Structure of language /estructura del lenguaje

Structure of Language • phonemes: basic speech sounds • morphemes: smallest unit of language that contains meaning • surface structure: the words and phrases comprising a particular sentence • deep structure: the underlying meaning of a sentence

Rules of Language • grammar: a system of rules that enable us to speak and understand • semantics: rules we use to derive meaning from morphemes • syntax: rules we use to order words into sentences

Mental Imagery • An image is a mental representation of a sensory experience.

• We use imagery as an aid in conceptualizing and solving problems.

• Images allow us to use concrete forms to represent complex and abstract ideas.

Concepts • concept: A mental category for classifying objects, people, or experiences.

• prototype: A mental model containing the most typical features of a concept.

• idealized cognitive model: Our conceptions of events as we expect to typically find them.

Problem Solving problem representation: interpreting or defining the problem  select a solution strategy that best suits the problem 

Possible Solution Strategies • •

trial and error information retrieval: recovery of information from LTM is all that is necessary • algorithm: systematical evaluation of all possible solutions to a problem • heuristics: rules of thumb strategies for problem solving

Heuristics • hill climbing: each step moves progressively toward the final goal • subgoals: creation of intermediate and more manageable goals • means­end analysis: reducing discrepancy between current and desired states

Heuristics • working backwards: moving from the desired state to the current state • availability: basing our judgments on the availability of information in our memories • representativeness: judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent particular prototypes

Obstacles to Problem Solving • an individual’s level of motivation • set: The tendency to perceive and to approach problems in certain ways.

• functional fixedness: The tendency to perceive only a limited number of uses for an object.

Obstacles to Problem Solving • confirmation bias: The tendency to look for evidence in support of a belief and to ignore evidence that would disprove a belief.

Improving Problem Solving Ability • tacit of elimination: Possible solutions are evaluated according to appropriate criteria and discarded as they fail to provide a solution.

• visualization: Concepts are drawn, diagrammed, or charted so that they can be better understood.