EXPLORING THE VITAL ROLE OF PLAYGROUNDS IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT

EXPLORING THE VITAL ROLE OF PLAYGROUNDS IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT: A comprehensive analysis of design, safety, and environmental factors impacting children's well-being UP2060519 Word count: 2699

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I just wanted to take a moment to express my gratitude towards some individuals who have been an incredible support throughout writing my dissertation. First and foremost, I am immensely grateful to my dissertation personal tutor, Ms Yana Nanovska, for her continuous guidance and inspiration. Secondly, I would like to thank my dad for always providing me with constructive feedback and encouraging me to produce my best work. A big shoutout to my amazing mom, boyfriend, and friends who have been my pillars of strength, listening ears, and unwavering supporters. Lastly, I also want to acknowledge that using Grammarly and ChatGPT as they have been a great source of motivation for me to improve my writing skills, especially given my dyslexia.

PREFACE In densely populated urban areas, playgrounds face imminent threats.

This essay explores the significance of playgrounds and examines the vital elements crucial for their preservation.

UNIVERSITYOF PORTSMOUTH

History and Theory: Dissertation BA (HONS) ARCHITECTURE

CONTENTS 1.

Introduction

1-2

2.

The importance of Play

3-6

3.

The history of Playgrounds

7-10

4.

Playgrounds today

11-16

5.

Threats on Playgrounds today

17-22

6.

Scandinavian-style forest schools and nurseries

23-30

7.

Conclusion

31-32

8.

Artifact

33-34

9.

Reference

35-38

10.

Figures

38-40

11.

Appendix

40-42

INTRODUCTION Growing up in a city where playgrounds

(1936). Upon delving into playground history,

seemed duplicated and always near disrepair, I

including Lady Marjory Allen's innovative take

wanted to understand why this was the case

on 'junk' playgrounds in the 1960s/70s, as well

and how we could provide better options for

as contemporary playgrounds and the threats

children to play.

they face, it is evident that the design of these spaces has not aged gracefully.

Ubiquitous in urban and suburban landscapes, playgrounds are essential spaces where

To address this issue, I considered the concept

children engage in activities revolving around

of Scandinavian schools and how their design

‘play’. The significance of these spaces for

principles could be applied to modern

fostering child development cannot be

playgrounds for improvement. This

overstated. I have considered why playgrounds

dissertation concludes with my artefact in

are important to children and through my

which I show how we can improve the designs

research on the importance of play, I’ve looked

of playgrounds and how these changes can

at theories by psychologists such as

benefit children's development and health.

Hirsh-Paseck & Golinkoff (2008), Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and Piaget 1

[This page is intentionally left blank]

2

[This page is intentionally left blank]

3

2. CHAPTER ONE THE IMPORTANCE OF PLAY

Figure 1.0: Schenkel (2013) - Merry-Go-Round

4

Object Play

Pretend Play

Rough-and-tumble Play

Guided Play

Figure 1.1: Flavell (2023) - Types of Play

The importance of ‘play’ for a child's

almost as an outlet to release and understand

development is fundamental in shaping their

negative experiences whilst replacing them

physical, cognitive, emotional, and social

with more positive ones (as cited in Saracho &

well-being. This has fascinated child

Spodek, 1995). For Example, when pretending

psychologists, who have come up with theories

to be a parent with friends they may decide to

on how play does this, for centuries. ‘Play’ is a

discipline them by mirroring an experience

word that conjures up many definitions

with their own parents, and then comfort them

(Hirsh-Paseck & Golinkoff, 2008), but this can

in a way that they would have liked their own

be narrowed down to four different types:

to do. This is a learning experience for children

Object play, pretend play, rough-and-tumble

to interpret their negative feelings and

play, and guided play.

understand what actions they could take in different situations.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) saw play as Cathartic. He believed that children use play

5

Piaget, a cognitive theorist, also thought that

play is a major tool in children's mental

skills allowing them to explore what their

development (as cited in Hughes, 1999).

bodies can do. This is believed to develop their

Piaget’s stage theory suggests that each stage of

self-esteem by mastering their use of objects

play parallels a different level of cognitive and

and their surrounding environment. In future,

emotional development (as cited in Saracho &

they then apply these skills to their interaction

Spodek, 1995). He believed that children adapt

with their peers (Hughes, 1999).

their behaviour and ways of thinking to suit their environments. This is almost a physical

In summary, although there are many different

survival instinct that helps their intellectual

theories on how exactly ‘play’ is important to

growth. As Hughes (1999) summarizes it,

children's development, it is agreed by child

Piaget’s theory understands play as a lesson by

psychologists that it is indeed crucial.

exposing “a child to new experiences and new

Therefore, it is vital for us to create safe spaces

possibilities of physical and mental activities

in our areas for children to play such as

for dealing with the world”.

playgrounds.

Another widely understood theory by psychologists such as Erik Erikson (1902-1994), is that children use play as a tool to help them learn their sensory and motoring

6

[This page is intentionally left blank]

7

3. CHAPTER TWO THE HISTORY OF PLAYGROUNDS Image

Figure 2.0: Memory Lane Prints Photo Prints (n.d.) - Prints of WW2 Children playing in bomb debris Debris from a night of bombing provides fuel

Figure 2.1: Memory Lane Prints Photo Prints (n.d.) - Prints of Children collecting firewood from bomb sites during Second World War

Figure 2.2: Memory Lane Prints Photo Prints (n.d.) - Prints of Picture shows young boys playing in the ruins of housing decimated in the Blitz of

8

Figure 2.4 & 2.5: Sage (2015) - Junk and Adventure – 20th century Figure 2.3: The Guardian (2017) - “Junk play”: urban adventure playgrounds hit by austerity

playground archive. Collecting Childhood.

“I think we give children a pretty raw deal. What do we give them in our great cities and towns? We give them an asphalt square playground with a few pieces of mechanical equipment. It's not good enough.” (Lady Marjory Allen, 1970’s)

9

The concept of playgrounds that we know

architect and promoter of child welfare. She

today started around World War Two. Tony

saw the uprising of junk playgrounds and

Chilton (2018) remembers that children were

according to Playequip (2023), she believed

seen playing in bomb sites and improvising by

that children learned through play, and said it

using the space, materials and environment

was “better to break a limb than a spirit”. Lady

around them to make all sorts of things like

Allen was a fan of the new unstructured

dens, swings, and wooden structures. The

playgrounds and wanted to create a more

children’s imaginations started to inspire

defined approach to them (Chilton, 2018). She

adults in the area so Professor Sorenson (1931)

introduced new junk playgrounds for children

took it upon himself to create a contained area

in cities and towns all across Britain in 1948.

that the children could visit full of structures

This change was perhaps what led to later

and loose materials. Sorenson (1931) said that

playgrounds we can see throughout history in

his aim was to create a space where “children

Britain.

could create and shape, dream and imagine”.

The Junk playground he created was later mentioned in the Evening News, November 1947.

Lady Marjory Allen was an English landscape 10

[This page is intentionally left blank]

11

4. CHAPTER THREE PLAYGROUNDS TODAY

Figure 3.0: W.M Garden Services Ltd. (n.d.) - Playground Construction

12

13

When asked about their favourite place to play

(Chilton, 2018). Playgrounds today don’t have

as a child, most adults will recall playing

the characteristics that have been proven to be

outdoors unsupervised in natural settings such

liked by children. They seem to have become a

as woods (Sandberg, 2003; Sebba, 1991).

thing that lacks the inspiration that

Research shows that children prefer playing in

popularised them, to begin with. “It is normal

natural environments over constructed

for children to carry out activities in the road

playgrounds (Cunningham & Jones, 1999;

environment – such as cycling, walking,

Korpela et al., 2002; Sandberg, 2003). This is

running, playing and other common group

further demonstrated through the history of

activities. It is also important for their healthy

playgrounds when children were seen playing

development that children, from an early age,

in bomb sites and improvising with the

undertake such activities.” (WHO & Unicef,

materials and environment around them

2008).

Figure 3.1: Fair (2022) - You could once find this contraption in Balsall Heath Park

Figure 3.2: Okell (2022) - The play area has become run-down due to vandalism

Contemporary playgrounds most often contain

children's surroundings, imagination and their

a kit of pre-fabricated play equipment that

learning experience of interacting with

follows a ‘look-alike’ approach to design,

animals, plants and people. When

rubber safety floor surfacing, and a Fence

rough-and-tumble play is introduced, this

(Woolley, 2008). This layout offers limited play

helps a child understand how to master risk

value due to their design and allows for very

and work around it (Christian, 2022). As

little rough-and-tumble play. When looking

mentioned previously, Piaget’s theory suggests

into the landscape planning of playgrounds,

that each stage of play parallels a different level

children's play has been confined to a small

of cognitive and emotional development (as

fenced-in area often with no consideration of

cited in Saracho & Spodek, 1995). Society,

access to natural environments. Restricting

however, has restricted risk increasingly for

children to fenced playgrounds, where they

children over the years.

can’t play freely in larger environmental landscapes has been reflected in the decreasing

This has affected them by reducing their free

trend of children's interdependent mobility

play with their parent's perception of the

(Shaw et al., 2015). It is important to note that

outside world being dangerous and when

parents are also restricting their children's

children do get to play outside it is within a

freedom for their safety. Free play in a natural

small unnatural area. Rough-and-tumble play

environment promotes exploration of

has also been affected by taking away any 14

chance of injuries; The simple copy-and-paste slides, swings and roundabout design with rubber floors may provide risk lessons for younger children but this cannot extend to older children who learnt those lessons years ago. This simple design begins being boring for older children who won't master risk and lose their interdependent mobility as they no longer want to go. Research has also proven that the decreasing rate of children's interdependent mobility follows the trend of an increase in child obesity (Herrington & Brussoni, 2015).

Today's playgrounds are not only affecting children’s important development but also their health.

15

Figure 3.3: Swansea Council (n.d.) - Ynystawe Park following renovations there

Figure 3.4: Swansea Council. (n.d.) - Highmead Avenue Park after it was transformed

16

[This page is intentionally left blank]

17

5. CHAPTER FOUR THREATS ON PLAYGROUNDS TODAY

Figure 4.0: News Dog Media (2021) - This playground in the Solihull area of the West Midlands has been compared to Chernobyl by residents who say its a disgrace it’s been allowed to fall into a state of disrepair.

18

“793 playgrounds have been closed in the UK over the last ten years.”

(Aggregate Industries, 2023)

0 - 30 31 - 50 51 - 100 101 - 200 200+

19

Figure 4.1: Flavell (2023) - Number of playgrounds closed vs Areas of concern for child obesity in the UK

A concerning number of playgrounds have

playgrounds to begin with.

been removed across the UK in the past 10 years and the effects of this have been clear. My

It is difficult to find the number of playgrounds

research shows that the decrease in

in these areas as it appears that there hasn’t

playgrounds has correlated with an increase in

been much research done on this topic,

child obesity. Data has proven that the amount

however, I was able to find data on the UK as a

of documented cases of children living with

whole. In the UK there are an estimated 19,775

obesity is twice as high in deprived areas than

playgrounds compared to 12.7 million children

in less deprived areas (NHS, 2022). The

under 16 years old as of 2020 (Percussion Play,

colour-coded map shows the average number

n.d. & Scottish Government, 2022). If the

of playgrounds that have been closed down in

distribution of playgrounds and children

each area over the last 10 years and the areas

across the UK was evenly spread, that would

outlined in red show the areas where child

give us a ratio of 642 children per playground.

obesity is the biggest concern. It is important to

As a reference for the average size of

note that although there were fewer

playgrounds, I looked at a playground I used as

playgrounds closed in London and the west

a child in Solihull which was about 1250

midlands than in Scotland, the South-East and

metres squared. This means that if every child

the East, these are more densely urbanised

in that 642:1 ratio visited a playground of this

areas that wouldn’t have had many

size at the same time, they would have around 20

1.94 metres squared to play in each. It seems

shows that in Scotland it is 196:1, North-East

that playgrounds and children are unevenly

600:1, West Midlands 929:1 and in the

distributed across the UK meaning that

South-East 866:1.

deprived areas offer less opportunity for children to play than this overall estimate.

One of the biggest threats to playgrounds is government funding. The head of Play

21

“Access to public play spaces in the UK is

England, Anita Grant (2023), was quoted

unfair and unequal, according to new research.

saying that the lack of protection for play in

A Freedom of Information survey carried out

budget planning was “Shameful” and

by the Association of Play Industries (API) has

“children’s mental health will suffer as a result”

revealed that some UK regions have almost five

(Grant & Duncan, 2023). Since 2011, the

times the free-to-access play provision of

budget in Government funding has fallen by

others.” (API, 2022) The BBC (2022) wrote a

over £350m with some councils having to cut

Newsround talking about data they had

their budgets by over 80%. Eugene Minogue,

received from the Association of Play

the executive director of Play England

Industries and the inequality of play spaces

mentioned that Boris Johnson was stopped

across the UK. Looking back at the ratios of

from building a swimming pool due to the

children to playgrounds compared to the UK’s

protection of newts but wondered where this

concern areas for child obesity, API’s data

protection for children was (Grant & Duncan,

2023). Councils have blamed recent “unprecedented budget constraints” for these issues, however, my research raises the question, ‘Why should playgrounds be costing this much?’

Children have proven in the past that they do not need these constraining, prefabricated play areas. If children in the past could thrive with playgrounds simply made out of ‘Junk’ and by playing in nature, why are these factors not considered in designs? These will not cost nearly as much and will undoubtedly be better for children's development.

Figure 4.2: Thomas (2018) - Photo of damaged play equipment in Richmond Park, Solihull

22

[This page is intentionally left blank]

23

6. CHAPTER FIVE SCANDINAVIAN STYLE FOREST SCHOOLS AND NURSERIES

Figure 5.0: Benke (2023) - What a day of learning at a sub-zero school is like

24

Figure 5.1: Wood (2017) - Children going for an outdoor learning session

25

Figure 5.2: Ashbridge Nursery at Maxy Farm (2007) - The new team were very fortunate to visit Finland & Sweden earlier this year to learn all about forest school and outdoor provision

Figure 5.3: Permanto (2019) - There is room to run and play outdoors. It is safe for children to play on nature’s own jungle gym, and an adult is always nearby

Transitioning from studying playgrounds to

schools focus on outdoor learning and

schools might seem like a far-fetched idea, but

encourage children to explore and discover

it's crucial to understand why Scandinavia's

nature. This form of education provides a

education system is globally recognized and in

unique learning experience that can help

high demand. The youth in Scandinavia hold a

children develop important skills such as

significant position in society, and they are not

problem-solving, creativity, and resilience.

just seen as future contributors. Scandinavia's educational institutions are renowned for their

Samoojat is one of many forest schools located

unconventional approach to learning. Among

in Finland. The majority of the day follows a

the consistent features observed in these

set routine, with more than half of the time

schools is the incorporation of play as a vital

allocated for unstructured play where the

educational tool. Typically, core subjects such

children explore the forest and seaside. They

as math, English, and science are introduced to

construct bridges using branches, gather

students at a later age of around 6 or 7,

berries, climb trees and observe sea creatures.

providing ample time for play during their

The children are accompanied by teachers

formative years. Forest schools are a type of

wearing high-vis jackets, whom they know they

education that originated in Scandinavia and

must always keep in view. Fridays are the only

are gaining popularity for their

days when the children are located at the

outside-of-the-box way of teaching. These

nursery itself, even then it has been said that 26

the children are outside the majority of the

makes it easier to develop strategies to cope

time.

with the cold, such as participating in games and exercises in the snow. The key is to keep

Forests have a greater variety of species and

moving, as exercise generates body heat”. This

microorganisms in their soil compared to other

keeps the children mentally and physically

environments. Exposure to beneficial bacteria

active.

in forest settings is advantageous to the immune system not only for children who

In summary, while forest schools may present

spend their entire day in the forest but also for

certain risks to children, it is evident that with

those attending schools located in urban areas.

adequate equipment and supervision, children are flourishing in the natural surroundings.

Although colder temperatures pose a risk to

These challenges are actually beneficial, as they

these schools, it's worth noting that all the

foster independence, mental development, and

children are adequately equipped to stay warm.

physical activity. This can be linked back to

Ikäheimo, a professor at the Department of

playgrounds where risk is a beneficial factor,

Community Medicine at the Arctic University

and the natural aspect of a playground can be

of Norway, also highlights that winter

integrated into their design to help children.

temperatures outdoors offer “significant mental health benefits. It lifts spirits and 29

Figure 5.4: Benke (2023) - What a day of learning at a sub-zero school is like

"These children are outdoors all the time, exploring nature, even in the winter. It doesn't matter if it's raining or snowing. My son says it's always good weather for the Samoojat."

(Pietarila, 2023) - Father of a 4-year-old who recently joined the Samoojat nursery.

"These kids can do everything. They solve problems together. They help each other. They will get up after a fall and they push themselves even when they're tired." (Rabinowitsch, 2023) - Samoojat nursurey teacher "Children in my group get dirt in their mouths all the time and they're more resilient to infections. They rarely catch a cold." (Rabinowitsch, 2023) 30

CONCLUSION The concept of playgrounds started strong with

incorporating nature and factors of risk into

their historical roots in the ‘Junk’ playgrounds

playgrounds, fostering creativity, resilience,

created after World War Two. Unfortunately,

and overall well-being.

the current standards of playgrounds, marked by ‘look-alike’ designs and confined spaces, do

In essence, the current state of playgrounds

not align with children's preferences or

and the unequal access to play spaces in the

developmental needs. The restriction of risk

UK raise critical questions about the priorities

and decreased interdependent mobility are

and investments made in children's well-being.

alarming trends that not only hinder children's

It is important to understand that each chapter

crucial development but also contribute to

acknowledges positive features that can be

rising concerns about child obesity.

used in the future of designing playgrounds.

Government funding cuts have played a role in

My artefact goes on to show how these

the reduction of said playgrounds in the UK,

different features from past and present

prompting questions about the necessity and

playground designs could be used and the

cost-effectiveness of modern playground

positive impacts these choices can have on

designs. The comparison with Scandinavia's

children.

forest schools highlights the benefits of

31

[This page is intentionally left blank]

32

TIO UCA

E FOR 41).

85 1 9 0 0 0 C0 ey (A Surv ance Ordn

ARTEFACT: Redesigning parks ready for the future generations

taba d da ht an pyrig o c n Crow

se rig

023 hts 2

This artefact serves as a testament to my vision of transforming play areas across the UK into something truly exceptional for children. Having grown up in close proximity to this very park, I was disheartened to find myself losing interest in it by the age of 10. However, this experience has motivated me to showcase how this park could be redeveloped to cater to the future generations of children who may grow up in the area. I want to emphasize that while not all parks need to incorporate every design feature I've used, I've leveraged the current landscaping of this park and created a bold and innovative design that presents many exciting options for other park designs.

©

N

1:5000 0

20

50

100

1:3000 0 5 10

20

4 Swings Miscellaneous Climing frames Slide Zip line

Richmond Park, Richmond Rd, Solihull B92 7RZ

5

Existing features: The park follows a typical layout found in many parks across the UK: a large expanse of grass, a small play area, and a boundary of trees. While having a large open space is useful for activities like dog walking and sports, it seems unnecessary to have such a large space that doesn't offer much variety.

The park's topography includes two steep hills that currently act as a barrier between different levels and zones. The hills are already used for a zipline and slide, but they could be utilized even more effectively.

The playground is fenced, which can provide safety for younger children, but it also limits the development of older children. The layout is dull and doesn't incorporate many environmental factors.

The current skatepark is more of a hangout spot for teenagers than a place to improve their skating, scooting, etc. The space is a concrete square with a metal box in the middle, and it needs improvement for people who want to learn or improve their skills.

33

The existing football fields at the bottom of the park are frequently used, so they should be kept. However, parents who watch their children play often complain about getting muddy, so a path along the edge would be a great addition.

N 1 Older childrens play area: • Net climbers • Treetop play area • Slides • Underground tunnels • Climbing wall • Rope spinner • Seesaws • Swings • Rope swing

• • • • 2

0

Basket swing Watertop course Giant rope swing Zip line

Younger childrens play area: • Climbing frames • Sand course • Swings • Net climbers • Musical corner

1

2

3

Younger childrens play area

Older childrens play area

For the play area intended for younger children, I have planned to incorporate some conventional play designs. According to my research, these designs are quite beneficial for the development of younger children. The Music Corner is a great way for individuals of all ages and abilities to enjoy music. Trampolining is a fun activity that can help children improve their motor skills by combining jumping, concentrating, and balancing. Sand is not only a safe flooring option, but it is also a fun and beneficial way to enhance child development through sensory playground equipment. Children can learn to cooperate, sculpt, build, and improve their hand-eye coordination while enjoying the outdoors. Climbers are a puzzle to solve for children improving their cognitive skills along with their motoring skills. Connecting climbers to features like slides provides a fun challenge for children, with a rewarding goal. This area is enclosed by a low fence so that young children are kept safe from dogs but can still see their surroundings.

The play area for older children is not enclosed by a fence, instead, it is defined by the natural boundaries created by the trees and the stream I have included in the park's design. The design is bigger and bolder than the younger children's play area providing a greater challenge for children who have outgrown it. The multifarious flooring (sand, colourful rubber and bark chippings) provides an opportunity for children to understand how it feels to fall on different surfaces whilst still feeling safe. My favourite feature of this playground is the treetop play area. This experience offers unrivalled access to habitats that are typically out of reach due to physical limitations, the treetops. It empowers individuals to step out of their comfort zone and face their fear of heights. Overcoming this challenge instils a sense of confidence that can equip them to tackle any obstacle that comes their way. There are several enjoyable ways to climb up to and descend from the walkway. The tunnels through the hill provide an opportunity for creative play. The space can have various exciting features inside, and the openings on the surface for children to pop their heads up will allow sunlight to come in, making it feel less claustrophobic. Water play, much like playing with sand, is an excellent way for children to engage with their senses. This is why I wanted to create a space where children can play with water. The water-top obstacle course also provides a lesson for children to learn about the consequences of their actions. If they fall in the water, they will get wet. This play area offers a unique opportunity for older children to further develop their skills and abilities through mental and physical challenges. It provides a safe and fun environment for them to learn, grow and explore their potential without any inhibitions.

1:2500 20

50

• Trampolines 3 Sensory garden 4 Skatepark 5 Sports fields

100

Sensory Garden Sensory gardens are thoughtfully crafted spaces that aim to provide a multi-sensory experience to visitors. These gardens incorporate interactive elements such as sensory panels and sounds, which offer an opportunity for visitors to engage with their surroundings in a unique and stimulating way. This garden features a distinctive walkway above the water, comfortable seating, light reflectors, and a variety of flooring textures. The plants I have in mind for the garden will be of varying heights, colourful, and fragrant, making the journey through it a sensory delight. Sensory gardens are an excellent idea for anyone to experience, but they can be especially beneficial for young children and those with special needs.

Skatepark

34

REFERENCES Adams, R. (2017, April 12). Hundreds of children’s playgrounds in England close due to cuts. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/apr/13/hundre ds-of-childrens-playgrounds-in-england-close-owing-to-cuts#: ~:text=Hundreds%20of%20children Aggregate Industries. (2023, March 27). FOIs reveal a continuing decline in play park facilities in the UK. Aggregate Industries | Building Materials | at the Heart of Construction. https://www.aggregate.com/right-play-fois-reveal-huge-declin e-play-park-facilities-uk Archive: Lady Allen Adventure Playground Chelsea, Circa 1970s. (2013, March 19). Www.youtube.com. https://youtu.be/1pqMXplAI9Y?si=PvHlzrvTS5Ap1j2r Association of Play Industries. (2022, February 2). New study finds access to public play spaces is unfair and unequal.

Association of Play Industries. https://www.api-play.org/posts/new-study-finds-access-to-pu blic-play-spaces-is-unfair-and-unequal/ BBC. (2022, April 12). Playgrounds: Government to help after survey shows unequal access to public play areas. BBC Newsround. https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/60795713

35

Benke, E. (2023, November 23). How forest schools boost children’s immune systems. Www.bbc.com. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20231031-how-forest-sc hools-boost-childrens-immune-systems Boeree, G. (2006). Sigmund Freud. Personality Theories, 1–19.

Brunelle, S., Herrington, S., Coghlan, R., & Brussoni, M. (2016). Play Worth Remembering: Are Playgrounds Too Safe?

Children, Youth and Environments, 26(1), 17–36. https://doi.org/10.1353 Chilton, T. (2013). ADVENTURE PLAYGROUNDS A BRIEF HISTORY (pp. 2–6). https://seventeenplaygrounds.com/wordpress/wp-content/u ploads/2017/02/Adventure_Playgrounds_a_Brief_History.p df Christian , H. (2022). Time to go out and play. Unesco.org. https://courier.unesco.org/en/articles/time-go-out-and-play# :~:text=The%20sight%20of%20young%20children Cunningham, C., & Jones, M. (1999). The playground: A confession of failure? Built Environment.

Foster, A., Perciva, S., Chillman, B., Jackson, M., Mountain, J., Burn, G., Martin, P., Walters, G., & Robinson, F. (2006).

Designing school grounds schools for the future. TSO (The Stationery Office). https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5a7c4e84e527 4a1b00422df5/schools_for_the_future_-_designing_school_ grounds.pdf Glascott Burriss, K., & Tsao, L.-L. (2002). Review of Research: How Much Do We Know about the Importance of Play in Child Development? Childhood Education, 78(4), 230–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/00094056.2002.10522188 Grant, H., & Duncan, P. (2023, August 4). England’s playgrounds crumble as council budgets fall. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/aug/04/en gland-playgrounds-crumble-council-budgets-fall Herrington, S. (2007). Outdoor play spaces in Canada: The safety dance of standards as policy. Critical Social Policy, 27(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/0261018307072210

Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Michnick Golinkoff, R. (2008). Why Play = Learning. In: Tremblay RE, Boivin M, Peters RDeV, Eds. Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development [Online].

Montreal, Quebec: Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development and Strategic Knowledge Cluster on Early Child Development, 1(1), 1–6. https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/play/according-experts/ why-play-learning Hughes, F. P. (1999). Children, Play, and Development (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications.

Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2003). Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Educational Psychology Interactive, 3(2).

Korpela, K., Kytt, M., & Hartig, T. (2002). Restorative experience, self-regulation, and children’s place preferences.

Journal of Environmental Psychology, 22, 38–398. https://doi.org/10.1006/jevp.2002.0277 NHS Digital. (2022, November 3). Latest obesity figures for England show a strong link between children living with obesity and deprivation: statistical press release. NHS Digital. https://digital.nhs.uk/news/2022/national-child-measuremen t-programme-21-22

36

REFERENCES Park, N. (2020, June 24). Population estimates for the UK, England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland - Office for National Statistics. Www.ons.gov.uk. https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/pop ulationandmigration/populationestimates/bulletins/annualmi dyearpopulationestimates/mid2019estimates#:~:text=the%20 number%20of%20children%20(those Percussion Play. (n.d.). Are There Enough Playgrounds in the UK? - Percussion Play. Www.percussionplay.com. https://www.percussionplay.com/blog/are-there-enough-play grounds-in-the-uk/#:~:text=There%20are%20more%20than %2016%2C000 Play England. (2020). What We Do. PlayEngland. https://www.playengland.org.uk/what-we-do Play England. (2023). Child safety experts welcome “game-changing” new international benchmark that gives a green light to more adventurous play! PlayEngland. https://www.playengland.org.uk/newsblog/child-safety-exper ts-welcome-game-changing-new-international-benchmark-tha t-gives-a-green-light-to-more-adventurous-play

37

Playequip. (2020, July 30). The History of Playground Equipment | PlayEquip Blog. PlayEquip | Playground Equipment. https://playequip.com/the-history-of-playground-equipment/ #:~:text=The%20first%20playground&text=In%201859%20th e%20very%20first Poulson, M. (2022, April 21). What is the Scandinavian Educational Approach? - Teaching Ideas Blog Get Inspired.

Print Play Learn. https://printplaylearn.com/2022/04/what-is-the-scandinavia n-educational-approach/ Sandberg, A. (2003). Play Memories and Place Identity. Early Child Development and Care, 173(2-3). https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430303091 Saracho, O. N., & Spodek, B. (1995). Children’s Play and Early Childhood Education: Insights from History and Theory.

Journal of Education, 177(3), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/002205749517700308 Scottish Government. (2022, July 26). Information on the £60m play park renewal fund: FOI release. Www.gov.scot. https://www.gov.scot/publications/foi-202200305397/

Sebba, R. (1991). The landscapes of childhood: The reflection of childhood’s environment in adult memories and in children’s attitudes. Environment and Behavior, 23(4), 395–422. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916591234001 Shaw, B., Bicket, M., Elliott, B., Fagan-Watson, B., Mocca, E., & Hillman, M. (2015). Children’s Independent Mobility: an international comparison and recommendations for action. In London Policy Studies Institute (Vol. 1). Policy Studies Institute.

Zerhusen, C. (2015, November 1). The Scandinavian Education Systems | Education with human values. Scan Magazine. https://scanmagazine.co.uk/the-scandinavian-education-syst ems-education-with-human-values/#:~:text=Scandinavia%20 may%20not%20always

FIGURES

Wilson, S., Russell, Dr. W., Wragg, M., Lyons, K., Patte, Dr. M., & Cote, A. (2018). Aspects of Playwork: Play and Culture Studies (B. H. Fraser Brown, Ed.). Hamilton Books.

Figure 1.0: Schenkel, F. (2013). Merry-Go-Round. https://iamachild.wordpress.com/2013/12/16/franziska-sche nkel-xx-century-german/#comments

Woolley, H. (2008). Watch this space! Designing for children’s play in public open spaces. Geography Compass, 2(2), 495–512. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-8198.2008.00077.x

Figure 1.1: Flavell, G. (2023b). Types of Play.

Yeardley, N. (2016, April 3). CFH (Critical Fall Height) | The Ultimate Guide. Billy Bounce. http://www.billybounce.co.uk/the-ultimate-guide-to-cfh-critic al-fall-heights/

Figure 2.0: Prints of WW2 Children playing in bomb debris Debris from a night of bombing provides fuel. (n.d.). In Memory Lane Prints Photo Prints. https://shop.memorylane.co.uk/mirror/0200to0299-00205/ ww2-children-playing-bomb-debris-debris-night-21397076.ht ml

38

Figure 2.1: Prints of Children collecting firewood from bomb sites during Second World War. (n.d.). In Memory Lane Prints Photo Prints. https://shop.memorylane.co.uk/mirror/1400to1499-01479/ch ildren-collecting-firewood-bomb-sites-second-21909790.html

Figure 3.0: Playground Construction | Play Areas | Newport - W.M Garden Services Ltd. (n.d.). Www.wmgardenservicesltd.co.uk.

Retrieved November 30, 2023, from https://www.wmgardenservicesltd.co.uk/playgrounds.html#a d-image-0

Figure 2.2: Prints of Picture shows young boys playing in the ruins of housing decimated in the Blitz of. (n.d.). In Memory Lane Prints Photo Prints. https://shop.memorylane.co.uk/mirror/1400to1499-01459/pi cture-shows-young-boys-playing-ruins-housing-21903051.htm l

Figure 3.1: Fair, T. (2022). You could once find this contraption in Balsall Heath Park - this photo was taken in the late 60s or early 70s.

In Birmingham Mail. https://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/nostalgia/gallery/o ld-photos-children-play-would-25414441

Figure 2.3: “Junk play”: urban adventure playgrounds hit by austerity.

(2017). In The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/jul/19/junk-play-u rban-adventure-playgrounds-austerity-london Figure 2.4 & 2.5: Sage, A. (2015, January 7). Junk and Adventure – 20th century playground archive. Collecting Childhood. https://collectingchildhood.wordpress.com/2015/01/07/junkand-adventure/

39

Figure 3.2: Okell, N. (2022). The play area has become run-down due to vandalism. In Warrington Guardian. https://www.warringtonguardian.co.uk/news/19997249.brent nall-park-play-area-hood-manor-set-refurb/ Figure 3.3: Swansea Council. (n.d.). Ynystawe Park following renovations there. In Wales Online. Retrieved 2023, from https://www.walesonline.co.uk/in-your-area/parks-swansea-r efurbished-council-new-25947844

Figure 3.4: Swansea Council. (2023). Highmead Avenue Park after it was transformed. In Wales Online. https://www.walesonline.co.uk/in-your-area/parks-swansea-r efurbished-council-new-25947844

Figure 5.0 & 5.4: Benke, E. (2023). What a day of learning at a sub-zero school is like. In BBC. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20231031-how-forest-sc hools-boost-childrens-immune-systems

Figure 4.0: News Dog Media. (2021). This playground in the Solihull area of the West Midlands has been compared to Chernobyl by residents who say its a disgrace it’s been allowed to fall into a state of disrepair. In Daily Mail. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-9968967/Is-Britain s-worst-playground-Locals-compare-forlorn-play-park-CHER NOBYL.html

Figure 5.1: Wood, J. (2017). Children going for an outdoor learning session. In Pixabay. https://theculturetrip.com/europe/finland/articles/what-we-c an-learn-from-finlands-forest-schools

Figure 4.1: Flavell, G. (2023a). Number of playgrounds closed vs Areas of concern for child obesity in the UK. Figure 4.2: Thomas, K. (2018). Photo of damaged play equipment in Richmond Park, Solihull. In Birmingham Mail. https://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/local-news/invest-r un-down-playgrounds-solihull-15133007

Figure 5.2: Ashbridge Nursery at Maxy Farm. (2007). The new team were very fortunate to visit Finland & Sweden earlier this year to learn all about forest school and outdoor provision. In Twitter. https://twitter.com/AshbridgeMaxy Figure 5.3: Permanto, R. (2019). There is room to run and play outdoors.

It is safe for children to play on nature’s own jungle gym, and an adult is always nearby. In ThisisFINLAND Magazine. https://finland.fi/life-society/finnish-daycares-emphasise-nat ure-music-art-and-other-exciting-themes/

40

APPENDIX FOR ARTEFACT

41

Visual inspiration

Anke. (2021, May 19). Spielplatz, Pumptrack und Bewegungspark in Kalchreuth.

Kinderorte Franken. https://kinderorte-franken.de/spielplatz-pumptrackbahn-und-bewegungspark-in-kalchreuth/

Martinelli, K. (2023). When to Push Your Children. Child Mind Institute. https://childmind.org/article/pushing-kids-without-pushing-too-hard/#:~:text=Why%20do%20we%20do%20this

Avis-Riordan, K. (2020). How to create a sensory garden | Kew. Www.kew.org. https://www.kew.org/read-and-watch/how-to-create-a-sensory-garden#:~:text=A%20sensory%20garden%20is%20all

Netmums. (n.d.). Ragley Park & Gardens. Netmums. https://www.netmums.com/local/l/ragley-hall-park-gardens

Bounce Sheffield. (2021, June 24). The Top 8 Trampoline Benefits for Kids!

Bounce Sheffield. https://bouncesheffield.co.uk/the-top-8-trampoline-benefits-for-kids/#:~:text=Bouncing%20on%20a%20trampoline%20creates Chamberlain, Z. (2016, August 8). Family things to do on August Bank Holiday weekend. Birmingham Live. https://www.birminghammail.co.uk/whats-on/family-kids-news/things-august-bank-holiday-weekend-11719431 Damon Farber Landscape Architects. (n.d.-a). All Abilities Trane Park. Damon Farber. https://www.damonfarber.com/projects/all-abilities-trane-park?pgid=k9efa7ch-aba876_ee2eda72c0c24cbd88f293bc50feb509mv 2 Damon Farber Landscape Architects. (n.d.-b). MN Zoo Hanifl Family Wild Woods. Damon Farber. https://www.damonfarber.com/projects/mn-zoo-hanifl-family-wild-woodsDavid. (2016, July 1). Why Walkways? TREE Foundation. https://treefoundation.org/2016/07/01/why-walkways/ Duncan and Grove. (n.d.). Holland Park. Playground Equipment. https://duncanandgrove.com/bespoke-playgrounds/holland-park-adventure-playground/ Erin. (2023, May 22). Splash Pad and Kid’s Creek at Klehm Arboretum | Stateline Kids. Statelinekids.com. https://statelinekids.com/2023/05/22/splash-pad-and-kids-creek-at-klehm-arboretum/

Percussion Play. (2019). Outdoor Musical Instruments - Percussion Play.

Percussionplay.com. https://www.percussionplay.com/ Red Monkey. (2016, July 28). Sand Play Benefits In Early Years. Red Monkey Play. https://redmonkeyplay.co.uk/sand-play-benefits-in-early-years/#:~:text=Not%20only%20is%20playing%20with Robin Hill. (n.d.). Robin Hill | Isle of Wight | Adventure, Exploration & Entertainment. Robin Hill. https://robin-hill.com/ S, M. (2023, January 11). The Nature Themed Playground In Vermont That’s Oh-So Special. OnlyInYourState®. https://www.onlyinyourstate.com/vermont/oh-so-special-themed-playground-vt/ SemiColonWeb. (n.d.). skateboard.com.au. Skateboard.com.au. https://blog.skateboard.com.au/skateparks/france/palais-de-la-glisse-skatepark/ Sparks, J. (2023, November 27). Top Benefits of Play Tunnels For Children - Play Equipment. Fun and Active Play. https://fun-play.co.uk/top-benefits-of-play-tunnels-for-children/#:~:text=Promotes%20Imaginative%20Play The Climbing Hangar. (n.d.). 5 benefits of climbing for kids. The Climbing Hangar. https://www.theclimbinghangar.com/blog/5-benefits-of-climbing-for-kids Wax Design. (2015). NATURE’S PLAYGROUND. WAX Design. https://waxdesign.com.au/projects/natures-playground/

Family Ticket. (2020, September 26). Robin Hill - The Family Ticket Review. The Family Ticket. https://www.thefamilyticket.com/days-out-in-and-around-oxfordshire/country-parks/robin-hill/ gezinopreis. (2019, July 23). Belevenissenbos Lelystad: klauteren en zwemmen.

Gezin Op Reis. https://www.gezinopreis.nl/belevenisbos-lelystad/ Hand made places. (n.d.). How to Make a Children’s Sensory Garden & Play Area.

Www.handmadeplaces.co.uk. https://www.handmadeplaces.co.uk/blog/articles/school-sensory-garden-design-children.html Jones, A. (2019). Here’s Why Your Kid Is Totally Obsessed With Playing & Splashing In Water. Romper. https://www.romper.com/p/why-do-kids-love-playing-in-water-so-much-experts-explain-this-splashing-phenomenon-16968037

42

Exploring the vital role of playgrounds in child development: A comprehensive analysis of design, safety, and enviromental factors impacting children's well-being Dissertation Personal Tutor: Yana Nanovska Module Coordinator: Elizabeth Tuson BA (Hons) Architecture History and Theory of Architecture: Dissertation Winter 2023/24 Submission Graduating Class of 2024 Word Counts does not include front or back matter, preface, references, in-text citations, figures, tables and page numbers.

University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth School of Architecture