ongley, H. (2017). marc jacobs apologizes for putting white

edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1410&context=honors_

models in dreadlocks. [online] I-d. Available at: https://i-d.

theses

vice.com/en_uk/article/pag79m/marc-jacobs-apologizes-for-

[Accessed

21

Feb.

2018].

putting-white-models-in-dreadlocks

[Accessed

19

Feb.

2018].

34.

Osklen

(2015).

Ashaninka

Expedition.

https://osklen.com/ashaninka.php

[video]

[Accessed

20

Available Feb.

at:

Rogers, R. (2006). From Cultural Exchange to Transculturation:

2018].

A Review and Reconceptualization of Cultural Appropriation.

Communication

Theory,

Oxford Dictionaries | English. (2018). cultural appropriation

Available

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/

| Definition of cultural appropriation in English by Oxford

j.1468-2885.2006.00277.x/full

at:

[online]

16(4),

[Accessed

14

pp.474-503.

Feb.

2018].

Dictionaries. [online] Available at: https://en.oxforddictionaries. com/definition/cultural_appropriation 2018].

IN

TEXT

(Oxford

[Accessed

Dictionaries

|

25

Jan.

English,

2018)

The Business of Fashion. (2017). Cultural Appropriation: Theft or Innovation?. [online] Available at: https://www.businessoffashion.

Phelan, H. (2015). Osklen Spring 2016 Ready-to-Wear Fashion

com/community/voices/discussions/cultural-

Show. [online] Vogue. Available at: https://www.vogue.com/fashion-

appropriation-theft-or-innovation [Accessed 25 Jan. 2018].

shows/spring-2016-ready-to-wear/osklen [Accessed 21 Feb. 2018].

Todd, L. (1990). Notes on Appropriation. Parallelogram, Phelps, N. (2017). Vetements Is Taking Its One-Day Flash

[online] 16(1), p.1. Available at: https://philarchive.org/

Sale

rec/TODNOA-2?all_versions=1

Concept

[online]

Vogue.

to

Hong

Kong’s

Available

vetements-hong-kong-pop-up

at:

Kai

Tak

Cruise

Terminal.

[Accessed

6

Feb.

2018].

https://www.vogue.com/article/ [Accessed

17

Feb.

2018].

Unknown (2017). Vetements' Latest Inside Joke Is Not Funny

|

Highsnobiety.

Reinfrank, A. (2017). Ladies’ Market more popular than The Peak and

at:

Disneyland. [online] South China Morning Post. Available at: http://www.

kong-pop-up-gvasalia/

scmp.com/lifestyle/travel-leisure/article/2095164/tripadvisor-ladiesmarket-named-hong-kongs-most-visited [Accessed 12 Feb. 2018].

[online]

Highsnobiety.

Available

https://www.highsnobiety.com/p/vetements-hong[Accessed

19

Feb.

2018].

35.

Varagur, K. (2015). Is This The Right Way For Fashion To Do Cultural Appropriation?. [online] HuffPost UK. Available at: http://www. huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/fashion-cultural-appropriation_ us_5632295ce4b00aa54a4ce639 [Accessed 25 Jan. 2018].

Young, J. and Brunk, C. (2009). The ethics of cultural appropriation.

Chichester,

U.K.:

Wiley-Blackwell.

36.

BIBLIOGPRAHY Ahmed, O. (2017). Why Fashion Needs Cultural Appropriation. [online] The Business of Fashion. Available at: https://www.

Chandler,

D.

(2017).

Semiotics

[online]

Visual-memory.co.uk.

for

Beginners:

Available

Signs.

at:

http://

v i s u a l - m e m o r y. c o . u k / d a n i e l / D o c u m e n t s / S 4 B / s e m 0 2 . html

[Accessed

25

Jan.

2018].

IN

TEXT

(Chandler,

2017)

businessoffashion.com/articles/opinion/why-fashion-needscultural-appropriation [Accessed 25 Jan. 2018]. IN TEXT (Ahmed, 2017)

Donato, J. (2017). How Fashion Brings a Visual Language to

Avins, J. (2015). Video: In fashion, cultural appropriation is either very wrong or very right. [online] Quartz. Available at:

Culture.

[online]

Culture

Trip.

Available

at:

https://

theculturetrip.com/north-america/usa/articles/how-fashionbrings-a-visual-language-to-culture/

[Accessed

2

Feb.

2018].

https://qz.com/520363/borrowing-from-other-cultures-is-notinherently-racist/ [Accessed 25 Jan. 2018]. IN TEXT (Avins, 2015)

Durham, M. and Kellner, D. (2012). Media and cultural studies.

Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, p.166. In text (Durham and Kellner, 2012)

Barthes, (2010).

The

R.,

Howard, fashion

R.

and

system.

Ward,

London:

M.

Vintage.

GarcĂ­a-Arista, Welcome

Bartleby (n.d.). Mass Marketing and Cultural Appropriation Essay.

[online]

Barleby.com.

Available

at:

https://www.

b a r t l e b y. c o m / e s s a y / M a s s - M a r k e t i n g - a n d - C u l t u r a l Appropriation-F3JQK6RAVJ

[Accessed

25

Jan.

Standard

C.

Cultural by

(2016).

Why

Appropriation.

Skyword.

Available

Global

Marketers

[online] at:

The

Must Content

https://www.skyword.

com/contentstandard/creativity/why-global-marketers-mustwelcome-cultural-appropriation/

[Accessed

25

Jan.

2018].

2018].

Hammond, k. (2017). Drawing the line between cultural appreciation

Breward, C. (2003). Fashion. London: Oxford University Press, p.22

and cultural appropriation. [online] Varsity.co.uk. Available at: https://www.varsity.co.uk/fashion/12614 [Accessed 18 Feb. 2018].

37.

High Is

Snobiety

Not

Available

(2017).

Funny at:

|

Vetements'

Highsnobiety.

Latest [online]

Inside

Joke

Highsnobiety.

https://www.highsnobiety.com/p/vetements-

hong-kong-pop-up-gvasalia/

[Accessed

19

Feb.

2018].

Jackson, J. (2018). 3 Hairstylists On Braids, Cultural Appropriation and

Media's

Available

Erasure at:

of

Black

Women.

[online]

Fashionista.

https://fashionista.com/2018/01/black-hair-braids-

cultural-appropriation-media-erasure

[Accessed

23

Feb.

2018].

Hirsch, A. (2017). Is this the year advertisers wake up to perils

Janke, T. (1998). Our Culture, Our Future: Report on Australian

of cultural appropriation?. [online] the Guardian. Available

Indigenous Cultural and Intellectual Property,. [online] Terri Janke

at:

and

https://www.theguardian.com/media/2017/may/14/

is-this-the-year-advertisers-wake-up-to-perils-of-cultural-

Company,

p.19.

Available

at:

http://www.terrijanke.com.au/

our-culture-our-future?ref=SaglikAlani.Com [Accessed 4 Feb. 2018].

appropriation [Accessed 25 Jan. 2018]. IN TEXT (Hirsch, 2017) J. Holloway,

(2016).

Eastern

kentucky

University

(2016).

Banks;

J.

Carson;

B.

Nelson;

D.

Nicol

(2001).

Discrete-

Event System Simulation. Prentice Hall. p. 3 (Banks et al. 2001).

Cultural Appropriation and Fashion: A Line to Clarify the Line. [online] kentucky. Available at: https://encompass.eku.

Joshi, A. (2014). Why a Bindi Is NOT an Example of Cultural Appropriation.

edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1410&context=honors_

[online] HuffPost. Available at: https://www.huffingtonpost.com/anjali-

theses

2016)

joshi/why-a-bindi-is-not-an-exa_b_5150693.html [Accessed 26 Jan. 2018].

Huggins, K. (2017). dreadlocks, a tangled cultural history. [online]

Madsen, A. (2018). Vetements Fans Flock To Limited-Edition Event With

I-d. Available at: https://i-d.vice.com/en_us/article/mbeme8/

Joyce In Hong Kong. [online] Vogue.co.uk. Available at: http://www.vogue.

dreadlocks-a-tangled-cultural-history [Accessed 18 Feb. 2018].

co.uk/article/vetements-joyce-hong-kong-2017 [Accessed 15 Feb. 2018].

[Accessed

21

Feb.

2018].(Holloway,

38.

Mansvelt, J. (2011). Cultural Fragmentation. In: Encyclopedia

Osklen

of

https://osklen.com/ashaninka.php

Consumer

Culture.

SAGE

publications,

Inc.,

p.2.

(2015).

Ashaninka

Expedition.

[video]

[Accessed

Available

20

Feb.

at:

2018]

Matera, A. (2016). Some Chinese Viewers Are REALLY Upset About

Osklen (2015). Ashaninka expedition. [image] Available at: https://

the Victoria's Secret Fashion Show. [online] Teen Vogue. Available at:

vimeo.com/138790991 [Accessed 25 Jan. 2018]. IN TEXT (Osklen, 2015)

https://www.teenvogue.com/story/victorias-secret-fashion-showcultural-appropriation-chinese-vs-show-2016 [Accessed 1 Feb. 2018].

Owusu, society.

Matthes,

EH.

(2016).

Cultural

Appropriation

with

K.

(2006).

London

Black

British

[u.a.]:

culture

Routledge,

and p.113.

Cultural

Essentialism?. [online] Erich H. Matthes, pp.5-13. Available

Oxford

Dictionaries

|

English.

(2018).

cultural

appropriation

at:

https://repository.wellesley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.

| Definition of cultural appropriation in English by Oxford

cgi?article=1110&context=scholarship [Accessed 7 Feb. 2018].

Dictionaries. [online] Available at: https://en.oxforddictionaries. com/definition/cultural_appropriation [Accessed 25 Jan. 2018].

Metcalfe, J. (2012). Native Americans know that cultural misappropriation is a land of darkness | Jessica Metcalfe.

Phelan, H. (2015). Osklen Spring 2016 Ready-to-Wear Fashion

[online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.

Show. [online] Vogue. Available at: https://www.vogue.com/fashion-

com/commentisfree/2012/may/18/native-americans-

shows/spring-2016-ready-to-wear/osklen [Accessed 21 Feb. 2018].

cultural-misappropriation

[Accessed

30

Jan.

2018].

Phelps, N. (2017). Vetements Is Taking Its One-Day Flash

Ongley, H. (2017). marc jacobs apologizes for putting white

Sale

models in dreadlocks. [online] I-d. Available at: https://i-d.

[online]

vice.com/en_uk/article/pag79m/marc-jacobs-apologizes-for-

vetements-hong-kong-pop-up

putting-white-models-in-dreadlocks [Accessed 19 Feb. 2018].

Concept Vogue.

to

Hong

Kong’s

Available

at:

Kai

Tak

Cruise

Terminal.

https://www.vogue.com/article/

[Accessed

17

Feb.

2018].

39.

Reinfrank, A. (2017). Ladies’ Market more popular than

Stansfield, T. (2015). Dries Van Noten: ‘You can't just do

The Peak and Disneyland. [online] South China Morning

whatever you want’. [online] Dazed. Available at: http://www.

Post.

http://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/travel-

dazeddigital.com/fashion/article/25357/1/dries-van-noten-

leisure/article/2095164/tripadvisor-ladies-market-named-

you-cant-just-do-whatever-you-want [Accessed 2 Feb. 2018].

Available

at:

hong-kongs-most-visited

[Accessed

12

Feb.

2018].

Rogers, R. (2006). From Cultural Exchange to Transculturation:

The

A Review and Reconceptualization of Cultural Appropriation.

Appropriation:

Communication

Available

Available

Theory,

at:

week

S. as

Available

(2018). demna at:

16(4),

pp.474-503.

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/

j.1468-2885.2006.00277.x/full

Salter,

[online]

[Accessed

vetements turned

the

14

disrupted dial

to

Feb.

men’s 11.

2018].

fashion

[online]

I-d.

https://i-d.vice.com/en_uk/article/3k5wqv/

vetements-autumn-winter-18

[Accessed

25

Jan.

2018].

Business

of

Fashion.

Theft at:

or

(2017).

Cultural

Innovation?.

[online]

https://www.businessoffashion.com/

community/voices/discussions/cultural-appropriationtheft-or-innovation

[Accessed

25

Jan.

2018].

The Business of Fashion (2018). Citizen of the World |

Dries

2017.

Van

Noten

[video]

with

Tim

Available

com/watch?v=2tZOill8FDA

Blanks

at: [Accessed

|

#BoFVOICES

https://www.youtube.

1

Feb.

2018].

Schmidt, S. and Schmidt, S. (2018). Shea Moisture reaches out to

The Business of Fashion (2017). The Business of Culture |

white women in hair products ad. Black women protest.. [online]

Dapper Dan, Leila Fataar with Tim Blanks | #BoFVOICES

Washington Post. Available at: https://www.washingtonpost.

2017.

com/news/morning-mix/wp/2017/04/25/shea-moisture-

watch?v=ix42ThCtNGg

reaches-out-to-white-women-in-hair-products-ad-black-women-

[video]

Available

at:

https://www.youtube.com/

[Accessed

31

Jan.

2018].

40.

Todd,

L.

[online]

(1990).

16(1),

Notes

p.1.

on

Appropriation.

Available

rec/TODNOA-2?all_versions=1

at:

[Accessed

Parallelogram,

https://philarchive.org/ 6

Feb.

2018].

Unknown (n.d.). Cultural Appropriation II: The Postmodernist /

Marxist

roots

of

Postmodernism.

Available

at:

cultural

[online]

appropriation

|

Fighting

Fightingpostmodernism.org.

http://fightingpostmodernism.org/postmodern-

works/cultural-appropriation-ii-the-postmodernist-marxistroots-of-cultural-appropriation/

[Accessed

28

Uwujaren,

Difference

Between

J.

(2013).

The

Jan.

2018].

Cultural

Exchange and Cultural Appropriation - Everyday Feminism. [online]

Everyday

Feminism.

Available

at:

https://

everydayfeminism.com/2013/09/cultural-exchangeand-cultural-appropriation/

[Accessed

26

Jan.

2018].

Varagur, K. (2015). Is This The Right Way For Fashion To Do Cultural Appropriation?. [online] HuffPost UK. Available at:

http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/fashion-

cultural-appropriation_us_5632295ce4b00aa54a4ce639 [Accessed 25 Jan. 2018]. IN TEXT (Varagur, 2015)

Young, J. and Brunk, C. (2009). The ethics of cultural appropriation.

Young, and

J. the

Chichester,

(2010).

Arts.

U.K.:

Cultural John

Wiley

Wiley-Blackwell.

Appropriation &

Sons.

IMAGE REFERENCES

41.

Pre-a-Reporter (2015). Valentino's spring 2016 show. [image] Available at: https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/twitterreacts-valentinos-african-inspired-829860 [Accessed 2 Mar. 2018].

The Closet Feminist (2015). Dsquared A/W 2015 ready to wear show. [image] Available at: http://www.theclosetfeminist.ca/tag/ dsquared/ [Accessed 2 Mar. 2018].

Bal Harbour shops (2015). Dsquared's A/W ready to wear 2015 shows. [image] Available at: https://www.balharbourshops.com/ fashion/fashion-news/3892-take-a-bow-fashion-week [Accessed 2 Mar. 2018].

Dazed (2015). The Inuit garment/KTZ AW15. [image] Available at: http://www.dazeddigital.com/fashion/article/28635/1/ktzresponds-to-outcry-over-inuit-design-rip-off [Accessed 2 Mar. 2018].

Vogue (2016). Victoria's Secret Accused of Cultural Appropriation for VS Show 2016 Costumes. [image] Available at: https://www. teenvogue.com/story/victorias-secret-fashion-show-cultural-appropriation-chinese-vs-show-2016 [Accessed 2 Mar. 2018].

Vogue (2016). Victoria's Secret Accused of Cultural Appropriation for VS Show 2016 Costumes. [image] Available at: https://www. teenvogue.com/story/victorias-secret-fashion-show-cultural-appropriation-chinese-vs-show-2016 [Accessed 2 Mar. 2018].

Fashionista (2015). Valentino 2016. [image] Available at: https://fashionista.com/.image/c_limit%2Ccs_srgb%2Cq_80%2Cw_897/ MTM1MzIyNDgwMjkzMzY1Nzcw/valentino-atm-s16-003jpg.jpg [Accessed 2 Mar. 2018].

Fashionista (2015). ‘China: Through the looking glass’. [image] Available at: https://fashionista.com/.image/c_limit%2Ccs_ srgb%2Cq_80%2Cw_897/MTM1MzIyNDgwMjkzMzY1Nzcw/valentino-atm-s16-003jpg.jpg [Accessed 2 Mar. 2018].

42.

High Snobiety (2017). Vetements Hong Kong pop up. [image] Available at: https://www.highsnobiety.com/p/vetements-hongkong-pop/ [Accessed 2 Mar. 2018].

High Snobiety (2017). Vetements Hong Kong pop up. [image] Available at: https://www.highsnobiety.com/p/vetements-hongkong-pop/ [Accessed 2 Mar. 2018].

High Snobiety (2017). Vetements Hong Kong pop up. [image] Available at: https://www.highsnobiety.com/p/vetements-hongkong-pop/ [Accessed 2 Mar. 2018].

Instagram (2017). anderschristanmasden's photo. [image] Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/BboUb3IndnR/?takenby=anderschristianmadsen [Accessed 2 Mar. 2018].

High Snobiety (2017). Vetements Hong Kong pop up. [image] Available at: https://www.highsnobiety.com/p/vetements-hongkong-pop/ [Accessed 2 Mar. 2018].

High Snobiety (2017). Vetements Hong Kong pop up. [image] Available at: https://www.highsnobiety.com/p/vetements-hongkong-pop/ [Accessed 2 Mar. 2018].

Huffington Post (2015). A model walks the runway during the Osklen show at Sao Paulo Fashion Week Fall/Winter 2017, Oct. 26, 2016, in Sao Paulo.. [image] Available at: http:www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/fashion-cultural appropriation_

Huffington Post (2015). Metsavaht, Nina Braga, and Ashaninka children.[image] Available at: http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/ entry/fashion-cultural-appropriation_us_5632295ce4b00aa54a4ce639 [Accessed 2 Mar. 2018].

43.

Qaurtz (2015). Osklen’s Spring 2016 collection: inspiration and execution. (Osklen/Oskar Metsavaht, Lynda Churilla). [image] Available at: https://qz.com/520363/borrowing-from-other-cultures-is-not-inherently-racist/ [Accessed 2 Mar. 2018].

Vogue (2015). Osklen Spring 2016 Ready to Wear. [image] Available at: https://www.vogue.com/fashion-shows/spring-2016ready-to-wear/osklen [Accessed 2 Mar. 2018].

Vogue (2015). Osklen Spring 2016 Ready to Wear. [image] Available at: https://www.vogue.com/fashion-shows/spring-2016ready-to-wear/osklen [Accessed 2 Mar. 2018].

Vogue (2015). Osklen Spring 2016 Ready to Wear. [image] Available at: https://www.vogue.com/fashion-shows/spring-2016ready-to-wear/osklen [Accessed 2 Mar. 2018].

Vogue (2015). Osklen Spring 2016 Ready to Wear. [image] Available at: https://www.vogue.com/fashion-shows/spring-2016ready-to-wear/osklen [Accessed 2 Mar. 2018].

Vogue (2015). Osklen: Forest Manifesto. [image] Available at: http://www.vogue.co.uk/article/osklen-new-york-fashion-week [Accessed 3 Mar. 2018].

Fashion Insight (2017). Ashaninka tribe. [image] Available at: http://www.fashioninsight.com.br/2015/09/inspiracoes-da-nyfwverao-2017.html [Accessed 3 Mar. 2018].

Imonation (2015). Gigi Hadid afro. [image] Available at: https://imonation.com/appreciation-or-appropriation/ [Accessed 3 Mar. 2018].

44.

Imonation (2015).Valentino cornrows. [image] Available at: https://imonation.com/appreciation-or-appropriation/ [Accessed 3 Mar. 2018].

dresslikeaparisian (2016). Girl with braids. [image] Available at: http://dresslikeaparisian.com/my-view-on-cultural-appropriationin-fashion/ [Accessed 3 Mar. 2018].

Refinery29 (2015). Model with braids. [image] Available at: http://www.refinery29.com/2015/10/95282/valentino-africa-twitterresponses-pfw-spring-2016 [Accessed 3 Mar. 2018].

Evening Standard (2017). Lila Moss upbraided for disrespect to black culture. [image] Available at: https://www.standard.co.uk/ news/londoners-diary/londoners-diary-lila-moss-upbraided-for-black-culture-disrespect-a3531541.html [Accessed 3 Mar. 2018].

observeroffashion (2015). Valentino corn rows.. [image] Available at: https://observeroffashion.wordpress.com/2015/10/09/ valentino-ss16-collection-cultural-appropriation-or-appreciation/ [Accessed 3 Mar. 2018]. time.com (2016). Marc Jacobs spring summer 2016 collection. [image] Available at: http://time.com/4501037/culturalappropriation-marc-jacobs-dreadlocks/ [Accessed 3 Mar. 2018].

CNN (2016). Marc Jacobs instagram apology. [image] Available at: https://edition.cnn.com/style/article/marc-jacobs-culturalappropriation-dreadlocks/index.html [Accessed 3 Mar. 2018].

Pinterest (2018). Gigi Hadid dreadlocks. [image] Available at: https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/553942822900908235/ [Accessed 3 Mar. 2018].

45. bloglovin' (2015). The Satirical Whitefeministbarbie. [image] Available at: https:// www.bloglovin.com/blogs/black-girl-with-longhair-3529076/satirical-whitefeministbarbie-instagram-account-4539444295 [Accessed 3 Mar. 2018].

Cosmpolitan ZA (2017). Gucci Geisha inspired collection A/W 2017. [image] Available at: https://www.cosmopolitan.co.za/style/ cultural-appropriation-fashion/ [Accessed 3 Mar. 2018].

The Cut (2017). Gucci Fall 2017. [image] Available at: https://www.thecut.com/runway/2017/fall/milan/rtw/gucci/35/ [Accessed 3 Mar. 2018].