The Voluntourism Paradox | The unintended consequences of volunteer-based architectural development

THE VOLUNTOURISM PARADOX The unintended consequences of volunteer-based architectural development projects abroad.

HAZEL CROSLAND A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of MArch, 2019 Welsh School of Architecture, Cardiff University

THE VOLUNTOURISM PARADOX The unintended consequences of volunteer-based architectural development projects abroad.

HAZEL CROSLAND C1408266

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of MArch, 2019 Welsh School of Architecture, Cardiff University

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thank you to James Mitchell, and all at Orkidstudio, whose passion and dedication to humanitarian architecture helped inspire this research.

Thank you to my parents for their patience and endless encouragement.

Finally, thank you to my supervisor, Dr Mhairi McVicar, whose insightful guidance and support throughout this research has been invaluable.

i

ABSTRACT

In a world where volunteering in developing countries is encouraged and praised, stories of people travelling across the world to build houses, schools and hospitals is becoming a normality. This study looks to emphasise the responsibility of architects working in developing countries, and to question whether generous intentions of providing spaces is actually having the impact that they are hoping for.

It looks at the ambitions and motivations of volunteers, and the consequences that their actions can have on communities. From this analysis, a series of lessons and suggestions have been summarised to help define what can be done to make sure positive impacts and lasting legacy for the architecture and opportunities we are providing.

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Figure 1. Authors own image on site in Tanzania

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PREFACE

My interest around voluntourism began through personal experiences of live-build projects in Tanzania and Cambodia. When reflecting on the projects, I couldn’t help but question whether the altruistic intentions of the group I was part of had been misguided. We spent the year fundraising for the trip, being showered with praise by our teachers, family and friends. I felt proud that I was aiming to immerse myself into a completely new culture to try to make a difference. However, looking back, I wonder whether our presence in the communities we visited had actually benefited anyone, or possibly even made situations worse. Had we travelled across the world just to boost our own selfesteem or to build our CVs as aspiring hands-on architects? Had our good intentions led us astray to build things just to prove ourselves?

It is never easy telling people with only good intentions that their desire to help others could inadvertently be causing more harm than good, however it is important to bring light to the situation that more and more students are finding themselves in every year. We need to be honest and truthful about the impact that our actions may be having on others, especially if our intentions are to try and help. As architects, we not only have a responsibility to provide beautiful spaces that have the ability to transform social and cultural behaviour, but also have a responsibility to empower the users and communities through effective participation and engagement.

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CONTENTS Abstract

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Preface

v

Table of Figures

viii

CHAPTER 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Key words & definitions

12

1.2 Aims

13

1.3 Objectives

13

1.4 Structure

14

1.5 Orkidstudio

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CHAPTER 2.0 HUMANITARIAN ARCHITECTURE 2.1 Overview

19

2.2 Background & History

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CHAPTER 3.0 VOLUNTOURISM 3.1 Overview

23

3.2 Background & History

23

3.3 Issues surrounding Voluntourism

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3.4 Why has the voluntourism debate increased in recent years?

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CHAPTER 4.0 EDUCATION & UNIVERSITY 4.1 Overview

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4.2 Volunteering at Cardiff University

29

4.3 Live-Build Projects

30

4.4 Why do students volunteer?

30

4.5 Issues Arising

32

4.6 Finance & Funding

33

4.7 Participation & Power

34

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CHAPTER 5.0 COLONIALISM 5.1 Overview

37

5.2 Background & History

37

5.3 Architecture, colonialism & voluntourism

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CHAPTER 6.0 IN PRACTICE - ORKIDSTUDIO 6.1 Orkidstudio Origins

41

6.2 Reflections

42

CHAPTER 7.0 ANALYSIS 7.1 More than just architecture

47

7.2 Economy

47

7.3 Empowerment

50

7.4 Equality

52

7.4 Sustainable Development

53

CHAPTER 8.0 CONCLUSION 8.1 Summary

59

8.2 Lessons

62

CHAPTER 9.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY 9.1 Bibliography

64

CHAPTER 10.0 APPENDIX 10.1 Interview with Pippa Biddle

68

10.2 Interview with Adam Evans

77

10.3 Online Anonymous Survey Results

80

10.4 Ethics Approval Form

90

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TABLE OF FIGURES Cover:

Nakuru Project “Nakuru Children’s Home”, Orkidstudio.Org, 2014 <https://orkidstudio.org>

Figure 1.

On site in Tanzania Author’s own image, Tanzania, 2012

Figure 2.

Construction work at a school in Tanzania.

Author’s own image, Tanzania, 2012

Figure 3.

Spain’s “Unfinished” - Winner of the Golden Lion at the 2016 Venice Biennale Laurian Ghinitoiu, Venice Biennale, Archdaily, 2016

Figure 4.

Authors involvement with community voluntourism in Cambodia.

“Bomnong L’Or Project: Community Project”, Orkidstudio.Org, 2014

Figure 5.

Cardiff University presentation on international volunteering Rose Matthews, “Increasing Outward Student Mobility At Cardiff University”, 2018.

Figure 6.

Volunteer-watch selection process results Friederike Hertwig, Tourism-Watch.De, 2015

Figure 7.

French student poster Sherry R Arnstein, “A ladder of participation”, JAIP, Vol. 35, 1969, p. 216

Figure 8.

English missionaries promoting education in colonial India Sabera Bhayat, Missionary Journals, 1880

Figure 9.

Mutende II Project “Mutende II Project”, Orkidstudio.Org, 2013

Figure 10.

A drawing showing the proposed structural section “Mukono”, Orkidstudio.Org, 2008

Figure 11.

The Mukono project on site “Mukono”, Orkidstudio.Org, 2008

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Figure 12.

Opening of the Alalay Project “Alalay”, Orkidstudio.Org, 2011

Figure 13.

Men and women working on the Kuk project.

“Kuk Project: Leaving before completion”, Orkidstudio.Org, 2015

Figure 14.

The completed Nakuru Children’s Home, a play of light and colour.

“Nakuru Children’s Home”, Orkidstudio.Org, 2014

Figure 15.

Women on site in Kenya.

“Empowering Women Through Construction”, Orkidstudio.Org, 2015

Figure 16.

Women building Hellen’s House using earth bag construction “Empowering Women Through Construction”, Orkidstudio.Org, 2015

Figure 17.

Hellen’s House under construction “Hellen’s House”, Orkidstudio.Org, 2015

Figure 18.

Hellen’s House completed “Hellen’s House”, Orkidstudio.Org, 2015

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CHAPTER 1.0

INTRODUCTION

1.

Key words & definitions

Live-Build

Architectural design and construction projects that are built by international volunteers who live within the community during the duration of the project.

Voluntourism

A form of tourism in which travellers participate in voluntary work, typically for a charity.

Humanitarian

Concerned with or seeking to promote human welfare.

Colonialism

The practice by which a powerful country directly controls less powerful countries and uses their resources to increase its own power and wealth.

Consequences

A result or effect of something due to the actions or decisions of others.

Sustainability

The quality of not being harmful to the environment, society, or economy, therefore supporting long-term balance.

Empowerment

Make someone stronger and more confident, especially in controlling their life and claiming their rights.

Dignity

The right of someone to be valued, respected, and to be treated ethically.

Participation

The action of being involved with something.

Responsibility

The state of having a duty to deal with something or someone.

Engage

Participate or become involved in.

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CHAPTER 1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.2 Aims What are the impacts of volunteer-based architectural development projects abroad? How can we ensure the good intentions of architects working towards social change are seen throughout the process of architecture? This study brings light to the unintended consequences of volunteer-based architectural development projects, to explore how architects can maximise the impact of their buildings to benefit individuals and the local community through empowerment and dignity. This study aims to interrogate the long-term and wider impacts of live-build projects and explore the importance of the architect’s role in the process.

1.3 Objectives Architecture has the ability to provide positive and lasting contributions to communities in need.1 The way a building is utilised may change how people perceive or use a space and can lead to wider economic and social development in the surrounding area. The skills architecture students are taught throughout their education harness a potential to offer diligent and innovative designs to communities in need, but is volunteering on a construction site abroad really an appropriate platform for a student’s new-found skills to be unleashed? Students are increasingly looking for altruistic opportunities to share their skills and knowledge, and volunteering to build schools, orphanages or churches seems a selfless and generous opportunity to meet these desires.

‘These institutions are run as businesses, they’re exploiting the children and communities, they’re exploiting the good will of the donors, and also exploiting the young people who come to volunteer.’2 Volunteering abroad has turned into a global industry, with an estimated 10 million people volunteering with projects abroad last year.3 This study aims to bring awareness to the exploitation of good intentions of young volunteers, who dedicate their time and efforts to projects that may inadvertently be causing more harm than good. This study raises questions over the unintended consequences of volunteer based live-build projects, through exploring the work of humanitarian design practice; Orkidstudio. The practice began as a UK volunteer-based charity, providing innovative design and construction methods to communities in need. Over the years, Orkidstudio has grown and developed as a practice, redefining their direction to improve their impact for the people involved.

1 2 3

Nishat Awan, Tatjana Schneider and Jeremy Till, Spatial Agency (London: Routledge, 2011) p. 47.

“How Not To Save The World” (World Service Radio: BBC, 2018). <https://www.bbc.co.uk/ programmes/w3cswgqz> [accessed 10 December 2018] Ibid.

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CHAPTER 1.0 INTRODUCTION

‘We believe everyone has the right to good design and access to healthy, inspiring and dignified spaces. Building collectively brings communities together, supports local economic growth, empowers, instills pride, and leaves a legacy that reaches far beyond final completion.’4 Orkidstudio are a nuanced critic of their own work and speak of the lessons and changes they’ve adapted to grow and improve their practice. Since their origins, Orkidstudio have had a dramatic shift in approach. Originally relying on UK-based volunteers, they are now located in Kenya and employ locally, focusing mainly on the construction process and investment of the buildings they provide to ensure the procurement and final building have greatest positive impact for the people involved. This study highlights whether this shift in approach has improved their impact and draws attention to the unintended consequences that have led to this conclusion. The study will explore themes of humanitarian and post-colonial impacts, as well as debates surrounding voluntourism, through a review of historical and contemporary critiques of approaches to humanitarian architecture and volunteering.

1.4 Structure This study is primarily a critical analysis of historical and contemporary literature, supplemented by semi-structured interviews and publications surrounding the topic of humanitarian architecture and voluntourism. The scope of the study covers a range of academic literature, journals, academic and third sector reports, websites, blogs and social media relating to building and volunteering abroad. The analysis will cover themes raised through the research, including humanitarian design, volunteering, education, and colonialism. This analysis of literature will form the framework to a thematic analysis of Orkidstudio’s practice.

The analysis of Orkidstudio is primarily based on existing published material. The study looks to analyse written material, videos and interviews published by and about Orkidstudio, with supplementary primary interviews with team members and volunteers. As part of the research, 26 people who had recently taken part in a live-build project anonymously completed an online survey. The survey reflects on their involvement and provides stories of personal experiences. The information published by Orkidstudio themselves on their website, blog and through their own form of advertising, is analysed alongside articles and interviews involving Orkidstudio that have been published in architecture journals, books and blogs.

4

“Orkidstudio - Our Approach”, Orkidstudio.Org, 2018 <https://orkidstudio.org/approach/> [Accessed 2 October 2018].

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CHAPTER 1.0 INTRODUCTION

Figure 2. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own image of construction work at a school in Tanzania.

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CHAPTER 1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.5 Orkidstudio ‘Our Mission: To create high quality, affordable and healthy buildings, through an exceptional end-to-end design and construction process, which use local materials and promote opportunities for women.’5 Orkidstudio is a humanitarian-based practice, whose aim is to provide high quality buildings that have a lasting positive effect on the people involved. The practice began in 2008 as a small volunteerbased charity, who operated with 3 co-founders working alongside a humble team of volunteers. They have now expanded to a workforce of 28, with a team of advisors. Instead of relying on volunteers, they now employ all construction workers locally. In the years since it was founded, Orkidstudio has grown and adapted their way of working by reflecting and learning from their successes and mistakes.

Three students at the Welsh School of Architecture: James Mitchell, Julissa Kiyenje and Su Mei Tan, were the founders of Orkidstudio. Frustrated with the idea of the corporate-style careers that were ahead of them, they set up their own practice, which allowed them to explore their personal humanitarian interests. Mitchell suggests, in interview with John Cary, the initial reason he studied architecture was because he wanted to have more impact, and therefore wanted to work somewhere that would focus on providing buildings that would have a positive impact. 6 This idea of impact ultimately became the sole focus of Orkidstudio.

‘They have disrupted the traditional model of social and humanitarian design in a number of ways. They’re running a live experiment, on new ways to think about being a designer in a humanitarian space. One that takes the designer outside of the role of intermediary, between funder and beneficiary, and creates something entirely new.’ 7 With a practice that started so young, Orkidstudio’s path of reflection and growth shows a clear appreciation and drive to create lasting positive impact. They have proposed that to design spaces that empower and promote dignity, it is about much more than building beautiful spaces. The design, process, and procurement all play a vital role in ensuring communities benefit from lasting impacts.

Without careful consideration of building techniques, employment and participation, the architecture we provide may result in harmful unintended consequences.

5 6 7

“Orkidstudio - Our Approach”, Orkidstudio.Org, 2018 <https://orkidstudio.org/approach/> [Accessed 2 October 2018].

John Cary, Design For Good (Washington, DC: Island Press/Center for Resource Economics, 2017), p.

115.

Curry Stone Foundation, “Episode 93 | Developing New Forms Of Community Design”, Social Design Insights, 2018.

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CHAPTER 1.0 INTRODUCTION

This study looks to analyse themes throughout humanitarian architecture and voluntourism, as well as the impacts this can have, to give a detailed critical analysis of Orkidstudioâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s practice. This analysis will conclude what can be done to help reduce the harmful unintended consequences which are a result of the drastically expanding popularity of voluntourism within the architecture industry.

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CHAPTER 2.0 HUMANITARIAN ARCHITECTURE

Figure 3. Spain’s “Unfinished” - Winner of the Golden Lion at the 2016 Venice Biennale

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CHAPTER 2.0

HUMANITARIAN ARCHITECTURE

2.1 Overview - What is humanitarian architecture?

The term ‘Humanitarian Architecture’ has grown out of aid work in the 20th century and has recently become a central part of the world’s architectural agenda, bringing the importance of the subject to a national level. Events such as the 2016 Venice Biennale, entitled ‘Reporting from the Front’, emphasised the push towards a human-centred practice and the need for social impact.8 Humanitarian is defined in the Oxford Dictionary as being ‘concerned with or seeking to promote human welfare’.9 Humanitarian architecture seeks to improve a humanitarian issue, ranging from disaster relief, poverty, conflict, disease, etc. The projects that have been selected for this study all have a humanitarian focus. It is assumed here that all live-build projects are completed with good intentions, with the aim of improving the conditions that already exist. It is also assumed that every architect designs a building with the hope that it will improve an existing condition. More specifically however, the majority of live-build projects can be classed as humanitarian because the goal of social impact is their main concern.

2.2 Background & History These understandings of terms such as humanitarian and humanitarian design form a framework to briefly review histories and theories of humanitarian architecture, before progressing to examining thematic case studies. There is an expansive knowledge of the need for well-designed buildings in the provision of humanitarian architecture, however there appears to be little systematic research that explores the direct relationship that architecture has on the social impacts of the community, such as the ability to empower. Professor Esther Ruth Charlesworth has written multiple books and articles on humanitarian architecture and is one of the most popular modern authors on the subject. The essays in her books cover a range of case studies across the globe by architects such as Shigeru Ban and Maggie Stephenson. Charlesworth illustrates how architects can use their problem-solving skills and spatial understanding to design buildings that ‘alleviate both human and natural disasters’10. Charlesworth suggests that architects have the ability to lessen the spread of disaster, and it is our responsibility to do so. ‘Humanitarian Architecture: 15 stories of architects working after disasters’ by Charlesworth makes the argument that, despite how often the architect is portrayed as a demigod servicing the wealthy elite,

8 9 10

La Venezia, “Biennale Architettura 2016”, La Biennale Di Venezia, 2018 <https://www.labiennale.org/ en/architecture/2016> [Accessed 19 November 2018].

“Humanitarian”, Oxford English Dictionary (London: Oxford University Press, 2001).

Esther Ruth Charlesworth, Humanitarian Architecture: 15 stories of architects working after disaster (New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2014).

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CHAPTER 2.0 HUMANITARIAN ARCHITECTURE

buildings are (or should be) first and foremost to benefit and improve the lives of ordinary people.11 Many humanitarian studies focus on disaster relief architecture and target the issues concerning repair and emergency response. Architect theorists such as Nabeel Hamdi, Shigeru Ban and Buckminster Fuller have explored responses to emergency relief structures and low-cost housing since the 1960s. A 1995 study by Ladinski found that following a 1963 earthquake in Skopje, the ‘decision to protect buildings with technology solely based on earthquake engineering principles led to damage of integrity, identity and the originality of the built heritage’12. He explains how buildings designed purely for their function ultimately had negative effects on the users. Although the need for emergency shelter is of the first priority in a time of disaster, Ladinski highlights the need for an understanding of cultural and social factors, alongside structural, safety and economic concerns.

Early studies by Berke (1995) suggest a similar importance to prioritise culture and social factors, but to also consider the need of long lasting architecture. It is clear that emergency shelter is a necessity after disaster, however Berke argues that the provision of ‘imposed aid can have negative long-term effects’.13 He explains how the desire to re-build emergency housing quickly and with minimum expenditure, means that sustainability is often overlooked in the rush to provide shelter. This rush of providing shelter can be compared to work often completed by volunteer orientated live-build projects, who spend a matter of weeks in communities with their main aim being to complete a building.

More recently, literature has been published with the aim of highlighting the positive impacts of humanitarian architecture outside the field of disaster relief. Design for Good by John Cary covers a variety of case studies that have resulted in positive impacts for the users, community and local economy. Cary concludes with a series of lessons which he believes all architects should be adopting.

These lessons vary from the architect embracing a beginner’s mind-set, to the need of increasing funding for social architecture across the globe. The work of MASS Design Group, Rural Urban Framework and Orkidstudio all feature heavily through-out Cary’s book, by using their work as exemplar case studies. Many humanitarian projects, such as the work highlighted by Cary, are completed by volunteers who generously give their time and money to travel to the destination to help construct the building. This includes companies such as BuildAbroad, Caukin, Project Riandu and Orkidstudio.

From the lessons learnt throughout modern and historical literature, an evaluation of humanitarian architecture practice, Orkidstudio, has shown many of the humanitarian focuses that this literature covers including social impact, economic impact and sustainability, have been adopted by the practice. Orkidstudio’s projects have all made a commitment to engage and provide spaces to meet and exceed the needs of the community that they are serving. Orkidstudio are an example of a

11 12 13

Esther Ruth Charlesworth, p.21 Adenrele Awotona, Reconstruction After Disaster (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1997).

Philip R. Berke, ‘Natural-Hazard Reduction And Sustainable Development: A Global Assessment’, Journal Of Planning Literature (1995).

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CHAPTER 2.0 HUMANITARIAN ARCHITECTURE

practice who have evolved and adapted their way of working over the years, initially building with international volunteers, then later shifting their approach to employing and empowering local men and women. I would argue that across the years, Orkidstudio have adapted their approach to remove a voluntourism approach out of their ethos, focusing instead on supporting sustainable opportunities for local communities. But what do I mean here by voluntourism?

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CHAPTER 3.0 VOLUNTOURISM

Figure 4. Authors involvement with community voluntourism in Cambodia.

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CHAPTER 3.0

VOLUNTOURISM

3.1 Overview - What is Voluntourism?

The phenomenon of voluntourism in its simplest of terms, has been coined out of the definitions of volunteering and tourism and is the concept of combining travel with charity work. Defined by the English Oxford Dictionary simply as ‘A form of tourism in which travellers participate in voluntary work, typically for a charity.’14. A more elaborate definition of voluntourism by Stephen Wearing, author of ‘Volunteer Tourism’, defines voluntourism as: ‘A direct interactive experience that causes value change and changed consciousness in the individual which will subsequently influence their lifestyle, while providing forms of community development that are required by local communities.’15 Here, Wearing is clearly identifying the idea that voluntourism is an equal exchange of benefits.

Highlighting that changed values and consciousness in the participant is achieved through the act of volunteering and acknowledges that the experience will have an impact on the volunteer’s life as well as give the community with something that they ‘require’. As part of this research, a survey asked recent Orkidstudio volunteers whether they thought their experience was more beneficial for the locals, or the participants. The results show a clear divide in opinion16, perhaps enforcing the idea that the majority of people do in fact see voluntourism as an equal exchange of benefits, as seen in the following extract: ‘I believe that it’s beneficial for both the local people and the participants as it is a mutual exchange of skills, experiences and cultural characteristics.’17 3.2 Background & History Voluntourism covers a wide range of volunteering opportunities, from teaching, to medicine, to construction. This study looks to focus on live-build projects which can be defined as volunteering opportunities that provide a chance to build a space or structure. Live-build projects date back to the 20th Century when Christian missionaries started travelling internationally to build churches and schools. More recently, universities have long-term programs such as Rural Studio (Alabama Auburn

14 15 16 17

“Voluntourism”, Oxford English Dictionary (London: Oxford University Press, 2001).

Stephen Wearing, Volunteer Tourism: Experiences That Make A Difference (Wallingford: CAB International, 2001).

Anonymous (Online Survey, 2018) [Appendix] p. 89 Ibid. p. 92 23

CHAPTER 3.0 VOLUNTOURISM

University, founded in 1993), and Project Africa (Nottingham University, Second Year Unit) which give students opportunities to put their humanitarian studies to practice, by taking part in live-build projects.

Although the term ‘voluntourism’ is fairly recent, the idea of combining voluntary service with travel can be traced back thousands of years across various cultures and religions throughout the world.

During the mid-twentieth century, some of the biggest international volunteering organisations were founded, including the UK’s Volunteer Service Organization (VSO) in 1958, and the US Peace Corps in 1961. This can be seen as the catalyst of the growing popularity of international volunteering, which has continued to increase today. Advancing technology and communication has made the concept of travelling much more desirable, especially now that travel across countries is becoming easier and more accessible. The ‘gap year’ phenomenon which arose during the 1990’s and 00’s, has also contributed to the increasing popularity of voluntourism.18 3.3 Issues surrounding Voluntourism - Why is there a debate?

‘Young people want to make a difference through volunteering, but they would be better off travelling and experiencing different cultures, rather than wasting time on projects that have no impact and can leave a big hole in their wallet.’19 More recently, the topic surrounding voluntourism has created a significant divide in opinion on whether it’s impact is beneficial or harmful to the community involved. Influential co-operations within the volunteering industry such as the VSO (Volunteering Services Overseas), has openly discussed its stance on voluntourism. Judith Brodie (Director of VSO), has publicly expressed her concerns over voluntourism, as quoted above, sparking debate to spread rapidly online in the form of blogs and campaigns.

Although many volunteering opportunities have been facilitated by NGOs (National Government Organisations), the increasing demand of students to venture abroad and get hands-on has led to the growth of the commercial volunteering market providing opportunities for students. According to a 2015 survey by Marriott Rewards Credit Card from Chase, 84% of millennials said that they would travel abroad to participate in volunteer activities20. Reports show that the voluntourism industry could be worth up to $2.6 billion worldwide, with an estimated 1.6 million people volunteering overseas

18 19 20

Helene Snee, ‘Doing Something ‘Worthwhile’: Intersubjectivity and Morality in Gap Year Narratives’, The Sociological Review, 62.4 (2014), 843-61 Judith Brodie, VSO Director, 2014 Ashley Dodd, “Millennials More Likely To Travel Abroad To Volunteer Than Other Generations, Marriott Rewards Credit Card From Chase Survey Reveals”, Businesswire.Com, 2018 <https://bit. ly/2T14VRl> [Accessed 19 November 2018].

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CHAPTER 3.0 VOLUNTOURISM

every year.21 For this reason, many companies are taking the opportunity to provide services to keep up with demand. Critics of the voluntourism industry question the authenticity of the companies that offer volunteering opportunities at a price; with some of these volunteering experiences costing up to £1500 a week22.

Research surrounding the authenticity of volunteer-based charities has become a significant topic, following the rising trend of voluntourism. Celebrities such as J.K Rowling and Angelina Jolie are using their social media platforms to promote charities and support research into the impacts of voluntourism. Lumos, a charity founded by J.K Rowling, is focussed purely on campaigning to end the institutionalisation of children. Research by the charity showed that eight million children live in orphanages and other institutions globally. However, more than 80% are not orphans but have been separated from their families because of poverty and discrimination.23 These children have been put into orphanages with the promise of better service, when in fact the people providing this care and education are unskilled and unexperienced students on their summer travels. The opportunity to interview journalist Pippa Biddle, brought my attention to stories of the most extreme cases of child institutionalisation, in which children would be starved and made to live in extremely poor conditions to encourage voluntourists to donate more money to what turned out to be a severely corrupt orphanage. Biddle spoke of communities that put dirt on their children’s faces to appear poorer to gain more ‘charity’. These extreme cases show the horrifically corrupt side of voluntourism that many activists are hoping to expose.

‘Governments have been using international development and that’s including voluntourism as an excuse for not providing services. They are not building a school because an organisation of tourists will come in and do it. These communities now rely, and in some places quite heavily on, having people come in’24 The accounts shared by Biddle highlight the importance of the current situation, and the need to make sure cases like these are prevented in the future. With the help of global social media platforms, stories like this are spreading across the internet, pushing the awareness of these issues to the forefront of people’s minds.

21 22 23 24

ABC News, “Voluntourism: Questions Raised About Benefits Of Burgeoning Volunteer Tourism Sector”, 2018 < https://ab.co/2BsMFZU> [Accessed 19 November 2018].

Projects Abroad, “How our prices work”, 2018 <https://bit.ly/2LqMUcl> [Accessed 19 November 2018] J.K Rowling, “Children belong in families, not orphanages”, Lumos <https://www.wearelumos.org/> [Accessed 2 November 2018] Pippa Biddle, Voluntourism (Skype Interview: 26 October 2018) [Appendix] p.76 25

CHAPTER 3.0 VOLUNTOURISM

3.4 Why has the voluntourism debate increased in recent years?

The popularity of voluntourism and consequently the popularity of the debate surrounding voluntourism can be said to have boomed in the past 5 years, as the growth of social media and online platforms make sharing stories and opinions much easier.

‘You still see so many images that make [impoverished people] look passive and helpless as opposed to empowered. People need to take the time to think about the stories their [social media posts] are telling.’25 It can be seen that people are increasingly sharing photos of their volunteering experiences in order to improve their social media appearance. ‘Humanitarians of tinder’ is an online platform that shares screenshots of people seen using photos of their volunteering interactions to improve their dating profile. This platform raises questions over the intentions of using these photos. It could be interpreted that the vast number of people sharing these photographs show how our generation are romanticising the idea of volunteering, using the photos as a way of improving their image to others.

Parody accounts such as “barbiesaviour”, who have over 150,000 followers on Instagram, share parody images of a barbie doll doing volunteer work. According to the campaigners, the images are used as a way of highlighting how their posts can perpetuate stereotypes and rob the subject of dignity or privacy.26 From the photo to the caption to the hashtags, the volunteer can unintentionally portray themselves as the hero, and the subjects as helpless and pitiful.

Although in a different light altogether, this altruistic image can also be seen to be encouraged throughout the architecture and education industry itself. Universities and career advisors often highlight the various skills and CV enhancing opportunities that these experiences can offer (See figure 5) and are encouraging students that these skills and experiences will give them standout CVs and increase job opportunities.

25 26

Pippa Biddle [Appendix]. p.79 Malaka Gharib, “Volunteering Abroad? Read This Before You Post That Selfie”, NPR.Org, 2018 <https://n.pr/2A5Ov33> [Accessed 19 December 2018].

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CHAPTER 3.0 VOLUNTOURISM

Figure 5. Cardiff University presentation on international volunteering

27

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CHAPTER 4.0

EDUCATION & UNIVERSITY

4.1 Overview – Volunteering & Education Volunteering is increasingly growing in popularity within the education field, with its benefits for students widely praised. Encouraged by universities as a way of helping the world, experiencing something new and boosting your CV, there is a clear ambition for students to experience international volunteering. Campaigns such as the ‘#iwill’ campaign, encourages students of all ages to embed meaningful social action into their lives, with a double-benefit focus on communities and young people themselves.27 The ‘#iwill’ campaign claims that social action improves employability skills and boosts access to higher education and supports enhanced well-being among young people.28 The impact of the experience for students is widely praised, claiming the experience to be eye-opening, and give students a new appreciation of the world and education.

4.2 Volunteering at Cardiff University Cardiff University has pledged a £1.6m investment over 4 years to support outward mobility29, including work, study and volunteer opportunities abroad. Cardiff University’s GO (Global Opportunities) offer a wide range of international opportunities for students at Cardiff University.

The GO website describes the benefits of volunteering abroad as:

• Challenge yourself • Make an impact • Affordable • Make new friends university- and world-wide • Learn a language 30 Through conversation with Global Opportunities at Cardiff University, it’s clear that the university has a balanced view of who the experience is beneficial for; “our approach is a joint one – to help communities internationally, while improving students’ skillsets and employability.”31 Allowing opportunities for students to travel through volunteering programs, is said to make students more aware of the destinations they are visiting by immersing themselves in the culture and communities

27 28 29 30 31

“#Iwill”, Iwill.Org.uk, 2018 <http://www.iwill.org.uk/> [Accessed 1 December 2018].

Ibid.

Rose Matthews, “Increasing Outward Student Mobility At Cardiff University”, 2018.

Ibid.

Christopher Gale, Global Opportunties (Interview: Cardiff University, 2018).

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CHAPTER 4.0 EDUCATION & UNIVERSITY

that they are volunteering within. With survey results suggesting projects usually lasting around 2-4 weeks, questions must be raised over whether the duration of the projects completed are long enough for students to be honestly exposed to new cultures. If the experience lasts just a few weeks, by the time the volunteer has had time to acclimatise and understand cultural differences, they’ll be moving on just as they settle in.32 4.1 Live-Build Projects Live-build projects present a form of experience which is especially beneficial for students of architecture. They allow the opportunity for students to travel abroad and experience hands-on working on a construction site; something that would not be possible to experience to the same level within the UK or Europe. It also introduces them to the ethical dimension of architecture, making students aware at an early stage, of their wider social responsibilities.33 Being exposed to a live-build construction site means students will learn and develop their architectural awareness quicker than when in a classroom. Paul Ramsden explains how an ‘active learning’ approach will improve the ability to learn and retain new-found knowledge.34 This approach to learning is encouraged throughout architecture careers, being implemented by a ‘year in industry’ where experience is gained through working in practice. But a year in industry often isn’t enough. Professor Esther Charlesworth talks of the increasing knowledge that students of architecture want more from their careers than just financial benefits. 35 4.2 Why do students volunteer?

To some degree, aspects of architectural education in the UK has had a history of humanitarian architecture. Recently, due to events such as The AAE 2017 Conference (Association of Architectural Educators) which was titled ‘Architecture Connects’, architectural education is increasingly enhancing its concern for humanitarian issues. The conference shows an overwhelming focus on the impact of social architecture and live-build projects36, implying social architecture has become a central concern in the architecture profession. Following this, architecture schools are also increasingly encouraging students to become involved with international build projects that aim to tackle global humanitarian issues hands on. The Welsh School of Architecture, among many other schools of architecture, claim ‘engagement’ as one of their key focusses.37

32 33 34 35 36

37

Susan Banki and Richard Schonell, “Voluntourism And The Contract Corrective”, Third World Quarterly, 39.8 (2017), <https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2017.1357113> p.10 Nishat Awan, Tatjana Schneider and Jeremy Till, Spatial Agency (London: Routledge, 2011) p. 47 Paul Ramsden, 2003 Esther Charlesworth, Architects Without Frontiers, p. 136 Jane Anderson, “Architecture Connects”, in Architecture Connects, 4th International Peer Reviewed Conference (Oxford: Association of Architectural Educators, 2019) < https://bit.ly/2TjLMKo> [Accessed 3 November 2018].

BSc Architectural Studies, cardiff.ac.uk <https://bit.ly/2F0rSB3> [Accessed 4 November 2018] 30

CHAPTER 4.0 EDUCATION & UNIVERSITY

From an architectural standpoint, Patrick McLoughlin co-founder of BuildAbroad, an organisation that provides volunteer opportunities for construction and architecture, describes the following reasons published in an architectural journal which summarise why architects should volunteer and build abroad: 1. Construction provides a lasting physical impact 2. Construction encourages community involvement 3. Construction projects will serve the community for years 4. Construction can make an environmental impact 5. Construction can directly help other service opportunities38 McLoughlin’s reasons do not focus on self-fulfilling benefits. The reasons are concentrated on the outcome of the projects, and the benefits to the community and environment. These 5 reasons

by McLoughlin were posted as part of an interview with an architectural journal, Archdaily.

Further research into the work of BuildAbroad, it’s surprising to notice the contrast in approach to volunteering which is advertised on their website. The reasons to volunteer that are shown on McLoughlin’s BuildAbroad’s website are:

1. Provide a lasting physical impact 2. Make a real difference in the lives of community members 3. Step out of your comfort zone and meet interesting people 4. Get your hands dirty, exercise and work outside 5. Explore somewhere new while helping better the world39 Does this contrast between the journal and the website suggest that the architecture profession has a greater understanding of sustainable tourism? The reasons posted on BuildAbroad’s website could be seen to be directly aimed at the target audience, highlighting the self-actualisation and altruistic intentions of the volunteer, suggesting this is a key part of the volunteer’s ambitions. The website, can be said to be highlighting the self-actualisation benefits in order to recruit more students, and therefore able to market the projects at a higher value. The interview with ArchDaily however, focuses solely on the benefits of the outcome of the project. This can be seen to argue that the architecture profession is aware of the impacts of volunteering, and that critics are questioning the authenticity of travel and volunteering within the construction industry.

38 39

Linda Bennet, “5 Reasons Why Architects Should Volunteer To Build Abroad”, Archdaily, 2014 <https://bit.ly/2F2Vs83> [Accessed 1 January 2019].

About Us, BuildAbroad <https://buildabroad.org/about-us/> [Accessed 6 October 2018] 31

CHAPTER 4.0 EDUCATION & UNIVERSITY

4.3 Issues Arising Whilst opportunities for students to become involved with live-build projects are becoming more frequent, few opportunities in fact have specific skill requirements necessary to take part. Volunteerwatch completed an analysis of volunteer-based organisations, which showed that out of 50 projects analysed, only 24 percent asked the volunteers for a CV and none of them required references or conducted a personal interview before departure40. These results suggest a lack of concern over the efficiency and quality of work that the volunteers will complete. If a lack of experience or qualification restrict you from doing particular tasks in the UK, what is the motivation for volunteer programs to accept unskilled or unqualified volunteers for international work?

Figure 6. Volunteer-watch selection process results41 My own research shows similar results, when asking the question ‘Did you have any experience in the field you were working in prior to the project?’, 17 out of 26 people claimed they had little or no experience in the tasks they were completing during the project.42 Many highlighted this as a reason to join the project in the first place, to learn new skills and gain experience. One response quoted: “I signed up to the project mainly to gain experience in construction, develop my technical understanding and to travel.”43

40 41 42 43

Friederike Hertwig, Tourism-Watch.De, 2019 <https://bit.ly/2F2Vs83> [Accessed 1 January 2019].

Friederike Hertwig, Tourism-Watch.De Anonymous (Online Survey, 2018) [Appendix] p. 93 Ibid.

32

CHAPTER 4.0 EDUCATION & UNIVERSITY

With limited access to construction experience throughout architectural education, it isn’t surprising that the students surveyed highlighted an interest in applying their studies to real-life projects. A lack of accessibility to construction sites and hands-on material explorations in the UK because of strict health and safety regulations, mean that many students look abroad to get the experiences they require, where safety regulations are much more relaxed. The contrast of approaches by UK and international governments raises questions over the authenticity of these projects. Are students really qualified enough to be completing the work on site? During conversation with voluntourist expert, Pippa Biddle, stories were highlighted of her construction-based volunteering experience in Tanzania. The work volunteers completed was so poor that local builders would take it down to re-build it overnight.

‘We were so bad at the most basic construction work that each night the men had to take down the structurally unsound bricks we had laid and rebuild the structure so that, when we woke up in the morning, we would be unaware of our failure.’44 Through Biddle’s account, it seems that despite their best intentions, they ‘failed at their sole purpose of being there’.45 Would it have been more efficient and stimulative to the local economy and community to receive the volunteer’s funding and hire locals to do the work? Although the volunteers may have improved their skills and learnt more about construction, by indulging themselves in the community, they had, in Biddle’s opinion, unintentionally caused more harm than good. Instead of testing these new skills and training on-site, should we be looking at other ways to give students the opportunity to be involved with building projects? Invisible Studio, founded by Piers Taylor, run an education-based workshop for students (Studio in the woods) which was established in 2005 and located in the UK. It allows students a unique opportunity to test and explore ideas through making at 1:1, without the need of travelling abroad, in much more accessible and less sensitive locations.

Unskilled labour by volunteers can cause delays and costly results for a project, but are there other issues that can unintentionally have wider consequences?

4.4 Finance & Funding The financial gain of voluntourism is one of the key concerns of NGOs and professionals and has sparked the initiative of documents such as ‘The Better Volunteering, Better Care’ which was published in 2014.46 It comes after concern over the hidden costs and high fees that are associated with volunteering packages. One organisation, Project Abroad, charges its volunteers £1,450 for 2 weeks of volunteering in Cambodia, an amount which would be enough to cover the cost of a Cambodian teacher’s salary for over a year.47 Volunteering organisations are huge businesses, with i-to-i.com claiming a turnover

44 45 46 47

Pippa Biddle, Voluntourism (Skype Interveiw: 26 October 2018) [Appedix] p.75 Ibid.

About Us, The Better Volunteering Better Care, 2018 <https://bit.ly/2s3hakX> [Accessed 8 December 2018] Ibid.

33

CHAPTER 4.0 EDUCATION & UNIVERSITY

of £10 million a year, and who recently sold their business to First Group Travel for £20 million.48 Volunteers who are paying high fees for their experience, can be seen to be enforcing a customerclient relationship between the volunteer and the organisation. This relationship can be exaggerated depending on the motivations and expectations of the volunteer. If volunteers are entering the experience with the expectations of a holiday, tasks may be distributed in a way to try and provide volunteers with an experience to ‘get their money’s worth.’

4.5 Participation & Power The idea of a customer-client relationship can also be seen on the construction site between volunteers and locals. Theft is a common issue for live-build projects, resulting in a lack of trust or effective communication.49 Because of the issues surrounding theft, tasks requiring expensive power tools are generally given to western volunteers, as Woodward explained in an interview, that it ‘proved to be more reliable’50. This suggests that the westerners ultimately controlled the project, no matter their experience or background, because of the reputation of their culture. When on site, live-build projects rely heavily on the participation of local workers and builders to share skills and knowledge with volunteers who have little experience on site, however, if the power is seen to be kept with the volunteers, is it really participation? The poster in figure 7 highlights the importance of participation being equally shared among the powerful and powerless in order for it to have any impact.

The distribution of power is essential. Without a distribution of power, we can be seen to exaggerate the colonial instincts that privileged unskilled volunteers are more knowledgeable about the impacts and changes that will affect communities of completely different and contrasting cultures. This is what some critics are claiming to be the start of a new form of colonialism.

48 49 50

A Journey from stand up to start up, The Telegraph, 2018 <https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/ yourbusiness/2809434/A-journey-from-stand-up-to-start-up.html> Tom Woodward (Informal Interveiw: 14 October 2018) Ibid.

34

CHAPTER 4.0 EDUCATION & UNIVERSITY

Figure 7. French student poster In English, “I participate, you (singular) participate, he participates, we participate, you (plural) participate...they profit.”

35

CHAPTER 4.0 EDUCATION & UNIVERSITY

36

CHAPTER 5.0

COLONIALISM

5.1 Overview - What is Colonialism?

Colonialism is defined as ‘the conquest and control of other people’s land and goods.’51 It is the concept of communities and societies losing control of their culture and economies by being under the control of another country. Post-colonial theory has developed from the legacy of colonialism and looks to explore the lasting effects of colonialism on societies and cultures. There is a considerable debate over the definition and parameters of the term “post-colonial”, however in a more general sense, it is the study of the effects and interactions between European nations and the societies that were colonized in the modern period.52 Colonialism is mentioned throughout the voluntourism debate because of its links with cultural and racial superiority. Some critics say volunteers risk referencing colonial impacts, as author of ‘(De)colonizing pedagogies’, Katie McDonald says: ‘To travel is, in part, possible because of colonial and capitalist histories, and that these parentheses indicate that there are ways in which volunteering abroad for young people is an enactment of privilege that has parallels to colonisation.’53 5.2 Background & History By the time of the First World War, the European empire had expanded dramatically, and had engulfed over 85% of the rest of the globe. With centuries of consolidating its control before, the European empire held sway of nine-tenths of the worlds land mass, which has since lead to numerous studies into the lasting effects of the colonialised states. Postcolonial theory developed from the position that “development” was a Western impact to colonize now independent postcolonial societies and culture across the Global South.54 Edward Said’s book, Orientalism, became a defining and influential statement in the field of Post-colonial studies after it was published 1978. Said critiques the pattern of misrepresentation of the non-western world and defines Orientalism as a Western “corporate institution”, dealing with the Orient by “making statements, authorising views of it, describing it, settling it, and ruling over it.”55 Post-colonisation builds on these theories, highlighting a struggle and opposition of the society over the countries trying to gain power.

51 52 53 54 55

Ania Loomba, Colonialism/Postcolonialism, 2nd edn (Abingdon: Routledge, 2005).

Deepika Bahri, Fall 1996 Katie McDonald, (De)colonizing pedagogies: An exploration of learning with students volunteering abroad, Globetrotting or Global Citizenship? (Lonodn: University of Toronto Press, 2013) Sasha Hanson Pastran, “Volunteer Tourism: A Postcolonial Approach”, University Of Saskatchewan Undergraduate Research Journal, 2014 <https://doi.org/10.32396>.

Edward W. Said, Orientalism (London: London : Penguin, 2003) 37

CHAPTER 5.0 COLONIALISM

5.3 Architecture, colonialism & voluntourism It has been argued, that voluntourism is a new form of colonialism.56 This is due to the idea that voluntourism does little more than ‘reinforce racial superiority, and cultural stereotypes between tourists and hosts.’57 When you ask students why they want to study architecture, their answer is more often than not - ‘I want to design buildings and make the world a better place’58. Implicit in this answer is the assumption that there is a casual link between designing a building and making the world a better place. We might assume that most architects have good intentions, for the simple act of designing is with the intention of providing a better space than what exists, however issues arise when students or architects assume they know the answer to issues facing communities in developing countries without any proper understanding of place, people or power. This idea of superiority, is what some critics are calling colonialism. Forcing western culture onto communities can have detrimental effects, with communities losing their identities, and relying on westerners to provide them with aid, rather than working with their governments to improve situations for the future.59

56 57 58 59

Luke Moran, Architectural Voluntourism: “more harm than good?” (Sheffield, 2007) Barkham, “Are these the New Colonialists?,” p. 12–14 Nishat Awan, Tatjana Schneider and Jeremy Till, Spatial Agency, p. 37 Pippa Biddle [Appendix] p.79 38

CHAPTER 5.0 COLONIALISM

Figure 8. English missionaries promoting education in colonial India

39

Figure 9. Orkidstudio project completed on site

40

CHAPTER 6.0

IN PRACTICE - ORKIDSTUDIO

6.1 Orkidstudio Origins From the lessons learnt throughout modern and historical literature, this study will evaluate humanitarian architecture alongside voluntourism from the point of view of a single practice. The practice that this study focuses on; Orkidstudio, have adopted many of the humanitarian themes this literature has covered, including social impact; economic impact; and sustainability. Their projects have all made a commitment to engage and strive to provide spaces to meet and exceed the needs of the community that they are serving.

Orkidstudio’s first project formed through conversation with the charity New Hope for Africa Orphanage and School, who were known to co-founder Kiyenje and located in her home town of Uganda. The students offered their services to the charity, who expressed their need for a new kitchen and community space. They set out to design and build the spaces requested for the charity and raised funds to cover their travel and build costs. Having only just reached their twenties, and in their first year of university, it’s clear that they were entering the project with little knowledge or experience.

‘We didn’t choose to volunteer for any organisation or join another charity, and because we were so young at the time, we really didn’t have an awful lot to offer. As a result, we became incredibly dependent on the community, their skills and their understanding of the local materials and place’60 The lack of experience from the founders, meant they were forced to get totally involved with the community and the materials they were working with to develop an understanding of the processes and tools used in the build. Mitchell explains that they found a local engineer from the community, along with a group of men to work with, and “learned literally everything from them.”61 They spent 5 weeks living and working with the community to build the new kitchen and communal space. This cohesion of skills and communication with the locals helped make sure the project was built and designed to the standards of the people who will use it.

The building uses a simple construction method, but through an innovative design, the roof of the building collects rainwater enabling locals to harvest rainwater for the first time, providing an all-year-round source of clean, running water (see figure 10). The project, named The Mukono Project provided New Hope for Africa Orphanage and School with the new facilities they desperately needed

60

61

James Mitchell, “The Potential Of Architectural Skills To Affect Social Change”, Design Indaba, 2018 <http://www.designindaba.com/articles/point-view/james-mitchell-explores-potential-architecturalskills-affect-social-change> [Accessed 6 November 2018].

John Cary 41

CHAPTER 6.0 - ORKIDSTUDIO

but also presented the community with a building which could inspire and provide generous space for the community to develop. In a blog reflecting on 7 years of practice, Mitchell notes that the building still remains the only supply of clean running water in the area today, and the kitchen has become a focal point among the community.62 Orkidstudio trustee, Tom Woodward, still describes this first project as one of their most successful.63 A key aspect to what appears to make the Mukono project so successful, are the stories of how the experience has led to many of the team getting further jobs within the construction field.64 The success could also be due to the innocence and purity that the team entered the project with, due to no large-scale institution or profit-led company driving the project. The naivety with which the project was formulated, could be seen to provide a totally new perspective to the build, and the lack of experience could have forced the project into a complete cohesion of skills with the local builders, consequently providing the community with a building they not only needed but wanted.

6.2 Reflections After the success of the Mukono project, Mitchell and his co-founders registered as a charity, and named the practice Orkidstudio, inspired by their previous work with the orphanage and the children (Or-kid-studio).65 Mitchell’s passion for humanitarian architecture evolved when he was given the opportunity to work for one of the most celebrated humanitarian architects; Shigeru Ban. It was here, that Mitchell and his team still high on the praise of their first project, searched for their next.

Through a family friend of Mitchell, Orkidstudio came into contact with another orphanage in Bolivia, The Alalay Foundation. The Alalay foundation provide education, food and healthcare to around 25,000 children across Bolivia.66 The foundation’s facilities had been ruined and devastated by a recent fire, which lead to Orkidstudio being asked to re-construct two new classrooms and an outdoor performance area.

‘There I was in Tokyo, working for this big architect. I decided in all my infinite wisdom, to design this building, the art centre, for this country that I’d never been to, for this community that I had never met.’67 The team were still only 20 years old and with only one building as experience under their belt.

The Alalay foundation had asked for a building almost 6 times bigger than their first project, with a budget 5 times as generous. This time, they took along 10 volunteers, with expectations of the build

62 63 64 65 66 67

James Mitchell, ‘Seven Years’, Orkidstudio.Org, 2014 Tom Woodward (Informal Interview: 14 October 2018) James Mitchell John Cary, p. 117 Stephen Wearing, Volunteer Tourism: Experiences That Make A Difference (Wallingford: CAB International, 2001).

John Cary, p. 117.

42

CHAPTER 6.0 - ORKIDSTUDIO

(Above) Figure 10. A drawing showing the proposed structural section, highlighting the initial concept of locally sourced mud bricks.

(Below) Figure 11. The Mukono project on site 43

CHAPTER 6.0 IN PRACTICE - ORKIDSTUDIO

taking just 3 and a half months. They arrived in a country they had never visited before, presented with new construction methods, working with a community that they had also never met. As a result of a series of delays and complications, the project took over a year to complete. Mitchell was still at university, so was forced to balance his studies alongside trips back to Bolivia to ensure completion of the build, noting: ‘Suffice to say, when I reached Bolivia, things didn’t quite pan out as I had imagined. To be really blunt, I forgot all the good lessons that I had learned from that first project in Uganda.’68 The leap of project size and demand, meant a dramatic increase in pressure and responsibility of the team. The unexpected increase of pressure may have influenced the severity of delays to the project.

Although the building was eventually completed and well used, Mitchell describes the journey to get there as ‘just horrible’.69 He highlights that this was down to arguments between themselves and their own team and the different directions that they wanted the project to take, rather than any issues with the client. Although the team worked hard and immersed themselves in the project, their intentions were over-powered, resulting in a build that was much more complicated and time consuming than anyone had intended.

The Alalay project was also their first project in which they recruited a team of 10 volunteers.

The volunteers fundraised to cover their expenses and were made up of their fellow architecture colleagues. The concept of using volunteers as a way of providing the building needed, formed the first business model of Orkidstudio. This is the concept of Voluntourism. Many of the debates mentioned previously surrounding voluntourism, can be arguably applied to the work of Orkidstudio at this point. Did their over-confidence of taking on such a larger project prove to enhance the ideas of cultural superiority and colonialism? Were the volunteers more focussed on their own experience rather than their impact on the community?

68 69

John Cary, p.117.

Ibid.

44

CHAPTER 6.0 IN PRACTICE - ORKIDSTUDIO

Figure 12. Excitement for the opening of the Alalay Project, despite a difficult few months.

45

46

CHAPTER 7.0

ANALYSIS

7.1 More than just architecture Analysing the development of Orkidstudio, several key themes emerge; their focus on the construction process, rather than the final product; the focus on empowerment of the community rather than the provision of travel opportunities; the creation of trust; a focus of building capacity and providing future opportunities; and the importance of a demand for equality and dignity.

An analysis of the development of Orkidstudio’s approach since their origin, suggests a clear approach to learning and reflection, and a constant refinement of their ethos. They have written several publications (Curry Stone Foundation, Orkidstudio Blog, Metropolis) which highlight the importance that the building process can have as a tool for affecting social change. Instead of simply providing a beautiful building, their focus has shifted from the final architectural product, to empowerment through the construction process. Research by NEF (The New Economics Foundation) has shown that a ‘co-production approach’ which allows local people to share information and experiences from the very beginning of a project, was important for stimulating social interaction, and strengthening social networks.70 Now, although Orkidstudio is still a registered charity, the practice operates primarily as a social enterprise.71 ‘More than anything, it is a democratic challenge, a question of societal participation and of responsible innovation in which citizens are not expected to only accept the future as it has been designed for them. Rather they must be enabled to appropriate the future in making.’72 Samuel describes the need for societal participation in order for the future success of a community project, but what other aspects of a project must be considered for successful future development?

7.2 Economy Analysing trends and topics surrounding voluntourism, one of the key arguments raised is that bringing in volunteers for construction work is taking away work opportunities for locals. A reason why this happens so often can be explained by the ethics of profit driven companies. Having volunteers that will pay for the experience instead of hiring locals to complete the work, means that companies are able to make money instead of spending it, simply by opening the opportunities to

70 71 72

John Cary, p.97.

Ibid, p. 75.

Flora Samuel, Why Architects Matter: Evidencing and Communicating the Value of Architects (New York : Routledge, 2018) p. 74.

47

Figure 13. Men and women working on the Kuk project.

48

CHAPTER 7.0 ANALYSIS

volunteers. According to research by Tourism-watch, out of 25 operators who offer voluntourism and who were selected at random, 22 are profit-oriented tour operators.73 Voluntourism has become an industry, striving on making profit from tourists who so often have only good intentions.

The work of volunteers can also take away opportunities for workers outside of the construction industry, as local businesses compete with volunteers offering their services free of charge. But it’s not just the money that the locals are missing out on. The experience and skills developed from working on a build project will provide locals with knowledge that they can further with new projects in the future, providing them with a stepping stone of experience into the ever-growing construction industry. However, not all critics believe the economic impact of volunteers is detrimental. Shannon O’Donnel highlights that many volunteers bring in economic value in other ways such as paying host families or buying food and souvenirs.74 These values however are all temporary. Once volunteers have left, communities are back to normal and must be dependent on each other rather than on tourists to grow their businesses.

Orkidstudio note their passion towards building capacity rather than dependency in their approach; ‘Our projects focus on the process of construction rather than just the final product.

We believe this process is a powerful tool for affecting social change and empowering people through the sharing of skills and knowledge on site.’75 To prove their testaments, some of Orkidstudio’s latest projects, such as the Kuk project (seen in Figure 13) have been left on site before their completion. They’ve found that not only can this be a good thing, it can in fact be the making of a project.76 Although leaving a project uncompleted was never the initial intentions, Orkidstudio have said that it can create a lasting positive outcome, as it shows the construction team have been trusted and responsible for the completion of their own project.77 As Nabeel Hamdi wrote, you must look for opportunities of multipliers, as ‘small may be beautiful but big is necessary and inevitable’78.

Orkidstudio claim that they rarely work with skilled or trained professionals, preferring instead to ‘engage the community around them by giving employment to many of the poorest or those struggling for work or an education.’79 By doing this, they are able to provide the locals with new skills, to leave them with a newfound knowledge and understanding that will provide them with future

73 74 75 76 77 78 79

Tourism-Watch.De, 2019 Shannon O’Donnel, The Volunteer Traveler’s Handbook, Full Flight Press; 1 edition (14 Sept. 2012).

Orkidstudio, “Our Approach”, Orkidstudio.org, 2018 Orkidstudio, “Project Kuk”, Orkidstudio.org, 2016 < https://orkidstudio.org/blog/kuk-project-leavingbefore-completion/74/> [Accessed 10 November 2018] Ibid.

Nabeel Hamdi, Small Change (London: Earthscan Publications, 2004).

Orkidstudio, “Project Kuk”.

49

CHAPTER 7.0 ANALYSIS

opportunities after the build. Training workers during the construction can add a timely expense to the process, as every stage must be taught and mastered before it can be completed. Orkidstudio have noted that this can lead to walls being built and taken back down again, just to ensure mistakes are corrected and bricklayers are trained sufficiently.80 Although this approach increases the build time and therefore increases the risk of a project for the client, it provides a unique selling point to potential clients, as they are able to openly invest in a procurement route which has proven to leave a lasting positive impact for the locals, with many workers continuing onto other construction work or setting up their own businesses within the communities.81 Instead of this added cost of unskilled workers being volunteers from wealthier backgrounds, Orkidstudio have now put their efforts into employing local community members who do not have prior construction skills, and will therefore benefit much greater from the opportunities that the experience on the project will provide them with.

7.3 Empowerment The St Jerome’s Centre (also known as the Nakuru Children’s Home, see figure 14) is a project completed in 2014, by Orkidstudio and a team of architecture student volunteers in Nakuru, Kenya.

By this point, Orkidstudio had evolved its business ethos, and although still working with a small team of volunteers, the majority of work was completed by locally employed builders. The St Jerome’s project was their biggest to date and had as many as seventy people on site each day. This included local women who worked alongside their male counterparts for an equal wage, setting a rare precedent for employment in the area.82 Orkidstudio had developed an efficient and effective building method using earth bags, which uses soil generated from excavating the foundations, sanitation and rainwater storage. Using earth bags almost halves the cost of construction, as the soil is packed into everyday grain bags and laid like oversized bricks (See figure 15). This method is simple, cheap and accessible.

It creates a wall which helps absorb heat from the sun which helps regulate temperature inside the building during cooler nights. The idea of the new construction method, was that it could be passed on to the community to encourage new projects in the area to be built in a similar way, reducing the dependence on Orkidstudio after completion of the project.

Due to the size and scale of the St Jerome’s Centre, a crane was needed to erect the large wooden frame of the building to create a base which the earth-bags would sit against. Due to the qualifications and experience of locally employed labourers, they were unable to be involved in the process of erected the frame with the crane. This meant they therefore missed out on a vital part of the construction process. Mitchell explains that on visits back to the St. Jerome’s Centre, he realised that the gap in experience created by the crane was still being felt.83 Although the lessons learnt from building earth

80 81 82 83

Orkidstudio, “Project Kuk”.

Ibid.

Orkidstudio, “Nakuru Children’s Home”, Orkidstudio.Org, 2014 <https://orkidstudio.org/projects/ nakuru-childrens-home/6/> [Accessed 1 November 2018] John Cary, p.125 50

CHAPTER 7.0 ANALYSIS

Figure 14. The completed Nakuru Childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Home, a play of light and colour.

51

CHAPTER 7.0 ANALYSIS

bags was successful, they weren’t able to apply the method to other buildings such as their own homes.

The St Jerome’s Centre is reported to be well-used and well-maintained84, meaning in many eyes the project appears successful. Although the building has provided a beautiful and inspiring place for children to stay and sleep, the wider impact has not had the intended result due to the gap in skills created by machinery and methods that were beyond the capability of the local builders. This suggests that the building ultimately has a shelf date. When the architects have left, and the building has deteriorated, the community will appear to be back to a similar position to before. The building therefore, can be seen to benefit that community only temporarily.

7.4 Equality As well as employing unskilled workers and transferring skills in a way which is rarely seen in the developing world, Orkidstudio set an even bigger precedent in the world of humanitarian architecture by employing women. In 2013, whilst working on the Nakuru project in Kenya, a woman named Hellen Nyambura walked onto the construction site and asked for work. Before this, Orkidstudio, like most practices, had only ever worked with men. This is because the only skilled labour available were men, and although already full to the brim with workers, Mitchell decided to give her a job. He offered her a job working alongside the men, completing the same tasks, and being paid exactly the same as her male counterparts. Being the only women and having never been on a construction site before, Mitchell made sure for her to not be relegated to menial roles or cleaning, he wanted her to learn.

‘We feel happy when we work with men, we are paid equally and thus we feel equal.’85 Women form half the global population yet represent 70% of the world’s poor. Additionally, they fulfil 70% of the world wide working hours but only receive 10% of the income.86 Orkidstudio were inspired by Helen’s determination, and within a week they had hired 10 more of Hellen’s friends.

Mitchell described them as being ‘incredible, they work harder than the men, and they picked up skills quicker.’87 From this experience, Orkidstudio now ensure that on every project they employ a minimum of 50% women. According to a report published by Deloitte, the construction industry is one of the fastest growing industries in Africa, and yet only 6% of the construction industry in Africa is women, Orkidstudio are setting an unprecedented example of gender equality within the construction industry, inspiring practices across the globe.

84 85 86 87

John Cary, p.121 Hellen Nyumbara Kamau, Empowerment Series, (Film 01, The Lighthouse, Scotland’s Centre for Architecture and Design, 2015).

Ibid.

Ibid.

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CHAPTER 7.0 ANALYSIS

Beyond their dedication, further research into the employment of women has shown that the money earnt by women on site is much more likely to be spent on their family than the money earnt by men. 96% of Grameen Bank’s million borrowers are women and have observed that money going to women brings a greater benefit to the family and community than money going to the men.88 Employing women has not only improved the gender pay gap, but as Judith (a construction worker on the Nakuru project) has quoted, ‘The men look at us differently now, they respect us.’.89 The impact of their employment has changed perceptions, and improved their respect within their communities.

7.5 Sustainability In 2014, Orkidstudio began a new project which looks to provide a ‘catalyst through the teachings of a unique construction technique and skill.’90 The 1K house was designed with drawings which require no mathematics or engineering, and no crane or advanced construction methods. In Design for Good, Mitchell explains that the process was all about teaching basic rules of thumb. However, lowering the cost and simplicity of construction is only half the battle. Despite this method being half the cost of similar dwellings, the cost is still too great for the poorer half of the demograph of society which Orkidstudio were most interested in supporting. This meant that Orkidstudio shifted their focus from designing the building, to providing income and land to build, and have created a cooperation of 15 women who have begun to generate enough income to enable 15 houses to be built.

They were able to design a house which combined all the sustainable building methods that had previously proved most cost efficient and successful, however the initial cost of land and building materials was still too high for the majority of people, especially women. Access to land and livestock in Kenya is especially difficult, as land is often handed down to the eldest son, and the expense of livestock outweighs any income available in the area. Orkidstudio are now working closely with financial institutions and the regional governments to provide a product that will help finance these purchases.

The 1 K house (also known as ‘Hellen’s House) was built as part of a loan, rather than as charity.

The loan allowed the owner, Hellen, to purchase the land, and the building materials needed. To help start a business to encourage growth and initiate repayments, the loan also included 10 chickens and a small chicken coop. Since completion of the house, Hellen has been repaying Orkidstudio weekly for more than 2 years with the money she has made from her chicken enterprise. Mitchell explains how she has dramatically increased the size of her business and now owns around 70 chickens, as well as saving for a cow. Hellen has tripled her monthly income, and in a total of 5 years since the house’s

88 89 90

“Empowering Women through Contrsuction”, Orkidstudio.Org, 2015 <https://orkidstudio.org/blog/ empowering-women-through-construction/60/> [Accessed November 16 2018].

Judith, “Women in Construction”, Orkidstudio.Org, 2017 <https://orkidstudio.org/projects/women/> [Accessed October 19 2018].

“1K House & Sustainable Development”, Orkidstudio.Org, 2015 <https://orkidstudio.org/blog/1khouse-sustainable-development/63/> [Accessed December 1 2018].

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Figure 15. Women on site in Kenya.

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Figure 16. Women building Hellenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s House using earth bag construction

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Figure 17. Hellenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s House under construction

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completion she will have completed her re-payments and own her house outright.91 Building the house as a loan, rather than as a gift appears to offer a multitude of benefits. Not only does it mean that Orkidstudio will eventually receive their investment back, but it also may support a greater sense of ownership. Mitchell explains that he feels that a lot of buildings when gifted as charitable donations can be taken for granted, sometimes becoming more of a burden on a community rather than enhancing it. When a community earn a building or are an integral part of its design and construction, they are more likely to embrace it and maintain it in the years after completion.92 This concept of charity can be seen outside of architecture too, where generosity can have unexpected repercussions. A volunteer in Cambodia found that giving shoes and water filters to residents can divert business from local markets and cause jealousy between children and their families.93 Orkidstudio are working alongside the organisation of 15 women in order to provide loans so that all 15 women will be able to build their own home. Hellenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s house is the first house to be completed and will act as a show-home for Hellen and her colleagues to develop an earthbag construction business in order to deliver similar homes for others in the area. The building has not only provided a safe new home for Hellen and her family, but it has provided them with dignity and opportunities to expand and develop their businesses and their lives beyond their involvement with Orkidstudio.

This initiative has developed from the principle of hiring locally, instead of bringing in volunteers to complete the work. This project shows the importance of participation and sharing of knowledge in order to provide more than just a building.

Providing families with a framework to raise funds, buy land, design a home, and construct the building themselves, offers a new opportunity for the more vulnerable people in Kenya to not only own their home, but provide a sustainable living beyond completion of the build. The role of architecture has expanded to include opportunities beyond completion, and by focussing on the enterprise aspect of the framework, it provides people with not just a building, but earnt, ownership of their own home.

91 92 93

John Cary, p. 125.

Ibid.

Ken Budd, â&#x20AC;&#x153;5 Myths About Voluntourismâ&#x20AC;?, Nationalgeographic.com, 2018 <https://www. nationalgeographic.com/travel/intelligent-travel/2015/02/04/unpacking-voluntourism-five-myths/> [Accessed 1 January 2019].

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Figure 18. Hellenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s House completed

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CONCLUSION

8.1 Summary Through-out this study I have researched various influencing factors of the impact and consequences of volunteer-based architectural development projects. It seems clear to me that volunteer-based projects carry a burden of factors that must be carefully considered to make sure projects do not cause unintended consequences. From the volunteer’s ambitions, to educational establishment’s motivations, we must be more careful in providing opportunities that do not exploit the unfortunate situations of others to gain experience and skills for ourselves.

Humanitarian issues have recently grown in importance in the world’s architectural agenda, with the push for socially orientated designs and the benefits of community involvement being more widely documented. As architects and designers, we have a humanitarian responsibility to provide spaces that have the potential to transform social and cultural norms to produce opportunities for economic progression. However, the responsibility of the Architect goes beyond that of a designer.

Architects are responsible for the impacts that their building and its process has on the interaction of people, procurement and construction. Architecture has the potential not only to offer high quality spaces and functionality, but to empower users and the community through involvement and participation. Orkidstudio have shown that good design and successful engagement with the community throughout the process of design, procurement and construction, can empower and dignify communities to create lasting change.

Since their origin, Orkidstudio have been honest and truthful about their progression as a practice, and their impact as a tool for social change. To do this, they openly reflect on their own work which is admirable when compared to the rest of the architecture profession. There is a severe lack of platform available to share the failure, lessons or outcomes of academic and architectural projects beyond the images that are published.94 Are architects reluctant to talk about their failures in fear of damaging their reputation? Why should we be ashamed to admit the unintended consequences of our actions?

Orkidstudio are setting an inspiring precedent of attitude when it comes to reflecting on projects, by admitting mistakes and highlighting where previous projects may not have been as successful as they had intended. We should all be more open and honest about a project, to evaluate the success, and share its failures, to improve the industry as a whole.

Although projects may appear successful on paper, it’s important to look beyond the published figures to analyse the success of a project for the people. The Indian government, for example, aimed to reduce the spreading of diarrhoea that kills millions of children annually by setting targets of

94

Ursula Hartig, Learning from failures, AECC Architecture Connects, p. 55.

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building public toilets. After 10 million toilets had been installed, the government had learnt a very hard lesson; building a toilet is one thing, getting people to use it is quite another.95 Despite new toilets being provided, communities weren’t aware of the issues surrounding sanitation and therefore new toilets had not improved the situation. Perhaps building toilets wasn’t necessarily the right thing to do.

This can be compared to similar situations within the construction industry, with the final building perhaps not benefiting communities in the way that was initially expected. As seen in the St Jerome’s Project, Orkidstudio have admitted gaps in the sharing of knowledge during the construction period, and have since put their efforts into the 1K house project, which aimed to provide a framework and enterprise that would allow families to build and earn their own home. The idea of providing a framework which allows capacity for communities to develop beyond contact with the architect is what will make lasting and sustainable changes to communities in need.

Along with the rising trend of voluntourism, universities are pushing for an increased awareness of humanitarian issues, with the involvement of volunteer-based architectural development projects being encouraged. Students are increasingly looking for ways to put their humanitarian interests to the test and expose themselves to real-life projects and construction sites, presenting the paradox of altruism and self-actualisation. One reason for the rising popularity can be said to be a result of the lack of hands-on opportunities throughout architectural education. Currently, the most accessible way to gain hands-on site experience is to volunteer with architectural development projects abroad.

Sending students with minimal experience to volunteer abroad, can have harmful effects to the communities of these projects. Do students have the right to complete tasks they’re not qualified for in the UK? Whether the responsibility lies with the charity organisation, the university, or the individual themselves, more should be done to ensure that participants have the skills necessary to maximise their use when on site. Instead of sending students to remote, sensitive locations to expand their construction knowledge, we should actively be increasing accessibility to student based construction education programs, such as ‘Studio in the Woods’.

Through interviews and conversations with students who have been part of live-build projects, I was astounded by how much the focus of the conversation was on how the experience had influenced them. Without realising, many students seem to reflect on the experience with a perspective of how they benefitted or have changed since, and an idealistic view of how the building will change the live of the community they worked with.96 These kinds of conversations highlight colonial ideologies, that unskilled volunteers are taking on the role of experts regardless of their experience or qualifications, representing the idea of the westerner as racially and culturally superior. We must ensure students and volunteers are aware of the impact of their actions and promote opportunities for equality in the communities they are working in and not focussing their efforts on their own benefits.

95 96

Ojomo, Efosa. “Stop Building Schools; Stop Building Water Wells; Stop Building Toilets.” Christensen Institute, 9 Oct. 2016 Anonymous Online Survey [Appendix] p. 78.

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Although we can discourage students from volunteering with profit-driven architectural development companies, are we depriving communities of buildings that they could benefit from?

The majority of live-build related projects rely heavily on the fees of paying volunteers, and without fees the projects would not go ahead. However, would this really be a bad thing? If projects were forced to run purely on specific funding rather than the fees of volunteers, it would limit companies to only go-ahead with projects they had the passion for, and if they knew it was really going to make a difference to communities. Projects without funding from volunteers relies on clients who are willing to invest money into projects that put social change at the core. The change of perceptions that Orkidstudio have created as a result of training unskilled workers, including women, sets an inspiring precedent for the construction industry.

To summarise, the key themes highlighted throughout this study can be remembered by the 5 Eâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s; Empowerment, Engagement, Education, Economy and Equality. Following this, these terms have been expanded into a series of lessons. The study concludes that our altruistic intentions as architects and designers may be best placed putting time and research into architectural development projects that give opportunities for communities to build and develop architecture themselves.

Orkidstudioâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s research and projects with women across Africa, has suggested that innovative designs using cost-effective materials and local construction methods, can create a catalyst of development for communities. To ensure a lasting difference for communities, we must give them future opportunities beyond completion of a building. Architecture has the ability to not only provide beautiful spaces that can transform social behaviour. Architecture can be the catalyst for empowerment and social change.

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8.2 Lessons A framework of lessons has been developed in an aim to summarise the findings of the study.

This guidance is aimed primarily at students who are interested in working within architectural development abroad, to question motives and ensure students are aware of their responsibilities when working within an unregulated industry, such as voluntourism.

1. EDUCATION Research and respect cultural differences.

Many of us travel and volunteer to challenge our preconceptions and prejudices of other cultures, but it’s vital to ensure you’re aware, and educated of cultural differences to approach the project with a basic knowledge, sensitivity, understanding, and respect. Do you understand what, where and who you are aiming to help during the experience?

2. EQUALITY Do not take on tasks that you are not qualified for.

For many, live-build projects present the opportunity to gain valuable construction knowledge to further their architectural education, however, is travelling to international communities really the best place to be testing these new-found skills? Are you able to complete the work to a fair enough standard if you are not qualified for the work in the UK? Are you contributing to the project, or are you promoting racial superiority by depriving local workers of the jobs you’re completing?

3. ECONOMY Put the needs of communities before your own.

With fees of voluntourism-based organisations often hidden and unclear, it’s vital to have an understanding of where your money is going, and who it is aiming to help. Question the motives of the company you are volunteering with, is the project marketed towards benefitting communities or is it marketed at providing opportunities for volunteers? Would it be more efficient and stimulative to the local economy to receive your funding and hire locals to do the work?

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4. ENGAGEMENT Be open and honest about your motivations.

It’s important to be open and honest about your motivations for completing the project, in order to ensure the project is right for both you, and the communities you’re visiting. Who are you intending to help and how? Is the project effectively considering the needs of the community? Could the experiences you require be completed without over-powering the communities you visit?

5. EMPOWERMENT Aim to build capacity, not dependency.

For true impact and change in communities, skills and knowledge must be transferable so that new buildings and structures can be built and maintained without help needed from outside. Effecting change is a long-term commitment, short-term build projects fail to improve the livelihood of communities in the way that education, sharing of knowledge and empowerment can. Change will always be temporary if the community’s reliance on the organisation is never decreasing.

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