@synthesis textbook l module 1 introduction to paradigms and research

Synthesis Textbook

Module I Introduction to paradigms and research

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

©2015-2018 SUKHOTHAI THAMMATHIRAT OPEN UNIVERSITY SOME RIGHTS RESERVED

2 l Sc h o ol o f C o mm u n i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

Module I Introduction to paradigms and research Assoc. Prof.Chantana Thongprayoon

Contents Outline: Lesson 1.1: Paradigms, inquiry, and paradigms of knowing Issues to be discussed: Topic 1.1.1 What is a paradigm?

Topic 1.1.2 Paradigms and the inquiry Topic 1.1.3 Three paradigms of knowing Lesson 1.2: Research and research approach Issues to be discussed: Topic 1.2.1 What is research?

Topic 1.2.2 Research approach Lesson 1.3: Research questions and research process Issues to be discussed: Topic 1.3.1 Research questions Topic 1.3.2 Research process Lesson 1.4: Research designs Issues to be discussed: Topic 1.4.1 Research designs: Population and sample Topic 1.4.2 Research designs: Methodology Topic 1.4.3 Research designs: Methods Lesson 1.5: Scope of research, research proposal, quality of good research Issues to be discussed: Topic 1.5.1 Scope of communication research Topic 1.5.2 Research proposal Topic 1.5.3 Quality of good research

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 3

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Objectives of Module 1 After being introduced to Module 1: Introduction to paradigms and research, students will be able to: 1. Understand and explain the concepts of paradigms and the inquiry; 2. Understand and explain the concepts of research and research approach; 3. Understand and explain the concepts of research questions and research process; 4. Understand and explain the research designs related to population and sample, methodology, and methods; 5. Understand and explain the scope of communication research, research proposal, and research quality.

Main Concepts of Module 1 This module intends to introduce paradigms and research in a variety of dimensions. The focuses are on the concepts of paradigms, the inquiry, paradigms of knowing, research approaches, research questions, research process, research designs, the scope of communication research, research proposal, and research quality.

4 l Sc h o ol o f C o mm u n i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

Lesson 1.1: Paradigms, inquiry, and paradigms of knowing Issues to be discussed:

Topic 1.1.1 What is a paradigm?

Topic 1.1.2 Paradigms and the inquiry Topic 1.1.3 Three paradigms of knowing

Objectives of Lesson 1.1: Paradigms, inquiry, and paradigms of knowing After students study Lesson 1.1, they will be able to: 1. Understand and explain the concepts of paradigms; 2. Understand and explain the concepts of paradigms and the inquiry; 3. Understand and explain the concepts of three paradigms of knowing.

Lesson 1.1: Paradigm, inquiry, and paradigms of knowing Topic 1.1.1 What is a paradigm?

A paradigm is a framework containing the basic assumptions, ways of thinking, and methodology that are commonly accepted by members of a scientific community. 1 A paradigm is a belief system (or theory) that guides the way people do things, or more formally installs a set of practices. This can range from thought patterns to action.

A paradigm is a philosophical and theoretical framework of science or discipline within which theories and laws support of them are formulated. Most disciplines are governed by particular paradigms.

A paradigm is a new way of looking or thinking about something, especially in the academic, scientific, and business worlds. When you change paradigms, you're changing how you think about something. If you suddenly shifted to all group work that would be a new paradigm. 2 A new paradigm in business could mean a new way of reaching customers and making money. In mass communication, a new paradigm could mean a new way of increasing audience participation in a broadcast program.

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 5

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

In research, paradigms can be characterized through Ontology, Epistemology, and Methodology. The dominance of these paradigms are Positivism, Post-positivism (Antipositivism), Critical theory, and Interpretivism or Constructivism.

The Positivism paradigm focuses on a quantitative research approach. Research methods under this paradigm include surveys, longitudinal, cross-sectional, correlational, experimental, etc.

The Post-positivism (Anti-positivism) paradigm focuses on a qualitative research approach. Research methods under this paradigm include phenomenological, ethnographical, case study, etc.

The Critical theory paradigm focuses on a critical and action-oriented research approach.

Research methods under this paradigm are ideology critique and action research.

The interpretivism or constructivism paradigm focuses on a qualitative research approach. Research methods under this paradigm are ethnographical study, in-depth interviews, analytical approaches.

These paradigms create a holistic view of how we view knowledge, how we see ourselves in relation to this knowledge, and the methodological strategies we use to uncover or discover it. 3 Ontology and epistemology are both branches of philosophy that try to explain the existence of an entity or something. Ontology indicates the study of how something exists, its nature, or being, usually answering the question ‘what’. 4 Ontology comes from two Greek words: “on” means "being," and “logia” means "study."

Ontology is the study of being alive and existing. It is the branch of metaphysics; namely, the philosophy concerning the overall nature of what things are. It is concerned with identifying the kinds of things that actually exist. Ontology is what exists and is a view on the nature of reality.

Ontology addresses the following questions: What is existence? What is the nature of existence? What is reality? How things really are? How things really work? What is the nature of the universe? Is there a god? What happens to us when we die? What principles govern the properties of matter? 5 Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of knowledge itself, its possibility, scope, and general basis. Epistemology is often considered as the “theory of knowledge,” in which we know something exists, and it answers the questions ‘how’ and ‘what’.

6 Epistemology is the study of knowledge, what we know, how we know it, how we know we know it, how to keep track of it, how do we know something? It is our perceived relationship with the knowledge we are uncovering or discovering. Are we part of that knowledge or are we outsiders 6 l Sc h o ol o f C o mm u n i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

or external to it? The study of knowledge also helps us understand our cultural differences, which in return helps us and others get along.

Epistemology addresses the following questions: How do we go about knowing things?

How do we separate true ideas from false ideas? How do we know what is true? How can we be confident when we have located ‘truth’? What are the systematic ways we can determine when something is good or bad? 7 In summary, ontology is about what is true, and epistemology is about the methods we need to use to figure out those truths. The split between Plato and Aristotle is both ontological and epistemic as well as the split between religion and science. Religion and science offer two very different ontologies (theories about what is out there) and epistemology (ways to figure out what is out there). 8 Methodology is the system of methods followed by a particular discipline. Methodology refers to how we go about finding out knowledge and carrying out the research. It is a plan that can be used consistently or repeatedly. For example, scientists use various methodologies for their experiments. It is a strategic approach, not the techniques or data analysis. 9 Examples of such methods are: The Scientific method (quantitative method), the Ethnographic approach (qualitative methods), Case study approach (qualitative methods), Ideological framework (an interpretation from Marxist, Feminist viewpoint), Dialectic approach (compare and contrast different points of view or constructs, including one’s own).

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 7

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Link Anderson, Terry. Research Paradigms: Ontology's, Epistemologies & Methods http://www.slideshare.net/eLearnCenter/research-methods-uoc-2013 (Retrieved April 8, 2016).

Topic 1.1.2 Paradigms and inquiry The research paradigms Ontology, Epistemology, and Methodology are concerned with “disciplined inquiry.” The questions addressed by these three basic paradigms are:  Ontological: What is the nature of “reality” or the “knowable”?  Epistemological: What is the nature of the relationship between the “knower” and the “known”?  Methodological: How does one go about finding out “knowledge”?

8 l Sc h o ol o f C o mm u n i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

Source: Anderson, Terry. From http://image.slidesharecdn.com/researchmethodsuoc2013-131015064855phpapp02/95/research-paradigmsontologys-epistemologies-methods-5-638.jpg?cb=1381819850. Retrieved April 8, 2016.

Ontology, Epistemology, and Methodology are part of disciplined inquiry. Examples of these paradigms are: Positivism, Post-positivism (Anti-positivism), Critical theory, and Interpretivism or Constructivism.

The positivism paradigm focuses on a quantitative research approach. Research methods under this paradigm are surveys, longitudinal, cross-sectional, correlational, experimental, etc.

The post-positivism (Anti-positivism) paradigm focuses on a qualitative research approach. Research methods under this paradigm include: Phenomenological, Ethnographical, Case study, etc.

The critical theory paradigm focuses on a critical and action-oriented research approach. Research methods under this paradigm include Ideology critique and Action research.

For the Critical realist paradigm and Epistemology inquiry, the paradigm is subjectivist; inquiries are intimately related to the observer’s values, choice of problem to study, paradigm selection, instruments, analytic modes, interpretations, conclusions, and recommendations.

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 9

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Questions addressed by Ontology, Epistemology, and Methodology are answered differently with Positivism, Post-positivism, and Critical realism. Each is founded on a distinct but linked belief system, as follows: 10 1) The Positivist Paradigm For the Ontology inquiry, the Positivist paradigm is “Realist”. This is the belief that a reality exists out there. It is knowable and driven by unchangeable natural laws. The role of science is to uncover this reality and discover how it really works. Reality is time and context free, and subject to cause-and-effect laws.

For the Epistemology inquiry and the Positivist paradigm, the paradigm is “Objectivist”.

This explains that the inquirer can and should remove himself or herself from the inquiry. This eliminates values and biases from influencing the outcomes of the research.

For the Methodology inquiry and the Positivist paradigm, the paradigm is “Experimental” or “Manipulative”. Questions and hypotheses are purposed and subjected to empirical tests in carefully manipulated conditions.

2) The Post-positivist paradigm For the Ontology inquiry and the Post-positivist paradigm, the paradigm is “Critical realist”. According to this paradigm, the real world that exists is driven by real natural causes.

However, it is impossible for humans to accurately perceive it. “Ultimate truth” is unknowable.

For the Epistemology inquiry and the Post-positivist paradigm, the paradigm is the “Modified objectivist”. According to this paradigm, objectivity can only be approximated. Emphasis is on the external verification of results.

For the Methodology inquiry and the Post-positivist paradigm, the paradigm is the “Modified experimental” or “Manipulative”. It emphasizes the use of multiple methods of inquiry, including, qualitative methods.

3) The Critical Realist Paradigm For the Ontology inquiry and the Critical realist paradigm, the paradigm is “Critical realist”. This is similar to the case of Post-positivism, that is, reality or nature cannot be truthfully discovered. Values influence inquiry and transform it into a political act which may be empowering or disempowering.

For the Epistemology inquiry and the Critical Realist paradigm, the paradigm is “Subjectivist”. This means, inquiries are intimately related to the observer’s values, including 10 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

choice of problems to study, paradigm selection, instruments, analytic modes, interpretations, conclusions, and recommendations.

For the Methodology inquiry and the Critical realist paradigm, the paradigm is the “Dialogic” or “Transformative”. The aim of inquiry is to transform the real world through consciousness raising and energizing participants around a common point of view, whether it is true or not.

In addition, Interpretivism or Constructivism paradigm focuses on a qualitative research approach. Research methods under this paradigm are ethnographical study, in-depth interviews, and analytical approaches.

Link Neustadtl, Alan. Positivism in Social Inquiry. (14.56 minutes). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RlmlpvaW0WU&nohtml5=False

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 11

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Link Brady, Michelle. (2009). Positivist Post-Positivist Epistemology (Critical Realism). http://admn502awiki.pbworks.com/w/page/10245563/Positivist%20%20Postpositivist%20Epistemology%20%28Critical%20Realism%29(April 6, 2016).

Link NurseKillam. Ontology, Epistemology, Methodology and Methods in Research Simplified! (11.59 minutes). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hCOsY5rkRs8

12 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

Link Introduction to Epistemology. (10.50 minutes). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hCOsY5rkRs8

Link Difference Between Positivism and Post-Positivism. (0.58 minutes) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=66zbNcnGVsU

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 13

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Topic 1.1.3 Three paradigms of knowing The paradigms of knowing are known as Epistemology, the “theory” or “the study of knowledge.” Epistemology is that branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of knowledge, its possibility, scope, and general basis. It answers the questions ‘how’ and ‘what’. The study of knowledge helps us understand our cultural differences and get along with others.

Three main methodological ways of knowing are: discovery, interpretation, and criticism.

Each of these paradigms responds to the question: how can we know about communication?

The focus here is the three main paradigms of knowledge in communication research, the how and why we study communication the way that we do rather than focusing on the nature and substance of communication. How we should to study communication depends on our paradigm assumptions. 11 1) Knowing by discovery Knowing by discovery implies accepting several fundamental assumptions. The purpose of research is to accurately represent reality. The goal is that accurate representation is accomplished by classifying objects and identifying universal rules or laws. 12 The primary purpose of the discovery paradigm is “to draw conclusions from observations using precise, systematic, and repetitive procedures.” These conclusions allow researchers to apply generalizations in order to explore what can be known or discovered. The core assumption is that “knowledge is discoverable through logical and empirical methods.” Researchers who share the same standards of precision and systematic observations can study the same patterns of results in repeated tests. Knowledge is expanded or discovered through observable or rational means that minimize subjective viewpoints of researchers. 13 From a discovery paradigm perspective, the standards we use for evaluating observations form the basis of discovering what we know. Rigorous tests of knowledge can be accomplished by making precise, systematic, and repetitive observations about a particular event or thing. To be “precise” means to be careful in order to ensure accuracy. Being “systematic” means following clear and known procedures. Most discovery-based research begins with a claim constructed form evidence collected in previous studies. Then, the researcher must develop a prediction that will be tested through a series of observations (new evidence). The further steps are to make careful, systematic observations, over and over, to ensure that the research findings are verifiable.

14

14 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

2) Knowing by interpretation The central assumption of this paradigm is that there is more than one reality that can be known. Second, the knower is inseparable from the known. The knower’s perceptions and values affect what is seen. Subjectivity affects the researcher; and, who often becomes an active participant in the research context. Third, there can be multiple and equally justifiable interpretations because there is more than one reality. As a result, the purpose of the research under the interpretative paradigm is “to understand how meaning is constructed in various social contexts.” Fourth, the process of knowing is a rich description and not a categorization of a broad range of data sources that show how communication has occurred and what it meant to the participants in such context. Therefore, the researcher understands the whole context out of which meaning is constructed. 15 From the interpretive paradigm perspective, it is not important to determine which interpretations are more accurate. Rather, it is important to reflect on the full range of sensible interpretations and show “how these interpretations were constructed.” The interpretive paradigm is also reflected in many forms of rhetorical criticism to analyze communication. 16 3) Knowing by criticism This paradigm believes multiple realities exist in cultural and historical situations. Knowing by criticism means that everything we know is shaped by our social, political, economic, ethnic, gender, sexual orientation, and ability values. This awareness may bring about “social change.”

The process aims to identify what situated factors contribute to the creation of the status quo (i.e., historical, social, economic, etc.), especially as these factors relate to privilege and oppression. Critical researchers work to reveal existing social structures so that adequate attention and action will be ensured. The knowing by criticism paradigm aims to reveal existing social hierarchies and sometimes encourage social change. 17

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 15

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Philosophical traditions associated with Epistemological paradigms Knowledge by Discovery Knowledge by Interpretation Knowledge by Criticism Hermeneutics Critical theory Rationalism Phenomenology Semiotics Empiricism Symbolic interaction Deconstruction Logical positivism Constructivism Late structuralism Behaviorism Structuralism Post structuralism Early structuralism Naturalism Postmodernism Realism Late modernism Post colonialism Modernism Post-positivism Source: Merrigan, Gerianne and Huston, Carole L. (2009). Communication research methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

According to the table above, philosophical traditions are associated with Epistemological paradigms. The philosophical traditions of the Knowledge by Discovery paradigm are: Rationalism, Empiricism, Logical positivism, Behaviorism, Early structuralism, Realism, Modernism, Post-positivism. For the Knowledge by Interpretation paradigm, the philosophical traditions are: Hermeneutics, Phenomenology, Symbolic interaction, Constructivism, Structuralism, Naturalism, Late modernism. For the Knowledge by Criticism paradigm, the philosophical traditions are: Critical theory, Semiotics, Deconstruction, Late structuralism, Post modernism, and Post colonialism.

Research paradigms and research methods Each paradigm has definite research methods to carry out scientific investigation.

Positivism emphasizes the objectivist approach to study social phenomena. It focuses on quantitative analysis, surveys, experiments, among others. Post-positivism or anti-positivism emphasizes subjectivist approaches to study social phenomena. It highlights a range of research techniques on qualitative analysis, such as personal interviews, participant observations, account of individuals, personal constructs, among others. Critical theory spotlights ideology critique and action research as methods to explore existing phenomena.

The researcher can identify whether the research questions relate to positivism, antipositivism, and critical theory, and choose the appropriate methodology accordingly.

16 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

Selection of research paradigms and research methods Research paradigms Positivism

Research approach Quantitative

Research methods

Antipositivism

Qualitative

Biographical; Phenomenological; Ethnographical; case study

Surveys: longitudinal, cross-sectional, correlational; experimental, and quasi-experimental and ex-post facto research

Ideology critique; Critical theory Critical and action-oriented action research

Examples - Attitude of distance learners towards online based education - Relationship between students’ motivation and their academic achievement.

- Effect of intelligence on the academic performances of primary school learners - A study of autobiography of a great statesman.

- A study of dropout among female students - A case study of an open distance learning Institution in a country.

- A study of development of education during the British rule in India - Absenteeism among standard five students of a primary school

Source: Dash (2005). Selection of research paradigms. From http://www.celt.mmu.ac.uk/researchmethods/Modules/Selection_of_methodology/. Retrieved April 7, 2016.

From the table above, the selection of research paradigms and research methods are: 1) The Positivism research paradigm emphasizes the Quantitative approach. The research methods are: Surveys (Longitudinal, Cross-sectional, Correlational), Experimental, Quasi-experimental and Ex-post facto. Examples are: the attitude of distance learners towards online based education; the relationship between students’ motivation and their academic achievement; the effect of intelligence on the academic performances of primary school learners.

2) The Anti-positivism (Post-positivism) paradigm emphasizes the Qualitative approach. The research methods are: Biographical, Phenomenological, Ethnographical, Case

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 17

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

study. Examples are: a study of autobiography of a great statesman; a study of dropout among the female students, a case study of an open distance learning institution in a country.

3) The Critical theory research paradigm emphasizes the Critical and action-oriented research approach. Examples are: a study of development of education during the British rule in India; the absenteeism among standard five students of a primary school.

Self-Assessment Exercise Lesson 1.1: Paradigms, inquiry, and paradigms of knowing 1. Please explain the concept of paradigm in one paragraph.

2. Please explain the association of paradigm and the inquiry in 300 words.

3. Please explain the three paradigms of knowing in 300 words.

Please do your exercise in the “Study Guide� of Lesson 1.1: Paradigms, inquiry, and paradigms of knowing

18 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

Lesson 1.2: Research and research approach Issues to be discussed:

Topic 1.2.2 What is research?

Topic 1.2.2 Research approach

Objectives of Lesson 1.2: Research and research approach After students study Lesson 1.2, they will be able to: 1. Understand and explain the concepts of research; 2. Understand and explain the concepts of research approach.

Lesson 1.2: Research and research approach Topic 1.2.1 What is research?

Research is a scientific, systematic and organized search of relevant information about a specific topic. “Systematic” means a definite set of procedures and steps to follow in order to achieve the most accurate results. “Organized” means a structure or method about doing research with a planned procedure, but not spontaneous. Its focus is limited to a specific scope.

Research is systematic and follows a series of steps and a rigid standard protocol.

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 19

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Link Alex A . What is research. (5.15 minutes). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Og4BGyZr_Nk

Link Mr. Beck's World. What is research? (2.13 minutes) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yt6XXDF7xaQ

20 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

Link Deborah Campbell. Why do we Research? (0.57 minutes) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CRgIp1N7CAw

Topic 1.2.2 Research approach

Source: Hiles, Dave (1999). Paradigms lost-Paradigms regained From http://www.psy.dmu.ac.uk/drhiles/Paradigms%20Lost.htm. Retrieved April 8, 2016.

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 21

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

The research approach can be viewed from disciplined inquiry: qualitative inquiry and quantitative inquiry.

Quantitative research involves: - Analysis of numerical data - Data reduced to numbers that are then analyzed using statistics for evaluation Qualitative research involves: - Analysis of data that are not numeric such as words, pictures, objects - Describe and analyze a phenomenon using words - Use interpretation and in-depth scrutiny Neither of them can answer everything.

The similarity between quantitative and qualitative research: - Raw data are ultimately qualitative.

- Both have data collection steps.

- Both have to report the research problem.

- The research final goal is to find answers.

The difference between quantitative and qualitative research: - There are different approaches to gather and analyze information.

- They examine different type of data.

- They have different objectives and purposes.

- The researchers have different roles.

- They require different levels of understanding of what is being sought.

22 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

Link Dudau, Adina. Outer layer research philosophy. (14.52 minutes). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wXFVNlDPdB4&nohtml5=False

Self-Assessment Exercise Lesson 1.2: Research and research approach 1. Please explain the concept of research in one paragraph.

2. Please explain the concept of research approach in 300 words.

Please do your exercises in the “Study Guide� of Lesson 1.2: Research and research approaches

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 23

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Lesson 1.3: Research questions and research process Issues to be discussed:

Topic 1.3.1 Research questions Topic 1.3.2 Research process

Objectives of Lesson 1.3: Research questions and research process After students study Lesson 1.3, they will be able to: 1. Understand and explain the concepts of research questions; 2. Understand and explain the concepts of research process.

Topic 1.3.1 Research questions Research should be clear, focused, and concise, and should address a specific aim. The purpose of research is to answer one or more research questions that have not been answered before.

Research is a collection of methods and methodologies that researchers apply systematically to produce scientifically based knowledge about the social world. Research must be focused and relevant, useful, and must address important questions. If research has no question, it will have no focus, drive, and purpose. Indeed, questions are central to research.

A research question helps to keep the research focus and on track. The answer to this question will turn into the thesis statement, or the main argument of the paper.

Research and methods link directly to the continuing debate in media and communication research about whether the right questions are being asked. This is a debate that raises questions about methods and focus (media-centric or socio-centric). It leads to the key argument that research should always be theory and policy driven, not method driven since methods are a means to an end. They are not an end in themselves and should not determine the end or define the nature of the problems to be investigated. 18 All research must start by ‘asking the right questions’, informed by existing research, knowledge and theory, and then, one should consider which method or methods might be most suitable for addressing the issue or problem being studied. Researchers should not start any research by choosing a method before considering the research questions and what theoretical frameworks to draw on. Asking wrong questions may affect the communication research. The

24 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

questions should not accentuate the narrow and media-centric questions. They should not aim at using methods that could be easily measured and counted. Instead, they should be able to actually measure and help answering key questions about the social and political roles of media and communication processes. 19 in Hansen and Machin 2013: 5) tried to issue a challenge to social scientists by asking “why much of social science and in particular media and cultural studies can now communicate little that is critical or relevant to one’s own society.”

Research is not the process of data gathering, collection or analysis. Instead, it should be about choosing the right methodological tools for addressing ‘relevant’ questions. The ‘relevance’ could be applied to the social, political and policy relevance of research (Hansen and Machin 2013: 6). American communications research is generally referred to as ‘the dominant paradigm’ There is no single ‘best’ method for media and communication research but a combination of several methods can often achieve more and better understanding of a research problem than a single method applied in isolation. 20 Writing a good research question requires to find an issue of interest, exploring the issue, starting to ask questions, refining and giving a focus to the question. One should avoid yes or no questions, and ask instead, questions that may have multiple answers and that require in-depth explanations. The question should not be too narrow or too broad and it must be answered in your research.

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 25

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Link KStateLibraries. How to Develop a Good Research Topic. (4.33 minutes). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nXNztCLYgxc&nohtml5=False

Link Baltessen, Justine. How to create a research question? (5.45 minutes) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8BObOQHvvFQ

Link 26 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

CII GSU. Creating a good research question. (6.02 minutes). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=89NonP_iZZo

Link Steely Library NKU. Developing a Research Question. (4.33 minutes). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LWLYCYeCFak&nohtml5=False

Topic 1.3.2 Research process S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 27

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

The steps of the research process are shown in the figure below. 21 Research process 1. Selection of research problem/topic

2. Review of relevant literature

3. Statement of research question or hypothesis

4. Determination of appropriate methodology and design

5. Data collection

6. Analysis and interpretation of data

7. Presentation/publication

8. Replication/further research

1. Selection of research problem/topic 2. Review of relevant literature a. Searching for relevant literature b. Retrieving managing and ‘processing’ relevant references with a bibliographic database 3. Statement of research question or hypothesis 28 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

4. Determination of appropriate methodology and research design a. What method(s)? b. Population and sample c. Research instruments and variables d. Research ethics considerations e. Piloting 5. Data collection 6. Analysis and interpretation of data 7. Presentation/ publication and/or 8. Replication/further research 1. Selection of research topic/ problem It is imperative to examine an overview of what research is relevant to the topic at hand to see whether it has already been done or published. The research topic should be selected before considering any methodology of population/ sample specified and method(s) being used.

The objective of the research project should be refined and focused.

2. Review of relevant literature The literature search and review process comprise the tasks of searching for, identifying and selecting relevant literature and retrieving, managing and ‘processing’ relevant references with a bibliographic database. For media and communication research, the relevant literature would be Web of Knowledge/Web of Science, World Cat, Google or Google Scholar, etc.

3. Statement of research question or hypothesis The research question should indicate the key areas or variables of investigation.

However, it does not propose a specific testable relationship as the hypothesis does. Research questions are the statement of your research objectives in question form. For example, the question might be to examine how specific broadcast news organizations differ in their coverage of specific political issues. As a hypothesis, this might have been specified with reference to how ownership of the selected broadcast organizations skew or bias the coverage of the stated political issues.

4. Determination of appropriate methodology and research design

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 29

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

The key to choose an appropriate research methodology is the literature review. This step of the research process explains in detail what method is to be used, what population is to be investigated, how relevant and representative the sample data will be, and what research instruments will be used to collect information. (Hansen and Machin 2013: 20-21).

5. Data collection An important key to successful data collection is careful and realistic time planning.

6. Analysis and interpretation of data This is where it all begins to come together and where important parts of the research puzzle fall into place. Analyzing and interpreting data enables the researcher to come up with new insights and deeper understanding of the topic being researched. This is the most exciting part of the research process.

7. Presentation/Publication The final step in the research process is to write up the full research for presentation or publication.

This is the structure your research should follow in order to be published: - Introduction - Review of literature and framework - Method and sample - Analysis and results - Conclusion - References 8. Replication/further research The aim of academic research is to contribute to the development and advancement of knowledge and understanding in the relevant field of inquiry. Knowledge and understanding are advanced through building on what is already known or has already been researched, and to refine it in ways that will add further insights into the process and phenomena under investigation.

Replicating and conducting further research on the topic, particularly across time, will enable us to bring new insights to research.

30 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

Link TCC ELibrarian. Six Step Research Process. (6.48 minutes). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6X5LKOAIHbE

Self-Assessment Exercise Lesson 1.3: Research questions and research process 1. Please explain the concept of research questions in one paragraph.

2. Please summarize the research process.

Please do your exercises in the “Study Guide of Lesson 1.3: Research questions and research process

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 31

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Lesson 1.4: Research designs Issues to be discussed:

Topic 1.4.1 Research designs: Population and sample Topic 1.4.2 Research designs: Methodology Topic 1.4.3 Research designs: Methods

Objectives of Lesson 1.4: Research designs After students study Lesson 1.4, they will be able to: 1. Understand and explain the concepts of research designs for population and sample; 2. Understand and explain the concepts of research designs for methodology; 3. Understand and explain the concepts of research designs for methods.

Lesson 1.4: Research designs Topic 1.4.1 Research designs: Population and sample The key to choose an appropriate population, sample and research methodology is the literature review. This step in the research design accounts what group of population would be studied. How relevant and representative data will be selected as key informants, participants, subjects, or samples which are correlated with the appropriate methodology selected. What method is to be used? What research instruments will be used to collect information? 22 Research/ Study Designs 23 Research designs or study designs are the overall plan for obtaining an answer to the research question or for testing the research hypothesis.

The selection of research designs is based on: the research question/hypothesis, the strengths and weaknesses of alternative designs, the feasibility, resources, time frame, ethics, the study approach, whether it is qualitative, quantitative, or mixed.

Research designs should be clearly identified and labelled using standard terminology.

For example, Quantitative/ Qualitative, Cross-sectional/ Longitudinal, True experiment/ Quasi32 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

experiment, specifying the major elements of the design, the variables, instruments, participants, sampling frame, sample size, selection procedures, testing duration/ intervention.

Research/ Study Designs must be consistent with the research objectives/hypotheses, and must be appropriate to answer the addressed research questions, lack of bias/ validity, precision/ power, feasible, and ethical concerns.

Population is the group to which the researcher would refer the results of the study. It includes all individuals with certain specified characteristics. Population is the theoretically specified aggregation of the elements in the study. Population can be a group or class of objects, subjects, or units.

Samples or Participants Samples are subgroups or subsets of a population or universe. Sample is a subset of a larger group on which information is obtained. A sample represents a population of something.

The word sample is referred to in different terms: participants, subjects, respondents, or key informants in the in-depth interview or observation research.

Whether there are samples or participants, it is based on the type of study. Some design may not require participants, for example, in content analysis. If the design involves participants, the questions will be: Who will be studied? How will they be selected? How will they be recruited?

How will they be allocated to study groups?

The “Who Will Be Studied?” specifies eligible participants, the target population (demographic characteristics), accessible population (temporal & geographic characteristics).

The “How Will They Be Selected?” is the process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire population.

The “How Will They Be Recruited?” describes what methods will be used to recruit participants. It is important to document that the study will be feasible and that there will be no ethical problems.

The “How Will They Be Allocated to Study Groups?” should be “Random Allocation”. This is the assignment of participants to treatment conditions in a manner determined by chance alone.

Goal of Randomization is to maximize the probability that groups receiving differing interventions will be comparable.

Methods of randomization can drawn from a can, random number table, or computer generated random number.

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 33

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Sampling Sampling is the process of selecting a number of individuals (a sample) from a population. Sampling should be the way that individuals are representative of the larger group from which they were selected.

The basic idea behind sampling is to learn about the characteristics of a large group of individuals referred to as a population by studying a smaller group referred to as a sample. 24 Sampling is a clear description of study population. It is an appropriate inclusion/ exclusion criteria, the justification of study population and sampling method (bias), and the clear description of sampling methods.

Sampling can be divided into methodically and randomly sampling. Methodological sampling is the conscious choosing of your subset members. “Random sampling� is the sampling among the group of subjects where all subjects have equal chances of being chosen.

Types of Sampling There are two types of sampling: Probability and Non-probability sampling.

1. Probability Each element in the population has an equal and independent chance of being selected.

Four sets of probability sampling: a. Simple random sampling b. Stratified random sampling c. Cluster sampling d. Systematic sampling 2. Non-probability Three types of Non-probability sampling: a. Convenience sampling b. Snowball sampling c. Purposive sampling Sample Size Sample size is used to make a rough estimate of the appropriate and economical number of participants required to answer the research question. Hypothesis-based sample sizes indicate the number of participants necessary to reasonably test the study’s hypothesis. Hypotheses must be proven wrong rather than proven correct. The reason is that all hypothesis cannot be tested.

Therefore, the research hypothesis can be tested through a sample of the larger population.

34 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

Link desoriente0. Types of research designs (4.16 minutes). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eKlZV_5E5u0

Link vmouonline. BASIC TERMS IN RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. (10.04 minutes). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pztlk97hf0o

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 35

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Link Zazza, Kathleen. Defining Your Population For Research. (4.23 minutes). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C6_XWUqebU0

Topic 1.4.2 Research designs: Methodology When we do research, we are adopting a method, a form of argument that we can use to test our theories. 25 Research design is a plan that guides us to choose: - When and how often to collect data - What data to gather and from whom - How to analyze the data - How to examine linkage, causation, or relationships - Ensure evidence enabled to answer the research question as clear as possible - Logic or structure of the research How can research designs differ?

- The intention to use research results (Applied or Basic research)

36 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

- The question being ask (Description, Prediction, Explanation, Control) - Types of data collected (Quantitative or Qualitative) - Whether or not a variable is manipulated by the researcher (Experiment or Descriptive) - The time frame of data collection (Cross-sectional, Longitudinal, Retrospective) Methodology is the understanding of the social-organizational context, philosophical assumptions, ethical principles, and political issues of the enterprise.

Methodology should be able to lead to the best research problem.

Methodology refers to how you go about finding out knowledge and carrying out your research. It is your strategic approach, rather than your techniques and data analysis. 26 Some examples of such methods are:  the scientific method (quantitative method),  ethnographic approach, case study approach, (both using qualitative methods), ideological framework (e.g. an interpretation from Marxist, Feminist viewpoint), dialectic approach (e.g. compare and contrast different points of view or constructs, including your own). 27 Methods are a set of specific techniques for selecting cases, measuring, and observing aspects of social lives, gathering and refining data, analyzing data and reporting results.

Paradigm-Ontology-Epistemology-Question-Method Paradigm Ontology Epistemology Question Method Hidden rules Focus on What works? Quantitative Positivism govern reliable and teaching and valid tools to learning undercover process rules Discover the Why do you Qualitative Interpretive/constructivist Reality is created by underlying act this way? individuals in meaning of groups events and activities

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 37

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Critical

Pragmatic

Society is rife with inequalities and injustice

Helping uncover injustice and empowering citizens Truth is what The best is useful method is one that solves problems

How can I change this situation?

Ideological review, Civil actions

Will this intervention improve learning?

Mixed Methods, DesignBased

Source: Anderson, Terry. From http://image.slidesharecdn.com/researchmethodsuoc2013-131015064855-phpapp02/95/researchparadigmsontologys-epistemologies-methods-54-638.jpg?cb=1381819850. Retrieved April 8, 2016.

Research design is used from the identification of the study problem until data analysis.

Research Problem 28 Research problem or study purpose is a broad statement indicating the goals of the research project. The problem should be clear and easily addressed. It should be logical and documented.

Identifying the research problem and developing a question to be answered are the first steps in the research process. The research question will guide the remainder of the design process.

Research Objectives Research objectives are clear statements of the specific purposes of the study. They should identify the key study variables, their possible inter-relationships, and the nature of the population of interest.

Research Questions Research questions are stated in question forms, and these will be answered by the study.

Hypothesis Hypothesis is a tentative prediction or explanation statement of the relationship between two or more variables. A prediction of the answer to the research question is usually significant

38 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

for a quantitative study. In contrast, qualitative studies are usually open ended and don’t always contain predictions.

Data Collection Variables: Characteristic or quality that takes on different values.

In Research Identify, variables are independent or predictor variables (the presumed cause) and dependent or outcome variables (the presumed effect). Variables are not inherently independent or dependent. In descriptive and exploratory studies, this distinction is not made.

Measures/ Instruments There are several types of research measures or instruments. The one that is often used in communication research is questionnaires.

A questionnaire is an instrument for gathering self-report information from respondents through self-administration of questions in a paper and pen format.

The words in the questionnaire should be simple, direct and familiar to all. Questions should be clear and specific and should not be double-barreled or double negative. Questions also should not have several possible meanings; they should not be too demanding, leading or biased, rather, they should be applicable to all respondents. The answers should not be influenced by response styles.

Scale is a composite measure of an attribute, consisting of several items that have a logical or empirical relationship to each other. Examples of Scales are: Quality of Life, Customer Satisfaction, Source Credibility, Social Economic Status.

Criteria for Instrument Selection The instrument should correspond to the objective of the study, the definitions of concept and measuring model. Criteria for Instrument Selection are: - It should have “reliability”, which is the degree of consistency with which an instrument measures a variable. The imperatives are internal consistency, test-retest reproducibility, inter-observer reliability.

- It should have “validity”, which is the degree to which an instrument measures what it is intended to measure. The imperatives are content validity, concurrent validity and construct validity.

- It should be “sensitive”, which is the ability to detect changes.

- It should be “interpretable”, which is the degree to which one can assign qualitative meaning to the instruments quantitative scores.

- It should not be a burden to use.

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 39

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Data Analysis Data procedures should be planned for recording, storing and reducing data, assessing data quality, and statistical analysis.

- Step 1: Descriptive statistics - Descriptive statistics is used to describe the shape, central tendency and variability of mean, median, range, proportion. It is used to summarize important features of numerical data. It is used to check data entry errors and characterize participants. It is used to determine distribution of variables.

- Step 2: Analytic/inferential statistics - Analytic/inferential statistics is used to look at associations among two or more variables. It is used to estimate pattern and strength of associations among variables and to test hypotheses.

Ethical Considerations Ethical considerations are important especially for research that involves human subjects.

Ethical principles are: respect for persons, do not harm them, do good, and be just.

Ethical considerations are: scientific validity (scientifically sound and valid), recruitment (how and by whom are participants recruited), participation (what does participation in the study involve?), harms and benefits (what are real potential harms and benefits of participating in the study?), informed consent (have the participants appropriately been asked for their informed consent?)

Topic 1.4.3 Research designs: Methods Methods are a set of specific techniques for selecting cases, measuring, and observing aspects of social lives, gathering and refining data, analyzing data and reporting results.

Methodology refers to how you go about finding out knowledge and carrying out your research.

It is your strategic approach, rather than your techniques and data analysis.

There are several types of research methods. The ones that are often used in communication research are: 1. Surveys Survey research methods are best seen to understand the characteristics of some particular group of people which are referred to as a “population�. 29

40 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

Survey uses a questionnaire distributed to a specific group of people in order to find out something about them. It is a good way to study large amounts of people. The questions are rather specific and get precise information such as demographic facts of variables: sex, race, income, or more complicated issues.

2. Interviews/ Interviewing This method involves somebody interviewing somebody else about a particular issue or subject. The main advantage of face-to-face interviews is to achieve a better idea from the persons who answer the questions. However, this method is expensive in time and personnel.

Therefore, it limits the number of interviews conducted compared to other research methods. 30 Experiment The experimental research method focuses on the evidence of causality, establishing cause and effect of the variables being investigated. It allows the researcher to control other possible causes of the variable under investigation. 31 It is used when a hypothesis is tested in a controlled environment.

3. Observation/ Participant observation This is when a researcher has direct contact with the activities being studied. The researcher is actively engaged in what is being studied and observed. The contact can be very intense or vary in degrees. The researcher lives or works with the group being studied. This method can produce rich results and unexpected findings. However, the researcher can study only small groups of people at one time.

4. Secondary data analysis This method involves using data collected by a previous researcher or another research organization, and it is also called data re-analysis. 32 It is content analysis of data collected by others.

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 41

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Link Global Health with Greg Martin. Research Methods – Introduction (4.01 minutes). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PDjS20kic54

Link Center for Research Quality. Overview of Quantitative Research Methods. (22.04 minutes). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cwU8as9ZNlA

42 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

Self-Assessment Exercise Lesson 1.4: Research designs 1. Please explain the concept of research designs for population and sample within one paragraph.

2. Please explain the concept of research designs for methodology within one paragraph.

3. Please explain the concept of research designs for methods within one paragraph.

Please do your exercises in the “Study Guide� of Lesson 1.4: Research designs

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 43

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Lesson 1.5: Scope of research, research proposal, quality of good research Issues to be discussed:

Topic 1.5.1 Scope of communication research Topic 1.5.2 Research proposal Topic 1.5.3 Quality of good research

Objectives of Lesson 1.5: Scope of research, research proposal, quality of good research After students study Lesson 1.5, they will be able to: 1. Understand and explain the scope of communication research; 2. Understand and explain the components of research proposal; 3. Understand and explain the concepts of research quality.

Lesson 1.5: Scope of research, research proposal, quality of good research Topic 1.5.1 Scope of communication research Communication is complex to define and has many contextual frameworks and phenomena that researchers can investigate. Considering the number of humans involved, general communication contexts include: intrapersonal, interpersonal, intrapersonal, group communication, public communication, mass communication, and online or machine-assisted.

Intrapersonal means to interact with oneself, to reason with, or self-evaluate; interpersonal communication, on the other hand, means to interact with others.

Group communication is defined as the process of interacting with a limited number of others, work to share information, develop ideas, make decisions, solve problems, offer support, or be entertained.

Mass communication has several composites. Communication undergoes a process, which involves the information source, the transmitter, noise source, receiver and destination. It

44 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

is the sender who communicates to a large number of people using media (television, newspaper, internet, radio). The audience usually does not give immediate feedback to the sender.

Online or social media communication deals with communicating through the use of online software that is programmed to interact with browsers and users.

With the language aspect, communication can be categorized into verbal and non-verbal.

Verbal communication means the use of the spoken and/or written words when communicating, while non-verbal communication means using no verbal language such as body signals, voice, sound, time, space, etc. 33 Media and Communication Research Methods The methods and approaches to media and communication research are from a broad range of disciplines in both the humanities and the social sciences. Many of the most successful and prominent models of media and communication have been based on research combining methods for analyzing media content with methods for studying media audiences. 34 There are many approaches that can be taken for communication research, and many principles that can be used to categorize and map this broad field of inquiry. Some approach this from as a strictly method-driven perspective, often making a broad distinction between qualitative and quantitative methods. Others approach it from a theory-driven perspective, discussing the particular and often multiple methods that have been applied in research guided by each specific theory. Others take a media-driven approach, focusing in turn on the methods and theories which have been used in research on each individual medium (such as film, television, newspaper, radio, advertising, etc.). Many use a mixture of these organizing perspectives, or attempt to place their discussion of methods and approaches in chronological and historical contexts.

Research methods cannot and should not be discussed or understood in isolation from the theories, models and socio-political concerns which have guided media and communication research. At the same time, neither method nor theory can be understood in isolation from the technological and economic possibilities and arrangements, or from the social and political struggles and concerns which characterize different historical periods. 35 The field of media and communication research is multidisciplinary in its nature. There are four key paradigms in this field (McQuail (2004: 14-15 in Hansen and Machin 2013: 2-3).

1) A functionalist paradigm which stresses the media’s contribution to the functioning and maintenance of the existing social order and favors quantitative research; 2) An interpretive paradigm which favors qualitative methods for describing and investigating cultural issues of meaning and content in relation to communication processes;

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 45

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

3) A radical-humanist paradigm which also favors qualitative methods but with a sense that the goal of research is to expose the ‘hegemonic’ role of the media and to effect radical change in society; and 4) The radical-structural paradigm which ‘looks at the media as a material, especially political-economic, force in society that has to be investigated in its concrete manifestations (i.e. with reference to patterns of ownership and control, market power, political connections) and by objective methods of analysis applied to reliable data. 36

Topic 1.5.2 Research proposal The reason of a proposal in general is to be approved, get funding, or refine ideas and methods. Proposals for communication research have the same purposes and elements of other proposals, but with a focus on communication and media.

Components of research proposal - Introduction (research question, and hypothesis). Choose a relevant research question, current knowledge and a hypothesis that can be tested.

- Method (Design, Sample, Materials).

- Data analysis (What are the test and expected patterns of your results) Research Proposal Elements - Title - Abstract - Study Problem - Relevance of the Project - Literature Review - Specific Study Objectives - Research Methods o Study design o Participants *Inclusion/exclusion criteria *Sampling *Recruitment plans *Method of assignment to study groups o Data collection 46 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

-

*Variables: outcomes, predictors, confounders *Measures/instruments *Procedures o Statistical considerations *Sample size o data analysis Ethical Considerations Work Plan Budget Bibliography

Quality of research proposal The quality of any research proposal is based on the following (Davie, Gavin 2012): - Informative title - Self-sufficient and convincing abstract - Clear research questions - Scholarly and pertinent background and rationale - Relevant previous work - Appropriate population and sample - Appropriate methods of measurement and manipulation - Quality control - Adequate sample size - Sound analysis plan - Ethical issues well addressed - Tight budget - Realistic timetable - Clear, concise, well-organized - Subheadings - Good schematic diagrams and tables - Neat and free of errors

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 47

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Example: Effective Communication Research Proposal (2008) This study explores the positive effects of effective communication on employee motivation and performance. Specifically, in intends to compare the results between service employees and manufacturing employees in terms of communication as a motivating factor.

The theories used in this study to create a conceptual framework are Herzberg Two factor theory, Goal Theory, and the circular theory of communication.

The concept is that when hygiene and motivator factors are high, goals can be developed, but can only be effective only if the message was disseminated effectively. The study uses quantitative research on service and manufacturing employees. They were surveyed using a semi-structured questionnaire with ranking questions and some open-ended questions.

The study found that there were only slight differences in the motivator factors for both set of respondents but their service employees are higher in hygiene. Both industries, however, see communication as an important factor in motivation. However, they only experience high hygiene, but less motivator, which means that they are not fully motivated. It has been suggested that the companies of the employees surveyed should invest on improving the motivator factors within the working environment and improve communication flows.

From the example of the research above, the analysis of the research proposal is as follows: Research Process The study is approached in the deductive way, that is, the aim is to deduce or to test a hypothesis--“Service company employees are more motivated than manufacturing employees�.

The research adopted a descriptive approach strategy to describe present conditions, events or systems based on the impressions or reactions of the respondents of the research.

Sampling in this study is composed of 2 service companies and 2 manufacturing companies in Malta. In each company, at least 30 employees were the target number of samples. The sampling method used was convenience sampling; respondents were asked informally and many chose not to participate. The number of respondents was limited because of the time constraint in the study and the difficulty of finding respondents who were willing to participate.

48 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

Convenience sampling was chosen as the sampling strategy because it was more flexible compared with statistical sampling methods. This method made it easy to adjust when a considerable number of respondents backed up or disagreed to participate. The critique is that convenience sampling is flawed because it haphazardly selects the respondents.

Research instrument The instrument was a survey-questionnaire structured into three sections. The semistructured questionnaires were given to the respondents informally. The respondents were briefed first about the aim of the study and then were told about the instructions. There was a written instruction at the beginning of the questionnaire. The respondents were also informed that they were free to ask any questions if they did not understand something in the questionnaire. Questionnaire fill-up took 10 to 20 minutes.

The first section was the demographic profile of the respondents, while the second contained a set of attitude statements. The purpose of the attitude statements was to determine the level of agreement or disagreement using a five-point Likert scale indicating the degree of agreement or disagreement given a numerical value ranging from one to five. The equivalent weights for the answers were: Range 4.50 – 5.00 3.50 – 4.00 2.50 – 3.49 1.50 – 2.49 0.00 – 1.49

Interpretation Strongly Disagree Disagree Uncertain Agree Strongly Agree

The third part of the questionnaire included open questions that respondents had to fill up to produce a fuller account.

The instrument should have been pretested.

Data Analysis Data Analysis was the percentage and weighted mean of the data for a basic comparison of data.

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 49

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Data was analyzed in four categories: Communication; Motivation; Employee perception; and Open questions. The “communication” category was to acquire the opinion of the respondents regarding the importance of communication within their company. The “motivation” category had two subcategories: hygiene; and motivators.

The dimensions were adopted from Herzberg’s Two Factor theory. The aim was to know the level of hygiene and motivator factors within their company. The employee perception category was to determine if the employees were motivated by communication. The last section, the open questions, provided the opportunity to explore more in-depth respondents’ point of view.

Bibliography Bibliography presents a reference cited list at the end of the proposal. The list should include what the researcher summarized, paraphrased, or quoted in the paper. It should follow the same pattern of bibliography that is standardized, for example the APA style.

Link Dr.Sam Fiala. Writing a research proposal. (12.24 mins). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uyoU4BwTHmo

50 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

Link Massey University. The Research Proposal. (13.50 minutes). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zJ8Vfx4721M

Link Beginners Guide to the Research Proposal. https://masscommtheory.com/2012/03/07/beginners-guide-tothe-research-proposal/

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 51

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Link Effective Communication Research Proposal Sample (2008). http://ivythesis.typepad.com/term_paper_topics/2008/08/does-effective.html

Topic 1.5.3 Quality of a good research A research is of good quality when it addresses a good research question, appropriate research design, rigorous and feasible methods, and a qualified research team. 37 Quality of research should give a clear picture of what a research plan wants to accomplish. It should provide the foundation for the rest of the proposal. It will be used to assess the adequacy or the appropriateness of the study’s proposed methods.

Theories are the key factor for good research quality, especially for the quantitative approach. Theories are the organized system of accepted knowledge that can be described or explained. Theories are ideas we have about the way things really are. They organize what and how we think. They can explain what things mean, or they can be affirmation about what should be or should not be happening. They can be formal and contain propositions, or they can be in the form of a story. Theories are a tentative insight into the natural world, a concept that is not verified but if it is true, it would explain certain facts or phenomena. 38 Good quality research starts from good design. The research design should be relevant, clear and consistent. It should identify key concepts or constructs. It also should include

52 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

measurable independent and dependent variables. The hypotheses should clearly predict a relationship between variables.

Lincoln and Guba indicate that the trustworthiness of a research study is important to evaluating its worth. 39 Trustworthiness involves establishing credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. *Credibility is the confidence of the 'truth' of the findings. *Transferability is the applicability of the findings to other contexts. *Dependability is the consistency of findings that could be repeated. *Confirmability is a degree of neutrality which is the extent to which the findings of a study are due to the respondents, rather than the researcher bias, motivation, or interest.

Techniques for establishing transferability is the “thick description.”

Techniques for establishing dependability is the “inquiry audit or verification.”

Techniques for establishing confirmability is confirmability audit or verification and triangulation.”

Characteristics that make a research paper well accepted are: specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, and formatting. 40 Link Allen Watson. Characteristics of a Good Research Paper. (1.29 minutes). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPioi7dTgRs

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 53

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Self-Assessment Exercise Lesson 1.5: Scope of research, research proposal, quality of good research 1. Please explain the scope of communication research in one paragraph.

2. Please explain the components of research proposal within one page (Less than 500 words).

3. Please explain the concepts of research quality in one paragraph.

Please do your exercises in the Study Guide of Lesson 1.5: Scope of research, research proposal, quality of good research

54 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

Notes Module 1: Introduction to paradigms and research 1

Paradigm. From http://www.dictionary.com/browse/paradigm. Retrieved April 8, 2016.

Merrigan and Huston (2009: 33).

3 Anderson, Terry; Guba 1990 in U. of Southampton. From http://www.erm.ecs.soton.ac.uk/theme2/what_is_your_paradigm.html. Retrieved April 8, 2016.

4 Maraqah, Hatem (2014).

5 Ibid.

6 Maraqah, Hatem (2014).

7 Ibid.

8 Ibid.

9 Wainright (1997). in U. of Southampton From http://www.erm.ecs.soton.ac.uk/theme2/what_is_your_paradigm.html. Retrieved April 8, 2016.

10 Brady, Michelle (Ed.) Positivist and Post-Positivist Epistemology (Critical Realism) from Morris, McNaughton, Mullins, and Osmond (2009). From http://admn502awiki.pbworks.com/w/page/10245563/Positivist%20%20Postpositivist%20Epistemology%20%28Critical%20Realism%29. Retrieved April 6, 2016.

11 Merrigan and Huston (2009: 33-34).

12 Merrigan and Huston (2009: 34).

13 Merrigan and Huston (2009: 36).

14 Merrigan and Huston (2009: 35).

15 Merrigan and Huston (2009: 36).

16 Merrigan and Huston (2009: 37).

17 Merrigan and Huston (2009: 37-38).

18 Halloran (1998: 10-11 in Hansen and Machin 2013: 4).

19 Hansen and Machin (2013: 5-6).

20 Philo and Miller (2000: 831 and Gitlin, 1978 in Hansen and Machin 2013: 5-6).

21 Hansen and Machin (2013: 15-31).

22 Hansen and Machin (2013: 20-21).

23 Davie, Gavin (2012).

24 Ray, William and Ravizza, Richard (1985: 294).

25 Merrigan and Huston (2009: 33).

26 Wainright (1997).

2

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 55

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Getting started- What is paradigm (2016) From http://www.erm.ecs.soton.ac.uk/theme2/how_does_data_become_knowledge.html.

Retrieved April 6, 2016.

28 Davie, Gavin (2012).

29 Ray, William and Ravizza, Richard (1985: 280).

30 Ray, William and Ravizza, Richard (1985: 289-290).

31 Wimmer and Dominick (2011: 239).

32 Ibid.

33 Effective communication research proposal sample (2016). From http://ivythesis.typepad.com/term_paper_topics/2008/08/does-effective.html Retrieved April 6, 2016.

34 Hansen and Machin (2013: 1).

35 Hansen and Machin (2013: 2-3).

36 McQuail, 2004: 15 (in Hansen and Machin 2013: 2-3).

37 Davie, Gavin (2012).

38 Merrigan and Huston (2009: 33).

39 Lincoln and Guba's Evaluative Criteria. From Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. http://www.qualres.org/HomeLinc-3684.html. Retrieved April 7, 2016.

40 Watson, Allen. Characteristics of a Good Research Paper. From https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPioi7dTgRs Retrieved April 9, 2016.

27

56 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s

Module 1 Introduction to paradigms and research

Bibliography Module 1: Introduction to paradigms and research Anderson, Terry.

From http://image.slidesharecdn.com/researchmethodsuoc2013-131015064855phpapp02/95/research-paradigmsontologys-epistemologies-methods-54638.jpg?cb=1381819850. Retrieved April 8, 2016.

Brady, Michelle. (nd.). Positivist Post-positivist Epistemology (Critical realism). From http://admn502awiki.pbworks.com/w/page/10245563/Positivist%20%20Postpositivist%20Epistemology%20%28Critical%20Realism%29. Retrieved April 6, 2016).

Chauncy, Eddie (2012). What are ontology and epistemology? From http://eddiechauncy.blogspot.com/2012/01/what-are-ontology-and-epistemology_12.html.

Retrieved April 8, 2016.

Dash, Nirod K. (2005). Module: Selection of the research paradigm and methodology From http://www.celt.mmu.ac.uk/researchmethods/Modules/Selection_of_methodology/.

Retrieved April 6, 2016.

Davie, Gavin. (2012). Beginners guide to the research proposal.

From http://masscommtheory.com/2011/05/05/writing-good-qualitative-researchquestions/. Retrieved April 6, 2016.

Effective communication research proposal sample. From http://ivythesis.typepad.com/term_paper_topics/2008/08/does-effective.html. Retrieved April 6, 2016.

Fraenkel, Jack R. and Wallen, Norman E. Data definitions. Adapted from the Glossary: How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. From http://www.johnlpryor.com/JP_Digital_Portfolio/EDU_7901_files/EDU%207901%20Data% 20Definitions.pdf. Retrieved April 9, 2016.

Getting started- What is paradigm. From http://www.erm.ecs.soton.ac.uk/theme2/how_does_data_become_knowledge.html.

Retrieved April 6, 2016.

Hansen, Anders and Machin, David (2013). Media and communication research methods.

New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Hiles, Dave (1999). Paradigms lost-Paradigms regained. From http://www.psy.dmu.ac.uk/drhiles/Paradigms%20Lost.htm. Retrieved April 8, 2016.

Lincoln and Guba's evaluative criteria. Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. http://www.qualres.org/HomeLinc-3684.html. Retrieved April 7, 2016.

S uk h ot h a i Th a m ma t h i ra t O p en Un i v er si t y l 57

17703 Paradigm and Communication Arts Research

Maraqah, Hatem (2014). Difference between Ontology vs Epistemology.

From https://www.researchgate.net/post/Can_anyone_define_Epistemology_Ontology.

Retrieved April 8, 2016.

Merrigan, Gerianne and Huston, Carole L. (2009). Communication Research Methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Ontology and epistemology. From http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/engl257/classical/ontology_and_epistemology.htm.

Retrieved April 8, 2016.

Paradigm. http://www.dictionary.com/browse/paradigm. Retrieved April 8, 2016.

Ray, William and Ravizza, Richard (1985). Methods towards a Sscience of behavior and experience. (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Wainright (1997). University of Southampton From http://www.erm.ecs.soton.ac.uk/theme2/what_is_your_paradigm.html. Retrieved April 8, 2016.

Watson, Allen. Characteristics of a Good Research Paper. From https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPioi7dTgRs Retrieved April 9, 2016.

Wimmer, Roger D. and Dominick, Joseph R. (2011). Mass media research: An introduction. (international edition). Canada: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

58 l Sc h o ol of C om m un i c a t i on Art s