DT-THESIS -FINAL - HADEEL TENAWI

Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus-Senftenberg, Helwan University Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management,

Research proposal of a thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Arts In Heritage Conservation & Site Management Master’s Program

Evaluating the Use of Digital Technology in Safeguarding Heritage during Conflict (Case Study: Heritage Sites in Syria) Under Supervision of: Prof.Dr. Rasha Metawi

A.Prof. Dr. Yasmin Sabry

Professor Tourism Guidance Department Faculty of Tourism and

Associate professor faculty of Engineering Head of Architecture department-

Hotel Management

Faculty of Engineering

Helwan University.

Zagazig university

Presented by: Eng. Hadeel Ali Tenawi (B.Sc. in Architecture Engineering Cairo University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Architecture, May 2016)

Cairo, 2020

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would first like to thank my thesis supervisors Prof. Rasha Sami Metawi and Prof. Yasmin Sabry. I am gratefully indebted to them for the very valuable comments and unlimited experience they shared while assisting me throughout the process of completing my master’s thesis.

My sincere thanks are also extended towards the DAAD (Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst German Academic Exchange Service) for providing me with a scholarship in this program.

Additionally, I must express my very profound gratitude to my parents, sister and brothers, for their unfailing support and continuous encouragement throughout my years of studying and the process of researching and writing this thesis.

Also, to all my relatives, friends and others who in one way or another shared their support, thank you. This accomplishment would not have been possible without them.

Finally, I dedicate this thesis to my home country Syria and to whomever may try to save it for the sake of future generations. It is my hope that this study will be taken into consideration for the safeguarding of cultural heritage identity.

Thank you.

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Abstract Every day, Syria is under the threat of losing part of its heritage due to ongoing conflicts and violent attacks, which makes preparedness and direct response vital for protecting and preserving historic sites during this very important stage. This is especially true because the current priority in Syria is to fulfill the basic needs of people who have been deprived of them for many years, and this is reflected in the lower prioritization of the restoration of heritage sites. In these critical times, the recording process is thus very important, as it aids in conservation planning and provides an archival resource "insurance" against change to or loss of heritage sites.

The 3D digitization of cultural heritage is considered to be a new branch of knowledge that uses 3D technology tools to represent and visualize collected data and can also help in reproducing cultural heritage property. While developing 3D digital technologies, their application, and all of the benefits that they can provide, it is essential to consider how these tools can be integrated in the process of documenting and safeguarding cultural heritage, especially while our heritage is suffering during conflict.

This thesis examines photogrammetry and 3D laser scanners as modern tools for documenting cultural heritage property that is damaged during conflict. In addition, it addresses how 3D printing can be used for reproducing and fabricating lost parts and entire monuments, by evaluating case studies with the aim of determining the benefits of such technology and increasing them. Moreover, it seeks to define the challenges that might derive from using these methods and proposes how these might be solved.

Keywords 3D Digital Technology, Conflict, Cultural Heritage Property, Documentation, Safeguarding, Reproducing , Photogrammetry, 3D Laser Scanner, 3D Printing II | P a g e

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ………...…………………………....................I ABSTRACT……………………………………………………...…….......II TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………..………......................... III LIST OF TABLES………………...……………………….....................VIII LIST OF CHARTS……………..………………………….........................X LIST OF FIGURES……………...…………………..……......................XII ABBREVIATIONS…………………………………..…..........................XVI INTRODUCTION………………………….…………….........................XV Research Problem ……………………..………………………….........XVIII Research Question……………..…………………………….................XVIII Research Objective……………..……………………............................XVIII Research Hypothesis………………..………………………..................XVIII Research Methodology……………..………………………….................XIX Research Limitations…………………..……………………...................XIX Research Process Flowchart………………………..……………..…........XX

PART I – THEORY.......................................................................................2 Chapter One: An Overview of Cultural Heritage and the Conventions for Protecting it during a Situation of Conflict ……….....................................2 1.1 General Cultural Heritage Definitions……………..............................2 1.2 Cultural Heritage: Definition in the International Charters and Conventions ...............................................................................................3 III | P a g e

1.3 Definition of Antiquities according to the Syrian Antiquities Law...........................................................................................................4 1.4 The Outstanding Universal Value of Cultural Heritage…..................5 1.5 Cultural Heritage Under Conflict………………………...................6 1.6 International Conventions to Protect Cultural Heritage during Conflict

…………………………………………………………………………....7 1.6.1 Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 1954 (Lahai Convention)………………..................................7 1.6.2 UNESCO’s 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transport of Ownership of Cultural Property ……………………………………………………………………………....8 1.6.3 UNESCO’s Declaration concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage in 2003……………………………………….………......8

1.7 Syrian Cultural Heritage………….…………...………......................9 1.8 Syrian Cultural Heritage Under Conflict………………...................10

Chapter Two: The Concept of Digital Technologies in Cultural Heritage…………………………………………………………………....13 2.1 The Use of 3D Digital Technology in Cultural Heritage……………..14 2.2 The History of Using 3D Digital Tools for Safeguarding Heritage……............................................................................................15 2.3 Digital Technology in the International Charters and Conventions……......................................................................................16 2.3.1 The Athens Charter for the Restoration of Historic Monuments – 1931.. 17 2.3.2 The Venice Charter – 1964………………...……............................17 2.3.3 The Budapest Charter – 1972……………………………................17 2.3.4 Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage 1972………………………….........................................18 2.3.5 The Appleton Charter for the Protection and Enhancement of the Built Environment 1983…………………………………………...........18

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2.3.6 The Burra Charter – 1999………………………....…………..........18 2.3.7 Principles for the Preservation and Conservation – Restoration of Wall Paintings – 2003……………………………………………...........18

2.4 The Selection of Digital Technology Tools .........................................19 2.5 The Variables of Selecting Digital Tools..………………....................20 2.6 The Categorization of 3D Digital Technology Techniques for the Documentation of Cultural Heritage ………………….……............21 2.6.1 Photogrammetry Method ……………….………..…….…...........21 2.6.2 Types of Photogrammetry …………………………………..........23 2.6.2.1 Stereo Photogrammetry …………………………………..........23 2.6.2.2 Bundle Photogrammetry ………………………………….........24 2.6.2.3 Photogrammetry with Computer Correction ………….……..........26

2.6.3 Scanning Methods …………………………………….................26 2.6.4 Types of Laser Scanner ……………………………………..........27 2.6.4.1 3D Laser Scanner ……………………………...………...........27 2.6.4.2 Structured Light Pattern Scanner …………………..…...............29

2.7 A Categorization of 3D Digital Technology Techniques for Reproducing Cultural Heritage ……………………...............................30 2.7.1 3D Digital Printing …………………..……..........………........30

Chapter Three: Digital Technologies for Safeguarding Syrian Heritage during Conflict – Site of Palmyra ………………....................................33 3.1 The Ancient City of Palmyra (Tadmur) ............................................34 3.1.1 Palmyra’s Location…………………….…….……………........34 3.1.2 Historical Background………………..…….……...…….….......35 3.1.3 The Outstanding Universal Value of the Ancient City of Palmyra .....35 3.1.4 Palmyra’s Main Components………….……...………..…...........37

3.2 The Palmyra Citadel………………….……………...…..................38 3.2.1 Description of the Palmyra Citadel and its OUV ……........…..........38 3.2.2 The Palmyra Citadel: Current Situation........………...……….........39 3.2.3 The Palmyra Citadel: 3D Digital Technology.........................….....40 V|Page

3.3 The Temple of Bel …………………………..…….…....................42 3.3.1 Description of the Temple of Bel in Palmyra and its OUV ….........42 3.3.2 The Temple of Bel in Palmyra: Current Situation………...............43 3.3.3 The Temple of Bel in Palmyra: 3D Digital Technology …….........43 3.4 The Arch of Triumph.............……………………...……….............46 3.4.1 Description of the Arch of Triumph in Palmyra and its OUV ….....46 3.4.2 The Arch of Triumph in Palmyra: Current Situatio……..…...........47 3.4.3 The Arch of Triumph in Palmyra: 3D Digital Technology..…........48 3.4.3 The Arch of Triumph in Palmyra: Reproduction ……….…...........50

PART TWO – AN ANALYSIS OF THE CASE STUDIES AND DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS ...........................................................52

Chapter Four: Discussion and Evaluation of the Case Studies .............53

4.1Methods……………………………………………..………….........53 4.1.1 Design and Participants ……………………….............................53

4.2 Discussion of the Results ………...…………....................................54 4.2.1 Palmyra Citadel.....……………………………………................54 4.2.2 Temple of Bel...………...……………………………..…...........55 4.2.3 The Arch of Triumph.....……...………………………….............57 4.3 Evaluation of the use of 3D Digital Technology Tools ......................60 4.3.1 Palmyra Citadel .………...……………………………...............60 4.3.2 Temple of Bel

………………...…………………....…............61

4.3.3 The Arch of Triumph

………………...…………..……...........62

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Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendations.............................63 5.1 Conclusion …………………………………………..…….............64 5.2 Recommendations ………………………………………..…............67

LIST OF REFERENCES …………………………..……….......................69 APPENDIX ………………………….………………………......................78

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1: the number and percentage of questionnaire responses according to nationality

………………………………………………………………………54

Table 4.2: the number and percentage of experts’ responses when asked about whether we can depend on the 3D model of the Palmyra Citadel in future works…………55 Table 4.3: the number and percentage of the expert’s responses when they asked about if they consider the he 3D laser scanner technique as an effective method of documentation Bel temple…………………………………………………………. 55 Table 4.4: The Table shows the number and percentage for the experts’ responses when they asked about if they consider the he 3D laser scanner technique as an effective method for documentation Bel temple……………………………………………...55 Table 4.5: The Table shows the number and percentage for the experts’ responses when they asked about which techniques they believe is more effective the 3D laser scanner or photogrammetry………………………………………………………………….57 Table 4.6: The Table shows the number and the responses percentage for the experts’ opinions when asked to stop at documentation step, and no need for 3D printing action in this level. ………………………………………………………………………....58 Table 4.7: The Table shows the number and the responses percentage for the experts’ opinions when asked if encourage creating more replica for the cultural heritage property to spread the importance cultural heritage……………………………….. 59 Table 4.8: The Table shows the number and the responses percentage for the experts’ opinions when asked if the Arch replica present Syrian cultural heritage and it reproduced as a symbol for peace………………………………………………….. 59 Table 4. 9 : The Evaluation schedule for 3D digital technology tools that used in Palmyra citadel……………………………………………………………………...60

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Table 4.10:The Evaluation schedule for 3D digital technology tools that used in Temple of Bel……………………………………………………………………… .61 Table 4. 11:The Evaluation schedule for 3D digital technology tools that used in Arch of Triumph…………………………………………………………………………..62

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LIST OF CHARTS

Chart 4.1: The chart shows the percentage of responses according to the nationality.54 Chart 4.2: The chart shows the responses percentage for experts’opinions when they asked about the accuracy of the airbone laser scanning technique when it used for creating 3D documentation model for Palmyra citadel …………………………… 54 Chart 4.3: The chart show the percentage responses for the experts’ opinions when asked if using airborne laser scanning technique affect the monument significance .55 Chart 4.4: The chart shows the percentage results when asked the experts if the photogrammetry technique helped in documentation and safeguarding Temple of Bel and 83.8 believe that it helped……………………………………………………… 56 Chart 4.5: The chart show the percentage responses for the experts’ opinions when asked if the techniques that used to create 3D for temple of Bel affect its significance.56 Chart 4.6: The chart shows the percentage for the experts’ responses when they asked about if we can depend on the 3D models for temple of Bel in further works. ……..56 Chart 4.7: The chart shows the percentage for the expert’s responses when they asked about which techniques they believe is more effective the 3D laser scanner or photogrammetry. …………………………………………………………………….57 Chart 4.8: The Chart show the responses percentage for the experts’ opinions when asked if the photogrammetry helped in documentation and safeguarding Arch of Triumph. ……………………………………………………………………………57 Chart 4.9: The Chart shows the responses percentage for the experts’ opinions when asked if the significance value of the Arch of triumph was affected after made a replica for it. …………………………………………………………………………………58 X|Page

Chart 4.10: The Chart shows the responses percentage for the experts’ opinions when asked to stop at documentation step, and no need for 3D printing action in this level 58 Chart 4.11: The Chart shows the responses percentage for the experts’ opinions when asked if encourage creating more replica for the cultural heritage property to spread the importance cultural heritage…………………………………………………….59 Chart 4.12: The Chart shows the response percentage for the experts’ opinions when asked if encourage creating more replica for the cultural heritage property to spread the importance cultural heritage…………………………………………………….59 Chart 4.13: The Chart shows the responses percentage for the experts’ opinions when asked if the Arch replica present Syrian cultural heritage and it reproduced as a symbol for peace…………………………………………………………………………….59

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. 1 : Maps for Syria shows the location for the inscribed heritage sites……..9 Figure 1. 2 : Explosion the Baal-Shamin, 25 August 2016………………………….10 Figure 1. 3 : The photos show the damages in the Great Umayyad Mosque in Aleppo (right ) before conflict (left) after conflict and shows that the minaret is totally destroyed…………………………………………………………………………….10 Figure 1. 4 : (left )the photo shows restoration works in the Old market in Aleppo city (right ) the old market after finishing the restoration works…………………………12

Figure 2. 1 :The Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage for 2018……………16 Figure 2. 2 : The Photo shows the two main 3D digital technology categories which are the Photogrammetry methods and Scanning methods with their types………….21 Figure 2. 3 : The Models of Byzantine Crypt used close -range photogrammetry method, wire frame model at right, model with texture at left………………………22 Figure 2. 4: The photo shows the camera positions and the overlapping between two images in Stereo Photogrammetry source: Architectural Photogrammetry-2002……23 Figure 2. 5 : (Two up photos) The photos that takes by stereo Photogrammetry show the overlapping between them (photo at bottom) the 2D lines for the faced after proccing the images………………………………………………………………….24 Figure 2. 6 :The Photo shows the camera positions and the overlapping between images in Bnndle Photogrammetry ………………………………………………….24 Figure 2. 7 : (right )The rays for 3 Bundle images for Shabba, the roman forum-Syria (left) the result after proccing the images……………………………………………25 Figure 2. 8: Al Darwikiya Mosque Syria - The photo shows the intersected rays….25 XII | P a g e

Figure 2. 9 : Serjilla the dead city -Syria - (left ) the real image ( right ) after using computer correction………………………………………………………………….26 Figure 2. 10 : The 3D Model of Al-Khasneh created by laser scanner ……………..27 Figure 2. 11 The section for St Hilda’s Church in England by 3D laser scanner colorized point cloud………………………………………………………………...28 Figure 2. 12 : The 3D laser scanner products………………………………………. 29 Figure 2. 13 : The Structured light Pattern scanner system………………………….29 Figure 2. 14 : The Structured light Pattern scanner system………………………….29 Figure 2. 15: The 3D printing process……………………………………………….30 Figure 2. 16 :The Photo shows the 3D replicas made from fiber…………………….31 Figure 2. 17 : The photo shows the technique of 3D printing process………………31 Figure 2. 18: Compression between the arch of triumph replica (right )and the original arch , shows the level of the details in the original that not existing the replica…….32

Figure 3. 1 Syria ‘s map show palmyra location ……………………………………34 Figure 3. 2: Map for the inscribed property in ancient Palmyra city in 2016 before adding the buffer zone ………………………………………………………………36 Figure 3. 3 : Map shows the modification boundary for Palmyra city and the buffer zone around it………………………………………………………………………..37 Figure 3. 4 : The Photo shows the main components of the ancient city of Palmyra 37 Figure 3. 5 : The Photo for palmyra citadel taken before the conflict shows the location for it with the other moments………………………………………………………...38 Figure 3. 6: The Plan for citadel shows the towers ………………………….………39 Figure 3. 8: The North‐eastern facade after the 2016 destructions: shows the Collapse of Towers No.17 and 18, vertical break of No.7,destruction of Tower No.14, of the entrance gate and access bridge……………………………………………………..39 XIII | P a g e

Figure 3. 9 :The Elevation of the eastern front of the outer enclosure shows the damage………………………………………………………………………………40 Figure 3. 10: Comparison between the citadel situation in 2009 and 2016 by Iconem ……………………………………………………………………………………….41 Figure 3. 11: The Screenshot for the comparison 3D digital model which shows the damaged part in red color by Iconem………………………………………………..41 Figure 3. 12: The Photo for temple of Bel before conflict ………………………..42 Figure 3. 13:The plan for the temple of Bel show the surrounded columns and sanctuary in the center……………………………………………………………….42 Figure 3. 14:The plan for the temple of Bel show the surrounded columns and sanctuary in the center……………………………………………………………….42 Figure 3. 15 : The Satellite photos of the temple of Bel in Palmyra taken before the explosion on 20/2/2014 (right) and after the explosion on 7/8/2017 (left)……………43 Figure 3. 16: The 3D digital scanner mapping for the Temple of Bel in Palmyra, which shows the damage to the structure in its current situation Art Graphique & Patrimoine specialists……………………………………………………………………………44 Figure 3. 17: The photo shows the cameras postions to cover all the monuments form inner and outer ………………………………………………………………………44 Figure 3. 18: The 3D digital mapping for the Temple of Bel in Palmyra shows the remains with interpretation of the missing parts…………………………………….45 Figure 3. 19: The Screenshot for 3D digital model of temple of Bel which shows the remains parts part in red color by Iconem…………………………………………..45 Figure 3. 20: The Photo for the Arch of triumph before the conflict……………….46

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Figure 3. 21: The Triumphal Arch of Palmyra in Palmyra, Syria [left to right: circa 1929, 2008, and 2016]. The arch, which stood for 2000 years in Palmyra, was destroyed by ISIS in 2015……………………………………………………………47 Figure 3. 22: The only remaining parts of triumph arch are the lateral pillars which reaching 10 meters Hight…………………………………………………………….47 Figure 3. 23: The 3D digital remonstration model for Arch of triumph by Iconem team………………………………………………………………………………….48 Figure 3. 24 : The Arch of Triumph of Palmyra , photogrammetric 3d Reconstruction……………………………………………………………………….49 Figure 3. 25: The 3D digital reconstruction for Arch of triumph using panoramic photos ……………………………………………………………………………….50 Figure 3. 26:The IDA team while construct the replica of Arch of triumph at Trafalgar Square………………………………………………………………………………..50 Figure 3. 27: The Arch of Triumph replica presented at Trafalgar Square in London, in April 19, 2016 …………………………………………………………………….51 Figure 3.28 : The Arch of Triumph replica presented in Dubai …………………….51

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ABBREVIATIONS

● UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ● DGAM – Directorate General of Antiquities & Museums ● ICOMOS – International Council on Monuments and Sites ● IDA – The Institute of Digital Archaeology ● ISIS – Islamic State of the Levant and Iraq ● OUV – Outstanding Universal Value

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INTRODUCTION

The concept of heritage represents the identity of a community that is inherited across generations. It is also a way of recording history and conveying culture and is thus considered to be a bank of the memory of nations and living evidence of ancient civilizations. In times of conflict, heritage becomes under threat of damage or loss due to violent attacks and a lack of awareness. Naturally, a country that finds itself in such a situation focuses primarily on providing its people with their basic needs, which means that the protection of cultural heritage sites becomes a lesser priority.

Yet, in such a context, protecting heritage gains even more significance, as it consists of the guide and main reference of a society’s culture, as well as its human and intellectual features.

Digital technologies and their equipment have been developed to serve and protect cultural heritage in many ways. In order to ensure that Syria’s endangered heritage can be preserved for future generations, it is necessary to pay attention to these tools, but also to remain aware that while they provide many benefits, they also pose certain challenges that need to be avoided if they are to be used effectively.

This thesis focuses on the role of digital technologies in safeguarding cultural heritage during conflict, as well as the benefits their use can provide towards protecting monuments from further deterioration. While addressing their potentially negative outcomes, it also defines the international and national conventions that determine the framework for adopting digital technologies in the effort to safeguard cultural heritage, without causing any harm.

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Research Problem During times of conflict, countries such as Syria are under threat of losing a part of their cultural heritage property for many reasons, such as a lack of awareness and reprioritization of supporting facilities that protect it. Given these circumstances, documentation becomes a very important step towards creating an information bank that can be relied upon by any restoration and conservation projects that might take place in the future.

The use of 3D digital technology tools was adopted as Syria underwent increasing instability because it became very difficult to depend on traditional means of safeguarding cultural heritage property. Due to how rapidly and significantly these tools have developed throughout the past decade, they have become a reliable means of saving time and obtaining more accurate results.

However, due to their novelty and the potential harm that their wrong usage can inflict, 3D digital technology tools and their respective documentation and fabrication are still met with some resistance among those who work within the field of cultural heritage property preservation.

Research Question To what extent can digital technology assist in safeguarding Syrian cultural heritage that has been lost during conflict?

Research Objectives The main aim of this thesis is to discuss the role of digital technologies in safeguarding Syria’s heritage during conflict, in order to explore their benefits and increase them, as well as determine and reduce their potential threats.

Research Hypothesis Using digital technologies could be effective in safeguarding Syrian heritage that has been lost, if its negative effects are avoided.

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Research Methodology The methodology of this research is based on two pillars: Part 1 – A theoretical section consisting of three chapters Chapter One: the researcher attempts to define cultural heritage and the main international conventions that have been put in place to protect it during conflicts.

Chapter Two: consists of a discussion of the concept of digital technologies and the use of their methods in cultural heritage, as well as the international charters and conventions that enforced the framework according to which digital technologies can be used to preserve cultural heritage during conflict.

Chapter Three: describes the situation of conflict in Syria and its impact on the country’s cultural heritage, including the use of digital technologies in safeguarding its monuments, by focusing on three case studies in the city of Palmyra.

Part II – An analysis and discussion of the results derived from the case studies, across two chapters Chapter four: analyzes the use of digital technologies in the three case studies and assesses what its benefits and challenges are according to the opinions that were obtained from experts and specialists via the questionnaire.

Chapter five: concludes with recommendations on how digital technologies can effectively be used in cultural heritage.

Research Limitations There were many possible research limitations that could affect the present study, such as restricted accessibility to the sites in question because conflict had only recently ended in some of them, which means that they were not yet open to the public or researchers. This limited the possibility of conducting fieldwork among some of them.

Yet another example is that not all companies were willing to cooperate with and allow researchers to access their data.

Furthermore, it was quite difficult to obtain a sufficiently large sample of experts’ opinions regarding the use of digital technology in cultural heritage and its respective benefits and shortcomings, due to the limited number of experts in this field. What’s more, there are no previous examples of the reproduction of cultural heritage in Arab countries that current field studies can base themselves on, which overall limits the generalizability of results.

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Research Process Flowchart:

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PART I – THEORY

Chapter One: An Overview of Cultural Heritage and the Conventions for Protecting it during a Situation of Conflict

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Part I – Theory This part focuses on how the international conventions have defined cultural heritage, as well as the digital technology methods that can be used in preserving cultural heritage monuments and how these could be applied during times of conflict. throughout studying the case studies and the products from using the digital technology tools

Chapter One: An Overview of Cultural Heritage and the Conventions for Protecting it during a Situation of Conflict The chapter is concerned with defining the concept of cultural heritage and its significance according to the international charters and conventions, as well as how to deal with it during conflict.

1.1 General Cultural Heritage Definitions The meanings dictionary defines heritage as encompassing all scientific, artistic and literary contributions that we have inherited from our predecessors, whether in the form of materials such as books, antiquities, etc., or intellectual, such as opinions, patterns, and civilized traditions that have been passed on from generation to generation.1 Heritage is an outstanding bank which combines spiritual and aesthetic values, in addition to being a tangible reality that imposes its acceptance and respect on account of being an honest record of society, culture, and human and intellectual features through the ages. 2

1

The meanings dictionary https://www.almaany.com/ar/dict/ar-ar/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AB/ Al-Swidani, A. M. (2012). MANAGEMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES - MANAGEMENT EXPERIENCE EVALUATION OF HISTORICAL CITY OF ALEPPO. FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, CAIRO UNIVERSITY. 2

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1.2 Cultural Heritage: Definition in the International Charters and Conventions The international conventions and charters express the international and national interests in the importance of protecting worldwide heritage. Their purpose is not only to provide definitions, but also to set the necessary framework for the protection of heritage into place. These conventions were often published through two main international organizations, namely the UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization) world heritage, and the ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites).

The Athena Charter which was published in 1931 can be considered as the first international charter to have mentioned that all artistic and archaeological products, as well as important landmarks, are a universal legacy belonging to all of humanity, the protect of which is the responsibility of all countries.3

Following this, the Lahai (Hugue) convention which was held in 1954 divided the concept of cultural heritage in three parts as a means of defining it: firstly, it consists of movable and immovable property which is of great value to all people, such as art, history, and architectural monuments as well as archaeological sites, or any complex of buildings that have a historical or artistic significance; secondly, it consists of buildings which possess the main function of protecting and presenting movable cultural heritage, such as museums and archives; and thirdly, it consists of centers which contain large numbers of cultural heritage property.4

However, in 1964, the Venice charter came to expand the definition of cultural heritage monuments to include not only buildings, but also urban areas that possess evidence of old civilizations or historic events. In addition, it came to cover all works that are of cultural significance. not only those deemed to be great.5

3

The Athens Charter for the Restoration of Historic Monuments – 1931 https://www.icomos.org/en/167the-athens-charter-for-the-restoration-of-historic-monuments 4 The Lahai Convention -1954 http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.phpURL_ID=13637&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html 5 The Venice Charter 1964 https://www.icomos.org/charters/venice_e.pdf

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Afterwards, the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage in 1972 split the concept of heritage according to two types: the first one referred to cultural heritage, which included monuments and buildings of architectural or urban value, sculptures, anything that is of artistic and historic value, and sites which contain nature and man-made works with outstanding universal value; the second one referred to natural heritage and included natural features, geological and physiographical areas and natural sites that are of outstanding universal value. 6 Moreover, this convention determined which steps need to be followed while conducting any documentation and conservation projects.

Finally, the Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage that emerged in 2003 focused on defining intangible cultural heritage and its domains, which means all of the knowledge, skills, expressions, instruments and equipment that are associated with and recognize as a part of society’s cultural heritage and provide a sense of identity and continuity. The convention also divided intangible cultural heritage into five domains, namely: oral traditions and expressions, art performances, social practices, knowledge and traditional craftsmanship.7 1.3 Definition of Antiquities according to the Syrian Antiquities Law The Syrian antiquities law which was released in 1963 and amended in 1999 defined the antiquities in its first article as consisting of movable and immovable property that has been built, manufactured, produced, written, or painted by humans and that dates back to two hundred A.D or two hundred and six A.H. However, archaeological authorities can also consider movable and immovable property as an antiquity if it dates back to recent era and is of historical, artistic, or national value.8

6

The Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage in 1972 https://whc.unesco.org/en/conventiontext/ 7 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage in http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.phpURL_ID=17716&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=20 1.html 8 Directorate-General of Antiquities &Museums in Syria http://www.dgam.gov.sy/index.php?m=278

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1.4 The Outstanding Universal Value of Cultural Heritage According to UNESCO world heritage (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization ), the term cultural heritage encompasses three main categories: that of cultural heritage, whether in tangible form such as architectural works, archaeological sites, monumental sculptures and paintings, or in intangible form such as the performing arts, oral traditions, and so on; that of natural heritage, such as the cultural landscape or physical, biological and geological formations; and finally, heritage in the event of armed conflict.9 All of those categories must represent OUV (outstanding universal value), which means that they are of common importance to all of humanity’s present and future generations from the viewpoint of history, science, and art. The first mention of OUV was in 1972, in the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, but its definition underwent repeated changes until it was finalized and officially declared during the global strategy meeting that was held in Amsterdam in 1998. 10

Despite the latter, the criteria for outstanding universal value was modified one last time in 2005, and now contains six points related to cultural heritage. More precisely, the value of architectural monuments or complexes of buildings is to be assessed from the point of view of history, the arts, or science, while the value of archaeological sites are to be determined from a historical, aesthetic, and ethnological point of view. With regard to natural heritage, four points of criteria were decided, with its value having to be decided from an aesthetic or scientific point of view.1112 The present thesis focuses on tangible cultural heritage in an area of conflict that is under violent extremism and wars.

9

The UNESCO website http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/illicit-trafficking-of-culturalproperty/unesco-database-of-national-cultural-heritage-laws/frequently-asked-questions/definitionof-the-cultural-heritage/ 10 Jokiletho, J. (2008). The World Heriatge List: What is OUV? Defining the Outstanding Universal Value of Cultural World Heritage Properties. In Monuments and Sites edited by ICOMOS. 11

Tamas Fejerdy, Petzet, M., Jokilehto, J., Titchen, S. M., Cleere, H., & jukka jokilehto. (1996).

Evolution and Possible Enhancement of the Concept of OUV. Values and Criteria in Heritage Conservation 12

The UNESCO website – OUV criteria https://whc.unesco.org/en/criteria/

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1.5 Cultural Heritage Under Conflict Cultural heritage property has been threatened over hundreds of years and the deterioration of archaeological sites is the result of complex reasons and different factors, both natural and human in kind, and of all which impact cultural heritage property differently.13 The destruction of cultural heritage has been a feature of wars and armed conflict for thousands of years, but international attention to reducing this form of destruction has only increased during the last two decades. According to Cunliffe et al., while cultural heritage is also under threat during peaceful times, “the severest damage takes place during social disorder and conflict.”14 When cultural heritage is damaged, a unique part of a country is lost, which can have a negative impact on the communities involved that extends to the psychological level and is liable to increase violence. Furthermore, destruction of cultural heritage is sometimes motivated by the though of committing a cultural cleansing, which implies erasing a community by destroying its history and identity.

Overall, the motives for why armed conflict parties attack cultural heritage sites fall under four categories. In the first case, it consists of the warring party’s goal of the conflict because the monuments constitute a sign of one of the parties’ identity and history, especially when ethnic and religious issues occupy a central position within the conflict. 15 16

Alternately, there can be military-strategic, signaling, and economic incentives to attack

cultural heritage, in which case the attacks aims to facilitate success and determine the conflict winner. 1718 As such, it can be said that while the first motive is the conflict’s reason

13

Al-Swidani, A. M. (2012). MANAGEMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES – MANAGEMENT EXPERIENCE EVALUATION OF HISTORICAL CITY OF ALEPPO. FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, CAIRO UNIVERSITY. 14 Cunliffe, E., Muhesen, N., & Lostal, M. (2016). The Destruction of Cultural Property in the Syrian Conflict: Legal Implications and Obligations. International Journal of Cultural Property, 23(1), 1– 31 15 Fisher, H. J. (2017). Violence Against Architecture : The Lost Cultural Heritage of Syria and Iraq .

16

Johan Brosché, Mattias Legnér, J. K. and A. I. (2016). Heritage under Attack Motives for Targeting Cultural Property during Armed Conflict Johan Brosché, Mattias Legnér, Joakim Kreutz and Akram Ijla International Journal of Heritage Studies, 2016. 1–26.

17 Cunliffe, E., Muhesen, N., & Lostal, M. (2016). The Destruction of Cultural Property in the Syrian Conflict: Legal Implications and Obligations. International Journal of Cultural Property, 23(1), 1– 31 18 Johan Brosché, Mattias Legnér, J. K. and A. I. (2016). Heritage under Attack Motives for Targeting Cultural Property during Armed Conflict Johan Brosché, Mattias Legnér, Joakim Kreutz and Akram Ijla International Journal of Heritage Studies, 2016. 1–26.

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itself and why the parties are fighting, the other three motives relate to fighting tactics and what kind of armed conflict is underway.

1.6 International Conventions for Protecting Cultural Heritage during Conflict Many treaties and conventions were created for protecting cultural heritage, however, the three main UNESCO conventions have formed the main principles for protecting cultural heritage worldwide during conflicts and wartimes.

1.6.1 Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 1954 ( Lahai Convention ) The Lahai Convention is considered as the first international treaty that focused on the importance of protecting cultural heritage during armed conflict. It was created after a rise of global awareness emerged concerning the harmful effects of armed conflict upon cultural heritage property and the increasing damage that was resulting frm advancements in war techniques.3 The main concept of the convention can be summarized as “any damage to cultural property, irrespective of the people it belongs to, is a damage to the cultural heritage of all humanity, because every people contributes to the world's culture”19 The focus of Article 7 of the Lahai Convention is on protective measures, beginning with fully documenting the monuments during times of peace, followed by preparing for the removal of movable cultural monuments and then informing the authorities who are responsible for protecting cultural heritage during times of peace and war. Beside that, the convention determined the main features of the caches that are to be used for protecting the movable cultural property .20

19 20 21

21

The Lahai Convention -1954 http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.phpURL_ID=13637&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Vrdoljak, A. F. (2007). Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage and International Law. Multiculturalism and International Law, XXXV Thesaurus Acroasium, 377–396.

Cunliffe, E., Muhesen, N., & Lostal, M. (2016). The Destruction of Cultural Property in the Syrian Conflict: Legal Implications and Obligations. International Journal of Cultural Property, 23(1), 1– 31

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1.6.2 UNESCO’s 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transport of Ownership of Cultural Property This convention was organized to stop the illegal trade of antiquities items, which was spread between trade drugs and weapons around the world. The convention focused on preventive measures of cultural heritage protection, as well as how cultural property can be safeguarded from looting. Its international law regarding looting items ensures that any parties have the right to recover stolen or illegally exported cultural property.2223

1.6.3 UNESCO’s Declaration concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage

in

2003 This convention is concerned with any destruction to cultural heritage that is considered as an infringement on human rights .3 It states that the parties involved should take all the appropriate measures to protect their cultural heritage during armed conflict according to the international conventions, principles of treaties and UNESCO recommendations.1 In addition, the convention encourages the use of current and future tools or any instruments that could help to protect cultural heritage.24

22

Fisher, H. J. (2017). Violence Against Architecture : The Lost Cultural Heritage of Syria and Iraq .

The Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transport of Ownership of Cultural Property -1970 http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.phpURL_ID=13039&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html 24 Declaration concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage -2003 http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.phpURL_ID=17716&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html 23

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1.7 Syrian Cultural Heritage Syria contains some of the oldest cities in human history, therefore it possesses a very rich and varied cultural heritage that dates back thousands of years. Many civilizations have left their mark upon Syria, beginning with the Marie, Aramaic, Phoenician, Roman, Byzantine, and Islamic civilizations.25 A majority of those had chosen Syrian cities as their capitals, leaving behind a lot of impressive monuments such as the European Crusaders castles, Ottoman mosques ,and Roman theaters, etc..26 Today, Syria has six heritage sites that are included in the UNESCO’s world heritage list, namely the: ▪

Ancient City of Damascus

▪

Ancient City of Bosra

▪

Site of Palmyra

▪

Ancient City of Aleppo

▪

Crac des Chevaliers and Qal’at Salah El-Din

▪

Ancient Villages of Northern Syria

These sites date back thousands of years and are historically and culturally significant. Additionally, Syria has thirty-six museums, twelve of which are considered to be archeological.27 Besides these listed sites, Syria also has a tentative inscription list of national heritage sites for future consideration.26

25

Figure 1. 1 : Map of Syria showing the locations of the inscribed heritage sites- Source : https://i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2016/03/23/10/3248C004000005783505668Six_sites_across_Syria_above_have_had_reports_of_damage_or_destra-57_1458729495289.jpg last access :23/01/2020

Fangi, G. (2015). Documentation of some cultural heritage emergencies in Syria in August 2010 by spherical photrammetry. ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 2(5W3), 401–408 26 Cunliffe, E. (2012). Damage to the Soul: Syria’s Cultural Heritage in Conflict. (May), 55.

27 Kanjou, Y. (2014). The Syrian cultural heritage tragedy : cause , effect , and approaches to future protection. 8(July), 271–278.

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1.8 Syrian Cultural Heritage under Conflict

Figure 1. 2 : Explosion the Baal-Shamin, The Guardian, 25 August 2016.

Source: Reconstructing Cultural Heritage in Conflict Zones: Should Palmyra be Rebuilt? -2017

The conflict in Syria began on February 2nd 2011 in the form of peaceful protests and unfortunately turned into an armed conflict that has continued until now in some parts of Syria.28 It has led to hundreds of thousands of Syrian deaths, millions of refugees and displaced people around the world, and has damaged Syria ‘s cultural heritage.29 In particular, the situation of conflict has badly affected heritage sites such as archeological museums, because most of the sites and museums are located within the circle of the armed conflict, such as Aleppo, Deir- Ezor, and Palmyra. As such, just like the rest of Syrian cities, archeological sites have been suffering economically and socially28.

Figure 1. 3 : The damages to the Great Umayyad Mosque in Aleppo before the conflict (right) and after the conflict (left), including the minaret that is totally destroyed.

28

Kanjou, Y. (2014). The Syrian cultural heritage tragedy : cause , effect , and approaches to future protection. 8(July), 271–278.

29 Cunliffe, E. (2012). Damage to the Soul: Syria’s Cultural Heritage in Conflict. (May), 55.

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Source: ALEPPO - BEFORE AND AFTER report -2019

As the fighting continues in Syria, its impact has risen dramatically, affecting almost all sectors and both rich and poor cities alike. Some of the damage that this conflict has caused has destroyed urban communities and heritage sites. In some cases, the latter have become military bases, and illegal excavations, looting activities and theft of artifacts have increased during the conflict.

30

This is due to a lack of awareness about the

importance of these heritage sites for society, also for financial benefits that back to the fighting parties.31 For example, the Homs archeological museum was looted in the summer of 2011, and Raqqa museum was looted in May 2012.32 In response to such acts, Irina Bokova, Director-General of UNESCO has stated that: “The systematic destruction of cultural symbols [in Palmyra] embodying Syrian cultural diversity reveals the true intent of such attacks, which is to deprive the Syrian people of its knowledge, its identity and history. (…) Such acts are war crimes and their perpetrators must be accountable for their actions. “

In terms of restoration projects, it may be reasonable to begin these in some cities, such as Aleppo, due to its location and the fact that it is considered to be an important economic center. In such cases, starting such a project could be a way of revitalizing the entire city. However, with regard to Palmyra, its current situation does not allow for that to happen as of yet. 33

30

Casana, J. (2015). Satellite imagery-based analysis of archaeological looting in Syria. Near Eastern Archaeology, 78(3), 142–152.

31 Friedman, L. L. (2016). ISIS’s Get Rich Quick Scheme: Sell the World’s Cultural Heritage on the Black Market—Purchasers of ISIS-Looted Syrian Artifacts Are Not Criminally Liable Under the NSPA and the McClain Doctrine in the Eleventh Circuit. University of Miami Law Review, 70(4), 1068.

32 Cunliffe, E. (2012). Damage to the Soul: Syria’s Cultural Heritage in Conflict. (May), 55.

33 DGAM website (Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums of Syria) http://dgam.gov.sy/index.php

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At least, many initiatives have started monitoring the destruction that has happened to archaeological sites due to armed conflict and religious violence 3435. For example, the UNESCO is working to document the damages and has organized multiple international conferences to spread awareness about the importance and global responsibility of protecting the world’s cultural heritage sites. 36 37

Figure 1. 4 (left) On the left are restoration works in the Old Market in Aleppo city and on the right is the Old Market after its restoration works were finished.

Source : https://www.rt.com/news/465127-syria-aleppo-restoration-war/ Last accessed: 23/01/2020

34

Silver, M., Ana, A., Robert, B., & Emma, C. (2016). THE CIPA WORKSHOP ON SAVING THE HERITAGE OF SYRIA. 1–11.

35 Perini, S. (2014). Towards a protection of the Syrian cultural heritage : A summary of the international responses - Volume II (March 2014 - September 2014). II(October 2014), 1–25.

36 Johan Brosché, Mattias Legnér, J. K. and A. I. (2016). Heritage under Attack Motives for Targeting Cultural Property during Armed Conflict Johan Brosché, Mattias Legnér, Joakim Kreutz and Akram Ijla International Journal of Heritage Studies , 2016. 1–26.

37 Munawar, Nour A. (2018) Rebuilding Aleppo: Public Engagement In Post-Conflict Reconstruction.

In: A contemporary provocation: reconstructions as tools of future-making. Selected papers from the ICOMOS University Forum Workshop on Authenticity and Reconstructions, Paris, 13 – 15 March 2017, eds C. Holtorf, L. Kealy, T. Kono. Paris: ICOMOS.

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Chapter Two: The Concept of Digital Technologies in Cultural Heritage

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Chapter Two: The Concept of 3D Digital Technologies in Cultural Heritage The chapter is focusing on defining the concept of digital technologies in cultural heritage and, how it developed through years , also the chapter will sort out the different types of 3D digital technology tools in documentation and reproduction.

2.1 3D Digital Technology in Cultural Heritage

According to UNESCO, heritage is a bridge between what we inherit from the past generation and what we will leave to the next generation. However, cultural heritage sites nowadays are suffering from natural or man-made disasters. Therefore, the importance of documentation for heritage sites is well emerged and recognized. Nowaday, 3D digital technologies are used in many varieties fields, medical field, movie industry, and engineering field, so using three dimensional computerize tools and 3D digitizing techniques is becoming more common. 38 The tools for documenting and surveying cultural heritage property and sites have been improved in last decade by using 3D digital technologies , which is an important contribution that increase the works in recording, preservation and restoration, The use of technology tools in documentation permit to generate a very realistic 3D models which can be used for many scopes and sectors like archaeological documentation, preservations works, visual reality applications, web graphic systems, visualization purpose, etc..39 The 3D digitalizing cultural heritage is considered a new branch of knowledge that uses information technologies to capture or represent the visualize of the data that studied by architects, archaeologists and historians of art. 3D digitalizing data produces three –

38

Yilmaz, M. H., Yakar, M., & Yildiz, F. (2008). Digital Photogrammetry in Obtaining of 3D Model Data of Irregular Small Objects. The International Archives of the Phototgrammetry, REmote Sensing and Spatial Information Science., 37, 125–130.

39 Grussenmeyer, P., Hanke, K., & Streilein, A. (2002). Architectural Photogrammety. Digital Photogrammetry

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dimensional objects or sites , from small artifacts such as pottery or furniture to entire sites , cites and cultural or natural landscape .40

The products from 3D digital Technology tools in cultural heritage can be used in: ▪

Documentation and cataloguing.

▪

Public awareness and education.

▪

Academic and experimental studies (historic, architecture, etc.)41

Despite of all benefits from using digital technologies in safeguarding cultural heritage, the role of it is still not essential for different reasons: ▪

The high cost of using this technique from the equipment and requirements.

▪

The difficulty to reach a very well 3D models, using these techniques need experts and a lot of practices.

▪

The consideration from others that using this technique could be an optional process, and considers the 2D documentation is enough for saving cultural heritage.

▪

The difficulties in integration 3D world models with other 2D materials.42

2.2 The History of Using 3d Digital Tools in Safeguarding Heritage The first appearance of using the term 3d digital virtual heritage back to 1985 in the annual conference computer and quantitative methods in archaeology 3, and after four years in 1989 the first paper about 3D hand-modeling was published in the same conference. Then in 1997 a book named virtual archaeology by M. Forte and A. Siliotti was diffusion which described several examples for reconstruction sites that made it by computers.43

40

Koller, D., Frischer, B., & Humphreys, G. (2009). Research challenges for digital archives of 3D cultural heritage models. Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage.

41 Remondino, F., & Rizzi, A. (2010). Reality-based 3D documentation of natural and cultural heritage sites-techniques, problems, and examples. Applied Geomatics, 2(3), 85–100 42 Campana, S., & Remondino, F. (2008). Fast and detailed digital documentation of archaeological excavations and heritage artifacts. Layers of Perception: Proceedings of the 35th International Conference on Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology (CAA), Berlin, Germany, April 2-6, 2007, 36–42.

43 Koller, D., Frischer, B., & Humphreys, G. (2009). Research challenges for digital archives of 3D cultural heritage models. Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage.

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By the late 1990s , the cost of creating 3D models by computer reduced ,which allowed a lot of archaeologists to start creating 3D digital projects and ,made a lot of professional organizations interested to participate in the computer and quantitative methods in archaeology’s conferences under title the visual heritage .44 However, by the start of 2000, the seminars and conferences increased and virtual heritage has reached maturity and recognition from international organizations. and the Journal on computing and cultural heritage was founded in 2007 by the association for computing machinery. 45Nowadays, there are a lot of 3D models for heritage sites created by experts, and still the works are going on for developing 3d modeling software and data capture systems.

Figure 2. 1 : The Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage for 2018 Source : https://dl.acm.org/journal/jocch last access 20/01/2020

2.3 Digital Technology in the International Charters and Conventions The international charters and conventions didn’t mention the use of the digital technology tools in cultural heritage , it just concerned on the using of new materials and

44

Beraldin, J.-A., Picard, M., El-Hakim, S. F., Godin, G., Valzano, V., Bandiera, A., & Latouche, D. (2002). Virtualizing a Byzantine crypt by combining high-resolution textures with laser scanner 3D data. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia, (1), 1– 12..

45 Koller, D., Frischer, B., & Humphreys, G. (2009). Research challenges for digital archives of 3D cultural heritage models. Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage

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new technologies in documentation and conservation process, and putting the framework and the preventive measures to make it serving cultural heritage correctly without harm it.

2.3.1 The Athens Charter for the Restoration of Historic Monuments – 1931 – Article 5 The charter focused on using all technologies tools on the conservation process after studying and examining it, to make sure that it will not harm the property. Also, when using new materials, it must prove their validity first, then use it in a way that not appear on the general view of the restored property 46 2.3.2 The Venice Charter – 1964 – Article 10-15 The charter mentioned to use a new technology tool in conservation and construction works when the traditional tools were not enough and proved inadequate, but first, it should prove on its effectivity with scientific evidence before using it in any conservation or construction works. Also, the charter emphasized that all technology tools should be used according to the scientific standards and the international specific recommendations that adopted by UNESCO.47 2.3.3 The Budapest Charter (Resolutions of the Symposium on the Introduction of Contemporary Architecture into Ancient Groups of Buildings, at the 3rd ICOMOS General Assembly) – 1972 The charter recommended to incorporate contemporary architecture into the group of old buildings inhomogeneity way, in order to preserve the historical monuments that have a value and also have an important role contemporary life. Also, it focused on merging the contemporary architecture that depending on the new technologies and modern artistic styles and materials, that can fit within the old sites without affecting the structural and aesthetic characteristics for these old sites 48

46

The Athens Charter for the Restoration of Historic Monuments – 1931 https://www.icomos.org/en/167-the-athens-charter-for-the-restoration-of-historic-monuments

47

The Venice Charter 1964 https://www.icomos.org/charters/venice_e.pdf The Budapest Charter -19720 https://www.icomos.org/en/charters-and-texts/180-articles-enfrancais/chartes-et-normes/383-resolutions-of-the-symposium-on-the-introduction-ofcontemporary-architecture-into-ancient-groups-of-buildings-at-the-3rd-icomos-general-assembly

48

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2.3.4 Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage – 1972 – Article 24 The convention accentuated that it should make a scientific , economic , and technical studies before any international assistance , those studies are depending on the most advanced techniques and consistent with the goals this convention , so all the protection , conservation , presentation and ,rehabilitation works for the cultural and natural heritage property will do correctly

49

Also, the convention focused, that the implementation of the World Heritage Convention is facilitated through the Operational Guidelines, which define the procedures for new inscriptions, site protection, danger-listings, and the provision of international assistance under the World Heritage Fund.

2.3.5 The Appleton Charter for the Protection and Enhancement of the Built Environment – 1983 In the additions part, the charter mentioned that same conservation works need to use new requirement and add new materials and finishes, but it should respect and enhance the original cultural heritage property

50

2.3.6 The Burra charter – 1999 – Article 4 The charter encouraged for using all the skills and knowledge that could help in protection, and conservation cultural heritage property, however, using the traditional materials and techniques in conservation works are more preferred but in some new cases using the modern materials and techniques may be more effective

51

2.3.7 ICOMOS’ Principles for the Preservation and Conservation – Restoration of Wall Paintings – 2003 – Article 5 It concentrated that choosing between traditional or modern materials and techniques is different from case to other, and it should keep on our mind, that the long-

49

Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage -1972 https://whc.unesco.org/en/conventiontext/ 50 The Appleton Charter - 1983https://www.icomos.org/charters/appleton.pdf 51 The Burra charter -1999 https://australia.icomos.org/wp-content/uploads/The-Burra-Charter-2013Adopted-31.10.2013.pdf

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term effects from using the modern material and techniques are not known, therefore, the traditional materials and techniques are more preferred.

52

2.4 The Selection of 3D Digital Technology Tools

Before starting the documentation project, it should understand the monument’s outstanding value to determine the required data that need. Then it needs to choose carefully the appropriate approach that wants to apply.53 Choosing the approach is depending on some factors like , the resolution that it needed, the site limitations, approach ’s portability and usability, monuments characteristics, work team experience, and project’s budget, etc.54 “Therefore, accuracy and resolution must be carefully planned and

instruments and techniques must be chosen to produce the required data” 55 The digital approach that will choose for documentation and conservation the archeological sites requires following properties: o The accuracy: The accuracy and precision are very important factors in documentation works, the approach must provide the accuracy with minimum time. o The Portability: The approach that have choose should depend on the equipment that suitable with the site conditions, such as accessibility, electricity, etc. o The Low cost: Most of the documentation and conservation works have limited budgets, so they cannot effort the high expensive surveying

52

ICOMOS Principles for the Preservation and Conservation-Restoration of Wall Paintings -2003 https://www.icomos.org/en/what-we-do/focus/179-articles-en-francais/ressources/charters-andstandards/166-icomosprinciples-for-the-preservation-and-conservationrestoration-of-wallpaintings 53 Quintero, M. S., Blake, B., & Eppich, R. (2007). Conservation of Architectural Heritage:The Role of Digital Documentation Tools:The Need for Appropriate Teaching Material. International Journal of Architectural Computing, 5(2), 240–253.

54 Hassani, F. (2015). Documentation of cultural heritage techniques, potentials and constraints.

International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences ISPRS Archives, 40(5W7), 207–214 55 Remondino, F., & Rizzi, A. (2010). Reality-based 3D documentation of natural and cultural heritage sites-techniques, problems, and examples. Applied Geomatics, 2(3), 85–100

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instruments, so it important to detriment the approach according the budget to make sure the works will not stop in the middle for that. o Time: A lot of archeological sites have a limited time for different reasons like wars, climate change, visitors time, etc., so it should choose the approach by taking the time under consideration to avoid interrupt the works. o Flexibility: when choosing the approach it should take on the consideration the great variety and sites dimension, to get the most information in different levels. 56 The continuous development of the new 3d documentation and presentation techniques have a big role in heritage safeguarding whether in the documentation, conservation, or presentation of the monuments, also it helps to grow the scientific research in cultural heritage.

2.5 The Variables of Selecting Digital Tools Choosing the proper digital tool to apply on the sites depends on the project cost, the scale of the project and the level of details that could be needed. However, it also needs to study the different variables that affecting the sites which could have an impact on the tool effectively.56 In this way and after collecting all data to select the tool and method that will be applied, all parties should be aware of the risk and benefits of the approach that has chosen.

A lot of projects strategies failed because of incorrect tool selection, for different reasons such as, the tool wasn’t suitable with sites context, so the outcome result that had been reached was unsatisfying 57

56

Remondino, F., & Rizzi, A. (2010). Reality-based 3D documentation of natural and cultural heritage sites-techniques, problems, and examples. Applied Geomatics, 2(3), 85–100 57 Quintero, M. S., Blake, B., & Eppich, R. (2007). Conservation of Architectural Heritage:The Role of Digital Documentation Tools:The Need for Appropriate Teaching Material. International Journal of Architectural Computing, 5(2), 240–253.

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2.5 Categorization of 3D Digital Technology Techniques for the Documentation of Cultural Heritage There are many ways for categorizing digital techniques tools , in this thesis two main categories will be studied which are: Photogrammetry methods and Scanning methods with their types.

Figure 2. 2 :The Photo shows the two main 3D digital technology categories which are the Photogrammetry methods and Scanning methods with their types ( By Researcher )

2.6.1 Photogrammetry This technique based on the acquired photos for the monuments, then processing the photos to provide the 3D Models with a high level of reliability, which could be used for interpreting, presenting and to make a model for the monuments instead of direct measuring. This method depends on defining

the position, size, and shape of the

monuments by collection the RGB colors for each point in the photos, then process it to create a 3D digital model for the monuments 58

58

Yilmaz, M. H., Yakar, M., & Yildiz, F. (2008). Digital Photogrammetry in Obtaining of 3D Model Data of Irregular Small Objects. The International Archives of the Phototgrammetry, REmote Sensing and Spatial Information Science., 37, 125–130.

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The photos that used in this method can be collected into three scale levels, according to the distance between the camera and the object, for that, it divided into three categories: ▪

Terrestrial Photogrammetry

▪

Aerial Photogrammetry

▪

Space photogrammetry.59

The terrestrial photogrammetry method considers as the most popular tools for documentation the cultural heritage monuments, this method also named as close -range photogrammetry, which used by installations the camera on the land, it can be used to document and record the historical buildings, sculpture, and even the small objects .60

Figure 2. 3: The Models of Byzantine Crypt used close -range photogrammetry method, wire frame model at right, model with texture at left source: Virtualizing a Byzantine Crypt by Combining High-resolution Textures with Laser Scanner 3D Data (2002)

The advantage of using the photogrammetry technique: ▪

Effective and easy way to establish an archive for the future.

▪

A very huge amount of data

▪

A high-resolution data that could cover all project requirements

▪

3D modeling for different scale monuments from small object to huge

complicate archaeological sites

59

Remondino, F., & Rizzi, A. (2010). Reality-based 3D documentation of natural and cultural heritage sites-techniques, problems, and examples. Applied Geomatics, 2(3), 85–100 60 Hassani, F. (2015). Documentation of cultural heritage techniques, potentials and constraints.

International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences ISPRS Archives, 40(5W7), 207–214.

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▪

Provide some geographical data, even if it could be reach from images

indirectly.

▪

Low cost techniques.

▪

Portable equipment. 1 2

In other side, the disadvantage of using this technique are: ▪

This technique considers as a new and sophisticate

▪

Needs to by apply by experts.

▪

The accuracy for data depends on the resolution for the camera and other equipment

61 62

2.6.2 Types of Photogrammetry Photogrammetry method is divided on three main types: 2.6.2.1 Stereo Photogrammetry.

This

tool

is

depending

on

processing two images for the building that need to document. The images should cover all the building and needs to be almost parallel to each other, also have an overlapping between them to get good results.1 This tool can produce 2D lines for the facades, 3D wireframe and surface models and lists of building point coordinates.63

Figure 2. 4 : The Photo shows the camera positions and the overlapping between two images in Stereo Photogrammetry source: Architectural Photogrammetry-2002

61

Hassani, F. (2015). Documentation of cultural heritage techniques, potentials and constraints.

International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences ISPRS Archives, 40(5W7), 207–214.

62 Remondino, F. (2011). Heritage recording and 3D modeling with photogrammetry and 3D scanning.

Remote Sensing, 3(6), 1104–1138 63 Beraldin, J.-A., Picard, M., El-Hakim, S. F., Godin, G., Valzano, V., Bandiera, A., & Latouche, D. (2002). Virtualizing a Byzantine crypt by combining high-resolution textures with laser scanner 3D data. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia, (1), 1– 12.

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Figure 2. 5 : (Two up photos) The Photos that takes by stereo Photogrammetry show the overlapping between them (photo at bottom) the 2D lines for the faced after proccing the images source: Architectural Photogrammetry

2-6-2-2Bundle Photogrammetry This tool used in big and complicate monuments when the stereo tool is not enough to cover all the buildings. The tool depends on taking more images to cover the

building

and

get

more

percentage of accuracy.64 The

tool

works

by

determining each point with at

64

Figure 2. 6 : The Photo shows the camera positions and the overlapping between images in Bnndle Photogrammetry . source: Architectural Photogrammetry-2002

Hassani, F. (2015). Documentation of cultural heritage techniques, potentials and constraints.

International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences ISPRS Archives, 40(5W7), 207–214

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least two intersected rays of a satisfactory intersection angle.

It doesn’t need to take the images parallel and at the same level like stereo photogrammetry , the tool more flexible in this point, it just needs to be the images have an overlapping with each other to get more effective results.65The results from using this tool are 3D wireframe and surface models for the building ,which can be used as a source for building dimensions, besides a list of the coordinates for the points that measured, also it can produce 3D visualizing texture model for the building.66

Figure 2. 7 : (right )The rays for 3 Bundle images for Shabba, the roman forum-Syria (left) the result after processing the images. source : documentation of some cultural heritage emergencies in Syria in by spherical photogrammetry

Figure 2. 8: Al Darwikiya Mosque Syria - she photo shows the intersected rays . source : documentation of some cultural heritage emergencies in Syria in by spherical photogrammetry

65

Remondino, F. (2011). Heritage recording and 3D modeling with photogrammetry and 3D scanning.

Remote Sensing, 3(6), 1104–1138 66 Beraldin, J.-A., Picard, M., El-Hakim, S. F., Godin, G., Valzano, V., Bandiera, A., & Latouche, D. (2002). Virtualizing a Byzantine crypt by combining high-resolution textures with laser scanner 3D data. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia, (1), 1– 12.

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2-6-2-3 Photogrammetry with Computer Correction The tool is depending on using computer software to process the image for the monuments, that took by digital cameras, the computer used special software to correct the vertical and horizontal lines in the images and process the deviations of the camera’s angles. the results can provide the building dimensions. 67 68

Figure 2. 9 : Serjilla the dead city -Syria - (left ) the real image ( right ) after using computer correction . source: documentation of some cultural heritage emergencies in Syria in by spherical photogrammetry

2-6-3 Laser Scanner Method The laser scanner technique can define as an active fast and highly accurate tool to record the monuments. The technique depends on the laser rays to determine the threedimensional coordinates without any contact with the object.69 The advantage of using this technique: ▪

Provide a detailed record for the sites

▪

Effective and easy way to establish a detailed achievable for the future.

▪

Structural or condition monitoring

▪

A high-resolution data that could cover all project requirements

▪

Provide 3D modeling for different scale monuments from small object to

huge complicate archaeological sites

67

Fangi, G. (2015). Documentation of some cultural heritage emergencies in Syria in August 2010 by spherical photrammetry. ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 2(5W3), 401–408.

68 Beraldin, J.-A., Picard, M., El-Hakim, S. F., Godin, G., Valzano, V., Bandiera, A., & Latouche, D. (2002). Virtualizing a Byzantine crypt by combining high-resolution textures with laser scanner 3D data. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia, (1), 1– 12.

69 Historic England. (2018). 3D Laser Scanning for Heritage: Advice and Guidance on the Use of Laser Scanning in Archaeology and Architecture. Historic England, 119

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▪

Provide high accuracy in geometry measurements.70

In other side, the disadvantage of using this technique are: ▪

High cost

▪

Some reflective materials can affect result accuracy

▪

This technique considers as a new and sophisticate

▪

Need procedures for protection and safety

▪

Needs to by apply by experts.7172

2-6-4 Types of laser Scanner laser Scanner method is divided on two main types: 2-6-4-1 3D laser Scanner The tool is depending on measuring the distance between the laser scanner and object points, through laser ray, which sends from the laser device and collide with object surface then back to the receiver in the laser device.73 Then laser scanner device starts automatically to calculate the distance between the device and the object by knowing the time and speed that used, which make it able to define the three - dimensional coordinates (x,y,z) .2

Figure 2. 10 :The 3D Model of Al-Khasneh created by laser scanner source :3D laser scans integration of digital photogrammetry and laser scanning for heritage documentation – n.d

70

Pavlidis, G., Koutsoudis, A., Arnaoutoglou, F., Tsioukas, V., & Chamzas, C. (2007). Methods for 3D digitization of Cultural Heritage. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 8(1), 93–98.

71 Historic England. (2018). 3D Laser Scanning for Heritage: Advice and Guidance on the Use of Laser Scanning in Archaeology and Architecture. Historic England, 119 72 Campana, S., & Remondino, F. (2008). Fast and detailed digital documentation of archaeological excavations and heritage artifacts. Layers of Perception: Proceedings of the 35th International Conference on Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology (CAA), Berlin, Germany, April 2-6, 2007, 36–42.

73 Remondino, F. (2011). Heritage recording and 3D modeling with photogrammetry and 3D scanning.

Remote Sensing, 3(6), 1104–1138

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And with computer software all the point's coordinates get together and compose cloud of points which form the monument surface, Modeling process through 3d laser scanner and point cloud includes several steps , first one is the data acquisition , by collecting the 3d coordinates of the monument surface , and determine the position which led to form the point cloud of the monument . Second step is the data registration, actually it is impossible to cover all the monument surface by one scan so it needs to scan several times from different station and in this step the point cloud foe each scan will put to gather by coordinate transform program. 74

Figure 2. 11 The section for St Hilda’s Church in England by 3D laser scanner -colorized point cloud . source: 3D Laser Scanning for Heritage: Advice and Guidance on the Use of Laser Scanning in Archaeology and Architecture 2018

Next step is the data preprocessing , this step contains two parts the evaluation and filtering the data , evaluation the data is to find the skipped an repeated area when scanning through this step it can decide whether to measure the monument again , however the data filtering part is to removing noise of all point clouds , scanning a site captures everything in the selected field of view , including ground points , traffic signs ,etc.

Fortunately, due to recent major advances in point cloud processing software; powerful tools have emerged to allow the surveyor to eliminate noise quickly and easily.

After that it start to resample of the point cloud which is very important to reduce the file sizes and ultimately lowers processing times for modelling algorithms. Then the surface fitting, which is to reconstruct a concise and accurate surface. Last one is the products producing, when the all previews finished.75 74

Bu, L., & Zhang, Z. (2008). Application of Point Clouds From Terrestrial 3D Laser Scanner for Deformation Measurements. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, XXXVII, 545–548.

75 Cheng, X. J., & Jin, W. (2006). Study on reverse engineering of historical architecture based on 3D laser scanner. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 48(1), 843–849.

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3D model is constructed based on surface and feature however; the 3D laser scanner is divided into three main categories: ▪

Fixed Terrestrial laser scanning

▪

kinematic Terrestrial laser scanning

▪

Airborne laser scanning76 This tool affects by some factors such as, the site environment, the reflection, light

diffusion and absorption for the scanned surface materials and coherence of the backscattered light. those factors can affect the accuracy of results. However, the results from 3D laser scanner are 3d models for the monuments, section scanner for detecting damages, and list of coordinates for monuments points .77

Figure 2. 12 : The 3D laser scanner products . source: Heritage recording and 3D modeling with photogrammetry and 3D scanning - 2011

2.6.3.2 Structured Light Pattern Scanner

Figure 2. 13 : The structured light Pattern scanner system. source: 3D Laser Scanning for Heritage: Advice and Guidance on the Use of Laser Scanning in Archaeology and Architecture 2018

76

Historic England. (2018). 3D Laser Scanning for Heritage: Advice and Guidance on the Use of Laser Scanning in Archaeology and Architecture. Historic England, 119 77 Pavlidis, Koutsoudis, A., Arnaoutoglou, F., Tsioukas, V., &scanner Chamzas, C. (2007).

Methods for 3D Figure 2. SEQG., Figure_2. \* ARABIC 14 : structured light Pattern system. source: 3D Laser digitization of Cultural Heritage.

Journal of Cultural Heritage, 8(1), 93–98.

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This tool depends on projecting the Halogen light on the object surfaces to record it,78 it usually used for the small monuments, record historical building details, and detailed sculptures. The tool has a high capacity to document curved surfaces. 79 Structured light Pattern Scanner works better in the dark spaces, to increase the contrast between emitted lights and any surrounding lights.80

2.7 Categorization of 3D digital Technology Techniques for Reproducing Cultural Heritage The 3D digital techniques for reconstruction of cultural heritage property have been developed an impressive evolution, 3D digital printing one of the most common tools that used for reproducing objects.81 2-7-1 3D Digital Printing The first 3D printer was founded in 1984, at the beginning of 3D printer, it was very complicating process with high cost, then with developing of technique , it became used in all industrial fields such as , engineering , medicine ,and aerospace industry 82.in 2014 the first house was printed by 3D printing, which made it an important tool in construction industry 83

Figure 2. 15: The 3D printing process. source: 3D Printing of Buildings and Building Components as the Future of Sustainable Construction? -2016 78

Pavlidis, G., Koutsoudis, A., Arnaoutoglou, F., Tsioukas, V., & Chamzas, C. (2007). Methods for 3D digitization of Cultural Heritage. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 8(1), 93–98.

79 Hassani, F. (2015). Documentation of cultural heritage techniques, potentials and constraints.

International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences ISPRS Archives, 40(5W7), 207–214 80 Historic England. (2018). 3D Laser Scanning for Heritage: Advice and Guidance on the Use of Laser Scanning in Archaeology and Architecture. Historic England, 119 81 Scopigno, R., Callieri, M., Cignoni, P., Corsini, M., Dellepiane, M., Ponchio, F., & Ranzuglia, G. (2011). 3D models for cultural heritage: Beyond plain visualization. Computer, 44(7), 48–55.

82 Hager, I., Golonka, A., & Putanowicz, R. (2016). 3D Printing of Buildings and Building Components as the Future of Sustainable Construction? Procedia Engineering, 151(August), 292–299.

83 Kanjou, Y. (2014). The Syrian cultural heritage tragedy : cause , effect , and approaches to future protection. 8(July), 271–278

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The three-dimensional printing technique or also can named as an additive manufacturing or rapid prototyping1 is based on creating layer by layer of the object, it considers as an advanced manufacturing process which can create a complex 3D models from three-dimensional AutoCAD format files without any extra tooling or fixtures.84

Figure 2. 16 :The Photo shows the 3D replicas made from fiber source : Three-Dimensional Interpretation of Sculptural Heritage with Digital and Tangible 3D Printed Replicas 2017

The adoption of 3D printing technologies is a ‘multi-layered’ adoption process that corresponds to different usages. The reason for that relates both to the technology itself (in particular the materials used) object scale and to the cost of usage. There are many ways to create a 3D models by 3D printing, this depends on the scale of the replica that needs to produce and, the type of the material that wants to build with, it can be printed in one piece or be divided to parts, then collect them in one model.85

Figure 2. 17 : The Photo shows the technique of 3D printing process source : 3D printing trends in building and construction industry: A review-2017

84

Tay, Y. W. D., Panda, B., Paul, S. C., Noor Mohamed, N. A., Tan, M. J., & Leong, K. F. (2017). 3D printing trends in building and construction industry: a review. Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 12(3), 261–276.

85 Moghimi, M., Stone, R., Rotshtein, P., & Cooke, N. (2016). The Sense of embodiment in Virtual Reality. Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments, 25(2), 81–107.

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However, in same case it needs to print the template which form the object then fill it the material to create the shape that need, this also use in multi scale objects. The 3D printing used specific materials like fiber, plastic or concrete, and some printers can create 3D models by carving on stones to create the 3D models.86 87

The advantages of using this technique: ▪

Effective and useful for educational purposes 88

▪

Fast and accurate tool

▪

Replicas help to understand the heritage by physical objects.

However, there some fears while using this technique in a cultural heritage property, such as the accuracy of the replica which it is depending on the documentation reliability. so, if the property recording wasn’t accurate that will affect the quality of the replica, and the 3D printing models will not be effective as it needs.89 90

Figure 2. 18: The compression between the arch of triumph replica (right )and the original arch , shows the level of the details in the original that not existing the replica -source : http://www.factumfoundation.org/pag/236/ last access 23/01/2020

86

Tay, Y. W. D., Panda, B., Paul, S. C., Noor Mohamed, N. A., Tan, M. J., & Leong, K. F. (2017). 3D printing trends in building and construction industry: a review. Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 12(3), 261–276.

87 Laycock, S. D., Bell, G. D., Corps, N., Mortimore, D. B., Cox, G., May, S., & Finkel, I. (2015). Using a combination of micro-computed tomography, CAD and 3D printing techniques to reconstruct incomplete 19th-century cantonese chess pieces. Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage, 7(4), 2–7.

88 Moghimi, M., Stone, R., Rotshtein, P., & Cooke, N. (2016). The Sense of embodiment in Virtual Reality. Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments, 25(2), 81–107.

89 Khunti, R. (2018). The Problem with Printing Palmyra: Exploring the Ethics of Using 3D Printing Technology to Reconstruct Heritage. Studies in Digital Heritage, 2(1), 1–12.

90 Factvm Fovndation for Digital Technology in Conservation http://www.factumfoundation.org/pag/236/

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Chapter Three: Digital Technologies for Safeguarding Syrian Heritage during Conflict – Site of Palmyra

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Chapter Three: Digital Technologies for Safeguarding Syrian Heritage during Conflict –Site of Palmyra

This chapter defines the role of digital technology tools in the ancient city of Palmyra and discusses those which are used for safeguarding three historic buildings that are located there. At the same time, it explains the value, main components, and current situation of these monuments following the conflict.

3.1 The Ancient City of Palmyra (Tadmur) Palmyra, Tadmur, also known as “the bride of the desert” and “Venice of the sands”91 is a historical city that is located in the Syrian desert and within the administrative borders of the city of Homes. It consists of three parts: an archaeological site, residential areas with the archaeological museum, and surrounding oasis groves.92

3.1.1 Palmyra Location (N34 33 15.012 E38 16 0.012)

The

city

of

Palmyra

is

considered to be an oasis in the Syrian desert that is located 200 kilometers to the northeast of Damascus

(Syria’s

capital),

and 230 kilometers to the west of the Euphrates Nile.93 Figure 3. 1 : Syria ‘s map showing Palmyra’s location.

Source:https://www.globalresearch.ca/israeli-army-vehicle-enters-syriasupports-al-nusra-rebels/5335907 Accessed :22/01/2020.

91

Denker, A. (2017). Rebuilding Palmyra virtually: Recreation of its former glory in digital space.

Virtual Archaeology Review, 8(17), 20–30.

92 DGAM website (Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums of Syria) http://dgam.gov.sy/index.php?d=307&id=695 93

Linck, R., & Fassbinder, J. W. E. (2011). Multipol-SAR-Survey of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Palmyra ( Syria ).

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3.1.2 Historical Background Palmyra was considered to be one of the most impressive ancient cities in the world, besides Pompeii and Ephesus. The city is located in the heart of a very big oasis in the Syrian desert and is surrounded by palm groves and two mountain ranges. The city has traces of caravan routes, which emphasizes its role as an important trade path between the East and West.Thus, Palmyra’s wealth was based on commerce business, which is apparent owing to its colonnaded streets, vast necropolises, and imposing temples.94 In addition, the city was an enormous hall that hosted cultural encounters and blending, which was supported by the government. The city of Palmyra prospered during the period of Queen Zenobia, around 270 A.D.,95 but the glamour of the city did not last for a long time, as a war was initiated between Queen Zenobia and Emperor Aurelian, which led to end of the city’s golden period. 96 3.1.3. The Outstanding Universal Value of the Ancient City of Palmyra Palmyra has occupied an important position historically and culturally, which has led the UNESCO to include it in the list of world heritage sites since 1980.97 Palmyra meets three of the UNESCO’s points of criteria for outstanding universal value. The first one is that the Palmyra ruins in the Syrian desert represent a unique aesthetic achievement from the 3rd century and its grand colonnade constitutes a formidable structural example of artistic development. The second is that the discovery of the splendor of the Palmyra ruins in the 17th and 18th centuries contributed greatly to a revival of classical architectural styles in the West. The third refers to the fact that there are many examples of unique buildings in Palmyra, such as the grand monumental colonnaded street, the subsidiary cross streets and the large scale funerary monuments, all of which are considered as great examples of architectural design and urban planning. In addition, the great design of the Temple of Bel is considered to be one of the most important religious buildings of the 1st century AD in the East .2 95

94

Żuchowska, M. (2013). Palmyra and the Far Eastern trade. (December 2010), 6–8.

Denker, A. (2017). Rebuilding Palmyra virtually: Recreation of its former glory in digital space.

Virtual Archaeology Review, 8(17), 20–30.

96 Denker, A. (2017). Palmyra as it once was: 3D virtual reconstruction and visualization of an irreplacable lost treasure. International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences - ISPRS Archives, 42(5W1), 565–572.

97 UNESCO website -Palmyra https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/23/ 95

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After the armed conflict in Syria, the UNESCO inscribed the ancient city of Palmyra in the list of “world heritage in danger� in 2013. 98 When the site was granted the status of world heritage site in 1980, no buffer zone was determined, so the original boundary of the ancient city included the main remaining monuments, but excluded the remains that were located outside the old wall such as the necropolises. This was the case until 2017, when a buffer zone was added after the DGAM (Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums of Syria) submitted a delineation of a buffer zone. This expanded the total area of the ancient city to 37 km2 (13.6 km2 archaeological site + 23.4 km2 buffer zones). 99

Figure 3. 2: The Map of the inscribed property in the ancient city of Palmyra in 2016 before the buffer zone was added .

Source : https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/23/multiple=1&unique_number=2256 Last accessed : 22/01/2020

98

UNESCO website -Palmyra https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/23/ Ministry of culture directorate general of antiquities and museums . (2017). application document for minor boundary modification of site of palmyra.

99

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Figure 3. 3 : The modified boundary of Palmyra city and the buffer zone around it.

Source : https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/23/multiple=1&unique_number=2256 Last accessed : 22/01/2020

3.1.4 Palmyra Main Components The city monuments are divided into four main parts: ▪

The City Walls and the Citadel.

▪

The Grand Colonnade, Great Tetrapylon and the Triumphal Arch.

▪

The Temples: Temple of Baalshamin, Temple of Bel, Temple of Nabu and Temple of Allat.

▪

Public buildings: Agora, Diocletian Baths and Diocletian Camp.100

Figure 3. 4 :The main components of the ancient city of Palmyra.Source : 3D virtual reconstruction and visualization of an irreplaceable lost treasure. International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences (2017)

100

Denker, A. (2017). Palmyra as it once was: 3D virtual reconstruction and visualization of an irreplacable lost treasure. International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences - ISPRS Archives, 42(5W1), 565–572.

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3.2 The Palmyra Citadel The citadel was built during the 13th century in the Ayyubid style and was then reinforced by Fakher el-Din Al Maany in the 16th century, which led it to become known as the Fakher el-Din Al citadel or Mumluk citadel. It is located at the top of a rocky peak which overlooks the ancient city of Palmyra from the Eastside (150m above the city’s surface). 101

Figure 3. 5 : Palmyra Citadel, its location and surrounding monuments before the conflicts erupted. Source http://alwaght.com/ar/News/77967 - Last accessed :22/01/2020

3.2.1 Description of the Palmyra Citadel and its OUV The location of the citadel is perfect functionally-speaking because it provides a great view over the city. The citadel has an irregular trapezoidal plan, surrounded by a defensive ditch that is dug in rock. It was built from rough limestone trimmed stones and its outer walls are highly fortified, with eighteen square and rectangular towers that consist of several levels with small windows for observation and military purposes. 102 103

101

UNESCO. (2017). Technical Assistance Workshop for the world Heritage Sites of the Cracede Chevaliers ,Palmyra and the ancient city of Damascus.

102 Denker, A. (2017). Palmyra as it once was: 3D virtual reconstruction and visualization of an irreplacable lost treasure. International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences - ISPRS Archives, 42(5W1), 565–572.

103 DGAM website (Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums of Syria) http://dgam.gov.sy/index.php?d=307&id=695

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The citadel is located in a seismic area, and earthquakes have weakened the structures, which has caused a lot of cracks and

damages. For example, in 1759 an

earthquake damaged towers no. 10 and 11, which were subsequently rebuilt after that.

Likewise, in 1996 an earthquake destroyed towers no. 17 and 18, which have since been restored by DGAM experts (DirectorateGeneral of Antiquities and Museums of Syria ) .104

Figure 3. 6: The plan of the citadel shows its towers. Source: Technical Assistance Workshop for the world Heritage Sites of the Cracede Chevaliers, Palmyra and the ancient city of Damascus -2016

Figure 3. SEQ Figure_3. \* ARABIC 7: plan for citadel shows the towers source : Technical Assistance Workshop for the world Heritage of the announced Cracede Chevaliers and the ancient city Syrian localSites media that,Palmyra the Palmyra of Damascus -2016

3.2.2 The Palmyra Citadel: Current Situation On the 24th of March 2016, the

citadel was under government control and that the ISIS militants had been expelled from it. 105According to an assessment by UNESCO during late 2016, the main damaged part of the citadel was its eastern front, which contains the only entrance of the citadel, including towers no.7, 17and 18. The assessment was made by pictures that were taken by drones because the entrance was already destroyed, so only the outer facades could be captured.102

Figure 3. 8:The north�eastern facade of the Palmyra citadel after the destruction of 2016, displaying the collapse of towers no.17 and 18, the vertical breaking of No.7, and the destruction of tower no.14, as well as the entrance gate and access bridge. By : Iconem/DGAM(Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums of Syria). Source : http://syrianheritagerevival.org/ar/%D9%82%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A9-%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A9%D8%AA%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%B1/ Last accessed: 22-01-2020.

104

UNESCO. (2017). Technical Assistance Workshop for the world Heritage Sites of the Cracede Chevaliers ,Palmyra and the ancient city of Damascus 105 DGAM website (Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums of Syria) http://dgam.gov.sy/index.php

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3.2.3 The Palmyra Citadel: 3D Digital Technology Based on reports from 2003, 2006 and 2007 and under the request of UNESCO in cooperation with DGAM, a mission under the supervision of professor Giorgio Croci was started with the aim of improving the current situation of the citadel and creating a comparison of it for analyzing and documenting its damages. The 2007 report mentions that the impact of the 2016 attacks destroyed about 3.2% of the citadel ,and that still totalizes 96.8% of the form and materials like before last damages. Moreover, the comparison shows that most of the destruction and damages occurred on the parts of the citadel that were rebuilt during the past fifteen years.106

Figure 3. 9 : The Elevation of the eastern front of the outer enclosure shows the damages Source: Technical Assistance Workshop for the world Heritage Sites of the Cracede Chevaliers, Palmyra and the ancient city of Damascus -2016

In addition, the ICONEM team in cooperation with the Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums of Syria ( DGAM) made 3D models of the citadel twice before (January 2009) and after (April 2016) the conflict, as well as comparisons between them.107 106

UNESCO. (2017). Technical Assistance Workshop for the world Heritage Sites of the Cracede Chevaliers ,Palmyra nad the ancient city of Damascus.

107 Iconem 3D digital model products https://sketchfab.com/3d-models/palmyra-citadel-comparison604478ecf58a45228a4b895bd362ac10

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The online 3D models of these provide some general information for educational purposes, such as the history of the monument and its significance.

The ICONEM team uses 3D digital scanning to record the memory of archaeological sites. For the Palmyra citadel, they used the airborne laser scanning technique with the help of old photos they had created with 3D digital models of its previous and current condition, as well as a comparison between them. This led to the emergence of thousands of coordinates for the monument’s surface, which were then processed by computers to produce a 3D digital model of the archaeological site.108

Figure 3. 10: Comparison between the citadel’s condition in 2009 and 2016, by Iconem.

Source: https://sketchfab.com/iconem Last accessed :22/01/2020

Figure 3. 11 : The screenshot for the comparitive 3D digital model which shows the damaged parts in red, by Iconem.

Source : https://sketchfab.com/iconem Last accessed :22/01/2020

108

Iconem website http://iconem.com/en/

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3.3 The Temple of Bel The Temple of Bel is one of the ancient city of Palmyra’s monuments that was inscribed in UNESCO’s World Heritage List in 1980.109 It is located at the end of the great colonnaded street.

Figure 3. 12: The Temple of Bel before conflict Source : https://vid.alarabiya.net/images/2015/09/01/7b12552b-df43-4721-9a64-b981c0fb73a7/7b12552b-df434721-9a64-b981c0fb73a7_16x9_1200x676.jpg?format=jpeg&width=960 Last accessed: 20/01/2020

3.3.1 Description the Temple of Bel in Palmyra and its OUV The Temple of Bel is considered to be a unique architectural icon, as it is one of the largest and most famous religious temples from the ancient period in the East. It was built in honor of the Semitic god Bel in 32 A.D. The temple has outer walls of 220x205 meters and is surrounded by 375 columns, each of which is more than 18 meters high. At the center of the monument, there is a sanctuary, which is 10x30 meters and contains a central monumental portal with two altars, and porticos surround the sanctuary.110 111

Figure 3. 13 :The Plan of the Temple of Bel with its surrounding columns and sanctuary in the center Source:http://philipharland.com/grecoroman-associations/building-sanctuary-ofbel-i-bce/ Last accessed: 22/01/2020

Figure 3. SEQ Figure_3. \* ARABIC 14 plan for UNESCO website -Palmyra https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/23/ the temple of Bel show the surrounded Wahbeh, W., Nebiker, S., & Fangi, G. (2016). Combining Public Domain and Professional Panoramic columns and sanctuary in the center source : Imagery for the Accurate and Dense 3D Reconstruction of the Destroyed Bel Temple in Palmyra. http://philipharland.com/greco-romanISPRS Annals of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, III–5(June), associations/building-sanctuary-of-bel-i81–88. bce/ last access 22/01/2020 111 DGAM website (Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums of Syria) http://dgam.gov.sy/index.php 109 110

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3.3.2 The Temple of Bel in Palmyra: Current Situation Unfortunately, the temple was destroyed in August 2015 by ISIS fighters. A comparison of two photos of the temple before and after this act shows that nearly the entire temple was destroyed, except for the main door, the outer walls and some

columns.112 113 Figure 3. 15 : Satellite photos of the Temple of Bel in Palmyra taken before the explosion on 20/2/2014 (right) and after the explosion on 7/8/2017 (left).Source: Google Earth, Last accessed: 22/01/2020

3.3.3 The Temple of Bel in Palmyra: 3D Digital Technology A French mission that included members of the Art Graphique & Patrimoine company and specializes in 3D laser scanning visited Palmyra and used 3D digital technology tools to document the monuments. The team used 3D scanner cameras on site, which scanned the entire site, thereby collecting more than 470 million points of measurement. Then the points of measurement were processed back in Paris to obtain the results. 114 The team focused on the remaining part of the Temple of Bel, which is the gateway.

Through their research and use of a 3D scanner, they discovered that the gateway was severely damaged and at risk of collapsing. Additionally, the gateway columns appeared to have considerable cracks, and the structure was no longer being supported by a foundation, which caused fears of losing the monument to arise. 115

112

DGAM website (Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums of Syria) http://dgam.gov.sy/index.php 113 UNESCO. (2017). Technical Assistance Workshop for the world Heritage Sites of the Cracede Chevaliers ,Palmyra and the ancient city of Damascus 114 Art Graphique & Patrimoine company website http://www.artgp.fr/our-story.html 115 The National website- Can technology help restore Syria's lost archaeological heritage? Updated: February 5, 2018 https://www.thenational.ae/uae/heritage/can-technology-help-restore-syria-s-lostarchaeological-heritage-1.701863 last access :22/01/2020

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Figure 3. 16: The 3D digital scanner mapping of the Temple of Bel in Palmyra, which shows the damage to the structure in its current situation. By Art Graphique & Patrimoine specialists.

Source:https://www.thenational.ae/uae/heritage/can-technology-help-restore-syria-s-lost-archaeologicalheritage-1.701863 Last accessed: :22/01/2020.

Others, such as the Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums of Syria (the DGAM), with the participation of the ICONEM team, used a 3D photogrammetry technique during their mission in Palmyra. In doing so, they digitized a 3D model of the temple to determine the extent and nature of its damage and an ideal restoration campaign.116 The 3D digital model is divided in two colors to distinguish between the remaining and lost parts 117

Figure 3. 17: cameras positions to cover both the inner and outer parts of the monument. Source: Combining Public Domain and Professional Panoramic Imagery for the Accurate and Dense 3D Reconstruction of the Destroyed Bel Temple in Palmyra. ISPRS Annals of Photogrammetry 2016

116 117

Syrian Heritage Revival 2019 http://syrianheritagerevival.org/palmyra/ last access 22/01/2020 Wahbeh, W., Nebiker, S., & Fangi, G. (2016). Combining Public Domain and Professional Panoramic Imagery for the Accurate and Dense 3D Reconstruction of the Destroyed Bel Temple in Palmyra.

ISPRS Annals of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, III–5(June), 81–88.

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In addition, their work is not only considered to be a documentary resource for analysis and a reference for future works, but is also part of the interpretation of the site and of the mediation and communication process which could help define the temple’s significance and show its characteristics to the world .118 119

Figure 3. 18: The 3D digital mapping of the Temple of Bel in Palmyra shows the remains with interpretation of its missing parts (DGAM specialists with ICONEM participation, n.d.)

Source: http://syrianheritagerevival.org/palmyra/)

Figure 3. 19 : Screenshot of the 3D digital model of the Temple of Bel, showing its remaining parts in red. By Iconem .

Source : https://sketchfab.com/iconem Last accessed :22/01/202 118

Wahbeh, W., Nebiker, S., & Fangi, G. (2016). Combining Public Domain and Professional Panoramic Imagery for the Accurate and Dense 3D Reconstruction of the Destroyed Bel Temple in Palmyra.

ISPRS Annals of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, III–5(June), 81–88.

119 UNESCO. (2017). Technical Assistance Workshop for the world Heritage Sites of the Cracede Chevaliers ,Palmyra and the ancient city of Damascus

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3.4 The Arch of Triumph The Arch of Triumph is considered as one of the most recognizable monuments in the ancient city of Palmyra and was built during the period of Emperor Septimius Severus in the 3rd century. The arch linked the main street of the Colonnade and the Temple of Bel. 120

3.4.1 Description of the Arch of Triumph in Palmyra and its OUV The architecture of the arch is very unique and impressive because it addresses a problem in Palmyra, namely that the layout of the ancient city of Palmyra was unusually that of a Roman period layout and that the main street of Palmyra was not aligned with the main cardinal directions of the compass. In order to rectify those problems, the arch was designed on a thirty degree angle in the main colonnade, which led it to possess two facades that were angled apart from one another, only one of which had survived before the conflict. As the Arch of Triumph was decorated with many stone carvings, it is considered as one of the most lavishly adorned monuments in Palmyra. 121

Figure 3. 20: Photo of the Arch of Triumph before the conflict.

Source : https://archpaper.com/2016/05/palmyra-preservation/ Last accessed 23/01/2020

120

Denker, A. (2017). Palmyra as it once was: 3D virtual reconstruction and visualization of an irreplacable lost treasure. International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences - ISPRS Archives, 42(5W1), 565–572.

121 HONS, M. (2018). Palmyra : An Assessment of Virtual and Physical Reconstruction Techniques and their Ethical Implications. The Unversity of Edinburgh.

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3.4.2 The Arch of Triumph in Palmyra: Current Situation The Arch of Triumph was destroyed by ISIS in October 2016.

122

According to

pictures and surveys, it was not damaged by explosives, but perhaps the vibration of heavy equipment or a bulldozer. Most of the stone blocks that fell are still in good condition, and the only remaining parts of the arch are its lateral pillars that reach ten meters high.123

Figure 3. 21: The Triumphal Arch of Palmyra in Palmyra, Syria [left to right: circa 1929, 2008, and 2016]. The arch, which stood for 2000 years, was destroyed by ISIS in 2015 .

Source . https://www.travelandleisure.com/culture-design/architecture-design/archeological-site-culturepreservation-palmyra-syria-isis Last accessed: 23/01/2020

Figure 3. 22: The only remaining parts of the Arch of Triumph are the lateral pillars which reach 10 meters high.Source : Technical Assistance Workshop for the world Heritage Sites of the Cracede Chevaliers ,Palmyra and the ancient city of Damascus,2017.

122

DGAM website (Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums of Syria) http://www.dgam.gov.sy/index.php?d=177&id=1954 123 UNESCO. (2017). Technical Assistance Workshop for the world Heritage Sites of the Cracede Chevaliers ,Palmyra and the ancient city of Damascus

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3.4.3 The Arch of Triumph in Palmyra: 3D Digital Technology The DGAM in cooperation with the Iconem team used the 3D photogrammetry technique for archaeological and damage assessments of the arch and created 3D models which recorded its destruction in four steps. This could help in the conservation and restoration works of the arch in the future. The 3D model is divided into two different colors: red for the lost parts and white for the remaining parts, as a way of recognizing the damage. The team decided to use the 3D produced models for educational purposes and virtual reality experiences .124125

Figure 3. 23:The 3D digital remonstration model of the Arch ofTtriumph by the team of Iconem.

Source: A race to safeguard threatened cultural heritage

124

Iconem. (n.d.). A race to safeguard threatened cultural heritage.

125

DGAM website (Directorate-General of Antiquities http://www.dgam.gov.sy/index.php?d=177&id=1954

and

Museums

of

Syria)

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In addition, the Arc/k Project, which aims at learning from history to avoid repeating the same mistakes, started documenting the arch using a 3D photogrammetrycomputer correction technique to create virtual reconstructions of it.126 This technique needed to process a large amount of pictures from different angles and views to reach a 3D restored model of the monument. Starting with the initial photos, the model became progressively refined as other photos and sources were added, until finally a detailed and final 3D digital model was achieved. The 3D online model provides general information for educational purposes, such as the history of the monument and its significance .127

Figure 3. 24 : The Arch of Triumph of Palmyra , screenshot for the product from photogrammetric 3D documentation Source https://sketchfab.com/3d-models/arch-of-triumph-in-palmyra-38315a821d0342a5a1189a7144f18b25 Last accessed :25/01/2020

Furthermore, many researchers and experts in digital technology tools have tried to document the arch and offer proposals of reconstruction ideas by using four bundle photogrammetry to produce a 3D digital model with some touristic images that were captured in very good resolution, and the result has been the 3D model of he Arch of Triumph.128 126

Arc/k Project website https://arck-project.org/ 127 HONS, M. (2018). Palmyra : An Assessment of Virtual and Physical Reconstruction Techniques and their Ethical Implications. The Unversity of Edinburgh.

128 Wahbeh, W., Nebiker, S., & Fangi, G. (2016). Combining Public Domain and Professional Panoramic Imagery for the Accurate and Dense 3D Reconstruction of the Destroyed Bel Temple in Palmyra.

ISPRS Annals of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, III–5(June), 81–88.

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Figure 3. 25: The 3D digital reconstruction of the Arch of Triumph using panoramic photos Source: Combining Public Domain and Professional Panoramic Imagery for the Accurate and Dense 3D Reconstruction of the Destroyed Bel Temple in Palmyra, 2017.

3.4.4 The Arch of Triumph in Palmyra: Reproduction The IDA (Institute for Digital

Archaeology)

has

produced a 3D model of the arch based on old photographs and then printed it via 3D laser printing on a 3:1 scale. The replica reached twenty feet tall and eleven tons in weight, and was made from Egyptian yellow marble to resemble the original monument.129 To achieve this reproduction,

the

IDA

team

Figure 3. 26: The IDA team constructing the replica of the Arch of triumph at Trafalgar Square.

Source:https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/08/why-the-arch-oftriumph-of-palmyra-is-being-recreated-in-london/ Last accessed: 25/01/2020.

divided the 3D model into parts which were then collected on site to form the full shape of the replica.130131

129

The telegraph report The Arch of Triumph of Palmyra is recreated in London - 1,800 years after it was built https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/08/why-the-arch-of-triumph-of-palmyra-isbeing-recreated-in-london/ last access 25/01/2020 130 HONS, M. (2018). Palmyra : An Assessment of Virtual and Physical Reconstruction Techniques and their Ethical Implications. The Unversity of Edinburgh.

131 The guardian report- Palmyra's Arch of Triumph recreated in Trafalgar Squarehttps://www.theguardian.com/culture/2016/apr/19/palmyras-triumphal-arch-recreated-intrafalgar-square last access 25/01/2020

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Figure 3. 27: The Arch of Triumph replica presented at Trafalgar Square in London, on April 19th, 2016.

Source : http://digitalarchaeology.org.uk/media Last accessed: 25/01/2020

The replica of the Arch of Triumph was first presented at Trafalgar Square in London, on April 19th, 2016, and it was planned to be presented in New York, Dubai, etc. The main concept behind the creation of this replica is to spread awareness about Syrian cultural heritage, which is suffering from violent attacks, and also to relate a message of peace around the world132133

Figure 3. 28 : The Arch of Triumph replica presented in Dubai .Source : https://www.dubaifuture.gov.ae/dubai-futurefoundations-reconstructed-palmyra-arch-wins-prestigious-awardat-university-of-oxford/ Last accessed:25/01/2020

132

Institute for Digital Archaeology website http://digitalarchaeology.org.uk/media last access 25/01/2020 133 CNN report https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SKCpnEqF4bE last access 25/01/2020

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PART TWO – AN ANALYSIS OF THE CASE STUDIES AND DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

Chapter Four: Discussion and Evaluation of the Case Studies

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Part Two – An Analysis of the Case Studies and Discussion of the Results

This part focuses on evaluating the use of 3D digital technologies whether during the process of documentation or reproduction, according to the opinions of experts that were gathered via this study’s questionnaire. The aim of the discussion is to determine what the benefits and threats of using 3D digital technologies in cultural heritage are. The final chapter of this part consists of the conclusion and recommendations regarding how 3D technologies tools can effectively be used towards safeguarding cultural heritage.

Chapter Four: Discussion and Evaluation of the Case Studies

The present chapter concentrates on evaluating the different digital tools that have been used in safeguarding and reproducing the cultural heritage properties of the three case studies, according to experts’ opinions.

4.1 Methods This section defines the methods that were used to collect the experts’ opinions and discusses them with regards to each case study.

4.1.1 Design and Participants This thesis was based on an online questionnaire that was designed for experts of different nationalities, who are working on conservation and aware about the use of 3D digital technology tools in safeguarding cultural heritage property. In total, the questionnaire gathered thirty-seven responses, fifteen of which were from Syrian experts, accounting for 40.5% of the total, and eighteen of which were from Arab experts, amounting to 48.60% of the total. In addition, four responses were derived from other nationalities (chart 4.1; table 4.1).

The questionnaire was divided into four parts: the first one was more general, related to the nationalities of participants, while the other three parts were focused on the three case studies. The questions in those three parts were focused on the participants’ opinions regarding the performance and accuracy of the use of 3D digital technology tools and whether it can achieve the purpose that it is used for. At the beginning of every part, 53 | P a g e

small introductions were included about the case study in question and the tools that were used in them, and an online link was provided for their respective 3D models.134

Chart 4. 1: The percentage of responses according to nationality (by the researcher).

Table 4. 1: The number and percentage of questionnaire responses according to nationality (by the researcher).

4.2 Discussion of the Results This part is divided into three parts according to the design of the questionnaire.

4.2.1 Palmyra Citadel With regard to the first case study, in which an Airborne laser scanning technique was used in the process of documenting the Palmyra Citadel, most of the experts thought that using this tool helped in safeguarding the monument and can be considered as an effective method for obtaining an accurate recorded report. Indeed, Chart 4.2 shows that 86.5% of participants believe that the 3D models that are made by using the airborne laser scanning technique provide an accurate source of the monument’s information.

Chart 4. 2: The percentage of experts’ opinions regarding the accuracy of the airborne laser scanning technique, when it is used for creating a 3D documentation model of the Palmyra citadel (by the researcher).

134

Appendix – The questionnaire format

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Table 4. 2: The number and percentage of experts’ responses regarding whether the 3D model of the Palmyra citadel in can be relied upon during future works (by the researcher).

It was also found that thirty-one out of thirty-seven participants believe that the 3D model of the Palmyra Citadel that was produced by an airborne laser scanning technique can be depended on for further use in restoration work, as it provides an accurate dimension and details of the citadel (Table 4.2). However, 54.1% of experts were also found to believe that using this tool in documentation will not affect the significance of the monument, while 45.9% believe that it could affect it negatively (Chart 4.3).

Chart 4. 3: The percentage of experts’ opinions regarding whether the airborne laser scanning technique will affect the Palmyra Citadel’s significance (by the researcher).

4.2.2 Temple of Bel The second case study consisted of the Temple of Bel, for which two different techniques were used – 3D photogrammetry to determine the ideal restoration campaign, and a 3D laser scanner to create a 3D model for its remaining parts, which showed the damaged within the structure in its current state. The responses show that about 86.5% of the experts who participated in the questionnaire believe that both of those techniques provide a high level of accuracy and can be considered as effective tools in the documentation of the monument (Table 4.3; Chart 4.4)

Table 4. 3 :The number and percentage of experts’ responses regarding whether they consider the 3D laser scanner technique to be an effective method for the documentation of the Temple of Bel temple (by the researcher).

55 | P a g e Table 4. SEQ Table_4. \* ARABIC 4 : Table shows the number and percentage for the expert’s response when they asked about if they consider the he 3D laser scanner technique as an effective method for documentation Bel temple. (By Researcher)

Chart 4. 4: The percentage of expert responses regarding whether the photogrammetry technique helped in the documentation and safeguarding of the Temple of Bel (by the researcher).

In addition, the responses show that about 78.4% of the experts believe that the 3D models produced by the two techniques can be considered as reliable sources of information and data that could future restoration works could be based on (Chart 4.5).

Moreover, 56.8% of participants answered that using photogrammetry and the 3D laser scanner technique during the step of documentation did not affect the monument’s significance. By contrast, 43.2% of the respondents believe that it could increase the latter, while no respondents answered that it could be reduced by using those techniques (Chart 4.6).

Chart 4.5: The percentage of experts’ responses when asked whether future work can rely upon the 3D models of the Temple of Bel (by the researcher).

Chart 4. 6: The percentage of experts’ responses when asked if the techniques that were used to create a 3D model of the Ttemple of Bel affected its significance (by the researcher).

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However, the responses also show that while eighteen experts prefer using the 3D laser scanner technique in the process of documentation because of its accuracy and how it works, eight experts prefer 3D photogrammetry instead. What’s more, eleven experts believe that the two techniques can be equally effective, so they do not prefer one over

Chart 4. 7: The percentage of experts’ responses regarding which technique they believe is more effective: 3D laser scanner or photogrammetry (by the researcher).

the other (Chart 4.7).

4.2.3 The Arch of Triumph The third case study, consisting of the Arch of

Triumph,

involved

the

use

of

a

3D

photogrammetry-computer correction technique to create virtual reconstructions of it.

Also, 3D

photogrammetry technique was used to produce the 3D digital reconstruction model, another product depends on Bundle photogrammetry to produce a 3D digital model.

Chart 4.8 :The percentage of expert responses when asked if photogrammetry helped in the documentation and safeguarding of the Arch of Triumph (by the researcher).

The responses indicate that 81.1% of the respondents believe that using photogrammetry techniques helped in safeguarding the Chart 4. SEQ Chart_4. \* ARABIC 9:Chart show the response if the photogrammetry helped in documentation and safeguarding Arch of Triumph. (By Researcher)

Arch of Triumph and that this technique can be percentage considered effective method for for as the an experts’ opinions when asked documenting the monument (chart 4.8).

Table 4. 5: The number and percentage of experts’ responses regarding which techniques they believe are more effective: the 3D laser scanner or photogrammetry (by the researcher).

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With regard to the 3:1 scale replica of the Arch of Triumph that was created using the 3D printing technique based on 3D photographs, 48.6% of respondents answered that reproducing the Arch did not affect the significance of its value, while 40.5% believe that it could increase the monument’s value. Alternately, 10.8% thought that it could reduce its value if the reproducion isn’t based on accurate and detailed dimensions (Chart 4.9).

Chart 4. 10 : Percentage of expert responses when asked if the significance of the value of the Arch of Triumph was affected after a replica was made for it (by the researcher).

In addition, about 56.7% of participants believe that the use of digital technology tools should stop at the documentation step, until accurate dimensions for the reproduction step are obtained, to ensure that the replica does not affect the value of the cultural heritage property .

Chart 4. 11 : The percentage of responses when experts were asked whether the use of digital technology tools should be stopped at the documentation step and whether there is no need for 3D printing action at this level (by the researcher).

Table 4. 6 : The number and percentage of expert responses when asked whether the use of digital technology tools should stop at the documentation step, and whether there is no need for 3D printing action at this level. (by the researcher).

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Nevertheless, respondents

70.2%

of

encouraged

the

reproduction and refabricating of monuments via 3D digital printing for

educational

reasons

and

spreading awareness about the importance of cultural heritage (Chart 4.11; Table 4.6).

Chart 4. 12: The percentage of responses regarding whether the participants encourage the creation of more replicas of cultural heritage properties to spread the importance cultural heritage (by the researcher).

Chart 4. SEQ Chart_4. \* ARABIC 13: Chart shows the response percentage for the experts’ opinions when asked if encourage creating more replica for the cultural heritage property to spread the importance Table 4. 7: The number and percentage of responses regarding whether the participants encourage the creation of cultural heritage.

(By Researcher) more replicas of cultural heritage properties to spread the importance cultural heritage (by the researcher).

Furthermore, the questionnaire results demonstrated that 21.7% of respondents were in agreement with presenting the replica of Arch of Triumph in the main squares around the world as a symbol for peace and for the purpose of representing the Syrian cultural heritage that is currently under threat. By contrast, 64.9% did not agree with the message that the replica was reproduced for (Chart 4.12).

Chart 4. 12: The percentage of responses regarding whether the replica of the Arch of Triumph replica represents Syrian cultural heritage and a symbol of peace (by the researcher)

Table 4. 8: The percentage and number of responses regarding whether the replica of the Arch of Triumph replica represents Syrian cultural heritage and a symbol of peace (by the researcher).

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4.3 Evaluating the use of 3D Digital Technology Tools The evaluation of the questionnaire results which were made up of experts’ opinions is organized in the forms of charts for each case study, each of which define the digital tools that were used and their respective products. the two main evaluation criteria that is used are the effectiveness and the accuracy for each tool , and if it reaches the purpose that was used for .

4.3.1 Palmyra Citadel

Table 4. 9 : Evaluation chart of the 3D digital technology tools that were used for the Palmyra citadel (by the researcher).

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4.3.2 Temple of Bel

Table 4. 10: Evaluation chart of the 3D digital technology tools that were used for the Temple of Bel (by the researcher).

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4.3.3 The Arch of Triumph

Table 4. 11: Evaluation chart of the 3D digital technology tools that were used for the Arch of Triumph (by the researcher).

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Chapter Five: Conclusion Findings and Recommendations

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Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendations This thesis has been focused on defining the most common 3D digital technologies that can be used in the documentation and reproduction of cultural heritage property. In order to determine the benefits and threats of using such technology for these purposes, three case studies were examined, all of which involved the use of different tools in recording and reproducing the monuments in question. This chapter will highlight the main results and findings of this study, and propose recommendations for future researchers.

5.1 Conclusion

In addition to the research introduction, the present study consisted of two main parts adapted across five chapters. Chapter One discussed the meaning of cultural heritage as a memory bank of communities, through which the latter define their identity and their spiritual and aesthetic values are contained. As cultural heritage constitutes evidence of past generations, it is every community’s responsibility to protect it. The importance of this has been globally recognized and is why international conventions and charters were put in place for this purpose.

In addition, Chapter One focused on how armed conflict and violent attacks are factors of cultural destruction. The international conventions and charters were shown to emphasize the importance of protecting cultural heritage during conflict, because damage to the cultural heritage of any country is considered to be to the detriment of all of humanity’s cultural heritage – as such, it is the responsibility of all parties to protect it. But more specifically, Chapter One examined the conflict in Syria that started on February 15th 2011 and continues to this day, having caused the death of thousands of Syrians, created millions of refugees, and damaged Syria ‘s cultural heritage.

In Chapter Two, the concept of 3D digital technology and its usage in cultural heritage was discussed in terms of its definitions, historical development, and how the international charters and conventions have dealt with it. In addition, the possibility of 64 | P a g e

using digital technology during various stages of restoration when traditional methods are inadequate for the task was also discussed. It was shown that the main objective of using this kind of technology is to find the best solutions and alternatives for handling cultural heritage property and in doing so, respect the significance and authenticity of the original heritage property, without making use of any modern methods or materials that could potentially harm the latter.

Furthermore, Chapter Two defined photogrammetry and the 3D laser scanner as the two main 3D digital technology tools for documentation, while the 3D digital printing tool is used for reproducing cultural heritage properties. This was done by categorizing their types and working mechanisms and overall demonstrated that these tools enable a complete archive and accurate records of a given property to be collected. This in turn can be useful throughout various stages of monument restoration, with the 3D laser scanner providing a base of the property’s dimensions and details.

Chapter Three presented three case studies by describing their respective monuments, their outstanding universal value, current situation, and which parts of them are damaged. Following this, it explained how 3D digital techniques are being used for safeguarding and the products from hem. With regard to the first case study, the Palmyra Citadel, only its eastern front was shown to possess damaged parts, which contains the monument’s only entrance, accompanied by towers no. 7, 17 and 18. It was explained that the DGAM in participation with ICONEM has created 3D digital models of the citadel before and after it had been damaged, as well as a comparative model of the two situations for the purpose of assessing the damage. In order to achieve this, the organizations’ teams used airborne laser scanning to produce 3D models.

As for the second case study, the Temple of Bel, it was shown that the entirety of the monument has been destroyed, with the exception of its main door, outer walls and some of its columns. While conducting a current assessment, the Art Graphique & Patrimoine company has used 3D laser scanning to record the remaining parts and of the temple, which uncovered more damage within the main door’s structure. What’s more, the ICONEM team in cooperation with DGAM used a 3D photogrammetry technique for the

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documentation of the temple, in an attempt to create the most ideal restoration 3D models for future work on it.

In terms of the third case study, the Arch of Triumph, it was shown that the DGAM along with ICONEM used 3D photogrammetry for its documentation and current assessment. Additionally, they created a 3D proposal model for its destroyed parts, to assist in arriving at ideal restoration solutions. Moreover, the Arc/k Project team created 3D virtual reconstructions of the arch based on a 3D photogrammetry - computer correction technique for documentation purposes, as well as providing a source for the monument’s dimensions. Besides, some researchers have used Bundle photogrammetry to produce a 3D digital model for documenting and virtually restoring the arch.

Of noteworthy mention was also a replica 3:1 scale of the Arch of Triumph that was created by the Institute of Digital Archaeology (IDA) by using a 3D printing technique based on 3D photographs. The replica was presented in the main squares of countries around the world as a way of spreading awareness of how Syrian cultural heritage is endangered due to armed conflict.

Finally, Chapter Four introduced, interpreted and analyzed the results of the questionnaire that was designed for collecting experts’ opinions about the use of 3D digital technology tools in safeguarding and reproducing cultural heritage property. It was shown that experts are encouraged to use those tools for documentation and recording purposes, as they are effective in producing highly accurate three-dimensional models that could be used in future restoration works. The results furthermore showed that the use of these tools does not, in their opinion, affect the significance of the monuments. In addition, the experts were found to prefer using 3D laser scanner techniques to obtain more accurate results with regard to the properties’ dimensions and details.

With respect to reproducing the monuments by using 3D digital printing, the questionnaire results revealed that the experts believe that creating replicas can be very useful in the educational field and for spreading awareness about the importance of cultural heritage. However, the experts also stressed the importance of using accurate and detailed dimensions when reproducing the cultural heritage monuments.

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Overall, the main points that have emerged throughout this study regarding the usefulness of adopting 3D digital tools in the safeguarding of cultural property are as follows:

▪

Photogrammetry is a good 3D documentation tool that can be helpful in a situation of conflict, but it is very limited as it can only be used during the step of documentation.

▪

3D laser scanners can reach a high level of accuracy due to how they work and their results can help in fabrication for future restoration purposes.

▪

3D printing can reproduce scanned buildings, objects and missing pieces, as well as replicas through multi-scale options.

▪

3D models can be used to formulate restoration proposals with the purpose of evaluating and determining ideal solutions.

▪

The 3D scanner tool can be used to locate collapsed parts within a building’s structure, which is helpful in emergency situation .

5.2 Recommendations

In light of the theoretical and practical studies discussed in this thesis and the significance of safeguarding cultural heritage particularly during conflicts, it is important to integrate

modern digital technology tools, which are fast and accurate, in the

documentation, recording and reproduction of cultural heritage property. Researchers, conservers and developers alike are recommended to consider the following points to achieve better results:

▪

Increasing contributions to financially support the digitization of cultural

heritage projects.

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▪

Putting the international standards that were confirmed in the international

convention for protecting cultural heritage during conflicts into effect and trying to apply them from all armed parties .

▪

Using digital technology tools and modern materials that have proven their

efficiency and success through scientific experiments, for the safeguarding of cultural heritage.

▪

Encouraging the production of 3D models for restoration proposals to determine

the ideal solution before beginning to conduct fieldwork.

▪

Creating training courses on the preventive procedures that conservers and

technicians can follow to deal with cultural heritage during conflict, according to the international convention’s frameworks.

▪

Encouraging the reproduction of accurate replicas of damaged monuments for

educational purposes and spreading awareness about cultural heritage.

▪

Encouraging the use of fast and accurate 3D digital technology tools, such as

photogrammetry and 3D laser scanners, in the documentation of cultural heritage property.

▪

Offering training courses that will enable conservers and technicians to deal with

the new technological tools in an effective way.

▪

Using an accurate and detailed dimension when it is necessary to reproduce

monuments or their missing parts by 3D digital printing.

▪

Activating the online 3D digital models to present the cultural heritage around the

world.

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Appendix General Questionnaire This questionnaire is part of a research project to obtain a master's degree in heritage conservation and site management. The research is about evaluating the use of digital technology in safeguarding heritage during conflict. More specifically, the main aim of this thesis is to discuss the role of digital technologies in safeguarding Syria’s heritage during conflict, in order to explore its benefits and increase them, as well as to determine its potential threats and reduce them.

The questionnaire focuses on three case studies in Syria that were damaged during conflict. Different digital technology methods were used in each case study.

The information in this questionnaire will be confidential. So please feel comfortable to respond freely to every question. Your help is valuable and greatly appreciated.

Nationality: o Syrian o Arab o Other First Case Study: The Palmyra Citadel – Palmyra, Syria The Iconem team in partnership with the DGAM (the Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums of Syria) used an Airbone laser scanning technique and with the help of old photos, created 3D digital models of the Palmyra citadel as it was formerly was and currently is, which enabled a visual comparison between them as shown below.

Iconem, April 5th 2016, Palmyra Citadel Comparison, 3D model.

Source: https://sketchfab.com/3d-models/palmyra-citadel-comparison-604478ecf58a45228a4b895bd362ac10

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Do you think that using an Airbone laser scanning technique helped in documenting and safeguarding Palmyra citadel? o Yes o Partially o No In your opinion, should we use this model for restoration work in the future? o Yes o Partially o No Do you think that using an Airbone laser scanning technique could affect the significance of the Palmyra citadel? o Yes o No Second Case Study: The Temple of Bel – Palmyra, Syria The DGAM team (Directorate-General of Antiquities and Museums of Syria) in partnership with Iconem, used a 3D photogrammetry technique to create a 3D model as a method of documentation and for determining the ideal restoration campaign.

Additionally, a French mission used 3D laser scanner cameras to create a 3D model for the remaining parts, which shows the damage within the structure in its current state.

Iconem, February 6th 2017, 3D Model of the Temple of Bel – Palmyra –Syria Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9LxhMpk9Cj4

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Do you think that using the photogrammetry technique helped in the documentation and safeguarding of the Temple of Bel? o Yes o Partially o No In your opinion, should we use the 3D model that is created by the 3D photogrammetry technique for restoration work in the future? o Yes o Partially o No In your opinion, should we consider the 3D laser scanner technique as an effective method for documenting the Temple of Bel? o Yes o Partially o No How do you think using these technologies could affect the significance of the temple? o Increasing it o Not affecting it at all o Reducing it In your opinion, which techniques were more effective in safeguarding the Temple of Bel? o In the same level o 3D Photogrammetry technique o 3D Laser Scanner o Both, neither were effective

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Third Case Study: The Arch of Triumph – Palmyra, Syria The Arc/k Project team used a 3D photogrammetry-computer correction technique to create virtual reconstructions of the Arch. In addition, the Iconem team used a 3D photogrammetry technique to produce a 3D digital reconstruction model, while other researchers depend on Bundle photogrammetry to produce 3D digital models However, a replica 3:1 scale of the Arch of triumph was created by the Institute of Digital Archaeology (IDA) using a 3D printing technique based on 3D photographs and was presented in main squares around the world.

Arc/K, September 16th 2016, Arch of Triumph in Palmyra, 3D Model.

Source: https://sketchfab.com/3d-models/arch-of-triumph-in-palmyra38315a821d0342a5a1189a7144f18b25

Do you think that using photogrammetry techniques helped in the documentation and safeguarding of the Arch of Triumph? o Yes o Partially o No How do you think creating replicas through 3D printing techniques affects the significance of the Arch? o Increasing it o Not affecting it at all o Reducing it

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Do you agree that the use of 3D digital tools should be stopped at the documentation step and that there is no need for 3D printing action? o Strongly Agree o Agree o Neutral o Disagree o Strongly Disagree The Institute of Digital Archaeology said that creating the replica of the Arch is a way of spreading peace around the world and representing the current conflict in Syria ... o Strongly Agree o Agree o Neutral o Disagree o Strongly Disagree

Do you encourage the creation of more replicas of cultural heritage properties for educational purposes, with the aim of spreading awareness of the importance cultural heritage? o Strongly Agree o Agree o Neutral o Disagree o Strongly Disagree

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