How can Biomimicry and Passivhaus Design be used to create a Zero-Carbon Living environment?

How can Biomimicry and Passivhaus Design be used to create a Zero-Carbon Living environment?

Hannah Morton Level 6 Interior Design Student Independent Research Project 18th February 2020.

Contents Introduction Chapter 1 Passivhaus Technology

Theory of Passivhaus Design Evolution of Passivhaus Design Principles of Passivhaus Design Example 1- Grand Designs, Construction of a Passivhaus Example 2- Passivhaus in South London Example 3- All Wood Passivhaus Factory Example 4- Passivhaus Community Centre Example 5- London School powered by the Thames Example 6- The Warner Sobek House Evaluation of Passivhaus Design Summary of Passivhaus Design

Chapter 2 Biomimicry

Theory of Biomimicry Outline of how Biomimicry can be applied Example - Algae Curtains Example 2- The Eden Project Closed Loop Design Example 3- Sahara forest project Evaluation of Biomimicry Summary of Biomimicry

Chapter 3 Zero-Carbon Living Definition and Outline of Zero-Carbon Living Example 1- City of Meom Example 2- Masdar City Example 3- Water Purification Example 4- Green Orchard House Evaluation of Zero-Carbon Living

Conclusion Bibliography Figure List

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26-37 27 28-29 30-31 32-33 34 35 36 37

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Introduction

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This project considers how we can combine Passivhaus design and biomimicry as construction methods to create a solution to enable Zero-carbon living. By comparing these methods, we can see the positives and negatives of both concepts and then create a solution by merging aspects of these different approaches.

This is a vitally important topic because Global warming is a critical issue; and as designers, we need to look at new and innovative ways to create a built environment which does not contribute to the current crisis. I believe that by creating net zero carbon homes, this will contribute to making a difference in the amount of emissions the human population produce. Of course, many different factors need to be addressed, but this is just one way that we can start to have an impact as research suggests that “Buildings account for 40–50% of the total US carbon emissions” (Klingenberg. pg 426, 2013).. For me, this figure shows that there is cause for change, and this document will highlight how we can reduce carbon emissions from homes and buildings.

My first chapter discusses Passivhaus design; this is an cutting edge construction approach which aims to create a building which uses minimal energy for heating and cooling the home — “aiming to be a cost-effective, high quality, healthy and sustainable method of construction” (Klingenberg. pg 426, 2013). This includes elements such as superinsulation, thermal bridges and the comfort principle. In this chapter, I will also explore how Passivhaus design developed, some examples of how this has been applied to homes, and prospects to use Passivhaus principles in educational buildings, such as the proposed design for a London School Powered by Thames Tide. I will then go on to discuss the positives and negatives associated with this design strategy.

In chapter two, I explore biomimicry, which is the theory of looking at nature, whether this is structures, habitats or ecosystems, then, imitating elements of this into a solution to a design problem. Due to nature being such a vast subject to look at, there are many different elements which can be used. Some examples of biomimicry I look at include; Algae curtains which process carbon dioxide into oxygen. Another example shows that by looking at how cells form, and imitating this process, you can create shapes you might not even be able to imagine with incredible detail. I will then discuss further the benefits of biomimicry and the criticisms the application of this theory has.

Chapter three discusses Zero carbon living, which presents itself as having a net-zero carbon use in homes. Based on this idea, I will be exploring the impact Carbon Dioxide has on the environment and the importance of reducing carbon emissions. I will then look at places that have achieved zero carbon status and what techniques they have used. For example, Saudi Arabia has built a fully automated city run on solar energy and developing alternative technology which reduces the amount of carbon dioxide produced. In addition to this, I will analyse how the previous topics of Passivhaus Design and Biomimicry can be linked to zerocarbon living.

In my conclusion, I argue that zero-carbon living is achievable through many different means and can be applied to more than the traditional home but to many other buildings that by combining Passivhaus technology and biomimetic theories this will help achieve this goal.

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Chapter 1 Passivhaus Design

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Theory of Passivhaus Design The Passivhaus concept aims to accomplish two main goals of minimising energy loss and maximising energy gains.

This is a holistic approach to high quality sustainable construction. To be classed as a Passivhaus, the house is required to use up to “95% less energy for heating and cooling the space” (Klingenberg, pg 426 2013), in contrast to the conventional home. For a building to achieve thermal status, this requires optimising heat loss and gain through the buildings shell; this is mainly concentrated on insulation and reducing thermal bridges. Resulting in thermal comfort through both summer and winter with only minimal input energy of roughly “1W/sqft” (Klingenberg, pg 426 2013).

Evolution of Passivhaus Design The evolution of the passive house standards developed from the creation of super-insulated buildings in the “1970s” (Klingenberg, pg 426, 2013). This was when University of Illinois developed the Small Homes Council, which created the Low-Call house, trying to minimise the energy usage by using effective insulation to reduce the heat loss from a house. Wayne Schick was a member of the architectural team who worked on this project and created the term “superinsulation”. The actual term Passivhaus seems to have originated from Canada as passive housing, used as a scientific term for the combination of superinsulation and passive solar strategies. The term Passive House was then translated into German as Passivhaus and remained this way when referred to by Feist and Adamson who were the first to build a Passivhaus in the 1980s. Feist and Adamson used this term as an appropriate description of a holistic design strategy and applied this to their design. This building was adapted to create comfortable heating conditions in the Central European climate with minimal heating. Their design aimed to eliminate conventional heating systems as their building would require so little extra heat that they believed the usual heating methods would not be needed. Following this Dr Feist founded the Passivhaus Institute known as the PHI in Darmstadt.

This institute has thrived under his influence, where designs are created, tested, certified and data analyses and constructed to the passive house standards. The institute uses the Passive House Planning Package, which is often referred to as PHPP as an energy modelling program. (Klingenberg, 2013) From the information above, we can see the evolution of Passivhaus design from superinsulation, to the development of passive heating strategies such as solar energy use and then the combination of the two theories, creating the term Passivhaus. This has then developed further into the creation of the Passivhaus Insitute, where designs are created and certified against the Passivhaus standards. This highlights that it may be possible to use resources to create a zero-carbon living environment from Passivhaus technology as institutes are specialising and researching into the development of passive houses. This could have a significant impact on the future construction of new build houses, as I believe they could apply these theories to reduce the amount of energy and carbon used day-to-day. Which would be a start in the right direction to help battle the current climate crisis.

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Principles of Passivhaus Design

Figure 1: Passive House Diagram (Source: Jorge Fontan, 2018)

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In a Passivhaus design, certain principles must be used and considered to be certified as a passive house. There are seven main principles that I will discuss and talk you through. Some of these principles are illustrated in figure 1.

The first one is superinsulation; this is insulating the external shell of the building, which inhibits heat transmission and helps to maintain a consistent interior temperature. There are an array of different materials which can be used to insulate a building envelope. These include; “Cellulose, High-density blown-in fibreglass, spray foam, polystyrene and straw bale” (Klingenberg, pg 431, 2013). The primary insulation technique is spray foam as it has a high R rating, which is the measurement of resistance to heat flow. However, this material has high embodied energy in the creation of the content, which can amplify the effects of global warming. Manufacturers are developing a spray foam which does not have these disadvantages. There are insulation techniques such as “vacuum insulated panels” (Klingenberg,pg 19, 2013) which are a new and technique which also has high R-values per inch; this enables the designers to reduce the wall thickness, which can in turn result in a reduced amount of cement used, which has a high carbon footprint.

Furthermore, the insulation must be correctly installed. For example, before filling the designated area with insulation, the density must be accurately measured, as this can prevent settling, where the insulating material can lose its air pockets, which reduces the R-value, creating less efficient insulation over time. The application and performance of insulation can be measured using a thermographic or IR camera. These cameras identify heat loss and can highlight where the inadequate insulation (Klingenberg, pg 426, 2013).

Another consideration in Passivhaus design is the comfort principle. Klingenberg states “that there must be thermal comfort in summer and winter” (Klingenberg, 2013), which is often determined by the thickness of the insulation and climate of the area. If the external walls are cold, then heat is lost to the colder exterior surface . Leading to feeling the cold in winter. During summer the hot air radiates to the interior, this could cause the interior to be uncomfortably warm.

The solution for this is to maintain the exterior surface temperate uniformly at one level so that convection of heat is almost eliminated. This is done by determining a fixed interior temperate and looking at the summer and winter and designing for a constant temperature at any given climate. In a passive house, the difference in temperature of exterior and interior surfaces should not exceed 4 degrees Fahrenheit, to consistently maintain human thermal comfort. The comfort principle strongly relates to all factors of creating a passive house. This can be identified in the next principle of Eliminating thermal bridges. Klingenberg, pg, 2013)

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Thermal bridges are when heat passes “through an element that has a higher thermal conductivity than the surrounding material” (Klingenberg, pg 431, 2013). Therefore, the more thermal bridges in a space the heat loss is significantly increased. Thermal bridges occur at the edges, corners, connection and penetrations in construction. To reduce the heat loss at these areas, effective thermal isolation should be applied; this is called a thermal break. In a passive house, there are little or no thermal bridges. An example of a thermal bridge that we can all identify with is a window. Usually, if it is cold outside and you are inside, and you put your hand on the window you can feel the cold of the window, this is a thermal bridge as the window is immediately conducting the heat from your hand. This is generally where most conventional households will lose the most heat. To prevent this, there are high-performance windows available, where in-between the panes of glass there is a specific type of gas which acts as a thermal barrier for the window, reducing the amount of heat loss.

Another principle for Passivhaus design is airtight construction; this helps the performance of the building by reducing or eliminating drafts. In addition to this, it also helps prevent warm, moist air from penetrating the structure and condensing inside the wall and causing structural damage such as rot and mould. Airtight construction can be achieved by wrapping a continuous layer of airtight material around the entire building envelope. Insulation materials alone are generally not airtight; therefore, it is additional sealing required. There are a range of different materials that can be used to create an airtight layer. These include; “membranes, tapes, plasters, glues, shields and gaskets. These materials are durable, easy to apply and environmentally sound” as stated by Klingenberg (pg 432, 2013.) Without this, the building envelope will lose heat through these gaps. You can imagine this by using an analogy of filling a container with water. If this container is cracked and has holes in it, the water will leak out of the container. It is the same principle with heat loss from the building. (Klingenberg, 2013) Saying this, you do need some ventilation to filter and provide fresh air. The Passivhaus principles also address this with a heat and energy ventilation system. These ventilation systems circulate a measured quantity of fresh air throughout the house and exhaust stale air. These machines incorporate air to air energy recovery system; this conserves most of the energy in the exhausted air and transfers it to the incoming fresh air. (Klingenberg, 2013) Optimisation of internal heat gains and passive-solar energy are also an essential principle in Passivhaus design.

Orientation is one of the main factors which affect energy loss and gains. This is due to the positioning of glazing

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throughout the house. Designers should consider allowing maximum sunlight in the areas it may be wanted and minimum heat gains in unwanted areas.

For example, sunlight may be more beneficial in an area of enjoyment such as living spaces and bedroom; this works in two ways, the more sunlight, the higher the heat gain through the glazing, providing a “free” heat source, in addition to this the sunlight in these areas means that less energy for artificial light is required. With this information, the ideal glazing areas are mainly the south of the building. However, it may not always be possible to orientate the house this way due to exterior sunlight obstructions such as other buildings, trees or the surrounding landscape casting shadows on the building.

Although maximising heat gains through glazed areas may be beneficial during the winter. During the summer, this could cause problems with the interior overheating and causing discomfort. This means it is important to provide shade during this period. There are various ways in which effective shading can be applied, one of these strategies is having roof eaves which are the correct length so that the south-facing windows are shaded in the summer when the sun is higher than in the winter months. Other effective shading techniques include using deciduous trees or vines to block out the sunlight during the summer; this may also be a way of giving a natural visual to the view from the interior.

The recommended guide for optimum solar gain in a cold climate is approximately “50%” (Klingenberg, pg 434, 2013).

Another source of heat is internal heat gain; this can be through equipment, lighting and people which emit heat.

Therefore, when designing the interior, it is crucial to consider the amount of heat given off when calculating the overall heat gains.

From this information, we can see that it is essential to identify where heat can be gained through a house and use this information to its full potential, and by doing this we can reduce the energy needed for both heating and light.

Combining these principles are imperative for the success of a passive house. To calculate the energy balance and efficiency of the building, designers use the passive house planning package. This is an extremely effective balancing model which considers characteristics of the building such as orientation, size, window location, insulation, materials.

This then analyses the design and calculates in the equivalent of meters per gallon of energy consumption. This then allows designers to modify components to adjust the overall balance if needed, this model it gives the designer a preview of if the design will meet Passivhaus standards. (Klingenberg, 2013).

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Example 1- Grand Designs, Consturction of a Passivhaus

Figure 2: Polystyrene Block Insulation (Source: Grand Designs, 2010)

Figure 3: South Face of a Passive House (Source: Grand Designs, 2010)

Figure 4: Glazing Panels Over Solar Heating Hosing Acting as One Big Solar Panel (Source: Grand Designs, 2010)

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Passive house principles have been applied in many ways over recent years. Here is the first example of the techniques used to create a passive house. This particular episode of Grand Designs a couple aimed to build one of England’s first entirely passive house, images from this can be seen in figures 2-4. There are several of these techniques they have used. These include; 250mm polystyrene blocks for insulation, Tripple glazing along the south face of the building, making the most of the solar gains. The use of slag panels for the building structure, this material is a waste product of cement production and has a much smaller carbon footprint. They also Installed a heat recovery ventilation system.

On the south side of their upper level, they had cladding made of slate and tempered glass. The glass is there to cover a black rubber hosing which heats the hot water for the house, acting as one large solar panel which spans across the length of the building instead of several small ones. In addition to this, the majority of the house is underground, making the most of the grounds thermal mass.

During the time this was filmed, the passive house requirements to achieve a minimum of 10 when calculating air leakage. When the couple had their house tested, they achieved an air leakage result of 0.24. From these results, we can deduce that Passivhaus design have been effective when applied to this building and has produced a passive house, with significantly low values of air leakage.(Grand Designs, Cotsworlds, 2010) The above example highlights theories of Passivhaus design, which applies to the principles of passive house design, from insulation material to solar gains and depicts how effective these techniques can be when used in the construction of a building. This has the potential to impact the current climate crisis as I believe these principles need to be applied to current housing and also future buildings as these principles can significantly reduce the amount of energy used in day to day living. Passive house design also has the potential of impacting society as if these techniques are used; it could decrease their energy bills, resulting in a more affluent society. However, one downside to this design is that aspects of it such as the majority of the building being underground can not be applied to the a wider range of construction. Although, this technique may be relevant in general construction though alternative methods such as; creating a basement and harnessing the additional heat this way.

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Example 2- Passivhaus in South London

This building in South London was designed by the Architecture firm Pace Jefford Moore is another example of a passive house. The first passive house strategy we can identify are the remote opening louvred shutters, and these enable regulation of the home’s temperature. The ground floor windows are shaded by pergolas and have a recessed porch; we can deduce that this will be to reduce unwanted heat gain in this area. The building also has double-height windows which bring further heat and light gain into the house. Another solar heat strategy is applied using solar energy and hot water heating panels.(Dezeen Article, Ravenscroft, 2018). Some of the features of this building are shown in figures 5-8.

The example used here highlights that a house does not have to be large to achieve the passive house standard. By merely applying the main principles of passive house design, this can make a massive difference in the efficiency of a building.

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Figure 5: Recessed on a Passivhaus In

Figure 6: Windows Shaded by Pergolas

Figure 7: Exterior View of South London

South London (Source: Pace Jefford Moore

(Source: Pace Jefford Moore Architecture,

Passive House (Source: Pace Jefford Moore

Architecture, 2018)

2018)

Architecture, 2018)

Figure 8: Sectional View of South London Passive House (Source: Pace Jefford Moore Architecture, 2018) 15

Figure 9: Exterior View of an All Wood Passivhaus Factory (Source: Hemsworth Architecture, 2016)

Figure 10: Exterior View of the Entrance on an All Wood Passivhaus Factory (Source: Hemsworth Architecture, 2016)

All-Wood Passivhaus Factory In Canada Figure 11: Interior View of the All Wood Passivhaus Factory Workspace (Source: Hemsworth Architecture, 2016)

Figure 12: Interior View of the All Wood Passivhaus Factory Displaying Roof Slats and Wood Panels (Source: Hemsworth Architecture, 2016) 16

Example 3- All Wood Passivhaus Factory

This factory is an example of an all-wood Passivhaus design, shown in figures 9-12. Canadian architecture company Hemsworth have created this all wood Passivhaus factory. During the construction, the firm utilised products which are created in the factory. Aiming to promote wood construction with prefabricated panels, this is a sustainable and easy to construct method. Furthermore, using onsite materials means that the carbon footprint of construction materials is significantly reduced.

In terms of Passivhaus design, this space has a super-insulated wall system, which is airtight and breathable, this helpt to prevent mould. The roof slats are spaced to impact the efficiency of the building. The spacing between the slats varies depending on the sun exposure on that area of the building. On the south and west faรงades of the building, the slats are alighted next to each other to provide a higher level of solar shading. This design aims to create a low energy, warm and comfortable workspace, with high efficiency, this is aided by a heat recovery ventilation system which helps to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. (Dezeen Article, McKnight, 2016) This factory shows how Passivhaus technology can be applied to commercial buildings to aid their energy efficiency and sustainability. I believe this can have a positive effect on both the business and the environment. This design also acts as an example for other commercial buildings and may influence future designs.

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Example 4- Passivhaus Community Centre

In South-East Paris there is a community centre which has Passivhaus characteristics. The building is clad in a combination of Douglas Fir and Larch, which covers a timber-framed structure. The appearance of the cladding gives a two tones effect furthers its natural appearance. The building has large staggered windows on three sides of the building to make the most of the sunlight and solar gains. The community centre meets the Passivhaus standards as it uses no more than 15KMh/m² per year for heating and cooling. This Impacts the quantity of solar gain, which the building can use. (Dezeen Article, Maris, 2016) The features highlighted above can be identified in figures 13-15.

This is a further example of a simplified version of Passivhaus design and how this can be used to its benefits. This may be significant with the building used as a community centre as these are usually community or council-run with minimal funding. Therefore Passivhaus design can make a massive difference in the budget as there will be minimal money spent on energy, this means that they can use their budget to benefit the community and to host activities for the children and rest of the community. This shows that Passivhaus design can have a positive impact of more than just the environment but also to benefit society as more funding can be spent on helping people in different circumstances.

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Figure 13: Exterior View of the South East Paris Community Centre Showing Wooden Facade and Green Roof (Source: Guillaume Ramillien Architecture, 2016)

Figure 14: Floor Plans of the South East Paris Community Centre (Source: Guillaume Ramillien Architecture, 2016)

Figure 15: Interior View of the South East Paris Community Centre (Source: Guillaume Ramillien Architecture, 2016)

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Figure 16: Visualisation of the Terrace Area of

Figure 17: Interior Visualisation of the Proposed

Proposed London School (Source: Forbes Massie, n.d)

London School (Source: Forbes Massie, n.d)

Figure 18: Rendered Cross Sectional Elevation of the

Figure 19: Alternative View of the Exterior of the

Proposed London School (Source: Forbes Massie,

Proposed London School (Source: Forbes Massie, n.d)

n.d)

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Example 5- London School powered by the Thames There is currently a conceptual plan for a school that is entirely powered by the tidal movement of the River Thames in central London. The building would work as it juts out over the waterway, where below would be a series of large turbines, allowing the building to harness the power from the water flow. In theory, this will be able to generate all the electricity needed to power the five-story school, giving the building carbon-neutral power. Low embodies energy materials will be used to build the school, which is to be made out of natural and bio-renewable materials, sourced locally. The idea is that some materials will be left exposed, to act as a demonstration that can be studied and replicated by other architects. Furthermore, the construction will allow new materials to be substituted over time to provide up to date knowledge of materials being introduced to the industry. At the moment, this design is still only conceptual but has the potential to be built. (Dezeen Article, Frearson, 2017) This design shows forward-thinking from architects to be a building which others can learn from, and upcoming architects and construction companies can study, this may innovate more architects to adopt these principles in future construction. A concept such as this also attempts to use additional technology to gain energy such as the underwater turbines; this shows that there are many ways in which Passivhaus technology can be used, adapted and applied to aim for zero-carbon living. This is also a further example of another building use for Passivhaus design, which shows that the principles of Passivhaus design are not limited to residential properties and solidifies the argument to why the Passivhaus should be applied to more building.

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Example 6- Warner Sobek House

This is the final example of how Passivhaus design can be used not only to create minimal energy usage but can be used when creating an aesthetically pleasing building. The Warner Sobeck house is one of Germany’s top structural engineers, Sobeck and his wife built their house as the first emission-free home in Germany, the home has been named “R-128� and is illustrated in figures 20-22. The goal of this project was to create maximum transparency, daylight, openness and year-round thermal comfort. Elements of the design which contribute to the house achieving its Passivhaus standards include a cool water circulation system through the ceiling panels, and this takes the heating out of the building in the warmer months. Heat energy is then stored below the house and recovered for heating in the winter. Heating and cooling panels cover approximately 40% of the ceiling area. To control temperature and lighting this is monitored by sensors and adjusted accordingly. High-performance windows have been fitted throughout the building.

These windows have transparent foil between the outer and central panes, in addition to this gas fills the space between the panels, lowering the convection rate through the windows. Furthermore, the building has been designed to be fully recyclable with modular components to be easily disassembled. Yudelson, J. (2009) This building is another example that Passivhaus design can be applied throughout the different season. It also highlights that there are a variety of different ways in which these simple principles can impact the energy usage of a building, whether it be a house, factory or school and that is is possible for these principles to be applied to construction throughout the world. With these factors being applied, this can be one step towards zero-carbon living.

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Figure 20: External View of The Warner Sobek House (Source: Werner Sobek, n.d)

Figure 21: External View of The Warner Sobek House Showing the Window Reflection (Source: Werner Sobek, n.d)

Figure 22: Internal View of The Warner Sobek House Showing the Window Reflection (Source: Werner Sobek, n.d)

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Evaluation of Passivhaus Design

The benefits to Passivhaus Design are that it is environmentally friendly as it aims to reduce carbon emissions. This is supported by Klingenberg, (2013) , as she states that “ Passive House design and construction methods and the overall approach to homebuilding best meet today’s energy and environmental needs worldwide”. Another positive to Passivhaus Design is that there is heat stability throughout summer and winter; this then enhances human comfort.

Furthermore, with carrying out passive house principles, there is a potential for a return of investment, as the money spent of constructing the passive building could be returned through not having to pay for energy and heating for the interior.

However, on average, the construction of a passive building may be considered as expensive as specialist technology, and materials are needed. This is supported by Pullen, 2012, who states that “PassivHaus will increase build costs by 15% to 25%”. One particular element of this would be high-performance windows, the expense of this may mean that the client requests less glazing which could result in less sunlight into the areas and in turn affect the amount of solar gains. In addition to this, with less sunlight, this may affect the wellbeing of the building users as natural light is known to improve health and wellbeing.

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Summary of Passivhaus Design

To summarise this chapter, using Passivhaus theories and techniques can contribute to zero-carbon living as it encourages the use of new technologies to produce and retain energy and reduces energy waste. However, this is not the only way in which we can reduce our carbon footprint, and there are many more steps that need to be taken to becoming zero-carbon, not just in the home. In addition to this, I believe it should be made a building standard for all new builds as this actively reduces energy use and carbon emissions.

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Chapter 2 Biomimicry

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Theory of Biomimicry

The term biomimicry derives from the Greek word “bios” which means life and “memesis” which means to imitate (Biomimicry,2016). The approach of biomimicry is not new as humans have been looking at nature for inspiration for years. However, the approach was popularised in 1997 by Janine Benyus in her book Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature. In this book, she describes biomimicry as “conscious emulation of life’s genius”. This quote suggests that nature is all-knowing and that it is something to be inspired by and investigated. In certain aspects, this ring true as nature works with a natural selection process where and insufficient features do not survive and adaptation occur for survival.

Therefore, this suggests what we can look to nature as a tried and tested method and apply some aspects of nature into design.

Research suggests that innovators develop new technologies by using elements of biomimicry to solve a range of challenges. These consists of things like health care, water purification and clean architecture. Biomimicry requires the professional to investigate the models of nature and its complex systems. Biomimicry can be used in many ways and is usually specific for a purpose. It is stated in the book Biomimicry published by NYU Press in 2016, that “biomimicry uses ecology to determine appropriate place-based standards.” and uses an example that energy parameters for a design of a building in a desert climate would be modelled from organisms found in that specific habitats and would be alternative from those in an arctic environment (Biomimicry,2016). Biomimicry has also been referred in Nicholas and Peterson’s book in 2015, as defining the problems and that biomimicry is a way of looking at nature for design solutions.

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Outline of how Biomimicry can be applied

Biomimicry can be applied to design in through a multitude of ways some examples include; 3D printed chairs, inspired by the structure of plant cells to create different zones of stiffness for comfort (Hosbon,2015). Biomimicry has also been used to inspire the University of Stuttgart to create Pavillions based on sea urchins and beetle wings. One made from wooden segments that fit together like a jigsaw and the other from fibre composites (Aouf, 2019). Another example of biomimicry is from architect Michael Hansmeyer, who created columns inspired by the natural process of morphogenesis, which is the process of splitting one cell into two. He then created software to mimic this process in a ratio to create “unimaginable shapes�. He used this software to create immensely detailed columns (Hansmeyer, 2012). Images of these explorations of biomimicry can be seen through figures 23-27.

These examples show that biomimicry can be applied to design in totally different aspects and support the idea that biomimicry can be investigated to achieve a range of solutions.

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Figure 23: 3D Printed Chair (Source: Lilian Van Daal, n.d)

Figure 24: Plant Cell (Source: Dezeen, 2015)

Figure 25: The BUGA Wood Pavilion representing the

structure of sea urchins, night view(Source: Institute for Computational Design and Construction, University of Stuttgart, 2019)

Figure 26: Biomimetic Columns (Source: Michael Hansmeyer, n.d)

Figure 27: The BUGA pavilion illustrating that materials used for structure. (Source: Institute for Computational Design and Construction, University of Stuttgart, 2019)

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Figure 28: Algae Curtains (Source: EcoLogicStudio, n.d)

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Example 1 Algae Curtains As discussed above, there are an immense variety of ways in which biomimicry can be applied throughout design.

One further example of this is the creation of algae curtains, shown in figure 28. These curtains have been produced to harness the process of photosynthesis which occurs in algae and is used to remove air pollutants, aiming to make buildings more eco-friendly. This works by capturing unfiltered air which enters the curtain from the bottom; this travels up through the liquid in the tubes. The liquid is a form of micro-algae which captures the carbon dioxide molecules. As the process of photosynthesis occurs, oxygen is produced, which releases from the top of the curtain. The oxygen produced is then released back into the surroundings. According to a Dezeen article this process captures approximately “one kilogram of carbon dioxide per day, which is the equivalent of 20 large trees� (Aouf, 2018) . The curtains themselves are made up of a bio-plastic module. Throughout the curtains are serpentine tubes embedded in the panels, this optimises the carbon sequestration process. An additional benefit is that a by-product of the process is biomass, which the algae grow from the carbon, this can then be burnt for energy or turned into bio-plastic material, such as the material used to create the curtains. (Aouf, 2018) Furthermore, algae is also a bio-luminescent which casts a faint glow during the night. This can then give a compelling visual and potentially pique further interest in the product. During the day, these curtains can double as solar shading for the building. (Aouf, 2018).

This is an intelligent form of biomimicry and harnesses processes of nature which already occur to make a positive impact to help towards the current crisis of global warming. In addition to this, these curtains could be used in conjunction with a Passivhaus design; one as a potential source for energy and two, as solar shading during the summer, which may help control thermal comfort. This case study highlights that there are ways in which the combination of Passivhaus design and biomimicry can lead towards a zero-carbon living environment.

Scientists are exploring similar theories of using algae at a University in Spain, where they are developing a new type of bio-concreate. This will aim to capture rainwater and create a living wall. Further benefits which have been discussed include the absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and the potential for fungi to act as a form of insulation and thermal regulator (Chalcraft, 2013). This also supports the theory that biomimicry and Passivhaus design have the potential to be combined to create an eco-friendly environment.

Development of products like these could have a positive impact on the environment and help lead towards a cleaner environment.

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Example 2- The Eden Project

A more famous example of biomimicry can be seen at the Eden Project. Michael Pawlyn, who was a part of the architectural team on The Eden Project, which is depicted in figure 29. He explains that the structural design was inspired by soap bubbles, pollen grains, carbon molecules and Radiolaria. To create the large hexagons, they looked towards efficient structures in nature for inspiration and found pressurised membranes, which lead them to a material called Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene, more commonly referred to as ETFE. This material allowed them to mimic this natural structure to fit their design ideas. According to Pawlyn, (2010) this material can be “seven times the size of glass and just one% of the weight of glazing�. This meant that by using this material, less steel was needed, which allowed for more sunlight and more heat gain to the building, which in turn reduced the energy needed to supply heat to the building, this also links to Passivhaus design principles discussed earlier. (Pawlyn, 2010). This example shows that by imitating features of nature, we can minimise the resources we need and maximise efficiency, and this can be linked to sustainable design and construction. By using methods such as these, it highlights that there are solutions to design problems which can be found in nature and supports that idea what biomimicry in design can help towards creating a zero-carbon living environment.

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Figure 29: Exterior View of the Eden Project (Source: Eden Project, n.d)

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Closed Loop Design

A further form of biomimicry is closed-loop design, which works similarly to an ecosystem, where waste from one organism becomes the nutrient for another organism. An example of closed look design is called cardboard to caviar. From here the carboard used from deliveries collected, it is then shredding into horse bedding. When the bedding is soiled, it is then collected again and put into re-composting, which creates many worms. The worms are then fed to Siberian Sturgeon, which produce caviar. The caviar is then sold back to the restaurant, and the process continues its cycle (Pawlyn, 2010). This example shows how waste can be turned into schemes which have value.

In terms of creating a building which uses closed-loop design, one example is the Mobius project discussed by Michael Pawlyn. The building is designed as a productive greenhouse which will have a restaurant inside. The biodegradable waste from the restaurant and the local area is put into an anaerobic digester, which turns this waste into heat for the greenhouse and electrical energy, fed back to the grid. There is also a water treatment system on-site using plants and micro-organisms, which treats wastewater and turns it into fresh-water. In addition to this, the design includes a fish farm. The fish are fed with vegetable waste and worms from the compost. The fish are then able to provide supplies for the restaurant. As well as all these features there is also a coffee shop, waste grains from this can be used for growing mushrooms (Pawlyn, 2010). This example shows it is possible to bring together cycles of food, energy, water and waste within one building.

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Sahara Forest Project Another example of closed-loop design is shown in the Sahara Forest Project, an image of this can be seen on figure 30. This project aims to halt or even reverse desertification in certain areas.

This project will partner two significant technologies. One is a seawater greenhouse and the other concentrated solar panels, also known as CSP. Seawater greenhouse’s work by trickling seawater over the evaporator gills, the wind then blows through these gills. Meaning that moisture is brought inside the greenhouse create a cool and humid space. As a result of this, plants need less water to be grown. The salt that is left from the seawater evaporation process can also be used. For instance, Calcium Carbonate and Sodium Chloride can be compressed into building blocks and used for construction. In addition to this, many other elements can be extracted, such as phosphates, which can be used to fertilise the desert soil.

“CSP uses solar tracking mirrors to focus the sun heat to create electricity.” (Pawlyn, 2010) CSP needs a supply of demineralised freshwater, which is provided by the freshwater greenhouse technology. In addition to this, CSP produces an excess of waste heat. This heat is harnessed to evaporate more seawater and enhance the restorative benefits. Furthermore, the mirrors used for the process, provide shaded areas enabling crops to grow. (Pawlyn, 2010)

Throughout this example, the theory of biomimicry has been applied by imitating an ecosystem. Where waste is reused in different forms to enhance the usefulness of the design, Furthermore, this project highlights how sustainable design can be taken further, and restorative design can be introduced.

The technologies used could potentially make a significant difference on the climate crisis, as by creating more areas of forestation this can absorb and reduce carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and improve environmental health. In addition to this, the Sahara Forest Project is self-sufficient with providing energy and freshwater, which links with zero-carbon living as it uses renewable energy sources.

Figure 30: The Sahara Forest Project (Source: Charlie Paton, Michael Pawlyn and Bill Watts, n.d)

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Evaluation of Closed Loop Design The benefits to biomimicry include aspects such as the fact that humans have an inherent connection with nature, this often means that our ideas of beauty are connected to the natural world, and in turn, the aesthetic of nature forms can often improve health and wellbeing (Mazzoleni and Price, 2013). The main benefit is that biomimicry can be used as a tool for informing solutions to an array of problems, as we have seen through the examples above. Some of these solutions include; ways to purify the air, creating beautiful and unimaginable shapes, and helping to develop technologies can lessen human impact on the environment. This shows that there are many positives to biomimicry.

However, not everybody agrees that biomimicry is as positive as others. Marshall and Lozeva,2009 argue that biomimicry is branded as natural. However, biomimetic designs are not always sustainable which is shown in technologies such as “designing undetectable surveillance cameras based on the compound eyes of insects” and “emulating biological molecules, such as DNA, to create industrial nanomachines” (Marshall and Lozeva, 2009). It is also argued that biomimicry can “expand unsustainable practices and industry favour the market as the main dispersal mode (and converting all citizens into mere consumers)” In addition to this biomimicry is usually seen as a way of creating a solution to problems. However, Marshall and Lozeva suggest that “propose technological solutions to problems that can be handled in other ways (spiritual, social, political, behavioural, moral ways, for instance)” (Marshall and Lozeva, 2009).

This opinion highlights that yes, biomimicry can be used to inform solutions; however, this is not always for sustainable products.

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Summary of Biomimicry In summary, this research suggests that biomimicry and can be used to create a more sustainable living environment.

Biomimicry can affect resource efficiency, energy efficiency and renovation. This suggests that biomimicry, in particular, closed-loop design can be paired with Passivhaus technology to enhance and contribute to zero-carbon living.

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Chapter 3 Zero-Carbon Living

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Definition and Outline of Zero-Carbon Living The final chapter will discuss Zero-carbon living, why this is important, different ways in which this idea has been applied and evaluate the theory and can this can be linked to Passivhaus and biomimicry. Zero carbon living is the aim to have a zero net carbon use within homes and other buildings and lifestyle choices.

The aim for a zero-carbon living is extremely relevant as experts state that “Carbon dioxide, a key greenhouse gas that drives global climate change, continues to rise every month.” (National Geographic, 2019). This quote highlights that carbon dioxide is a main factor in the rise of climate change and that there should be actions to reduce the amount of carbon we produce. The National Geographic’s web-page also supports this as they explains that “greenhouse gases have kept Earth’s climate habitable for humans and millions of other species. But those gases are now out of balance and threaten to change drastically which living things can survive on this planet—and where.” (National Geographic ,2019). The importance of reducing greenhouse gas emissions is reflected as countries all over the world have been making legislations to reduce their impact on the environment and climate change. For example, the UK has set a target that requires them to bring all greenhouse gas emissions to be net-zero by 2050. This shown a difference in the urgency of reducing dangerous emissions as previous targets include only an 80% reduction from levels recorded in 1990 (Gov. uk. 2019).

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Example 1- The City of Neom There are a variety of different ways in which designs have been proposed to attempt to tackle climate change and explore zero-carbon living. On example is the proposed city of Neom. This is intended to be a fully automated city in Saudi Arabia. Neom will include “automated vehicles, access to free internet, online education and zero-carbon homes” (Mairs, 2017). The city has been designed to operate as an independent economic trader zone, becoming the first private business zone to span the countries. This approach is focused highly on technology which shows a different perspective and also shows how it may provide a business opportunity. It has been said that Saudi Arabia is to invest “$500 billion” (Mairs, 2017) in this city. The investments will go towards; “Energy and water systems, Mobility, Biotech, Food, Technological and digital science, Advanced manufacturing, Media and Entertainment” (Mairs, 2017). Contributing factors towards the City of Neom are illustrated through figures 31-34.

The prospect of Neom may impact society in different ways. For instance, a negative to this proposal is that, with the city being a private business zone, this suggests that the business will be in charge of the city and this, in turn, takes away the idea of community voice. However, the technology used to create zero-carbon homes and living space can be looked towards for innovative ways to combat climate change and increase resource efficiency.

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Figure 31: Solar Farm (Source: Dezeen, 2017)

Figure 32 : Singapore Gardens (Source: Dezeen, 2017) Figure 33: Windfarm (Source: Dezeen, 2017)

Figure 34: Virtual Image of Solar Panels (Source: Dezeen, 2017) 41 41

Figure 35: Photograph of external building facade providing solar shading (Source: Claudionapoli ,n.d)

Figure 36: SHAM Solar Power Plant (Source: Masdar Official ,n.d)

Figure 37: Image of Transport Pods (Source: Claudionapoli ,n.d) 42 42

Example 2- Masdar City

A similar concept has been applied in Masdar City in the United Arab Emirates, elements of this city can be seen in figures 35-37. This city has been designed to be “zero-carbon and zero-waste” (Lee, 2016). This city includes lots of different features such as shaded paths for pleasant walking space in the hot climate; this is achieved with street-level solar canopies. Furthermore, all the building are a maximum of five stories high with solar panels covering the rooftops.

An additional feature to reduce harmful emissions are driver-less pods known as personal rapid transit; these pods use electricity instead of diesel and petrol. Masdar gets its energy supply from the SHAMS 1 this is a stand-alone solar power plant. This is one of the largest of its type and “displaces 175,000 tones of carbon dioxide annually” (Lee, 2016), which is the “equivalent to the emissions produces by approximately 29,000 UK homes” (Lee, 2016). This is another example of how zero-carbon living has been applied. However, this highlights the process being used on a larger scale of a city rather than just a home.

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Example 3- Water Purification As identified above, zero-carbon living is usually a combination of different technologies. When these technologies merge in harmony is when Zero-carbon living can be achieved. A further example of how innovative technology can be applied to reduce carbon emissions is shown in this water purifying pipe network. The system was engineered to filter and purify 3,000 gallons of water through plants every four days. The filtration purifies the water through plants and “eliminates suspended particles and nitrates, balances pH and increases the levels of dissolved oxygen” (McKnight, 2015). Furthermore, when each cycle is complete, the structure lights up, as a celebration of the completion of the cycle (McKnight, 2015) . Images of this system can be seen in figures 38 and 39.

The process of plant filtration to produce purified water is supported by the creation of products such as ‘drop by drop’ designed by Pratik Ghosh, a Royal College of Art graduate. This product filters water though plants to provide safe drinking water (Inhabitat, 2017). Furthermore, there are other technologies which use plants as a natural filtration system, not just for water but for air as well. This is shown in the produce ANDREA which absorbs gasses from the air inside a house while releasing oxygen. (Lehanneur, 2009).

These studies and products highlight yet another way we can reduce carbon emissions as it shows that there are alternative and sustainable ways in which to filter water and air — suggesting that this could be used in conjunction with other technologies to help towards zero-carbon living. These design particularly link to biomimicry by the use of plants and nature to create a zero-carbon product which can be used in homes.

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Figure 38: Plant Based Water Pufification System (Source: Miguel de Guzmรกn. ,n.d)

Figure 39: Close Up Image of Water Filtration though Plants (Source: Miguel de Guzmรกn. ,n.d)

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Figure 40: Exterior View of Green Orchard House Showing Mirrored Facade (Source: Will Pryce, n.d)

Figure 41: Interior View of Green Orchard House (Source: Will Pryce, n.d)

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Example 4- Green Orchard House

This next example shows how zero-carbon living can be used to enhance a design and can also be designed with interesting aesthetic features. The Green Orchard house is described as a zero-carbon house and was designed by Paul Archer. This house has a mirrored faรงade of polished aluminium panels which slide across to cover the windows, this is shown in figure 40. This exterior design is said to reflect the landscape and act as a camouflage for the building. The panels used are well insulated to ensure that the building can be transformed into a thermally sealed construction. Other features to the building are thermal solar panels which heat 80% water for the house, photovoltaic electrical production and a green roof which acts as an air filter and also provides extra insulation to the house (Frearson, 2013). The interior of the house is shown in figure 41.

This example highlights that zero-carbon home can be achieved by adding certain features and in addition to this indicates that it can be done in a variety of different ways. This example also links strongly to features explored in the Passivhaus principle discussed in chapter 1 such as insulation, airtight construction and solar gains. This suggests that Passivhaus design can play a significant part in the creation of zero-carbon homes and as a result, can help get towards zero-carbon living.

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Evaluation and Summary of Biomimicry

Zero-carbon living has many positives as it promotes reusable energy, reduces emission and can affect the impact of climate change. Furthermore, zero-carbon living is a way in which countries can achieve emission targets. Homes, in particular, are responsible for a large amount of carbon emission as Perkins states that “Homes in the UK are a vast carbon sink, where energy is being wasted through lack of insulation, outdated design and poor habits among those living inside.” (Perkins, 2014). This statement supports the idea that by changing to zero-carbon homes, this will have a significant reduction on the UK’s emissions and will help them reach the targets they have set.

Even though zero-carbon living has extensive benefits getting to the point of zero-carbon living still needs work. Overall, the process of construction and buying the technologies needed are expensive. This statement is supported by Perkins in 2014 who identified that “To achieve an 80% carbon reduction from a domestic home costs about £70,000, while an investment of about £10,000 will result in a 20-30% saving.” (Perkins,2014). This quote shows that approximate prices for a single home are incredibly costly for the average homeowner in the UK. This point also highlights that to create this zero-carbon living environment; there need to be masses of investment from governments and possibly large companies to achieve this status. In addition to this, zero-carbon needs to be approached with a holistic idea; for example, car companies are producing more electric cars. However, there is still a lack of charging points as reported by BBC News (Duggan, 2020). This report depicts that for zero-carbon living to work that all the different elements that affect the process are perfected. Furthermore, this solidifies the idea that it is not only about individuals changing their living habits but also for large companies to make it easier for individuals to do this.

Overall, zero-carbon living has many benefits and can be applied in a variety of way. However, there is still a lot to do so that we, as a society, can get to the point of zero-carbon living.

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Conclusion The above discussion has shown us that theories of biomimicry and Passivhaus design can be applied to create a sustainable and zero-carbon living environment. We can see how these theories have many different benefits, such as reducing waste and making the most out of renewable energy sources such as solar gains.

This is evident through examples of Passivhaus design such as the Warner Sobek house which uses innovative water heating systems through the use of solar heat. In addition to this, the retention of heat though superinsulation means that less energy is needed to heat up the house. Using the theory of biomimicry, we can argue that looking at features in nature can also help to solve the current crisis of climate change through aspects such as closed-loop design. By basing a design on an ecosystem as closed-loop design does this highlights that biomimicry can be used for more than just aesthetic features. This particular take on biomimicry creates a system in which waste is not only reduced, but landscapes are rejuvenated. This theory shows a positive impact on the environments can lead to zero-carbon living.

In answer to the central question of this project of ‘How can Passivhaus technology and biomimicry be used to create a zero-carbon living environment?’, a zero-carbon living environment can be gained through applying principles and technologies of Passivhaus design and applying these technologies with theories such as closedloop design in biomimicry. By combining these two theories, an environment can be created in which waste is reduced and reused in a variety of ways, and the amount of carbon dioxide produced is significantly reduced by using renewable energy sources, in turn, this creates a cleaner and healthier environment which can contribute to the fight against climate change.

Other aspects of this topic which could be explored are; how different counties have proposed to tackle climate change, current and upcoming movements related to climate change and also different cultures and societies which do not rely on the conventional gas and electric of popular global living.

If I were to continue this project, I would look into how these techniques and theories could be applied on a much larger scale and used in the wider population; this could include council houses or new building regulations and recycling regulations to ensure a more sustainable environment. From conducting this research, I believe that to make an impact on climate change is for the above theories to be practised on a large scale, globally.

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Figure List

Figure 1: Jorge Fontan (2018). Passive House Diagram [Digital Diagram]. Retrieved From https://jorgefontan.com/ passive-house-design/ Figure 2: Grand Designs (2010). Polystyrene Block Insulation [Video Screenshot]. Retrieved From Box Of Broadcasts, Grand Designs, Series 7, Episode 14) Figure 3: Grand Designs (2010). South Face of a Passive House [Video Screenshot]. Retrieved From Box Of Broadcasts, Grand Designs, Series 7, Episode 14) Figure 4: Grand Designs (2010). Glazing Panels Over Solar Heating Hosing Acting as One Big Solar Panel [Video Screenshot]. Retrieved From Box Of Broadcasts, Grand Designs, Series 7, Episode 14) Figure 5: Pace Jefford Moore Architects (2018). Recessed on a Passivhaus In South London [Photographs]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2018/09/11/pace-jefford-moore-architects-orange-passivhaus-carbuncle-cup-architcture/ Figure 6: Pace Jefford Moore Architects (2018). Windows Shaded by Pergolas [Photographs]. Retrieved From https:// www.dezeen.com/2018/09/11/pace-jefford-moore-architects-orange-passivhaus-carbuncle-cup-architcture/ Figure 7: Pace Jefford Moore Architects (2018). Exterior View of South London Passive House [Photographs]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2018/09/11/pace-jefford-moore-architects-orange-passivhaus-carbuncle-cup-architcture/ Figure 8: Pace Jefford Moore Architects (2018). Sectional View of South London Passive House [Digital Diagram].

Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2018/09/11/pace-jefford-moore-architects-orange-passivhaus-carbuncle-cuparchitcture/ Figure 9: Hemsworth Architecture (2016). Exterior View of an All Wood Passivhaus Factory Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2016/05/26/hemsworth-architecture-bc-passive-house-factory-prefabricated-wooden-panelspassivhaus-canada/ Figure 10: Hemsworth Architecture (2016). Exterior View of the Enterance on an All Wood Passivhaus Factory Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2016/05/26/hemsworth-architecture-bc-passive-house-factoryprefabricated-wooden-panels-passivhaus-canada/ Figure 11: Hemsworth Architecture (2016). Interior View of the All Wood Passivhaus Factory Workspace [Photograph].

Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2016/05/26/hemsworth-architecture-bc-passive-house-factory-prefabricatedwooden-panels-passivhaus-canada/ Figure 12: Hemsworth Architecture (2016). Interior View of the All Wood Passivhaus Factory Displaying Roof Slats and Wood Panels [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2016/05/26/hemsworth-architecture-bc-passivehouse-factory-prefabricated-wooden-panels-passivhaus-canada/ Figure 13: Guillaume Ramillien Architecture (2016). Exterior View of the South East Paris Community Centre Showing Wooden Facade and Green Roof [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2016/01/03/centre-socioculturel-christian-marin-passivhaus-community-centre-guillaume-ramillien-architecture-paris-france/ Figure 14: Guillaume Ramillien Architecture (2016). Floor Plans of the South East Paris Community Centre [Digital Diagram]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2016/01/03/centre-socio-culturel-christian-marin-passivhauscommunity-centre-guillaume-ramillien-architecture-paris-france/ 53

Figure 15: Guillaume Ramillien Architecture (2016). Interior View of the South East Paris Community Centre [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2016/01/03/centre-socio-culturel-christian-marin-passivhauscommunity-centre-guillaume-ramillien-architecture-paris-france/ Figure 16: Forbes Massie (n.d). Visualisation of the Terrace Area of Proposed London School [Digital Visual]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2017/06/14/thames-tidal-powered-school-vision-london-curl-la-tourelle-head-architecture/ Figure 17: Forbes Massie (n.d). Interior Visualisation of the Proposed London School [Digital Visual]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2017/06/14/thames-tidal-powered-school-vision-london-curl-la-tourelle-head-architecture/ Figure 18: Forbes Massie (n.d). Rendered Cross Sectional Elevation of the Proposed London School [Digital Visual].

Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2017/06/14/thames-tidal-powered-school-vision-london-curl-la-tourelle-headarchitecture/ Figure 19: Forbes Massie (n.d). Alternative View of the Exterior of the Proposed London School [Digital Visual]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2017/06/14/thames-tidal-powered-school-vision-london-curl-la-tourelle-head-architecture/ Figure 20: Werner Sobek, (n.d). External View of The Warner Sobek House [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www. wernersobek.de/en/projects/focus-en/design-en/r128/ Figure 21: Werner Sobek, (n.d). External View of The Warner Sobek House showing the Window Reflection [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www.wernersobek.de/en/projects/focus-en/design-en/r128/ Figure 22: Werner Sobek, (n.d). Internal View of The Warner Sobek House showing the Window Reflection [Photograph].

Retrieved From https://www.wernersobek.de/en/projects/focus-en/design-en/r128/ Figure 23: Lilian Van Daal, (n.d). 3D Printed Chair [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2015/01/30/ movie-lilian-van-daal-3d-printed-biomimicry-chair/ Figure 24: Dezeen (2015). Plant Cell [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2015/01/30/movie-lilianvan-daal-3d-printed-biomimicry-chair/ Figure 25: Institute for Computational Design and Construction, University of Stuttgart (2019). The BUGA Wood Pavilion Representing the Structure of Sea Urchins [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2019/05/08/universitystuttgart-biomimetic-pavilion-bundesgartenschau-horticultural-show/ Figure 26: Michael Hansmeyer (n.d). Biomimetic Columns [Photograph]. Retrieved From http://www.michael-hansmeyer. com/exhibitions/gwangju-design-biennale-2011 Figure 27: Institute for Computational Design and Construction, University of Stuttgart (2019). The BUGA Pavilion Illustrating the Material Used for Structure [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2019/05/08/universitystuttgart-biomimetic-pavilion-bundesgartenschau-horticultural-show/

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Figure 28: EcoLogicStudio (n.d). Algae Curtains [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2018/12/10/ ecologicstudio-algae-curtain-photo-synth-etica/ Figure 29: Eden Project (n.d). Exterior View of the Eden project [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www.edenproject. com/ Figure 30: Charlie Paton, Michael Pawlyn and Bill Watts (n.d). The Sahara Forest Project [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www.treehugger.com/sustainable-product-design/incredible-sahara-forest-project-to-generate-fresh-water-solarpower-and-crops-in-african-desert.html Figure 31: Dezeen (2017) Solar Farm [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2017/10/27/saudi-arabiainvest-500-billion-automated-sustainable-neom-city-egypt-jordan/ Figure 32: Dezeen (2017) Singapore Gardens [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2017/10/27/saudiarabia-invest-500-billion-automated-sustainable-neom-city-egypt-jordan/ Figure 33: Dezeen (2017) Windfarm [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2017/10/27/saudi-arabiainvest-500-billion-automated-sustainable-neom-city-egypt-jordan/ Figure 34: Dezeen (2017) Virtual Image of Solar Panels [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen. com/2017/10/27/saudi-arabia-invest-500-billion-automated-sustainable-neom-city-egypt-jordan/ Figure 35: Claudionapoli (n.d) External Building Facade Providing Solar Shading [Photograph]. Retrieved From https:// theconversation.com/welcome-to-masdar-city-the-ultimate-experiment-in-sustainable-urban-living-65575 Figure 36: Masdar Official (n.d) SHAM Solar Power Plant [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://theconversation.com/ welcome-to-masdar-city-the-ultimate-experiment-in-sustainable-urban-living-65575 Figure 37: Claudionapoli (n.d) Transport Pods [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://theconversation.com/welcome-tomasdar-city-the-ultimate-experiment-in-sustainable-urban-living-65575 Figure 38: Miguel de Guzmรกn. (n.d) Plant Based Water Purification System [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www. dezeen.com/2015/06/24/andres-jaque-giant-water-purifier-moma-ps1-courtyard-new-york-yap/ Figure 39: Miguel de Guzmรกn. (n.d) Close Up Image of Water Filtration through Plants [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2015/06/24/andres-jaque-giant-water-purifier-moma-ps1-courtyard-new-york-yap/ Figure 40: Will Pryce. (n.d) Exterior View of Green Orchard House Showing Mirrored Facade [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen.com/2013/06/02/green-orchard-by-paul-archer-design/ Figure 41: Will Pryce. (n.d) Interior View of Green Orchard House [Photograph]. Retrieved From https://www.dezeen. com/2013/06/02/green-orchard-by-paul-archer-design/

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