SeaPowerandPiracy
1.England,Shakespeare’s“jewelsetinasilversea,”hadalwaysbeena maritimenationofsailors,fishermen,smugglers,andmenjustmessing aboutinboats.
2.ItwasthereforenaturalthattheEnglish,backedbyarapidlyexpanding overseastradeandanambitiousmonarchy,shouldsoonbecomethe greatestseapowerintheworld.
3.ExplorerslikeSirWalterRaleighsoonbecamethesuperstarsoftheirday andfavouritesatcourt,regalingtheirlistenerswithstrangetravellers’tales andholdingoutthelureofdiscoveringsomefabulouslywealthy“el Dorado”infardistantplaces.
4.ElizabethIusedherfamous“seadogs,”fast-sailing,daring,andruthless sailorslikeDrakeandHawkins,toharrySpanish,Portuguese,andFrench shipping;toraidtheSpanishcoast;andtoplundertheCaribbeanand LatinAmerica.
5.Thedividinglinebetweenpiracyandpatrioticendeavourwasoftenvery hardtosee,butElizabethusedhershipsinthecomplexstrugglebetween ProtestantEngland,backingtheProtestantNetherlands,andthegreat CatholicpowersofEurope.
6.Inthisway,theplantingofEnglishcoloniesintheNewWorldwaspartof thebuildingofananti-Spanish,anti-CatholicempireintheWest.
7.Thisclimaxedin1588whenPhilipIIofSpainsenttheSpanishPortugueseArmadatoinvadeandconquerEngland.
8.ThestunningandcomprehensivevictoryoftheEnglishfleetin1588over thearmadaconfirmednotonlyElizabeth’sthronebutalsothearrivalof Englandasamajormaritimepower.
9.BythetimeoftheQueen’sdeath,therefore,Englandwasfirmlysetonthe paththatwastoleadtowardherglobalimperial,colonial,andcommercial greatness—thoughthereweretobemanydisappointmentsandfailures ontheway,andaseriesofferociouswarstobefoughtovertradeand coloniesagainsttheCatholicseapowersofSpain,Portugal,andFrance.
1.HowdidEngland’ssearchfornorthwestandnortheastpassagestoIndia contributetothegrowingEmpire?
2.HowdidtheEnglishnavyplayanimportantroleinthestrugglebetween EnglandandtheCatholicpowersofEurope?
Judd,Denis. Empire:TheBritishImperialExperience,from1765tothe Present.Reprintedition.NewYork:BasicBooks,1998.
Canny,Nicholas,ed. TheOxfordHistoryoftheBritishEmpire:TheOriginsof Empire.Oxford&NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1998. James,Lawrence. TheRiseandFalloftheBritishEmpire.London:Little, Brown,1994.
1.www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page46.asp-Officialgovernmentsiteonthe Britishmonarchy:thispageisanoverviewofthelifeandreignofQueen ElizabethI.ThesitecontainslinkstoothersitesoftheTudorMonarchsand otherdynastiesoftheBritishrealm.
2.www.elizabethi.org/-Excellentsitebyapostgraduatestudentofthe ElizabethaneracontainingdetailedinformationabouttheQueenandthe timesinwhichshelivedandruled.Thissitealsocontainslinkstoothersites relevanttothetopic.
Erickson,Carolly. TheFirstElizabeth.NarratedbyNelsonRunger. UNABRIDGED.RecordedBooks,2000.12cassettes/18.5hours.
Sugden,John. SirFrancisDrake.NarratedbyIanStuart.UNABRIDGED. RecordedBooks,2003.14cassettes/19.5hours.
ToorderRecordedBooks,call1-800-636-3399orgoto www.modernscholar.com.Alsoavailableforrental.
Lecture2: ColoniesintheNewWorld
Beforebeginningthislectureyoumaywantto...
ReadNicholasCanny’s(ed.) TheOxfordHistoryoftheBritishEmpire:The OriginsofEmpire, pp.53-97.
Introduction:
ColoniesintheNewWorldbecameahavenforreligiousdissentersanda profitablesourceoftrade.Beforeassertingdominanceintheregion,however,BritainwouldhavetoconfrontanumberofEuropeanrivals.
Issues...
1.WhydidsomanyEnglish,thenBritish,peopleandtradingorganisations makefortheNewWorldintheAmericas?
2.Howimportantwastheutopianideal,oratleastthehopeofstartinganew andbetterlife?
3.HowdideconomicandpoliticalconditionsinBritaindrivetheexpansion intotheAmericas?
4.HowdidBritaindealwithitsEuropeanrivalsintheWesternHemisphere?
5.Whywasthesugartradesoimportant?
6.WhatpoliticalandcommercialsystemhadbeendevelopedinNorth AmericaandtheCaribbeanbythemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury?
7.HowvaluablewasthiswesternempiretoBritain?
ElizabethanInitiatives
1.Aswehaveseenalready,ElizabethI’sdesiretoconfrontSpaininboth theoldworldandthenewledtothefoundingofVirginiaandtheencouragementofthepiraticalandexploringactivitiesofmenlikeFrancisDrake andWalterRaleigh.
2.TherewasalsothegrowingattractionoftheWestIndiesasplacesofsettlementandasourceofprofitableexportslikesugar—itisimportantto realisehowexcitingexotic,“quickfix”luxuryfoodslikesugarandchocolateweretoEuropeantastebuds.
3.Therewasalwaysthelureofpreciousmetalsandthechanceofcapturing Spanishtreasureshipsplyingthetrans-atlanticrouteonthelongandhazardoussearoutefromthesilverminesofSouthAmericatoSpain.This,in itself,goesalongwaytoexplainingthegrowthofpiracyintheregion— especiallytheCaribbean.
AGodlyCommonwealth?
1.Thedesireforreligioustoleration,andtoescapefromgovernmentrepres-
sionfornonconformitytotheChurchofEngland,wasanimportantpartof BritishimmigrationtotheNewWorld.
2.InNewEngland,PuritandissenterssettledcolonieslikeMassachusetts Bayinordertoescapefromfinesandpunishmentsforrepeatedfailureto conformtothestatechurch,theChurchofEngland,athome.
3.ButthePuritansalsosplitintodifferentsects,andhencetendedtosplit offfromeachother,formingnewcolonialsettlementslikeConnecticutand RhodeIsland.
4.InMaryland(Catholic)andinPennsylvania(Quaker)dissentersfound newlivesandrelativelysafehavens.
5.Itisimportanttorealisewhatsavagepunishmentsdissenterscouldface inEngland.Between1647and1661,forexample,6,000Quakerswere imprisonedandover500diedastheresultofviolentstate-enforcedpunishments,whichincludedpublicfloggings,branding,andtonguepiercing withred-hotirons.
TheSugarIslands
1.Increasingly,thenewsugarplantationsoftheCaribbeanbroughthuge profitstoEnglishcommerce—especiallyaftertheintroductionofAfrican slaverytotheNewWorld.
2.EnglishsettlersalsowentinquitelargenumberstoislandslikeBarbados andSt.Kitts,oftenworkingasindenturedlabourersforrichlandowners andplanters.Infact,thereisstillasmallwhitepopulationinBarbados thatspeaksaseventeenth-centurydialectofEnglish.
3.WhenCromwell’smid-seventeenth-centurygovernmentlaunchedits WesternDesigncampaigntoextendBritishholdings,Jamaicawastaken fromtheSpanish.
4.InsubsequentwarsagainstSpain,France,andtheNetherlands,Britain acquiredalargeCaribbeanempirethatstretchedfromtheBahamas toTrinidad.
SlaveryandtheSlaveTrade
1.TheurgentneedtodevelopthesugarindustryandthegrowthofplantationcropsinthesouthernAmericancoloniescreatedtheslavetrade.
2.Initially,oneofthemainproblemswasthattheindigenousNative Americanscouldnotbetamedandorganisedasaplantation economydemanded.
3.Britainwasoneoftheforemostslave-tradenations,andthedevelopment ofcitieslikeBristolandLiverpoolwaslargelybaseduponthiscommerce.
4.ThedemographyoftheNewWorldwasthuspermanentlyaffected.
5.Theslavetrade,markedbythehorrorsofthetransatlanticMiddle PassagetotheNewWorld,soonbecameabywordforcruelty andinhumanity.
Opposites:SirJohnHawkins(1532-1595)wasoneofthefirstBritishmarinerstotradeinslaves fromAfricatotheWestIndies.WilliamWilberforce(1759-1833),amemberofParliamentand abolitionist,waslargelyresponsibleforendingtheslavetradein1807afteraneighteen-year-long effortintheHouseofCommons.
6.Slavepopulationswerekepttightlycontrolled,andanysignofrebellion wasferociouslycrushed.
7.Theanti-slave-trademovementalsodeveloped,precipitatingafierce debatethatwasfinallyresolvedbytheBritishabolitionofthetradein1807.
TheLaterColonies
1.UnderthelaterStuarts(CharlesII,JamesII,WilliamandMary,and QueenAnne)andtheHanoverians(fromGeorgeIonwards),moremainlandcolonieswerefoundedoracquired(e.g.,NewYork,NorthandSouth Carolina,Georgia).
2.Tradewasalmostalwaystheprimemotive,thoughtheopportunitiesfor immigrantswerealsocentral.
3.Inpractice,localoligarchiesandcharteredcompaniesruledthecolonial settlements,operatingthroughthecolonialassemblies,andtherewasa giveandtakeofrelationswithRoyalofficials.
4.Inallthecolonies,settlersclungwithfiercedeterminationtothenewly acceptedrightsandfreedomsof“free-bornEnglishmen”—freedomspartly wonastheresultofParliament’svictoryinthecivilwarsofthemid-seventeenthcentury.
BeatingOfftheRivals
1.Britain’spresenceintheNewWorldledtoaseriesofcomplexandsignificantconfrontationswithothermajorEuropeancolonialpowers.
2.Britaintriumphedfortwofundamentalreasons.Onewasthestrengthof theRoyalNavy(officerslikeNelsonmadetheirreputationsinCaribbeanbasedbattles).
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Gen.JamesWolfe Gen .JamesWolfe (172 7-1759) (172 7-1759)
InSeptember,1759,BritishGeneralJamesWolfesecreted4,000troopsupasteeppathtothe PlainsofAbraham,trappingtheFrenchMarquisdeMontcalmandhis14,000defendersbehind theQuebecCitywalls.Bothleaderswerewoundedinthebattle.Wolfelivedjustlongenoughto learnofhisvictory,whiletheMarquisdiedthenextday.ThebattleessentiallyendedtheexistenceofNewFrance.
Mar MarqquisdeMontcalm uisdeMontcalm (171 (17122-1759) -1759)
3.TheotherwasthestrongsupportgivenbytheoverwhelminglyProtestant English-speakingsettlersoftheNewWorldtothemothercountry,especiallyinconflictwiththewidelyhatedCatholicpowersofSpainandFrance.
4.BytheendoftheSevenYears’Warin1763,Britainwasthegreatest powerintheregion.
5.By1763,Britainhadwon,withstaunchcolonialhelp,aseriesofwhat wereineffectthefirsttrueworldwars.
TheOldColonialSystem
1.TherelationshipbetweenBritainandherNewWorldcolonieswasbased uponmutualneedandconsiderabletolerance.Howcouldthathavebeen otherwise,withcoloniesandmothercountryseparatedby3,000milesof oceanandcommunicationthereforesopainfullyslow?
2.Britainasserteditsroleasprotectorandultimateauthority.
3.Inpractice,agooddealoflocalcolonialgovernmentwaslefttothe colonistsoperatingthroughtheircolonialassemblies.
4.WhenconflictarosebetweentheCrownandlocalinterests,thecolonial power-brokersgenerallysorteditoutwithroyalofficials.
5.Thecommerciallifeofthesystemwasprofitableandsteadilyexpanding, withrawmaterialsandfoodsbeingexportedtoBritainandmanufactured goodsandslavesbeingshippedtotheAmericas.
6.OnlywhentheBritishgovernmentseemedtodisrupttheoldpatternof giveandtakein1765withtheapparentlypunitiveStampActdidthe descenttowardrevolutionandpoliticalseparationbegin.
BritishmerchantsshippedoutAmerican-growntobaccotoEnglandandreturned withfinishedgoodssuchasclothing,farmimplements,andmuskets.
1.Whatwasthemainlure,particularlyforEnglishsettlers,oftheNewWorld?
2.Whatwerethemajorfactorscontributingtothegrowthoftheslavetrade?
Canny,Nicholas,ed. TheOxfordHistoryoftheBritishEmpire:TheOriginsof Empire.Oxford&NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1998.
Koehn,NancyF. ThePowersofCommerce:EconomyandGovernanceinthe FirstBritishEmpire.Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress,1995.
Marshall,P.J.,ed. TheCambridgeIllustratedHistoryoftheBritishEmpire Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1996.
1.www.earlyamerica.com/review/spring97/newspapers.html-Well-researched sitebyDavidA.CopelandcoveringthehistoryoftheFrenchandIndian Warsasreportedinnewspapersoftheera.Includesabibliography.
2.www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part1/narrative.htmll-WGBH/PBSsiteforthe “AfricansinAmerica”series(siteisorganizedinsectionsbyyearscovered).
3.www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/pirates/-Channel4 International(UK)websitewithcontenton“Elizabeth’sPirates.”
4.www.sunysb.edu/libmap/nypath2.htm-StateUniversityofNewYorkatStony Brooksite.Formaplovers,thissitecontainsanextensivelibraryofmaps createdpriorto1800,primarilyoftheNorthAmericanBritishColonies.
Schama,Simon. AHistoryofBritain:TheWarsoftheBritish,1603-1776. NarratedbyTimothyWest.ABRIDGED.RecordedBooks,2003. 7cassettes/11hours.
ToorderRecordedBooks,call1-800-636-3399orgoto www.modernscholar.com.Alsoavailableforrental.
Lecture3: TheBritishinIndia,c.1600–1815
Beforebeginningthislectureyoumaywantto...
ReadDenisJudd’s TheLionandtheTiger:TheRiseandFalloftheBritish Raj, pp.1-45.
Introduction:
ThislectureexplainshowfirsttheEnglish,andthentheBritish,began fromtheirfirstcontactswiththeIndiansubcontinent,andfromtheirhumble tradingbeginnings,todominatethewholesubcontinentbytheearlynineteenthcentury.
Issues...
1.HowwellestablishedweretheEnglishbythetimeofthedeathof ElizabethI?
2.WhatwasthepotentialcommercialvalueofIndiatotheBritish?
3.HowdidtheEastIndiaCompanygainitsfirstmajorterritorialfootholds?
4.WhattroublesdidtheBritishhavewiththeMughalEmpireandlocal Indianrulers?
5.HowdidBritainmanagetotriumphoveritsFrench,Portuguese,and DutchrivalsinIndia?
6.HowcorruptandauthoritarianwasBritishruleinIndia?
LayingFoundations,1600-1709
1.TheBritishsetupfactoriesandtradingstationsatSurat,Madras, Bombay,andCalcutta,aslowbusinessofnegotiationandtreaty.
2.TheyformedacomplexnetworkofrelationswiththeMughals,theMuslim emperorsofIndia,andlocalprinces.
3.Thebalanceoftradewasatfirstdifficult,withIndianexportstoEngland havingtobepaidinsilverbullionbecausetheIndianeconomydidnotat firstneedEnglishmanufacturesandcommodities.
4.TheamalgamationofthetwoEastIndiaCompaniesin1709unifiedBritish tradingactivities.
5.TherewereearlydifficultiesoffacingotherEuropeanrivalsinIndia,especiallythePortugueseandtheFrench.
WagingWar,andWinning
1.ThewarsagainsttheFrenchwerepartofthegreateighteenth-century globalstrugglebetweenthetwoleadingEuropeanpowers.
2.Theemergenceofasoldierofgenius,RobertClive,andthecrushing
BritishvictoryovertheFrench andtheirIndianalliesatPlassey in1757provedaturningpoint.
3.Takingon,andgettingthebest of,theMughalsandotherIndian rulersrequiredacombinationof forceanddiplomacy.
4.WhydidtheBritishbecomethe subcontinentalparamountpower by1815?Largelythroughthe exerciseofseapowerandwellorganisedEastIndiaCompany armies,andthroughtheBritish capacityshrewdlytoexploitthe manydifferencesinIndia,differencesofreligion,language, region,andidentity.
CorruptionorHigh-MindedRule?
1.ThetemptationstolineBritishpockets;thewaythetemptationsofcorruptionworked.Increasingly,theBritishactedastaxcollectors.
2.Moreandmore,ParliamentinterferedintheprocessofCompanyruleas theeighteenthcenturyunfolded.
3.Lateeighteenth-centuryshowdown:theFoxandPittIndiaBillsandthe impeachmentofWarrenHastings.
4.Pitt’sIndiaActof1784establishedparliamentarycontrolovertheEast IndiaCompanyandassertedtheresponsibilityoftheCrownforthegood governmentofIndiansubjects.
5.Theassertionofproperparliamentarycontrolwaspartlyaboutagrowing senseofpublicmoralityinBritishpoliticsandpartlyabouttherealisation thatincorruptrulewouldwintheCompanymoresupportfromtheruled.
BritishLifeinIndia
1.Therewasaneedtoadjustlifestylesinrelationtotheclimate,food,alcohol,clothes,theneedforthecoolhillstations,etc.TheBritishtooksome timetoadapt.
2.Sexualrelations:thefreeandeasyearlydaysofmarryingIndian womenandthetakingoflocalmistresseswereofficiallydiscouragedby theendoftheeighteenthcentury.Thereweresomecelebratedscandals.ButtheBritishimpactalsoproducedafairlylargepopulationof mixedethnicity—theAnglo-Indians.
3.Thearrivalofthememsahibs:asmoreandmoreBritishwomenarrivedin India,oftentoliveandbearchildren,Britishmenwerefarlessableto“go native”andtakeIndianmistresses—thoughprostitutionflourishedtoservicetheBritisharmiesbasedinIndia.
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LordRobertClive,BaronofPlassey (1725-1774)
4.Amongthememsahibs,therewasoftenahighlychargedatmosphereof unkindgossip,rivalry,and,aboveall,apervasivefearofthedark,Indian “other.”
5.Partlyasaresult,socialrelationsbetweenBritishandIndiansbecame morestrainedandseparate.
6.Twosystemsoflivingemerged:BritishandIndian.Naturally,imperialcontrolfundamentallyrestedontheproclaimed“superiority”oftherulersover theruled.
7.TherewasalsoaprofoundimpactofthingsIndianonBritishlifestyles:the enjoymentofcurry,pyjamas,bungalows,thePrinceRegent’sexotic Mughal-stylepavilionatBrighton,andsoon.
8.AsBritishpowergrew,officialpompandceremony(someofit,likethe coronationceremonyoftheDurbar,learntfromtheMughalemperors) becameapartoftheRajandwasevenexportedtoBritainitself.
ACivilizingMission?
1.Asthefighttocontrolcorruptionwaswon,theBritishadvancedvarious justificationsfortheirrule,apartfromthecommercial—notablygoodgovernmentandeconomicdevelopment.
2.TherewasaconsiderableimpactofevangelicalChristianmissionaries uponIndia,resultinginasmallIndianChristiancommunity.ThemissionariesalsomadesomeHindusandMuslimsanxiouslesttheBritishmeant toconvertthemall.
3.Theapproachtoeducation:Macaulay’swesternisingeducationpolicyof theearlynineteenthcenturyaimedatproducingasubclassofbrown Britishindigenouspeople.
4.AstheRajgrewstronger,andIndiamorevaluabletoBritain,therewas theinevitablegrowthofracistBritishperceptionsandattitudes.
TheBalanceSheetby1815
1.IndiahadconsiderablevaluetotheBritishintermsoftrade;by1900,20 percentofBritishtradewaswithIndiaandasimilaramountofoverseas investmentwasinthesubcontinent.
2.TherewasenormousvalueforacontinualfreesupplyofIndiantroopsfor Britishpolicy,paidforbyIndiantaxpayersandallowingBritishgovernmentstoavoidconscriptionathome.
3.TherewasthevaluesimplyoftheprestigeofrulingmostofIndia—astaggeringsymbolofBritishworldpower.
4.ButwasBritishrulesimplybasedupon“divideandrule”?Conflictorcollaboration?DidthissetIndiansagainsteachother?
5.What,intheend,didmostIndiansgetoutoftheRaj?
1.HowdidEnglandovercomeitsEuropeanrivalsinIndia?
2.WhatculturalconflictsarosebetweentheBritishandIndians?
Judd,Denis. TheLionandtheTiger:TheRiseandFalloftheBritishRaj, 1600-1947.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2004.
Keay,John. India:AHistory.London:HarperCollins,2000.
1.www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/British/BrIndia.html-UCLAsitewith agoodoverviewoftheearlyBritishpresenceinIndia,includingpageson theEastIndiaCompany,RobertClive,andtheBattleofPlassey.
2.www.members.tripod.com/~INDIA_RESOURCE/-India-ResourceisaWeb resourceforIndia-relatednonprofitornoncommercialsitesfeaturingIndian history,itsculturallegacy,newsandanalysis,andprogressiveactivism.It featuresessaysonthehistoryofIndia,includingbibliographiesandlinksto othersites.
Lecture4: TheAmericanRevolutionandtheRestructuredEmpire
Beforebeginningthislectureyoumaywantto...
ReadDenisJudd’s Empire:TheBritishImperialExperience,from1765to thePresent, pp.18-28.
Introduction:
ThislecturelooksathowtheBritishEmpireseemedtohavebeenvirtually destroyedbythesuccessfulrevoltoftheAmericancolonies,buthow,infact, therewasstillaverysignificantempireleft,andonewhichwastobegovernedmorepragmaticallythanbefore.
Issues...
1.WhatwasvalueoftheAmericancoloniestoBritain?
2.Howdidthepre-1765relationshipbetweenmothercountryand colonieswork?
3.WhydidtheAmericancolonieseventuallyrebel?
4.WhydidtheBritishlosetheRevolutionaryWar?
5.Whatimpactdid theseevents haveuponthe developmentof theEmpire?
TradingPartners andBritish Subjects
1.Thecommercial connections acrossthe Atlanticwere bothprofitable andgrowing.
2.Thecultural, legal,andpoliticallinks,froma commonlanguageandliteraturetoacommonlawand similarpolitical practices,were significant.
3.Thelocalcolonialassemblies,workingwithlocaloligarchiesandtheroyal authorities,heldandmaintainedthelocalbalanceofpower.
4.TherewasgenerallyagoodlevelofunderstandingbetweenBritainand thecolonies.
5.WellbeforetheRevolution,colonialleadersandtheBritishauthoritiesdiscussedtheAlbanyplanandaprotocommonwealth.
TheCatalystofWar
1.Britain’svictoryintheSevenYears’WarapparentlydestroyedFrench powerforeverinNorthAmerica,butalso liberatedthecolonistsfromtheirneed forBritishprotection.
2.Thecolonialcontributiontovictory wassubstantial.
3.TheannexationofQuebecin1763,with itsFrench-Catholicpopulation,stirred upthedeep-seateddislikeofpapists feltinmanyAmericancolonies,especiallyinNewEngland,andseemed tochangethebalancewithinBritish NorthAmerica.
4.Britishpolicyshiftedafter1765toa moreassertiveandfiscally demandingone.
GrowingCrisis
1.Britishdemandsforextrataxestopay forAmerica’sdefencewereincreasingly resentedandresisted.
2.Thefuroroverthe1765StampActand othermeasuressurprisedbothsides.
3.TheinputofKingGeorgeIIIwasrigid, authoritarian,and eventuallycounterproductive.
4.TheBostonTea Partyandthe Battleof Lexingtonindicatedhow strongsome colonialresentmentswere.
Bostoniansreactedangrily(some violently)whenprintednoticesofthe StampActweremadepublicin1765.
5.Bothsidesfitfullystruggledtofindacompromise.
6.Thedescenttoall-outwarpartlyresultedfromthegrowthofAmerican radicalism.
TheWarofIndependence
1.Eachsidehaditsstrengthsandweaknesses.
2.TherewereseriousdivisionsintheAmericancamp:loyalistsversusrebels.
3.Thecampaignsdemonstratedthedifficultyofcrushingtherebels.
4.ThecrucialinterventionoftheFrenchandtheSpanishinthefighting swungthebalanceofthewartowardtherebels.
5.Washington,ValleyForge,andthefinaltriumph.
6.The1783PeaceandtheDeclarationofIndependence:Thesovereign UnitedStatesofAmericacameintobeing.
IsThisLosstheEndoftheFirstBritishEmpire?
1.BritishandforeignreactionstothedefeatalmostallwroteoffBritain’s imperialfuture.
2.BritishgovernmentsrestructuredtheirimperialrelationswithCanada, Ireland,India,andotherpossessions,hopingtoavoidanotherAmericanstylerebellionandloss.
3.TheBritishnowrecognisedtheneedtobesensitivetothedemandsof otherwhitecolonistsforsufficientlocalindependenceandfreedom.
4.ThemigrationofEmpireloyaliststoCanadabroughtanimportantnew andpoliticallyawaregroupofEnglish-speakingsettlersintoloyalcolonies likeNewBrunswick.
TheBattleofLexington,1775
WasThereStilla SpecialRelationship?
1.Despitethedamage donebythewar, thenewUnited StatesandBritain continuedtobe closelylinkedin waysother thanpolitical.
2.Tradeboomedas neverbeforeafter therebellion.
3.Culturallinks remainedstrong.
4.TheUnitedStates remainedamagnet forBritishimmigrants,especially duringthenineteenthcentury.
WashingtonandLafayetteatValleyForge
BritishReactions
1.TheBritishweredeterminedtoavoidsuchacolonialruptureeverhappeningagain.
2.Britaindecidedtoturnmuchofherrapidlydevelopingcommercialand tradingenergiesawayfromtheNorthAtlanticandtheCaribbeanand towardIndiaandtheFarEast.
3.Renewedinterestin terraaustralis ledtotheannexationofAustraliaand laterNewZealand.
4.Britainmostlybehavedasamorepragmaticandliberalimperialpower.
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1.WhatledtorevoltintheAmericancolonies?
2.HowdidBritainandAmericamaintaina“specialrelationship”evenafter thewar?
Judd,Denis. Empire:TheBritishImperialExperience,from1765tothe Present.Reprintedition.NewYork:BasicBooks,1998.
Anderson,Fred. CrucibleofWar:TheSevenYears’WarandtheFateof EmpireinBritishNorthAmerica,1754-1766.NewYork:VintageBooks USA,2001.
Bayly,Christopher. ImperialMeridian:TheBritishEmpireandtheWorld,17801830.London:PearsonEducationUK,1989.
Draper,Theodore. AStruggleforPower:TheAmericanRevolution.NewYork: VintageBooksUSA,1997.
1.www.loc.gov/exhibits/british/brit-2.html-LibraryofCongresswebsite“John Bull&UncleSam:FourCenturiesofBritish-AmericanRelations.”ShortsynopsisofthecausesoftheAmericanRevolution,battles,andothershort vignettesoftheperiod.
2.www.nv.cc.va.us/home/nvsageh/Hist121/Part1/BritishEmpire.htmlNorthernVirginiaCommunityCollegewebsite:“History121,”coveringthe relationshipoftheAmericancolonistswithBritainandtheunderlyingcausesoftheRevolution. Lancaster,Bruce. TheAmericanRevolution.NarratedbyAlanBergreen. UNABRIDGED.RecordedBooks,2001.8cassettes/11hours.
ToorderRecordedBooks,call1-800-636-3399orgoto www.modernscholar.com.Alsoavailableforrental.
Lecture5: AustraliaandNewZealand:Convicts, Settlers,andSelf-Government
Beforebeginningthislectureyoumaywantto...
ReadDenisJudd’s Empire:TheBritishImperialExperience,from1765to thePresent, pp.29-39.
Introduction:
ThislecturelooksatthewayinwhichAustraliawasopenedupanddevelopedintheaftermathoftheAmericanRevolution.Thetensionbetweenthe convicttransportationsystemandthearrivaloffreesettlersisexamined,as wellasthegrowthofanindependent,bloody-mindedAustralianpersonality. NewZealandwascolonisedsometimeafterAustralia,butheretoothere wereviolentconfrontationsbetweenindigenouspeopleandwhitesettlers.
Issues...
1.WhydidBritainopenupastrangecontinent6,000milesfromhome?
2.Whywasconvicttransportationsocentraltotheexperience,andwhywas itsocontroversial?
3.DidtheBritishcarryoutethniccleansinginrelationtotheAboriginalpeople?
4.WhatwasthevalueofAustraliatoBritain?
5.WhydidsomanyAustraliancoloniesbecomeself-governingby the1870s?
6.WhywasNewZealandcolonised?
7.WasittruethatrelationswiththeMaoripeopleweremuchbetterthan withtheAborigines?
TheFirstFleetof1788
1.Theconvictsystem;whoweretheconvictsandwhyweretheysent?
2.Abusesaboundedintheconvictsystem,rangingfromhardlabourto homosexualactivity.
3.PoliticalprisonersrangedfromChartistsandtradeunioniststo Irishrebels.
4.Agrowingcampaignwasseenagainstthetransportationofconvicted felons.
5.Whywasthetransportationsystemfinallyendedandwhatwasitsimpact uponAustralia?
FreeSettlers
1.Immigrationwasatfirstslowinthefaceoftheconvictsystem.
2.Therewereanumberofsocialengineeringandexperimentalsettle-
ments—oftenattemptstoestablishfairerandmorebalancedsocieties.
3.Therewasunrelentingstruggleagainstatopsy-turvyenvironmentanda harsh,hotclimate.
4.Whyweremostsettlementscoastalandnotfartherinland?
EthnicCleansing?
1.OneofthegreatestblotsonBritain’simperialrecordoccurredinAustralia.
2.Black,“aboriginal”peoplewerefromtheoutsetpersecutedanddespised.
3.Blackwomenwereusedasuniversallyavailablesexualobjects;black menwereputtoworkorsimplybootedaside.
4.Whitesettlershuntedaboriginalslikegame,poisonedtheirfood,and sometimestorturedthemtodeath.
5.InTasmania,soseverewasthepersecutionthatblackwomenbecame infertileandthelocalblacksdiedout.
6.NotuntilthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcenturywereaboriginalsrecognisedasAustraliancitizens.
EconomicBreakthrough
1.Sheepfarmingbecamethefirstgreatstapleindustry—supplyingthevoraciousandrapidlyexpandingwoolmillsoftownslikeBradford,Halifax,and HuddersfieldinWestYorkshire.
2.Aseriesofgoldstrikesinthe1850stransformedtheeconomyand encouragedmassfreemigrationforthefirsttime.
3.Australiasawtheriseofthe“Squatters”—richsheepfarmers,landowners,andemployers.
4.Conflictaroseovergovernment-issuedgoldlicencesandtherewasthe symbolic1854“BattleoftheEurekaStockade”betweenminersand troops.
5.Therewasgrowingdemandforself-government.
AweddingcelebrationofanAustralianaboriginaltribe.Suchscenes becamerareaswhitesettlersmoveddeeperintoaboriginalareas.
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NewZealand
1.ThiscolonywasopenedupinthewakeofthecolonisationofAustralia.
2.The1840WaitangiTreatywiththeMaorissecuredthelandbutresultedin bitterandchronicconflict.
3.ThereweretwoferociouslyfoughtMaoriWars;finally,regularBritish troopswereneededtocrushMaoriresistance.
4.Apastoraleconomywasdeveloped:sheepanddairyfarming.
5.Couldanaccordbefoundbetweenthetwoethnicgroups?Despitegainingalimitedfranchise,theMaorisneverthelessremainedpoorerandgenerallysociallyinferiortowhiteNewZealanders.
Self-governmentandDependency
1.CarefultoavoidanotherAmericanRevolution,theBritishgovernment madeearlyconcessionsinbothcountriesoversettlerdemandsforself-rule.
2.DevolutionwasmadeeasierbytheoverwhelminglyBritishmakeupofthe whitepopulations.
3.Localself-governmentwasachievedinmostoftheAustraliancolonies andNewZealandbytheearly1870s,but,unliketheUnitedStates,they remainedwithintheEmpire.
4.AustraliaandNewZealandwerefiercelyloyalmembersoftheEmpire, supportingBritaininvariouswars.
5.ButtheywerealsoheavilydependentuponBritishprotection—mainly navalprotection.
6.ThevastbulkofasteadilygrowingtradeflowedtoandfromBritain.
1.HowdidtheconvictsystemaffectearlyimmigrationtoAustralia?
2.Despiteachievingself-government,whydidAustraliaandNewZealand remainloyalmembersoftheEmpire?
Judd,Denis. Empire:TheBritishImperialExperience,from1765tothe Present.Reprintedition.NewYork:BasicBooks,1998.
Belich,James. MakingPeoples:AHistoryoftheNewZealandersfrom PolynesianSettlementtotheEndoftheNineteenthCentury.Honolulu,HI: UniversityofHawaiiPress,1996.
Hughes,Robert. TheFatalShore:TheEpicofAustralia’sFounding.NewYork: VintageBooksUSA,1988.
1.www.jcu.edu.au/aff/history/about/about.htm-TheElectronicJournalof AustralianandNewZealandHistory.TheJournalissupportedbythe SchoolofHumanities,JamesCookUniversity,andcontainsarticles, essays,andreviewsbyscholarsspecializinginthehistoryofAustraliaand NewZealand.Contentcoversearlyexplorationthroughcurrentissues.
2.www.thecore.nus.edu/landow/post/australia/colonialov.html-National UniversityofSingaporesitewithlinkstoliterature,essays,andotherwriting onthehistoryofthesettlementofAustraliaandNewZealand.
Moorehead,Alan. Cooper’sCreek,TheOpeningofAustralia.Narratedby NelsonRunger.UNABRIDGED.RecordedBooks,2002. 6cassettes/8.5hours.
ToorderRecordedBooks,call1-800-636-3399orgoto www.modernscholar.com.Alsoavailableforrental.
Another random document with no related content on Scribd:
vulgar of every rank,” remarks Gibbon, “it was asserted and believed that an equestrian statue in the square of Taurus was secretly inscribed with a prophecy, how the Russians, in the last days, should become masters of Constantinople,”[357]—a belief which, as we know, was still largely shared in, even so recently as the Crimean war of 1854-6.
Towards the decline of the Saracen empires, the Greeks had to contend with the Normans or Northmen, a race as daring and adventurous as the Russians, and much more skilled in sea-faring pursuits. This remarkable people had recently left their frozen homes in Norway and adventured upon unknown and distant oceans, penetrating as far as the Mediterranean with numerous fleets, and rendering themselves more dreaded by their maritime genius than the Russians or Saracens had ever been. Ravaging Flanders, France, Spain, and Italy, after an infinite series of piratical exploits, they compelled Charles the Simple to cede and assign to them the large territory now known as Normandy; and, following up this success by various adventures in the south of Europe, obtained for themselves a great name and influence. Thus the Norman kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, during the eleventh century, played an important part in the drama of the history of Italy and of the eastern empire.
The Normans and their expeditions.
A.D. 918.
Establish themselves in Italy, A.D. 1016.
It is not our intention in this work to follow the Normans in their conquests or defeats, except in so far as these bear on their maritime exploits, and on their connection, limited though this may be, with commerce. At first, a large number of them appear to have earned their daily subsistence by the sword, having constantly mixed themselves up in the domestic quarrels then incessantly raging between the rulers and people of the southern states of Italy; till at length, chiefly through the aid of the Duke of Naples, whose cause they had espoused, they secured their first settlement in Italy. Within eight miles of his residence, he built and fortified for their use
Amalfi. the town of Aversa, granting to them, also, a considerable tract of the fertile country in the vicinity, over which they were vested with complete control. Year by year numerous pilgrims from all parts of Europe, but especially from the north, found shelter under the independent standard of Aversa, and were quickly assimilated with the manners and language of the Gallic colony. But the Norman power soon extended far beyond the infant and limited colony of Aversa, and embraced the whole of the territory, which for centuries, and, indeed, until the last few years, was known as the kingdom of Naples. Within that territory, thirty miles from Naples, stood the commercially celebrated republic of Amalfi.
Although the port of Amalfi, from which the republic derived its name, is now an obscure place, no western harbour then contained a more enterprising maritime population. Its position, not unlike that of Tyre, afforded great facilities for carrying on an extensive sea-borne commerce. Hence it was that Amalfi, in its day, had a very extensive intercourse with all parts of the then known world, and was among the earliest of the Italian republics to hold in its hands the trade of the Mediterranean. Long before the Venetians and Genoese had become famous, this small but indefatigable republic assumed the office of supplying the western world with the manufactures and productions of the East, and that trade proved then, as has been the case in all ages, a source of immense profit. Though the city contained only fifty thousand inhabitants, its wealth was enormous, and its merchants, who had correspondence with all parts of the coasts of the Mediterranean, dealt largely in the commodities of both Arabia and India. Their settlements in Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria, acquired the privileges of independent colonies. No city or seaport of those days contained more mariners who excelled in the theory or practice of navigation and astronomy than Amalfi; indeed, it was long supposed, that to the skill of one of the seamen of this city, the world owed the discovery of the mariner’s compass.[358]
A.D. 1137.
But, after three hundred years of great prosperity, arising entirely from the energetic, and, at the same time, honest pursuit of commerce, Amalfi, oppressed by the arms of the Normans, was at last brought under their rule. Shorn of its independence, and depressed in spirit, the city was soon after attacked by the jealousy of Pisa, one of its commercial rivals; but the ruined palaces of its merchants, and the remains of an arsenal and cathedral, still attest its former splendour and importance.[359]
Not satisfied with the possessions they had already secured in Italy and with their conquest of Sicily, the Normans next resolved on the conquest of Constantinople itself.
Their first attempt was made from the port of Otranto, where, after a preparation of two years, they had collected a fleet of one hundred and fifty vessels, and thirty thousand men, including one thousand five hundred Norman knights. But this expedition proved a calamitous failure. The Normans were no longer the experienced or adventurous mariners, who had explored unknown oceans, from Greenland to Africa; hence, in a great storm they encountered at the mouth of the Adriatic, many of their ships were shattered, while others were dashed on shore and became hopeless wrecks. Besides, a new, and a naval, enemy had arisen in the Venetians, who, at the solicitations and promises of the Byzantine court, were ready enough to aid in the overthrow of the hated Normans, and, with a view of tempting commercial advantages for themselves, to assist in defending the capital of the East. And so it befell, that what the storm had spared of the Norman fleet, the Venetians and Greek fire destroyed; add to which, the Greek populations, sallying from their towns along the southern shores of Italy, carried slaughter and dismay to the tents of the chiefs of the Norman invaders. But three years afterwards, their indefatigable duke (Robert Guiscard) resumed the design of his eastern conquests; preferring,
Futile attempts of the Normans to take Constantinople, A.D. 1081-1084.
on this occasion, as the season was far advanced, the harbour of Brundusium to the open road of Otranto for the assembling of his fleet of one hundred and twenty vessels. However, in the interval Alexius, the emperor, had assiduously laboured to restore the naval forces of the empire, obtaining at the same time, at an exorbitant price, the aid from the republic of Venice of thirty-six transports, fourteen galleys, and nine galiots, or ships of unusual strength and magnitude. The goods and merchandise of the rivals of the Venetians at Amalfi were taxed to raise the required sum; and by granting special privileges, such as the licence or monopoly of trade in the port of Constantinople, with the gift of many shops and houses, Alexius propitiated the good will of the Venetian merchants. But this expedition was so far successful, that the Normans captured and destroyed many of the vessels of the combined fleets; it failed, however, to take Constantinople, against which the Normans relinquished any attempts worthy of notice after the death in the following year of their prince, Guiscard.
While the power and name of the Romans was passing away under the imbecile rule of the Greek emperors, and commerce and navigation shared in the general decay, a new maritime power, the State of Venice, destined to become the greatest of the Italian republics, was imperceptibly increasing in strength and renown. From the time when the inhabitants of that portion of Italy, now known as Venetian Lombardy, were driven by Alaric, the barbarian conqueror, to seek refuge in the small islands of the Adriatic, near the mouth of the Brenta, their progress had been one of almost uninterrupted prosperity. Devoting their attention exclusively to the pursuits of commerce, and avoiding, by every means in their power, interference with the affairs of their neighbours, the Venetians drew towards their infant colony all whose habits and tempers induced them to seek industrial pursuits. Among these, many families of Aquileia, Padua, and other towns, fleeing from the sword of the Huns and similar barbarous tribes, found a safe but obscure refuge. A modern writer[360] has eloquently
Rise of Venice.
A.D. 452.
described Venice as “immoveable on the bosom of the waters from which her palaces emerge, contemplating the tides of continental convulsions and invasions, the rise and fall of empires, and the change of dynasties;” and certainly no description could be more true of the splendour and position of Venice, and of the policy of its rulers, when at the height of its prosperity.
But many centuries elapsed from the time when the infant colony was planted, before “the water fowl, who had fixed their nests on the bosom of the waves,”[361] obtained a prominent and independent position as a great maritime nation. Although in the early career of the Venetians their independence was more especially due to their determination to attend to their own affairs, and not to trouble themselves with those of their neighbours, at a later period the western[362] and eastern empires, in turn, claimed authority over them, and thus they were invaded and at last conquered by Pepin, father of Charlemagne, though ultimately restored to the Greek empire in the tenth century. The Venetians therefore can hardly be considered as a really independent republic till they had acquired the maritime cities of Dalmatia and Istria, including the people of Ragusa, the posterity of the mariners who, in classical times, owned and manned the fast sailing Liburnians. The population of these coasts still retained the piratical habits of their ancestors; and having in some respects identical interests to defend, were not unwilling to place themselves under the strong government of the Venetians. From that period the Venetians carried on, for between four and five centuries, a most important commercial intercourse with other nations, and exercised, as a trading people, more influence than any other country had done before them. The long duration of this enterprising republic, with its maritime greatness and vast commerce, will, with the story of the sister republics of Genoa and Pisa, form a subject to which we shall frequently have occasion hereafter to refer. It is enough now to remark that these cities, all favourably situated for conducting an extensive maritime commerce, were among the first to revive the
The cause of its prosperity.
.D. 997.
genuine spirit of trade in the south of Europe after it had been almost annihilated by the repeated inundations of the barbarians.
The nomad Tatar, or so-called Scythian populations, have been already slightly noticed; the rapidity with which they spread their arms over Asia having been a matter of surprise to every historian who has written on the subject. About the time of Mahmud of Ghazna, after having overrun the West of India, an important section of them settled in great force in Asia Minor. Opposed to the Greeks and their religion, they became the most powerful enemies the eastern Roman empire had yet encountered; and their occupation of the Holy Land, with their conquest of Jerusalem, led to conflicts with the Greeks only less terrible than had been the earlier wars between the Saracens and the nations of the West. Their ignorance of navigation alone deferred for a time the fall of the eastern empire, though internally weak and decrepid, chiefly owing to the blow it received during the Crusades, and from which it had never recovered.[363] The first Crusade, made about twenty years after the conquest of Jerusalem, had for its object the recovery of the Holy City from the infidel. To replace the Cross in Palestine, where the Crescent had been impiously raised, was a duty the whole of Christendom considered itself bound to accomplish. But the Christians in their enthusiasm undertook a task as wild as it was disastrous, and one, too, so miserably planned, that three hundred thousand of the first Crusaders lost their lives, either by fatigue and hunger or by disease and the weapons of the Saracens, before they rescued a single city from their grasp.
Spread of the Scythians, Huns, or Turks, A.D. 997-1028. A.D. 1074-1084.
A.D. 1076-1096.
The Crusades, A.D. 1095-1099.
A.D. 1147.
Siege of Acre, A.D. 1189.
The second Crusade called into action the whole of the West, from Rome to Britain. At its head were displayed the banners of the dukes of Burgundy, Bavaria, and Aquitaine; and the kings of Poland and Bohemia obeyed the summons of the leader of
Armistice, A.D. 1192.
an army estimated at more than four hundred thousand men. But the numbers appear to have been still greater in the third Crusade, which was made both by sea and land, and included the siege of Acre, graphically described by Gibbon[364] in his “Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.” After the surrender of Acre, and the departure of Philip, Richard of England, whose name was long an object of terror among the Saracens, led the Crusaders to the recovery of the sea-coast; and the cities of Cæsarea and Jaffa, afterwards added to the fragments of the kingdom of Guy de Lusignan, fell into his hands, as Jerusalem would also have done, had he not been deceived by the envy or the treachery of his companions. But Plantagenet and Saládin became, in time, alike weary of a war so tedious and disastrous in its results, especially as both had suffered in health. An agreement between them was, after much delay, brought about, and was, naturally, disapproved by the zealots of both parties alike—the Roman pontiff and the Khalif of Baghdad. Its leading features were, that Jerusalem and the Holy Sepulchre should be open, without hindrance or tribute, to the pilgrimages of the Latin Christians; and that during three years and three months all hostilities should cease. In the following year Saládin died; and, immediately after the conclusion of the treaty, Richard returned to Europe “to seek a long captivity and a premature grave.”
But the spirit of religious warfare did not rest. Will it ever do so? A fourth Crusade soon followed. In this case, however, the Crusade was directed from Syria to Constantinople; and as there was an armistice between the Crescent and the Cross, the self-constituted avengers of the latter quarrelled among themselves—the restoration of the western empire by Charlemagne having created differences between the Greek and Latin Churches, which had in course of time become serious feuds, to be settled only by bloodshed. The aversion existing between the Greeks and Latins had been manifested in the three first expeditions. Though alike opposed to the creed of the
Fourth Crusade, A.D. 1202.
Muhammedans, the pride of the emperor of the East was wounded by the intrusion of foreign armies, who claimed the right of traversing his dominions, and of passing under the walls of the capital. He urged, not without reason, that his subjects were insulted and plundered by the rude strangers of the West; perhaps, too, he secretly envied the bold enterprises of the Franks.
While, however, the passage of vast armies in their pilgrimage to the Holy Land roused feelings of animosity between the two great sections of professing Christians, they very materially increased their commercial intercourse, and enlarged their knowledge without abating their religious prejudices. Constantinople proved, commercially, of great importance to the West, as the then chief entrepôt of exchange with the distant nations of the East, and as requiring for the wants of her own wealthy and luxurious people the productions of every climate. From her situation she invited the commerce of the world, and the art and labour of her numerous inhabitants, while it balanced the imports, afforded profitable employment to the number of foreign merchants resident at Constantinople, and to their ships in which her over-sea trade was chiefly conducted. After the decline of Amalfi, the Venetians, Pisans, and Genoese, had introduced their factories and settlements into the capital of the empire, had acquired possession of land and houses, and had greatly increased in numbers, intermingling by marriage, and in all the social relations of life, with the natives. Constantinople was therefore largely indebted for her prosperity and wealth to the foreign merchants resident in, or frequenting her port; and, hence when these demanded the right of worshipping in accordance with the Latin forms of Christianity, the emperor, who had tolerated a Muhammedan mosque,[365] was unable to refuse the demand of the Christians of the West.
The effect of the Crusades on the commerce of Constantinople, A.D. 1148.
and on its fall.
But his good intentions, and those of his successor, Alexius, were stopped by a popular tumult, which
ended in a terrible massacre of all the Latins whom the vengeance of a mob, headed and applauded by the Greek priesthood, could reach. Many, however, of the foreign merchants had escaped on the first alarm to their vessels, and in these they proceeded to the western ports to seek protection and redress for the wrongs inflicted upon themselves and their countrymen.
Joined in their appeal by the son[366] of the dethroned monarch, Alexius Angelus, who had escaped in the disguise of a common sailor on board an Italian vessel, their case was at once promised consideration, and was soon after brought under the notice of the leading pilgrims of the West, Baldwin, Count of Flanders, and the Marquis of Montferrat, then assembled at Venice, to negotiate with that republic for shipping to convey them on the Fourth Crusade.[367] For many centuries the inhabitants of Venice had been considered as a portion of the subjects of the Greek empire; but when their power and influence had greatly increased, notably by the acquisition of the cities on the coasts of Istria and Dalmatia, the extent of their maritime commerce entitled them to assume an independent position. “The sea was their patrimony;” and with the chief command of the western shores of the Mediterranean, the Venetian galleys had now secured the still more lucrative commerce of Greece and Egypt.
Power of Venice, A.D. 1202.
Nor were they simply traders: Venetian glass and silk manufactures had an early reputation; while their system of banking and of foreign exchange, which they worked on a much more extensive scale than any other nation, gave them a great commercial preponderance in the south of Europe. To assert these rights and to protect the freedom of their subjects, they are said to have been able to equip at very short notice one hundred galleys; but their usual policy was essentially that of merchants, and was almost wholly regulated by their trading interests. In their religious dogmas the Venetians avoided the schism of the Greeks without yielding a servile obedience to the Roman pontiff; while an unrestrained intercourse
with the Muhammedans, as well as with other nations, encouraged in her people a spirit of toleration unknown to the Crusaders.
Venice was, therefore, in no haste to launch into a holy war, and the appeal of the pilgrim ambassadors, “sent by the greatest and most powerful barons of France, to implore the aid of the masters of the sea for the deliverance of Jerusalem,” though ultimately successful, was granted only with reservation and mainly on selfish conditions. The Crusaders, after considering these (they had, indeed, little option), determined to assemble at Venice, so as to start on their expedition on the feast of St. John of the ensuing year; the Venetians, at the same time, engaging to provide flat-bottomed vessels enough for the conveyance of four thousand five hundred knights and twenty thousand foot, with the necessary provisions for nine months, together with a squadron of fifty galleys. The pilgrims, on the other hand, promised to pay the Venetians, before their departure, eighty-four thousand marks of silver; any conquests by sea and land to be equally divided between the confederates. These exorbitant demands were acceded to, the enthusiasm of the people enabling fifty-two thousand marks to be collected and paid within a short time.
Her ships join in the Crusade, which was afterwards altered from its original design.
But the expedition was diverted from its original design. Thirty-two thousand of the promised marks being still wanted to complete the stipulated sum, the Doge, Henry Dandolo, offered to waive this claim, provided the combined forces were first employed in the reduction of Zara, a strong city on the opposite shores of the Adriatic, which had recently thrown off its allegiance to Venice. After much discussion and many differences of opinion this proposal was accepted, and proved fully successful; but the sack of Zara scattered wide the seeds of discord and scandal; and many were shocked that the arms of professing Crusaders should have been first stained with the blood, not of the Infidel, but of the Christian.
