Form-Based Codes for Gated Communities’ regulations in Bogota, Colombia: a Comparative Analysis.

Form-Based Codes for Gated Communities’ regulations in Bogota, Colombia: a Comparative Analysis.

Edited by

Gonzalo Sanchez Garcia

Copyright Š 2020 Manchester, England United Kingdom All rights reserved.

Manchester School of Architecture University of Manchester Manchester Metropolitan University Copyright reserved by Gonzalo Sanchez Garcia MA Architecture & Urbanism

Dissertation

Master in Architecture and Urbanism

Gonzalo Sanchez Garcia

Form-Based Codes for Gated Communities’ regulations in Bogota, Colombia: A Comparative Analysis.

Manchester School of Architecture Graduate Program in Architecture and Urbanism University of Manchester

Acronyms FBC – Form Based Code SDP – Secretaría Distrital de Planeación (Plannig Department) PGS – Plan de Gestion Social (Plan of Social Management) POT – Plan de Ordenamiento Territorial (Land Use Plan) PP – Plan Parcial (Partial Plan ) UAU – Unidad de Actuación Urbanistica (Urban Action Unit)

Contents Abstract 1. Introduction 1.1.

1.2.

1.3.

1.4.

1.5.

Research Problem Research Aim and Objectives Research Methodology Limitations Summary

2. Chapter one: Gated communities’ regulations in Bogota.

2.1.

Background about Bogota’s regulations framework.

2.1.1. Plan Bogota Futuro 2.1.2. Plan Piloto Bogota 2.1.3. P.O.T (Land Use Plan) Bogota and Law 388,1997

2.2.

Bogota’s planning tools and their relationship with gated communities’ phenomenon.

2.2.1. Macro-projects: Case of Ciudad Verde, BogotaSoacha.

2.2.2. Partial Plans: Case of Felicidad Partial Plan.

2.2.3. Urbanism Licenses: Case of Mirador del Este urbanization.

2.2.4. Design Guidelines: Pavement Design Guide.

(Cartilla de Andenes Bogota) 2.2.5. Conclusion

3. Chapter two: Understanding Form-based codes.

3.1.

3.2.

3.3.

3.4.

Form Based Codes Overview Components 3.2.1. Regulation Plan 3.2.2. Public Space Standards 3.2.3. Building Form Standards 3.2.4. Block Standards 3.2.5. Building type Standards 3.2.6. Frontage Standards 3.2.7. Architectural Standards Form Based Codes Process Criticism

4. Chapter three: Comparing Gated components of Form-Based Codes.

4.1.

4.2.

4.3.

4.4.

4.5.

4.6.

4.7.

4.8.

List of Figures List of Tables

regulations

Regulation plan Public Space Standards Building Form Standards Block Standards Building type Standards Frontage Standards Architectural Standards Form based Codes Process vs Partial Plan Formulation.

5. Conclusions and recommendations Bibliography

communities’

with

Abstract Form-Based Code (FBC) is an urban design tool that contributes to building a highquality public realm for cities and particularly, neighbourhood communities. Its principles including mix-uses, physical form over separation of uses, encouraging walkability, and cycling as well as community engagement through charrettes1.

Therefore, it is recognised as an alternative planning tool that can offer an illustrated compilation of regulations and required design elements for specific development to achieve a long-term vision of the cities. Since 2000, in Bogota, Colombia, most of the neighbourhood’s units have been developed by gated neighbourhoods that show lack of relation with the public realm, promoting insecurity and spatial segregation. Indeed, in most cases, the Colombian planning system does not control the development gated enclaves (Blandy & Parsons, 2003) being the housing type preferred by almost 2.7 million of citizens. Even though some regulations have been adopted in the land management plan (POT), partial plans (PP) and other planning tools, they are still wide and scarce to mitigate the unsustainable growth of gated enclaves. Through a comparative analysis, this dissertation address at studying to what extend the existing local regulations and guidelines for developing gated communities agree with the FBC’s principles. The research concluded with some recommendations and actions for applying the FBC in gated communities in Bogota that could be applied in other towns with similar urban conditions.

Key: Form-Based Code, neighbourhood, gated community, community, regulation, guideline

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Design Charrette is an intensive, hands-on workshop that brings people from different disciplines and backgrounds together with members of the community to explore design options for a particular area. It differs from a traditional community consultation process in that it is design-based.

Introduction 1.1.

Research Problem

The gated communities are a grouping of dwellings that are surrounded by walls or fences that commonly are monitored 24 hours by control systems (Roitman, 2010).

This new housing typology attempts to provide security for owners, encourage a sense of community, and provide a high quality of inner spaces and common services such as playgrounds and car park. Nevertheless, the fragmentation of surrounding public space and the encouragement of social segregation are perhaps the most negative effects (Nurten & Türkseven Doğrusoy, 2016).

Gated enclaves can create symbolic limits between dwellers and non-residents, by highlighting social differences, prevent social interaction, and promote discriminatory behaviours. This is particularly caused by the security controls and physical barriers that discourage the urban activity outside, reinforcing the sense of fear and insecurity of public space (Barrios, 2012). By contrast, gated enclaves can improve the local economy by attracting new services and infrastructure for nearby communities, including new transport stations, public services, and commercial areas. Therefore, gated communities seem to have advantages for residents, bit it might not the same for outside spaces and social interaction.

Accordingly, in Bogota, Colombia, most of the neighbourhood’s units have been developed by gated communities over the last years. Currently, the city shows a higher level of socio-spatial fragmentation, attributed partially to gated areas. In this regard, the non-existence of effective gated communities regulations has also been a decisive factor to promote segregation ( Polanska, 2008). Indeed, the existing literature suggests that in most cases the planning system does not control the gated growths (Blandy & Parsons, 2003). Notwithstanding that in the case of Bogota, some regulations have been adopted in the land management plan (POT), they are still wide and scarce to mitigate the segregation created by the physical and social boundaries of gated development (Nurten & Türkseven Doğrusoy, 2016).

1.2.

Research Aim and Objectives

This dissertation aims at studying to what extend the existing Bogota regulations such as partial plans, the POT ordinances and guidelines for developing of gated communities agree or disagree with Form-Based Codes approach.

1.3.

Research Methodology

The proposed method addresses a comparative analysis between a selective review of the gated community’s land regulations in Bogota and Form-based Code approach developed by New urbanism movement. For this, a comprehensive theoretical study and the selection and analysis of specified cases of studies is elaborated to understand how both dimensions are assumed in the practice. Finally, the comparisons are developed through the potential outcomes, the addition of quantitative analyses, and the used of comparative tables and illustrations.

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1.4.

Summary

The following chapters will discuss about Form-Based Codes approach and planning regulations for gated communities in Bogota. The first chapter address a brief of townplanning history of Bogota and understanding about the role of the planning tools in the socio-spatial segregation phenomenon produced by gated enclaves.

In the succeeding chapter the origin and definition of Form-Based Codes (FBCs) are explained from different literature references. The FBC components are illustrated with several examples, layouts and diagrams. At the end, a brief description of FBC process, requirements and formatting. This is summed up in a set of tables.

In the last chapter, a comparison analysis between Form-Based Codes approach with the planning regulations for gated communities in Bogota is made. Several examples and comparative graphics are showed to analyse, similarities and differences, regulatory gaps and the opportunities for adapting of FBC into the existing legal-urban framework.

Finally, all inferences are summed up in a set of comprehensive conclusions and recommendations for gated communities’ regulations and further research.

Form-Based Codes for Gated Communities ’regulations in Bogota, Colombia: a Comparative Analysis.

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Chapter one

Gated communities’ regulations in Bogota.

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2.2.

Background about Bogota’s regulations framework.

Being the capital and the largest city of Colombia, Bogota has had historically an essential role in national planning. Since the late 19th century, the city has promoted the creation of urban regulations in response to demographic growth and the emergence of informal settlements. However, although the initial regulations contributed to infrastructure development and the defence of public property, the limitations of emerging planning system and private interests, brought about the physical segregation and the subsequent exponential growth of gated communities (“ISOCARP Case Info,” n.d.). Indeed, it was only until the creation of first urban plans in the 20th century, that local government started to consider the city as an integrated planning problem (Chois, 2006). According to existing literature the progress of the normative framework in Bogota has been marked by three major plans: Plan Bogota Futuro that was inspired in the town planning principles in 1923, the Plan Piloto of Bogota elaborated by Le Corbsier in 1950, and the Land-use Plan (Plan de ordenamiento territorial -POT) approved in 2000 and based on Law 388 of 1997.

2.1.1. Plan Bogota Futuro The “Plan Bogota Futuro” was elaborated by the Colombian entrepreneur Ricardo Olano in 1925. His proposal is considered the first expansion plan for Bogota, where the design of streets, squares, and parks, was inspired in the international concepts of city planning, as a practice extended in North American and European cities. This also attempted to represent the modernisation of the city through beautification of public space, infrastructure improvements, and affordable housing for an estimated population of 140.000 citizens (Castro,2013).

Figure 1. Plan Bogota Future. Karl Brunner. 1887 – 1960 Ref: (Solano, 2007)

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Whereas the expansion plan advocated for the free development of new neighbourhoods, this apparent laxness was exploited by some developers who contrary to planning principles (Acuerdo 74, 1925). They started to build new quarters in inner-city areas such as Santa Fe and Ricaurte, without enough infrastructure, lack of public spaces, and aesthetic criteria. Notwithstanding, the plan served as guidance to construction of social housing for low-income population and the spatial definition of some public developments. These actions also brought about changes in the planning system and city administration which served as a platform for subsequent plans (Chois, 2006).

2.1.2 Plan Piloto Bogota In contrast to aesthetic tradition, the international planning began to be strongly influenced by Congresses of Modern Architecture (CIAM) and their principles documented in the Athens Charter by the end of 1940s (Poerschke, 2016). This manifest demanded the separation of city functions such as housing, working, recreation, and transportation as well as the importance of zoning plans for urban development (Rubin, 2009).

In Bogota, this approach was represented initially by the” Plan Piloto” designed by the recognized Swiss architect Le Corbusier in 1950s. Similar to CIAM principles, the plan consisted of a set of zoning ordinances that sought to control the illegal developments and organize the city by functions and densities. The plan included the extension of a new highway network through a system stratified and connected with existing neighbourhoods for reducing the spatial segregation produced by previous growths.

Additionally, it considered a population growth of 1.500.000 inhabitants for the next fifty years (Castillo Daza et al., 2008).

Figure 2. Plan Piloto Bogota.

Ref: https://habitar-arq.blogspot.com/2016/06/chimbote-entre-la-utopia-y-la_8.html

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Whereas the final plan was delivered by Le Corbusier to City Council, it was necessary for the creation of a regulation plan to provide a normative framework able to express spatially the principles and ordinances of a master plan. However, due to the complex political and social situation caused by the assassination of liberal leader Jorge Eliecer Gaitan on 9 April of 1948, the regulation plan was never implemented (Chois, 2006).

Notwithstanding the “Plan Piloto” influenced the urban investments and local plans for the city until the 1980s. It is considered as the first attempt to create a legal body in urban planning of the city for almost 1.500.000 new habitants expected in the plan (Solano, 2007). Certainly, the population underwent an exponential growth in later decades.

2.1.3 POT (Land Use Plan) Bogota and Law 388,1997.

While the “Plan Piloto” was a landmark for the building of the urban planning system in Bogota, the constitution of 1991 was the tool that finally provided the principles of land-use planning for Bogota and national towns. Although some laws were created from this term, The Law 388 of 1997 has been perhaps the most influential for country planning (Hepperle et al., 2017). It introduced, among other things, the participation of civil society in the planning process and the individual production of territorial ordinance plans (POT), as a technical, normative, and regulatory tool for guiding the physical and economic development of more than 1000 existing Colombian’s municipalities (“Political and administrative in Colombian state,” 2017).

Figure 3. Land uses. POT Bogota.

Ref: https://habitar-arq.blogspot.com/2016/06/chimbote-entre-la-utopia-y-la_8.html Form-Based Codes for Gated Communities ’regulations in Bogota, Colombia: a Comparative Analysis.

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Accordingly, Bogota adopted a territorial ordinance plan (POT) in 2000 (modified in 2004), intending to control the urban expansion, the revitalization of central zones, and the preservation of ecological resources such as rivers, mountains, and wetlands. In this regard, the POT established a set of treatments for orienting the kind and scale of urban interventions within the territorial vision (“Decreto 190 de 2004 Alcalde Mayor,” n.d.). These treatments are associated with specific parts of the city determined by POT map and which might be developed under some of the following modalities: Development: It addresses the development of expansion areas by adding infrastructure, services and public facilities investments.

Consolidation: It addresses the transformation of the existing urban structure by the distribution of land uses and public space system.

Renovation: It seeks the recuperation of brownfields and deteriorated areas as well as the re-building of the urban existing structure.

Conservation: historical and heritage areas that require protection and maintenance.

Neighbourhood Upgrading: It includes improvements for informal settlements affected by marginalisation and lack of infrastructure and services.

Additionally, the plan included other aims such as the creation of mix-used areas, new zoning ordinances, and the construction of a new mass transport system, now known as Transmilenio (Brunn et al., 2012).

Nevertheless, since 2014 the POT has been subject to modifications that unfortunately still are being studied (“Claves para entender el futuro del POT de Bogotá,” 2019).

According to Local Planning Department (“POT | Secretaría Distrital de Planeación,” n.d.), a further update should address the issue of housing demand as a consequence of population growth and the urban conurbation with close municipalities. In this case, the increasing construction of gated communities has been a response to this phenomenon. Additionally, the authorities advise about the need to simplify the current normative framework to make easier the interpretation and adoption (“POT | Secretaría Distrital de Planeación,” n.d.).

Hence, the normative framework in Bogota has been the historical product of several regulatory attempts, which were affected by the complex social and political situation of the 20th century in the city. Likewise, the zoning ordinances have been studied and improved over time and now include new management tools and guidelines. However, they still have been unable to mitigate the spatial segregation caused by uncontrolled growth and the subsequent exponential rise of gated communities in the last years as indicated in the introduction of this work.

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2.2 Bogota’s planning tools and their relationship with gated phenomenon.

communities’

The law 388 of 1997 introduced a set of regulation tools for accomplishing the objectives defined by POT, contributing to land-use management and guide the urban development on a medium and small scale. They are named as partial plans, macroprojects, urban action units (UAU)2, neighbourhood Improvement programs, master plans, among others (Vitta, n.d.). Likewise, this toolbox has been the basis for licensing of buildings and residential areas, as the following table indicates.

Law 1151/ 2007

National Macroprojects

Law 388/ 2007

Urban Macroprojects

Partial plans

Urban Action Unit

Urbanism license Construction license

Figure 4. National Planning tools Ref: (DNP,2009)

In Bogota, these tools have been traditionally applicated for urban development with a modest result in terms of spatial transformation. It is due for example to the small number of partial plans approved and built to date. Nonetheless, planning tools are important here by their prominent responsibility and encouragement of construction of gated enclaves in Bogota and close municipalities such as Soacha, Chia, and Mosquera. Thus, this section attempts to explain some urban projects as examples of how current planning regulations have promoted the spread of enclosure neighbourhoods and their spatial segregation effect.

2.2.2

Macro-projects: Case of Ciudad Verde, Bogota-Soacha.

Macro-projects (In Spanish Macroproyectos de Interes Social Nacional) is a planning instrument created for driving the construction of social and priority housing units through private-public management structures. As a result, some macro-projects have been adopted by national municipalities such as Cali, Buenaventura and Barranquilla (Vitta, n.d.).

In this context, one of the largest Macro-Projects is being developed in the municipality of Soacha. This is a territory connected to the southern part of Bogota where more than 25.000 housing units has been built of almost 40.000 projected in the plan.

(Alzate and Heinrichs, n.d.) Although the intervention has been a success in economic and quantitative terms, it is not the same for new habitants who deal with the lack of social infrastructures such as education centres, health facilities, transportation and eco-industrial developments which can promote new work opportunities (Sep 26 and Soacha | 0, n.d.).

2

“Urban Action Units: According to Act 388/97, UAU are areas formed by one or more lots that must be urbanized or built as one integral unit within a PartialPlan. Their development involves the association of landowners and is executed using tools or techniques such as land readjustment, real-estateintegration or cooperation between participants (landowners)”.

(Vitta, n.d.).

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SOUTH HIGHWAY

BOGOTA CIUDAD VERDE

SOACHA

Figure 5. Macro-project location.

Ref: (Mendez, et al., 2014)

Figure 6. Ciudad Verde project Ref: https://www.portafolio.co/mis-finanzas/vivienda/viviendas-del-programa-de-macroproyectos-sociales-ya-fueentregado-513812 Form-Based Codes for Gated Communities ’regulations in Bogota, Colombia: a Comparative Analysis.

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Regarding the residential proposal, although the urban plan presents a street network and provides public spaces such as green areas and public furniture, the intensive development of gated environments in conjunction with the excessive dimension of the blocks (200mts), have limited the connectivity and accessibility between housing units and the open spaces built. Furthermore, while the insecurity might be promoted by social and economic issues, some studies suggest that this is also caused by a gated environment (“David Kostenwein,” n.d.). Indeed, the insecurity perception in “Ciudad Verde”, has been emphasised by the several cases of robbery and drug trafficking reported recently by local authorities. (“Ciudad Verde en Soacha, una ciudadela abatida por la delincuencia,” 2020).

Figure 7. Inner spaces Ref: (Mendez, et al., 2014)

Figure 8. Buildings and fences Ref: (Mendez, et al., 2014)

2.2.3 Partial Plans: Case of Felicidad Partial Plan.

Partial Plans were introduced as a strategy to guide the mid-scale developments and accomplish POT objectives. It pursues the organization of physical space, land-uses, and the equitable distribution of costs such as land taxes and benefits in urbanization (OECD, 2015). Furthermore, it is considered as the main planning tool to drive and articulate urban management, and financial investments (Maldonado Copello and Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, 2006). According to the 1997 Law 388, Partial Plans should be used under development, renovation, and redevelopment treatments (explained above).

In the case of Bogota, some regulations were adopted through resolution 1141/2000.

These ordinances established that Partial Plans have to be implemented in the city’s sectors under development or redevelopment treatment in accordance with the POT. The act also included the adoption of management schemes such as private, publicprivate and public for their elaboration and realisation (Vitta, n.d.). Currently, although Partial Plans carries out in development areas, it is not the same for inner-city sectors where the redevelopment plans are seen as a mechanism of social segregation by some planners and low-income habitants (OECD, 2015).

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Figure 9. Location.

Ref: National University of Colombia. Dep. Planning.

According to the planning department (In Spanish, Secretaria Distrital de Planeacion) Bogota accounts for 50 development partial plans adopted to date. (“Planes | Secretaría Distrital de Planeación,” n.d.). Foremost among these is the partial plan “la Felicidad”. This plan is located in Fontibon locality in a plot of 100 hectares where 20.000 dwellings with commercial and cultural areas are being developed for almost 60.000 new dwellers. While it is still under construction; the new townscape has begun to be dominated by big residential blocks within gated communities’ scheme.

Unlike low-rise buildings of “Ciudad Verde”, this plan is characterised by a compact model of tall buildings and confined spaces, which are connected through pedestrian streets and the local road network. Nevertheless, most of them are used for car parks and separate each other by fences. Likewise, the inner spaces are mainly used by car park areas, reducing significantly the green and gathering spaces. In addition, the gated environment is emphasized by the existence of a shopping mall “Plaza imperial” that show lack of relation with the public realm.

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Figure 10. Partial Plan view.

Ref: The National University of Colombia. Dep. Planning.

Figure 11. Gated environment Ref: The National University of Colombia. Dep. Planning.

2.2.4 Urbanism Licenses: Case of Mirador del Este urbanization.

Urbanism license is defined as a planning instrument to guide the urbanization and building on local-scale. This complements the POT ordinances and seeks to accomplish objectives of development treatment through urban interventions no greater than 10 hectares (“Decreto 619 de 2000 Alcaldía Mayor de Bogotá, D.C.,” n.d.).Commonly, this license includes regulations for land-uses, building conditions, infrastructure, and public space areas.

With almost 10.000 urbanism licences processed each year, this planning tool has become the main mechanism for residential development of Bogota over the last years. Although this might be positive for the property market and social housing demand, it has also promoted the construction of high-density gated communities.

Certainly, each project may offer more than 500 residential units that are acquired by a large proportion of citizens that find affordable and attractive live into gated enclaves.

A case in point is the residential complex “Mirador del Este” located in the southeastern part of the city between Nueva Delhi and Juan Rey districts. The complex has

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close to 1200 housing units over a plot of almost 5.1 hectares, where green spaces, common facilities and car park areas are also provided.

Nueva Delhi District

Small River “Quebrada San Camilo”

Small River “Quebrada Verenjones”

Juan Rey District

Figure 12. Mirador del Este Location.

Ref: Elaborated by Author.

Although this project fulfils regulations, it seems to be not enough to control the gated environment produced by fences and restricted accesses. This situation reduces the physical relations between houses and existing sidewalks, restricting the access to natural areas and small rivers such as “San Camilo” and “Verenjones”. Additionally, the green areas seem to be the result of several unplanned left-over spaces that are not contemplated purposeful which may have arisen during project development (Spaces left Over After Planning: SLOAP). Certainly, it depends on urbanization ordinances and planning authorities.

Figure 13. Access and Fences.

Ref: Elaborated by Author.

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Figure 14. S.L.O.A.P spaces.

Ref: Elaborated by Author.

Figure15. Urbanization view.

Ref: Google Earth Access.

2.4.5. Conclusion This chapter has presented a brief of urban planning history in Bogota and how some planning tools have encouraged the development of gated environments on different scales. The main deduction is that existing regulations do not control their physical qualities and effects on surroundings communities and urban spaces. In all cases, the fences and walls seem to be the dividing element of public and private life, and most inner spaces are dominated by private cars. Finally, the overall analyses suggest that there is a lack of nearby services such public transport and retail areas.

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Chapter two

Understanding Form-Based Codes

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3.1.

Form-Based Codes Overview

New urbanism is an urban design approach formed in the 1990s for solving problems of urban sprawl and Inner-city degradation. This movement attempts the creation of sustainable communities through design principles such as walkability, connectivity, mixed-use and smart transportation (Marshall, 2003). However, New Urbanism merits particular attention here by its promotion of urban design codes also known as FormBased Codes (FBC). This approach not only looks for controlling the built environment but also represents an alternative to conventional zoning schemes used by many cities worldwide (Carmona et al., 2006).

The conventional zoning has been historically the most popular planning method in the United States and other latitudes from the 1950 (Talen, 2012). It consists of the segregation of land uses types and regulations based on restrictions and numerical parameters. Indeed, it has been also the legal mechanism for implementing planning tools such as guidelines and Master Plans. By contrast, these schemes have promoted suburban sprawl, spatial segregation and motorcar dependency being also key factors into global concerns such as climate change (Talen, 2012).

Unlike conventional planning, FBCs attempt to achieve the aims of New Urbanism by guiding community vision through the physical form and land regulations. It is defined as a method of regulating development to get a predictable built environment and high quality of public space. This include the design of the exterior of buildings, surrounding streets, and open spaces (Sabri et al., 2019). Likewise, the graphic and prescriptive nature of FBSc can help professionals and developers to know what they should build and easy project management and construction. Thus, FBCs rely on community vision and physical parameters to create a high-quality urban design.

Conventional Zoning

Guidelines

Form- based codes

Figure.16. Conventional Zoning, guidelines and Form Based Codes.

Ref: Form-Based Codes Defined [WWW Document], n.d. . Form-Based Codes Institute at Smart Growth America. URL https://formbasedcodes.org/definition/ (accessed 2.4.20).

3.2.

Components

Form-Based Codes (FBCs) are structured by a set of elements that might be integrated or added into a variety of ordinance schemes depending on local politics and resources (Rangwala, 2012). Although they are not mandatory and exclusive of New Urbanism, the relevant literature suggests that an FBC should include initially a regulation plan where other components are located and performed.

It is complemented by a set of design standards for public spaces, buildings types, blocks, frontages types, and in some cases, architectural parameters (Parolek et al., 2008).

A detail of these minimum components is described following: Form-Based Codes for Gated Communities ’regulations in Bogota, Colombia: a Comparative Analysis.

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3.2.1. Regulating plan It is a detailed map where regulations, permitted land uses, and other components are illustrated and connected with specific zoning standards but with a bigger emphasis on physical form, interconnected street and pedestrian smalls blocks (Shaji and Kini, 2016). Although the regulation plan has initially the objective of managing urban development, it will depend greatly on planning codes which establish the form and character for each zone and structure of public realm (Elliott, n.d.). Whereas the conventional ordinances rely exclusively on land uses maps, Form-Based Codes proponents believe that other regulations can also be included in regulating plan by a set of colour conventions. (See figure 18) For example, buildings features such as type and relation with public space, street regulations for street types and urban furniture and finally, frontage regulations for other elements such as facades and corner lots (Parolek et al., 2008). Hence, the Regulation Plan is seen as platform to link FBC components and other standards.

Despite Form-Based Codes can operate on different regulatory frameworks, transect approach is perhaps the most extended in the last years. As a historical concept, transect origins go back to the first geographical cross-section created by Alexander Von Humboldt in 1793. It was used to analyse different ecological environments that displayed different characteristics through different zones, such as ocean shores, dunes, wetlands, plains, and uplands or mountains (Farsø and Henriksson, 2016).

Similarly, the valley section of naturalist Patrick Geddes describes an ideal regionalurban condition through the four stages of hunting, pastoral, and agriculture toward commercial societies (New York City, 1923).

Figure 17. Transect origins.

Ref. (Farsø and Henriksson, 2016)

According to this, new urbanists define transect as a cross-section that shows a set of environments with a variable level of intensity and urban character (Duany PlaterZyberk & Company, 2000). Similar to Von Humboldt (1793) and Geddes (1923), these habitats serve as principles of the spatial organization of several elements of human Form-Based Codes for Gated Communities ’regulations in Bogota, Colombia: a Comparative Analysis.

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habitat such as allotments, buildings and land use. A case in this point is the Smart Code document that is based on transect planning and environmental analysis for creating walkable neighbourhoods and reducing the carbon footprint (“SmartCode Central,” n.d.).

Figure 18. Flagstaff's, Arizona. Transect Code, Regulation Plan.

Ref: (“Flagstaff Community Forum,” n.d.)

As detailed in the figure below, the transect is divided into six different zones in which the intensity of development will depend on th localized T zone. This ranges from the natural zone, or T-1 without human intervention, moves on to the sub-urban zone, or T3, with low-density areas and finishes with urban core zone, or T-6, where the highest density and diversity of uses is afforded (“The Urban Transect | DPZ Initiatives,” n.d.).

The scheme also includes Special districts zones where high-impact projects such as airports and stadiums could be developed.

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Figure 19. Transect.

Ref. https://www.dpz.com/Initiatives/Transect

3.2.2. Public Space Standards These standards guide the creation of a large variety of public spaces such as pocket parks, plazas, streets and corridors. Their design is being one of the most important aspects in Form-Based Codes principles. It is divided into two categories: Civic spaces and thoroughfares. Public space regulations aim to consider surrounding buildings and community vision plans for making walkable roads and enjoyable open spaces. on the country, thoroughfare standards focus on aspects such as design speed, narrow streets, the number of areas designated for on-street parking and a detailed study of intersections and pedestrian cross time. Likewise, a variety of street types such as alleys, main streets and boulevards should be also considered to create a walkable community (Parolek et al., 2008).

Similarly, the strategic design and location of civic spaces such as playgrounds, greens, and plazas are fundamental for successful neighbourhoods. However, the lack of proper regulations for these areas has caused most open spaces are built on non-functional locations and oversize for neighbourhood activities. For this, civic spaces should be designed for walking distances, closing workplaces, and according to transect zone requirements such as size, location and activity type.

3.2.3. Building Form Standards Building form standards involves a set of requirements for defining the physical form and functional qualities of the public realm. Building form, for instance, attempts to regulate the facades, heights and their proper relation with public spaces. Equally, the parking rules address the reduction of parking lot in zones where public transportation is enough as well as hiding vehicles from the view of pedestrians. Other ordinances include building placement, allowed building, and frontage types. These codes work into a comprehensive graphic language that includes diagrams, graphics, layouts, and tables which illustrate the building features and specific regulations for each transect zone.

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3.2.4. Block Standards These standards aim for the creation of small blocks and interconnected streets for promoting connectivity and building of walkable neighbourhoods. Some scholars suggest, for instance, that compared to monotone large blocks, smaller blocks can reduce walking distances, increase pedestrian activity, accessibility to public transport, and retail areas (McGlynn et al., 1985). Thus, a Form-Based Code should include regulations for maximum block length and maximum perimeter. Furthermore, a subdivision procedure for distribution of new streets, alleys, lots, and building types should also be integrated.

Figure 20. Block Subdivision.

Ref. CMAP, 2013

3.2.5. Building type Standards Unlike conventional codes that work on maximum density and building uses, formbased codes may provide a set of building types for making vigorous urban spaces with formal diversity. Although their adoption is not compulsory, the community may consider the range of type buildings provided by FBC guideline (fig 2) such as commercial block, townhouse, courtyard apartment, and Linear court, among others.

Their regulations commonly include pedestrian access, required lot, landscape and service.

3.2.6. Frontage Standards Frontage standards are recognized as the method to manage public/private urban interfaces. For this, the location of buildings and their relation with immediate public space should be designed accurately (Parolek et al., 2008). This is commonly represented by sections, diagrams and axonometries which a range of design alternatives such as galleries, forecourts, porches and arcades are illustrated. (fig)

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These frontage types should be modified and integrated into transect zones and specific requirements of local residents.

Figure 21. Frontage types.

Ref: Smart code, 2013. https://smartcodecentral.com/

3.2.7. Architectural Standards Although architectural standards are optional for communities and are not a requirement of FBCs, these regulations may give a unique architectural character to urban spaces developed under FBCs scheme (CMAP, 2013). This may comprise elements such as massing, façade composition, windows and doors, details and materials, which are categorized into a document and photographs accessible to residents. Likewise, it is important to explain that these kinds of ordinances do not follow a specific architectural style, which would depend on community vision and existing architectural guidelines.

3.3.

Form-Based Codes Process

The community vision is a fundamental aspect of the form-based code process. For this, a collaborative process known as “Charrettes”3 is run by several meetings and workshops between target community, planners, architects and public administration (Madden and Russell, 2014). This help to identify desires and municipal needs for creating a walkable and accessible environment. The discussions and potential outcomes are traduced in a comprehensive plan supported by maps that show the potential growth areas and major factors for subsequent development of form-based codes components. (Madden and Russell, 2014)

3

The term ‘charrette’ is derived from the French word for ‘little cart’ and refers to the intense work of architects before a deadline. At the nineteenth century Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris, as carts circulated to collect final drawings, students would jump on the ‘charrette’ to put the final touches on their presentations.

See DPZ & CO. https://www.dpz.com/charrettes/about (last visited 29 January, 2020).

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Figure.22. Form Based Code Process Ref. (Parolek et al., 2008).

Whereas charrette represents the preliminary stage FBCs formulation, the process also comprises the documentation of site conditions, existing planning regulations, and community intentions. This document serves as a source to creation of an illustrative Vision Plan that includes a set of layouts, texts and 3d drawings of community goals. Finally, the next step addresses the translation of thevision plan within form-based code components, the formulation of additional regulations and the review, and presentation of final code document (Parolek et al., 2008).

3.4.

Criticism

Notwithstanding the potentials and possible benefits for communities and planning process, New urbanism; in particular form-based codes, have been subject of numerous critiques from research and professional communities. For example, Walters and Read (2014) argue that the use of codes and excess of regulations can constrain the creativity in urban design, flexibility, and spatial personalization that communities need. Similarly, CABE (2003) advises about their limited scope for creating a variety of formal expressions and architecture styles. A case in point is the Hulme quarter of Manchester, England. Although its subsequent redevelopment in the 1990s was based on a detailed and comprehensive design guide, several scholars have expressed criticism of new dwellings by their standardized and lack of bioclimatic design (PUNTER, 1999).

However, the main FBCs concern lies in the real capacity of the Charrette process to cover larger issues such as social equality and the democratisation of development.

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For instance, Buckner Inniss (2007) stances that charrettes can be also an undesirable mechanism of social exclusion and empowerment of social elites if the local government does not seek to include all social groups and borough demands into community design. Others scholars are alarmed about the significant difficulty to adapt form-based codes into a specific political and physical environment, especially when there is a lack of professionals with experience in FBCs implementation (“MRSC - A Hybrid Approach to Form-Based Codes in the Northwest,� n.d.). Additionally, while form-based codes claim the creation of a good urban form for local communities, some studies suggest that there is not enough evidence to prove this. Besides, the existence of large interests into FBCs planning process might also limit its scope and real contribution to achieve a good neighbourhood form (Kim, 2018).

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Chapter four

Comparing Gated communities’ regulations with components of Form-Based Codes

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This section addresses a comparison analysis between some gated communities’ regulations in Bogota and the components of Form-based codes explained in the last chapter. The comparative method is inspired by Sabri (Sabri, n.d.) and focus on the study of planning regulations such as partial plans, the forthcoming land-use plan, and some design guidelines. The aim here is to establish their degree of similarity (High, moderate, low and none) with FBCs to find regulatory gaps and opportunities for adapting into the existing legal-urban framework. This is illustrated by a set of examples, diagrams and evaluation tables allocated at the end of each sub-chapter.

Finally, it is a worth claim that although in both cases there are lots of statistical data, this document section seeks to analyse their comparable qualitative features in terms of text data, scale and design.

4.1 Regulation Plan The Partial plan is probably the most similar to scale and type of intervention draws up by FBCs and the regulation plan. It is compounded by a set of technical layouts and documents where diverse ordinances and laws are drafted. The urban plan, for instance, is the layout where land-uses, the street types, and civic spaces should be localized. Equally, it may contain other complementary standards such as heights, setbacks, and built areas. A case in point is the partial plan “San Bernardo” in Bogota, the plan stances rules for the redevelopment of social housing and commercial areas in a plot of almost 9 hectares allocated in the city centre. (figure N. 23).

Figure 23. Urban plan “San Bernardo”. vs Regulation Plan of “La Soledad city.

Ref: Planning department. (In Spanish Secretaria Distrital de Planeacion. SDP).

By contrast, the urban plan does not include rules for street frontages or any related to the design of public/private interfaces as well as there is no evidence organizing principles for controlling of urban form and built intensity. On the contrary, this may depend on further planning processes such as urbanism licences (see the first chapter) and economic viability of urbanization.

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Lastly, the Land-use plan (POT) include regulations for ground-floor use. For example, the rules 372 and 373 claim ground-floor activation by mix-uses (Figure N.24), but are too general and have poor relation with partial plan ordinances.

Figure 24. Ground floor activation.

Ref: Planning department. (In Spanish Secretaria Distrital de Planeacion. SDP).

Table 1. Comparison between regulation plan of FBCs with Gated’s communities’ regulations.

Ref: Author.

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4.2 Public space standards 4.2.1. Thoroughfares Overall, the local thoroughfares standards show a high degree of similarity with FBCs elements. For example, the sidewalks guide (Cartilla de Andenes Bogota D.C) has standards for landscape, planting and walkway type. Likewise, standards for reduced mobility people, bus stops, and steep streets (Figure N. 25), which are very common in some zones.

On the other hand, the POT has sidewalk standards for lengths, lighting, and traffic lanes displayed in several street sections (Figure 26). Equally, other guidelines establish rules for curb radius, design speed and lighting.

Figure 25. Design codes for bus station and design codes steep streets.

Ref: Sidewalks guideline.

(Cartilla de Andenes para Bogota)

On the other hand, several FBC components are missing or show a lack of regulation.

Parking lanes, for instance, are not included in the street sections or allocated in the urban plan. Furthermore, although the POT determines some definitions and rules (rule 138) for on-street parking such as denied their location on main roads, there is no information about how public parking might be designed and integrated with the streetscape. Indeed, some parts of the city seem dominated by on-street parking.

Other elements such as movement type and crossing time are missing. Certainly, these parameters may contribute to smart mobility for pedestrians and road traffic.

Figure 26. Form based code street vs Street section model in Bogota.

Ref: Sidewalks guideline. (Cartilla de andenes para Bogota)

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4.2.2. Civic spaces The civic spaces into Bogota are divided in parks, boulevards and squares. FBC features such as acreage, size and location are drawn up in the partial plan and completed by the POT ordinances explained below.

Parks.

In Bogota, the parks and recreation areas are classified by scale an extension. The range runs from neighbourhood parks to district parks, as illustrated in Table 2.

Likewise, the POT has other complementary ordinances. Prominent among them are the requirements for inclusion of girls and women and the ban of fences and tall walls (rule 92). Other rules help to establish a certain grade of design quality by the control of the proportion of grey areas, type and size of vegetation (rule 92).

PARKS CLASSIFICATION

DEFINITION

Large parks

Greater than or equal to 10 hectares.

Neighbourhhod parks Small parks

Greater than or equal to 1 hectare and less than 10 hectares Greater than or equal to 300 m2 and less than 1000 m2.

Protected Parks

Protedted land by natural threats or public services constraints.

Linear parks

Parks associated with rivers, ravines and canals located in urban land urban and human settlement

Linear parks on roads

They are located parallel to intermediate and local roads.

Rural parks

Parks located in rural areas according to public services and community centres.

Table 2. Parks classification.

Ref: Planning department. (In Spanish Secretaria Distrital de Planeacion. SDP).

Squares.

The POT also establishes design regulations for large and small squares. For instance, suitable location, linking with the existing street network and allowed green areas and types vegetation (Table 3).

PLANT COVERAGE Squares and small squares

Forestry in any surface

Gardens and bushes

5%. Minimun

5%. Minimun

Table 3. Vegetation ratio.

Ref: Planning department. (In Spanish Secretaria Distrital de Planeacion. SDP).

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Boulevards The Boulevards are wider pedestrian corridors, traditionally with trees, bicycle lines and urban furniture. The POT sets a minimum width of 12 meters and the pedestrian priority on road intersections.

Notwithstanding this, the evaluation suggests a moderate degree of similarity with FBCs (Table 4). This can be explained by the few standards related to the quality of spaces such as the type of recreation and the lack of graphic descriptions (Figure. 27).

Additionally, some regulations denied access to public spaces. A case in point is the standards for fences on public spaces, which are very common for the development of gated environments in Bogota. This is illustrated by Figure N. 28 below.

Figure 27. Guidance section for design of parks in Bogota.

Ref: Planning department. (In Spanish Secretaria Distrital de Planeacion. SDP).

Figure 28. Parameters for Fences on public space. Note the spatial division caused by fences.

Ref: Planning department. (In Spanish Secretaria Distrital de Planeacion. SDP).

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Evaluation.

Table 4. Comparison between civic spaces standards of FBCs with local regulations for public spaces.

Ref: Author

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4.3. Building Form Standards The partial plan and the POT also include regulations regarding building form.

Whereas maximum building heights, setbacks and built areas are added in the partial plans, some ordinances for building placement and plot measurements are defined by the POT. The article 224, for instance, establish a minimum lot width of 650 m2 in urban areas under redevelopment treatment. These rules are illustrated by a set of graphics that show how they should be applied and what kind of urban form might produce. For instance, Figure 29 shows the maximum widths for building fronts linking with the realm. Hence, these building standards show a moderate degree of similarity with FBCs.

Figure 29. Building fronts should no longer than 50 mts.

Ref: Planning department. (In Spanish Secretaria Distrital de Planeacion. SDP).

However, in comparison with FBCs, car parking and building uses appear unregulated. Whereas the partial plans rely on lots subdivision for land-use placement, the FBCs stances regulations for mix-use buildings (Figure 30). Similarly, the POT has regulations for car parking design such as minimum dimensions and setbacks.

However, there is a lack of design codes able to promote parking areas well-designed able to mitigate, for instance, the parking’s visual impact from streets and civic spaces.

Thus, FBC standards attempt to create a predictable building form.

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Figure 30. Allowed use types. Note mix-used generated in the upper floors.

Ref: Planning department. (In Spanish Secretaria Distrital de Planeacion. SDP).

Evaluation.

Table 5. Degree of similarity of building form standards of FBCs with local regulations for building form.

Ref: Author

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4.4. Building Type Standards The building type standards in Bogota are defined by the POT (rule 326) and allocated according to land-use zoning such as residential, commercial and, industrial uses. The building types are linked to existing architectural typologies as a product of the history and urbanization process. The following table shows some definitions and illustrations of allowed building types (Table. 6).

Architectural Typologies

Definition

Historic quarter

Architectural typology characteristic of the old sectors. It applied for Buildings that make up courtyards and enclosure spaces.

Single-family house

Architectural typology that share one or two boundaries with neighbouring properties.

Base and tower

Characteristic typology of the modern movement compounded by two buildings, one that serves as a basement between 3 to 4 floors and a tower.

Residential community by block.

Residential community by large block.

Illustration

Architectural typology characteristic of residential developments made up of singlefamily, two-family or multi-family buildings in individual blocks.

Architectural typology characteristic of residential developments made up of singlefamily, two-family or multi-family buildings in individual large blocks.

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Industrial warehouses

Business complex

Architectural typology that was developed through processes of urbanization for industrial uses and characterized by their commercial and / or logistics vocation.

Architectural typology that develops in blocks or superblocks with a predominant vocation for services.

Table 6. Some Building types in Bogota.

Ref: Modified of Land Use Plan 2019 (In Spanish Plan de Ordenamiento Territorial)

However, if a comparison is made with the FBCs, it might be observed that they are still away from building types standards. Most elements such as frontages, building size, parking and pedestrian access, appear unregulated and missing of any other local planning policy. For example, it is not clear how the building types may be built on the existing context or how they may interact physically with one another. Equally, there is a lack of rules for allocating open spaces according to public space regulations and Land-use plan. This might demonstrate that the proposed building types are some away to express a comprehensible spatial solution.

Figure 31. The view of partial plan “San Bernardo�

Ref: Planning department. (In Spanish Secretaria Distrital de Planeacion. SDP)

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On the other hand, partial plans do not include regulations for building types. In some cases, the illustrations that show the proposed buildings are more suggestions rather than regulations themselves. A case in point is the partial plan “San Bernardo”. While three-dimensional images attempt to recreate the future image of proposed buildings, they are only references for developers and the general public, as indicated by Figure 30 above.

Evaluation.

Table 7. Degree of similarity of building form standards of FBCs with local regulations for building types.

Ref: Author

4.5. Block Standards The partial plans allocated in urban areas with development and redevelopment treatment should be subdivided into blocks or superblocks.

Blocks The block should be surrounded by public streets in at least two sides and its area may not exceed 13.000 m2. (“Presentación Concejo Distrital | Secretaría Distrital de Planeación,” n.d.).

Superblocks The superblock may be bounded by streets on all sides, it should include at least 15% of built area for commercial and public equipment. Likewise, it may not exceed 40.000 m2 and can include more blocks inside (“Presentación Concejo Distrital | Secretaría Distrital de Planeación,” n.d.).

These considerations have been used for block subdivision of new urban developments in Bogota. For example, the partial plan “Triangulo de Bavaria” seek to urban renovation of a brownfield site of 20 hectare allocated in the west-part. The plan creates a new block subdivision based on a block size between 19.500 m2 and 10.000 m2.

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Existing blocks

Proposed blocks

Figure 32. Block subdivision of partial plan “Triangulo de Bavaria” Ref: Modified of Planning Department. (In Spanish Secretaria Distrital de Planeacion. SDP)

On the contrary, whereas FBCs suggest that parameters such as length and perimeter are fundamental for creating small blocks, the local regulations do not include them.

This might produce long blocks unsuitable for walking distances, even if their size complies the required area. In this case, FBCs suggest a maximum block length of 150 meters and a maximum perimeter of 487 meters. Another FBCs parameter that looks missing is alley system. This can encourage walkability within the blocks and provide access to inner lots and proposed buildings. In Springville, Utah, for example, it was developed a regulating plan where FBCs blocks standards were applied (Figure 32).

Figure 33. Gated community blocks in Bogota vs. Blocks of Springville, Utah in The United States.

Ref: Left. (Google Earth, 2016). Right. (“Springville, UT FBC and TOD — Geoff Dyer | Urban Designer,” n.d.)

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Evaluation

Table 7. Degree of similarity of block standards of FBCs with local regulations for building types.

Ref: Author Table 8. Degree of similarity of block standards with local regulations.

Ref: Author

4.6. Frontage Types Standards As was mentioned before, the frontage type standards are the key issue to engage the public/private interface. In the case of Bogota, there are no regulations for this.

Most regulations, by contrast, attempt to create outside barriers that denied public life and access to inner buildings. This is demonstrated by the spread of fences and walls on public spaces and the growth of gated communities in the city, as stated in the second chapter. Thus, the POT (rule 377) regulates a maximum fence height at 1.80 meters with a solid base of 40 cm and a certain degree of transparency to allow visual contact (Figure 33). Certainly, street fronts still await regulation by local planning.

Figure 34. Street fronts surrounded by fences in the “Ciudadela Colsubsidio� in Bogota.

Ref: (Google Earth, 2016)

On the contrary, most FBCs include frontage types standards. The design code approved in 2016 for the city of Buffalo in The United States, for instance, suggests several frontages types applicable to neighbourhood zones. All frontages include a short description, dimensional parameters, and specific standards, which in combination with building types standards, help to provide a transition between public and private spaces (Figure 35).

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Figure 35. FBCs frontages vs Street fronts in Bogota Ref: Left. (“City of New Rochelle, NY,” n.d.). Right. (“ciudad isla,” n.d.).

Evaluation.

Table 9. Degree of similarity of Frontage type standards with local regulations.

Ref: Author

4.7. Architectural Standards.

Unlike the FBCs, the existing planning framework suggests that there are no standards for any specific architectural style. However, some guidelines and planning procedures might have an indirect effect on the building’s architecture. The NSR-10 (Colombian earthquake-resistant construction standard), for instance, show the construction requirements that architects must take into account for building design, including dimensional standards, building systems, allowed materials, and technical installations. Similarly, the local eco-urbanism policy launched in 2015, suggests a set of actions for encouraging green buildings. For example, roof design for rainwater collection, proper openings for using natural light and using recycled material. Most of these actions take place in the building licence where architectural projects are examined and approved by the Building Department. Additionally, any design project must follow the graphic standards established by the Colombian Society of Architects SCA (Sociedad Colombiana de Arquitectos). Through drawings, texts a diagram, the guideline describes in detail the coding for appropriate sketched of architectural project. The figure N 36. shows some parameters for a typical building section.

Figure 36. Architectural parameters.

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Ref: (“Guía y Estándares para el Desarrollo Gráfico del Proyecto - Actualización 2016 | CPNAA,” n.d.)

Accordingly, although FBCs stances that architectural standards are optional, these parameters might be suitable for some communities in Bogota where there is a strong sense of place and community engagement. A case in point is the “Consuelo” neighbourhood. The residents and local authorities carried out the painting of almost 600 facades as a strategy to reduce the insecurity perception and make the place more attractive. This intervention can be seen from different parts of the city being considered as the biggest mural painting in South America to date (Figure 36).

Figure 37. ‘Los colores en el viento’. It was the project name chosen by community.

Ref: (“Secretaría del Hábitat on Twitter: ‘El proyecto Habitarte llena de color los barrios de Bogotá, incentivando la apropiación de las comunidades con sus territorios. https://t.co/mxKwzv7PaJ’ / Twitter,” n.d.)

The strong sense of community showed in “Consuelo” neighbourhood might be seen as an opportunity to recommend architectural standards. It not only may carry on with placemaking projects but also for creating a specific architectural character. Indeed, this would be carried out by Neighbourhood Upgrading Programs (IN Spanish Programa de Mejoramiento Integral de Barrios) as the POT suggests.

On the other hand, architectural standards might provide a new character to traditional residential buildings of gated communities. In spite of the inherent limitations of Form-Based Codes for Gated Communities ’regulations in Bogota, Colombia: a Comparative Analysis.

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urbanization for changing the form and the image of the buildings, some considerations might be taken into account for allowing certain degree of flexibility and personalization.

Figure 38. Image of residential buildings of gated communities in Bogota Ref: Left. (“Subsidios para vivienda: ‘Mi Casa Ya’ otorgará otros 2.000 subsidios en Bogotá| ELESPECTADOR.COM,” n.d.) Center. (“Más de 15.000 viviendas nuevas vendidas en Bogotá,” n.d.)

Right. (“Faro Alejandría, Usaquén, Calle 161 54-35 Detrás del Carmel Club - Goplaceit Colombia,” n.d.)

Evaluation.

Table 10. Degree of similarity of Architectural standards with local regulations.

Ref: Author

4.8. Form based Codes Process vs Partial Plan Formulation.

Commonly, a partial plan involves a set of requirements and procedures driving by the planners, stakeholders or developers. According to the POT ordinances, the plan starts with the provision of public services, road infrastructure, and public equipment.

It is then tested by financial viability through the definition of urban action units (see chapter 1) and equitable distribution of costs and benefits for urbanization. At the same time, the urban plan is elaborated for the definition of design standards, distribution public spaces, and new street network. Finally, the plan is exhibited and agreed with future residents. All requirements are compiled in a set of layouts and a unique technical document accessible to the public.

Regarding local communities, the partial plan involves the Plan of Social Management (In Spanish Plan de Gestion Social - PGS). This plan seeks to respond to community needs during the project process and mitigate the possible negative effects caused by the new development. These can include an increase in property prices, forced displacement and discriminatory behaviour by new residents. The plan also includes

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3 4

5 6

7

Definition of plan area and equitable distribution of cost and benefits.

Definition of Urban Action Units (UAU) Rules for equitable distribution of costs and benefits.

Estimation of costs and benefits and design of urban plan.

Discussions and consensus with community about Urban Action Units (UAU).

Technical document, layouts and normative acts.

Documenting macro elements and creation of existing framework diagram.

Existing Transect matrix and Micro elements documenting sheets.

Illustrative Plan and Imagery

Visioning

2

Higher national standards consulting.

Assembling

1

Form-based code - Process

Documenting

Partial plan - Formulation

Regulating Plan and Regulations Development review process

Splicing- additional standards

Formatting -Form Based Code

different services aimed at original residents and poorer communities such as legal advice and social safety.

Table 11. Form based Codes Process vs Partial Plan Formulation Ref: Author

Nevertheless, in comparison with FBCs, the role of local communities is remarkable lower within the design process. Whereas an FBCs arise from community visioning and the public engagement process, the partial plan subordinates this at the end when almost all design decisions have been fulfilled. Similarly, although the partial plan addresses different studies for site analysis, FBCs introduce the transects analysis as a method to analyse micro and macro elements of the existing framework. For example, the micro-scale analysis helps to identify existing elements such as civic spaces, frontages, and building types which can be useful for later design stages.

Additionally, there are significant differences between reference documents. While partial plan document contains a lot of data regarding project management, very few pages are related to show design standards and project qualities. This contrast with the FBCs document. This includes all necessary regulations and additional information required to code implementation and are complemented by a set of diagrams and descriptive graphics as a result of the visioning plan. Thus, partial plan seems far to engage local communities and regulate the physical environment as FBCs do.

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FBCs features

Partial plan requirements

Site

Plan areas, overview of existing conditions.

Plan preparation and public participation.

-The delimitation and characteristics of the urban operation area.

-Site analysis

Urban strategy

The community’s vision for the character and function of the Plan Area and development intensities.

Illustrative plan.

Land- use and planning ordinances

Several regulations are structured into sections or zones. Each zone contains standards for buildings, blocks, frontages, land use and parking.

Frontage types for how buildings individually shape the streetscape.

Public realm

Street and civic spaces standards.

Definition of public and private realm.

Layout of the road system.

Delimitation of public space.

Definition of the environmental elements.

Public services.

Definition of urban regulations, specific land uses, footprints, intensity of construction and heights.

- Definition of urban plan, characteristics of public space and the secondary road network.

-The location of collective facilities of public or social interest such as temples, educational and health centers, -Definition of spaces and green areas.

Project managemen t.

The real value is the potential for administrative project approval. Including the process for administrative review can help convince developers to support the approval of the FBC.

-The equitable distribution of costs and benefits in urbanization.

- Financial evaluation of urbanization.

- Definition of developing states.

Community engagemen t.

Community vision is a fundamental aspect in form-based code process. For this, a collaborative process known as “Charrettes” is run by several meetings and workshops between target community, planners, architects and public administration (Madden and Russell, 2014).

Social management plan. (in spanish Plan de Gestión Social -PGS). propose the actions aimed at preventing, mitigating, compensating and managing the impacts that affect the target population. (Act 080 of 2016)

Table 12. FBC features vs Partial Plan requirements Ref: Author

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Conclusions and Recommendations This dissertation has presented a comparative analysis between Form-based codes and Gated communities’ s regulations contained in the POT, partial plans and some design guides in Bogota city. For this, several ordinances and interventions were compared with FBC components for establishing their degree of similarity and find regulatory gaps. In this regard, the findings and recommendations described below, seek to provide a set of opportunities to improve the local planning regulations taking into account the best from FBC approach. As stated earlier, this is imperative to mitigate the socio-spatial segregation caused by the lack of suitable regulations for developing gated communities in Bogota. o Taking into consideration the rules, requirements and procedures studied in this work, it is possible to say that the local planning system shows a lack of qualitative standards able to deliver high design quality for the built environment. The FBC, by contrast, has demonstrated to be a method highly qualitative that might meet the local needs through replacing or adding placebased regulations as a complement to the existing policy framework. However, this might need further research and assessing other factors to find real implementation alternatives. Certainly, this may be fruitful for the gated communities in Bogota, where their design qualities depend mostly on developers and land market possibilities. o As explained in Chapter 4 , the role of communities into planning process seem remarkable passive. Regarding gated enclaves, the analysis showed that most design decisions are taken without considering full account community concerns through effective participatory processes. However, the FBC may fill the gap by running “Charrettes” to exiting Plan of Social Management (In Spanish Plan de Gestion Social – PGS) as an alternative to capture the vision, and design ideas of the community. While it is clear that any urban project might not only depend on community vision to achieve well- design places, the cases and examples presented in this document display how the community vision is valuable for the design process. o The research suggests that there is a critical lack of regulation of the public/private interface in the context of gated communities. This is perhaps the most important factor that produces their spatial division and discourage the activity on nearby public spaces, as commented on the first chapter.

Nevertheless, the FBCs might provide a strategy to link the issue of public/privates interfaces, with the existing regulatory framework. According to community needs, a new set of frontage types standards might be created an implemented to existing and forthcoming developments for the ground floor activation and restoration of public life. o The high quantity of documents, rules and technical studies required for urban developments in Bogota, might make them difficult to read and interpreted on the physical environment. Furthermore, the findings report that several Form-Based Codes for Gated Communities ’regulations in Bogota, Colombia: a Comparative Analysis.

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regulations show a lack of graphic language and detail. On the other hand, the comprehensive and graphic format of FBCs is shown as an opportunity to extract the best of this source. This will allow create better guideline documents able to be interpreted for all citizens, including gated communities’ residents who might suggest modifications to original code. Certainly, it also might open new study opportunities regarding graphic design guidelines.

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Alzate, A.M.B., Heinrichs, D., n.d. Social Housing Macro Projects and Local Capacity: The Case of Ciudad Verde in Soacha, Colombia 97.

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List of Figures Figure 1. Plan Bogota Future. Karl Brunner. 1887 – 1960 Figure 2. Plan Piloto Bogota.

Figure 3. Land uses. POT Bogota.

Figure 4. National Planning tools Figure 5. Macro-project location.

Figure 6. Ciudad Verde project Figure 7. Inner spaces Figure 8. Buildings and fences Figure 9. Location.

Figure 10. Partial Plan view.

Figure 11. Gated environment Figure 12. Mirador del Este Location.

Figure 13. Access and Fences.

Figure 14. S.L.O.A.P spaces.

Figure15. Urbanization view.

Figure.16. Conventional Zoning, guidelines and Form Based Codes.

Figure 17. Transect origins.

Figure 18. Flagstaff's, Arizona. Transect Code, Regulation Plan.

Figure 19. Transect.

Figure 20. Block Subdivision.

Figure 21. Frontage types.

Figure.22. Form Based Code Process Figure 23. Urban plan “San Bernardo”. vs Regulation Plan of “La Soledad city.

Figure 24. Ground floor activation.

Figure 25. Design codes for bus station and design codes steep streets.

Figure 26. Form based code street vs Street section model in Bogota.

Figure 27. Guidance section for design of parks in Bogota.

Figure 28. Parameters for Fences on public space.

Figure 29. Building fronts should no longer than 50 mts.

Figure 30. Allowed use types. Note mix-used generated in the upper floors.

Figure 31. The view of partial plan “San Bernardo” Figure 32. Block subdivision of partial plan “Triangulo de Bavaria” Figure 33. Gated community blocks in Bogota vs. Blocks of Springville, Utah in The United States.

Figure 34. Street fronts surrounded by fences in the “Ciudadela Colsubsidio” in Bogota.

Figure 35. FBCs frontages vs Street fronts in Bogota Figure 36. Architectural parameters.

Figure 37. ‘Los colores en el viento’. It was the project name chosen by community.

Figure 38. Image of residential buildings of gated communities in Bogota.

List of Tables Table 1. Comparison between regulation plan of FBCs with Gated’s communities’ regulations.

Table 2. Parks classification.

Table 3. Vegetation ratio.

Table 4. Comparison between civic spaces standards of FBCs with local regulations for public spaces.

Table 5. Degree of similarity of building form standards of FBCs with local regulations for building form.

Table 6. Some Building types in Bogota.

Table 7. Degree of similarity of building form standards of FBCs with local regulations for building types .

Table 8. Degree of similarity of block standards with local regulations.

Table 9. Degree of similarity of Frontage type standards with local regulations.

Table 10. Degree of similarity of Architectural standards with local regulations.

Table 11. Form based Codes Process vs Partial Plan Formulation Table 12. FBC features vs Partial Plan requirements