@17703 module 5 results and discussion

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Module 5 Results and Discussion Prof.Dr.Jude William R.Genilo, University of Liberal Arts, Bangladesh E-mail address: jgenilo@yahoo.com, jude.genilo@ulab.edu.bd

Lesson 5.1: Understanding Communication Research Paradigms Issues to be discussed: 1. Communication Research Paradigms – Positivist, Interpretive and Critical 2. Communication Research Philosophical Domains

Lesson 5.2: Results and Discussion using Communication Research Paradigms Issues to be discussed: 1. Results and Discussion using the Positivist Paradigm 2. Results and Discussion using the Interpretive and Critical Paradigms

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Objectives of Module 5:

After being introduced to the Results and Discussion using Communication Research Paradigms, students will be able to:

1. Understand the various paradigms that can be utilized for communication and/or social science research; 2. Place themselves in terms of the paradigm they believe in (whether positivist, interpretive or critical or whether a combination of communication research paradigms); 3. Acquire a better handle in writing the results and discussion section of communication research projects.

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Highlight Contents of Module 5:

Lesson 5.1: Understanding Communication Research Paradigms

In communication research, authors put forward in their papers an argument, proposition or hypothesis regarding a communication, media, journalism or social science phenomenon. These arguments, propositions or hypotheses usually reflect the beliefs and perspectives or the paradigms of the authors. Basically, there are three communication research paradigms – positivist, interpretive and critical. An author may likewise subscribe to a combination of these paradigms, which we can refer to as philosophical domains. These paradigms and philosophical domains will be discussed in Lesson 5.1.

Issues to be discussed:

5.1.1 Communication Research Paradigms – Positivist, Interpretive and Critical

5.1.2 Communication Philosophical Domains

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5.1.1 Communication Research Paradigms – Positivist, Interpretive and Critical

5.1.1.1 Positivist Paradigm The positivist perspective believes that truth exists. It is somewhere out there to be discovered. For example, what is the composition of water? It is composed of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen. What is the force that pulls matter towards the center of the earth? It is gravity. In the field of communication, many research questions seek to find out the truth. For example, what is the effect of prolonged exposure to violence on television to the behavior of children? Another question: what is the impact of family planning messages on the family size of rural households in Northern Vietnam?

In the positivist perspective, researchers search for the answer to a question under study. Somewhere out there, it can be discovered. How can this be discovered? For those who believe in this perspective, truth is ascertained through careful reflective thought.

 Foundations of Knowledge.

In the positivist perspective, the truth can be:

 Found in empirical or observable phenomena; and  Understood through formal logic embodied in scientific laws.

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Empirical means that the event or phenomenon (or what you want to study) can be observed by the five senses of the human body – seeing, smelling, tasting, hearing and touching or combinations of these senses. So, you may have discovered the truth by hearing and seeing. The truth can also be discovered through formal logic using the power of induction (from specific to general) and deduction (from general to specific). For example, in many murder mysteries, the killer can be discovered by observation – a witness who saw and heard the actual crime. It can also be discovered by formal logic wherein the murder weapon, blood splatter, forensic evidence, suspect alibi verification, exploration of motives, etc. can be analyzed and interconnected.

 Characteristics of Positivism.

Given such belief system, the positivist perspective has the following characteristics:  Synchrony over diachrony. Synchrony means stability over time and diachrony means change over time. Structures are invariant and can be generalized.  Focus on unintended consequences of action over purposeful outcomes.

Mistrust concepts like subjectivity and consciousness.  Belief in independent objective reality.  Separate language and symbols from the thoughts and objects being symbolized in communication.

There are also two types of positivist perspectives – classical and logical. These are explained below:

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 Classical Positivism.

Those who adhere to classical positivism believe that branches of knowledge pass through:

 Theological or fictitious state  Metaphysical or abstract state  Scientific or positive state  Logical Positivism.

Those who believe in logical positivism believe in scientific statements that are analytical or empirically verifiable and all other statements including metaphysical are meaningless.

 Demise of Positivism.

There have been many criticisms against the positivist perspective. These are as follows:

 The very logic of logical positivism came under question. The verifiability principle clearly is not subject to verification.

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 Scientists began to accept the theory-laden nature of observation. All observations are influenced by the theoretical stance of the observer and that some value orientations are so embedded in our modes of thought as to be unconsciously held by virtually all scientists.  The logical positivist movement was seen to concentrate on the syntax and semantics of sciences, not its pragmatics. The move from prescribing what science should be like to describing what scientists do mark an important shift in the philosophy of science.

5.1.1.2 Interpretive Paradigm In the interpretive paradigm, researchers know that there exists many truths and that a question may have many answers depending on the context of the person providing it. This is illustrated in the following tale. In the Indian subcontinent, a group of blind men touched an elephant to learn what it is like. Each one feels a different part, but only one part, such as the foot, tail, trunk, tusk and ear. They compare their experience and find out that they do not agree with each other. However, all of them are telling the truth, it is the truth based on their experience.

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Source: http://www.synchrosecrets.com/synchrosecrets/

Hence, in the interpretive perspective, researcher believes that action may mean a number of things, meaning cannot be simply “discovered.” Interpretation is an active, inventive process. It is a creative act of ascertaining meaning possibilities. The truth is actively constructed.

 Development of Interpretive Perspective.

There are a number of philosophers who brought about the development of the interpretive paradigm. These are as follows:

 Rene Descartes (1596-1650) made a clear distinction between the external world of objects and the internal world of the subject – serving as the basis for

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positivist and post-positivist schools. This distinction is often referred to as Cartesian dualism.  Immanuel Kant (1724-1803), a central figure in German idealism, argued that an understanding of the human condition should begin with consideration of the subjective spirit and the intuition that guides it.  Max Weber (1864-1920) was concerned with developing theory and method that would be appropriate for gaining an understanding of the subjective life world. For him, positivist procedures of the natural sciences were not appropriate methods for such understanding. He advocated a move toward interpretive social science that could account for the subjective meanings of individuals involved in social action.

Foundational Theoretical Positions in the Interpretive Perspective.

There are three foundational theoretical positions in the interpretive paradigm – hermeneutics, phenomenology and symbolic interactionism. These are explained below:

o Hermeneutics is the study of understanding, especially by interpreting action and text. The goal of hermeneutic studies is to develop understanding of human artifacts and actions by interpreting their nature and significance. The branches of hermeneutics are as follows:  Exegesis – interpretation of the Bible Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University

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 Philology – interpretation of ancient literary texts  Technical hermeneutics – interpretation through the development and use of linguistic rules  Social hermeneutics – interpretation of human personal and social actions  Philosophical hermeneutics – the study of the process of understanding itself  Discovering hidden meanings in any symbol system such as dream analysis.

The predominant groups of scholars in hermeneutics are as follows:

 Those who use hermeneutics as a tool for interpreting actions in context (social or cultural hermeneutics);  Those who use hermeneutics to understand texts apart from the contexts in which they were produced or consumed (textual hermeneutics);  Those who explore the very problem of understanding itself (philosophical hermeneutics).

Hermeneutic Circle is a technique of interpretation. One interprets something by going from general to specific and from specific to general. One goes back and forth between specific and general. Interpretative can never be divorced from language since the very experience of understanding is linguistic.

o Phenomenology believes that the human world is social and historical and requires understanding in terms of the community in which human actor lives

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and works. Human beings are not fixed and cannot be known objectively. The basic principles of phenomenology are as follows:

 Knowledge is not found in external experience but in individual consciousness.

It revolves around a search for subjective understanding rather than a search for objective causal and universal explanation.  Meaning is derived from the potential for a particular object of experience in a person’s life.  The world is experienced and meaning is developed through language. o Symbolic Interactionism believes that meaning arises out of interaction.

There is interplay between society and individual experience – mind and self arise within the social context of a society. The main concepts of symbolic interactionism are as follows:  Significant symbols have a shared meaning within a society. Without a shared symbolic system, coordinated action is impossible.  Significant others include influential people within your life.  Generalized other is your concept of how other perceive you.  Role taking is modeling behavior after the behavior of others.

The concepts in symbolic interactionism provide a complex picture of the interplay of individual perception and psychology, symbolic communication, and societal norms and beliefs in the social construction of society.

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Critique of the Interpretive Perspective.

There are many criticisms about the interpretive perspective. These are discussed below.

From the Right. Traditional science accuses interpretive approaches of downplaying the causal effects of external structures. It believes that things are real apart from the human experience of those things. Then, it argues that although a lot of what we do is conscious, many important structures governing social life are beyond awareness.

From the Left. Critical theory accuses interpretive approaches of being too conservative and nonjudgmental. For them, understanding human action is not enough. There should be a study why individuals are oppressed so that people can rise up and change the circumstances of their lives.

5.1.1.3 Critical Paradigm

In the critical paradigm, researchers believe that there exist truths that are dominant and oppressive. For example, many historical “facts” that are considered widely as “truths” were written with a definite purpose and bias. Hence, there is a truth as stated by the colonizer which differs from the one upheld by the colonized. There is a truth

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propagated by the elite which is contradicted to the one understood by the subalterns.

Moreover, some dominant truths can be oppressive to certain sectors of society. For example, colonizers in Southeast Asia such as the British, Dutch, Spaniards and French always believed that the colonized are lazy and need to be civilized. In some countries, men propagate a “truth” that women make poor drivers and are therefore, banned from driving vehicles. In this manner, researchers in the critical perspective believe in the application of values to make judgments for the purpose of accomplishing positive change. What is more important to them is what to accomplish with the knowledge at hand. The essential features of the critical perspective are as follows:

 They subscribe to the basic tenets of interpretive social science – it is necessary to understand the lived experience of real people in context.  They examine social conditions in an attempt to bring these often hidden structures to light. They teach that knowledge is power.  They make an attempt to fuse theory and action.  Development of the Critical Perspective.

There are a number of philosophers who developed the critical perspective. These are as follows:

 Georg Wilhelm Hegel (1770-1831) argued that the relationship between the individual and the external world is historically situated and depended on the epoch of the individual. There is a dialectical relationship between individual

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subjective experience and the outside world and the tension inherent in that relationship.  Karl Marx (1818-1883) believed that the external world was one that was humanly created and then reified and made to seem objective and external to the subjective individual. The process of objectification and reification served as a fundamental source of alienation.  Frankfurt School (1923) is best thought of as a loose collection of scholars, often in disagreement with one another, but all committed to the critical analysis of society’s current state as well as to the development of normative alternatives which might enable humans to transcend their unhappy situation through critical thought and action.

 Critical Approaches in Communication.

There are many critical approaches in the discipline of communication; two of which are described here:

o Cultural Studies. It is a multifaceted intellectual area that explores the ideological interconnections among media, politics, economy and practices of individuals in a cultural system. It attempts to think about the mass media not in relation to an isolated problem or institution but as elements in a whole way of life. Societies are held by complex unity or by culture; by the production and reproduction of systems of symbols and messages.

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o Feminist Studies. This area begins with the claim that gender is among the most important defining features of social life. Gender influences the way we behave, the way we think, and the way we feel. Society has been socially constructed in male-dominated ways.

 Critique of the Critical Perspective. There are criticisms against the critical perspective. These are as follows:

Critique on Feminist Studies. It may have oversimplified the masculine-feminine distinction and created a concept that does not reflect reality. The use of feminist labels has the double-edged effect of recognizing women while simultaneously isolating them.

Critique on Cultural Studies. Cultural studies have been criticized for claiming that misunderstandings are systematic distortions by powerful groups. Those belong to the interpretive perspective object to the call for an ideal communication designed to rescue society from its injustices.

Self-assessment Exercise 5.1.1:

Instruction: Kindly review the materials explaining the various communication research School of Communicatio n Arts

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paradigms – positivist, interpretive or critical. After doing so, kindly answer the following questions: 1. What communication research paradigm do you believe in the most? Please explain your answer.

2. What communication research paradigm do you believe in the least? Please

explain your answer.

5.1.2 Communication Philosophical Domains There are philosophical domains in the discipline of communication. These are as follows: empirical, foundational, reflexive and analytical (Anderson and Baym, Journal of Communication, December 2004). A simplified description of each philosophical domain is as follows:

 Empirical – The objects of inquiry can be observed and quantifiably measured.

The empirical domain is biased towards observation, measurement, presence and experience.  Foundational – The truth is assumed to be constituted by material objects that display discernible boundaries and exists within relatively stable and observable patterns of relationships. The foundational domain is inclined towards modernist, certainty, causality and closure.

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 Reflexive – The objects of inquiry make their appearance within localized patterns of human practice, language and discourse. The reflexive domain is oriented towards postmodernist, erasure, agency and indeterminacy.  Analytical – The objects of inquiry are more abstract, ideal and conceptual. The analytical domain is more on theory, frameworks, concepts and values.

Combination of philosophical domains. The four philosophical domains may be combined as follows:

 Foundational/empirical. This is the home of scholarship that aspires to the mantle of “science.” It reflects the values common to the material sciences. The archetypal character of theory in this quadrant is axiomatic and causal; its method, objective and metric; its arguments, generalized and syllogistic deductions that make claims about prediction and control of a stable, determined, and material reality. This has similarities to the positivist paradigm explained in the previous lesson.  Foundational/analytical. This is the home of philosophic authority. Its theory is formal, which is propositional, maintained in logical coherence aiming at prophetic testimony about the universals of human life. Its arguments are global and highly rational intending utopian, redemptive solutions (“Workers arise!”). It functions in the reality of hierarchical economic, political, and power relationships. This has similarities to the critical paradigm explained in the previous lesson.

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 Reflexive/empirical. This is the home of contemplative scholarship. Reflexivity is recognition that our knowledge, especially of human things, is human knowledge. We create it, constitute its terms, and participate within it at every level. In its strong program, reflexivity represents a rejection of the unity of knowledge, acknowledging the failure of the social sciences to both coalesce and to achieve a dominant epistemological position. The method is the researcher as instrument advancing claims from a cultural and sociological (not idiosyncratic) subjectivity. Those claims are local (though the locale may be large) and in narrative, form and directed toward insight and understanding of action that socially constructs the reality in which we live. This has similarities to the interpretive paradigm explained in the previous lesson.

 Reflexive/analytical. This is the home of the scholarship of action. Typical scholarship here has an avowed political agenda. It intends social change. Two things are evident here: One is the “upfront” character of the agenda and the other is the switch from locating the call for change in what is true as the foundationalists do to positioning the call in what is right or the moral imperative.

This has similarities to the critical paradigm explained in the previous lesson.

Theories under each philosophical domain.

Various theories can be categorized along the line of philosophical domains. Hence, the student should be guided accordingly. Please do not choose a theory for your framework that is not in accordance with your chosen philosophical domain. The

student needs to be consistent. A sample of theories under each philosophical domain

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is provided below:

 Foundational/empirical: behaviorism, cognitivism, neuro-psych, structuralism, functionalism, postpositivism, message effects, forms and conventions.  Foundational/analytical: critical theory, Marxism, cultural studies, identity theories, criticism and rhetorical studies.  Reflexive/empirical. Ethnography, performance studies, social action, discourse and conversation analysis, social semantic and symbolic interactionism.

 Reflexive/analytical: deconstructionism, third wave feminism, cultural Marxism, postmodernism, politics of desire and resistance studies.

Self-assessment Exercise 5.1.2

Kindly follow the following instructions:

1. Of the four philosophical domains, select the one you like most? Please explain your answer.

2. In the philosophical quadrant you selected, chose the theory you like most?

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3. Explain what the theory is all about. Explain why you like the theory.

Bibliography

Miller, Katherine. 2004. Communication Theories: Perspectives, Processes and Contexts. McGraw-Hill Publishers. New York.

Rubin, R. B., Rubin, A. M. and L. J. Piele. 2000. Communication Research: Strategies and Sources. Fifth Edition. 2000. Wadsworth Publishing Company.

California. Pages

Wimmer, Roger and Joseph Dominick. 1997. Mass Media Research: An Introduction. Fifth Edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company. California.

Key Readings:

Anderson, James A. and Geoffrey Baym. Philiosphies and Philosophic Issues in Communication, 1995-2004. Journal of Communication. December 2004.

International Communication Association. Washington.

Access in: https://www.enmu.edu/academics/library/reserves/rgandersoncomm545_from%20catalog.pdf

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Littlejohn, Stephen W. and Karen Foss. 2010. Theories of Human Communication.

Wadsworth Publishing Company. California.

Lesson 5.2: Results and Discussion using Communication Research Paradigms

In Lesson 5.2, the focus will be on discussing research results using the subscribed to paradigm of the author. All too often, researchers make a mistake by utilizing methodologies and presenting study findings that are not in accordance with his or her paradigm. Hence, it is important to place emphasis on these aspects. Authors should bear in mind the readers of their papers. The readers should be able to understand where the author is coming from – his or her context, beliefs, convictions, arguments, perspectives (all of which are embodied in one’s paradigm).

Issues to be discussed:

1. Results and Discussion using the Positivist Paradigm 2. Results and Discussion using the Interpretive and Critical Paradigms

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2.2.1 Results and Discussion using the Positivist Paradigm Researchers belonging to the positivist paradigm seek to prove a hypothesis. More often than not, they develop research questions based on existing theory and make predictions about the outcome of their studies using measurable, observable and/or quantitative means. Hypotheses offer researchers a variety of benefits as follows:

 They provide direction for a study – giving indications of sequence of steps to follow;  They eliminate trial-and-error research-that is, the haphazard investigation of a topic in the hope of finding something significant. Hypothesis development requires researchers to isolate a specific area for study;  They allow for quantification of variable. Any concept or phenomenon is capable of quantification if it is put into an adequate operational definition. All terms used in hypotheses must have an operational definition.

Testing a Hypothesis. A useful hypothesis should possess at least four essential characteristics; Dominick and Wimmer (1997) identify these as follows:

 It should be compatible with current knowledge in the area;  It should follow logical consistency;  It should be stated concisely; and  It should be testable.

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The null hypothesis (also called the “hypothesis of no difference�) asserts that the statistical differences or relationships being analyzed are due to chance or random error. The null hypothesis (H0) is the logical alternative to the research hypothesis (H1).

In hypothesis testing, or significance testing, the researcher either rejects or accepts the null hypothesis. That is, if H0 is accepted (supported), it is assumed that H1 is rejected; and if H0 is rejected, H1 must be accepted.

To determine the statistical significance of a research study, the researcher must set a probability level, or significance level, against which the null hypothesis is tested. If the results of the study indicate a probability lower than this level, the researcher can reject the null hypothesis. If the research outcome has a high probability, the researcher must support the null hypothesis. In reality, since the null hypothesis is not generally stated, acceptance and rejection apply to the research hypothesis, not to the null hypothesis.

Using Statistics. Statistics is the science that uses mathematical methods to collect, organize, summarize, and analyze data. Statistics cannot perform miracles. If a research question or hypothesis is misdirected, poorly phrased, or ambiguous, or if a study uses sloppy measurement and design and contains numerous errors, statistics alone will not help. Statistics provide valid and reliable results only when the data collection and research methods follow established scientific procedures. Descriptive statistics are intended to reduce data sets to allow for easier interpretation. If you asked 100 people how long they listened to the radio yesterday and then randomly recorded all 100 answers on a sheet of papers, you would be hard pressed to draw School of Communicatio n Arts

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conclusions from a simple examination of that paper. Data analysis would be easier if the data were organized in some fashion. In this regard, descriptive statistics are useful.

Presenting quantitative data. When researchers belonging to the positivist paradigm present data in their results and discussion sections, they utilize tables, graphs and other similar quantitative displays. Tables and graphs are visual representations. They are used to organise information to show patterns and relationships. A graph shows this information by representing it as a shape. Researchers and scientists often use tables and graphs to report findings from their research. In newspapers, magazine articles, and on television they are often used to support an argument or point of view.

Tables and graphs can be useful tools for helping people make decisions. However, they only provide part of a story. Inferences often have to be made from the data shown. As well as being able to identify clearly what the graph or table is telling us, it is important to identify what parts of the story are missing. This can help the reader decide what other information they need, or whether the argument should be rejected because the supporting evidence is suspect.

Students need to know how to critique the data and the way it is presented. A table or graph can misrepresent information by  

Leaving out important information.

Constructing it in such a way that it misrepresents relationships. This may be because of poor skills, or it may be done deliberately to bolster a particular argument.

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It is easy, if students are not skillful at reading graphs and tables, to interpret them incorrectly. They can make wrong decisions because they are basing them on false inferences. When constructing graphs and tables, it is also possible to misrepresent the data.

Constructing tables. The functions of tables are as follows:  



an organiser for an investigation a way of presenting data in a report an organiser to assist comprehension and thinking.

A table with numerous variables can be broken down into smaller tables that look at each variable separately. The interaction between the various variables can then be explored.

A table has the following structure: 

The independent variables (if they have been identified) go in the left hand columns, the dependent variables on the right.

The independent variable

Income Class

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The dependent variable

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 Any column heading should have all the information needed to define the table's meaning. A categoric variable should include a description of the class. A discrete or continuous variable should identify units and any multipliers (e.g., hundreds of people, millions of dollars, kilometers).  A title summarises what the table is showing.

 When investigating, the order of the entries is arbitrary. When reporting results, they should be sorted into an order.  Sometimes it is better to put data into bands, e.g., < 10 years, 10-15 years, 16-20 years… this makes it more manageable, and easier to see trends and patterns.

A table can illustrate the following:  A table helps organise information so it is easier to see patterns and relationships.  If a variable is continuous the table reveals a lot more information. It may show the range, interval, and number of readings.  Tables with multiple variables can provide a lot of information. They can be read by selecting and controlling factors to search for patterns in the data.

However, a table can have limitations in many cases in showing the numerical relationships and patterns. In this case, graph may make these clearer.

Constructing graphs. Graphs are a way of exploring the relationships in data and a way of displaying and reporting data. It makes it easier to illustrate the patterns, relationships, shapes of distributions and trends.

Any graph used to report findings should show:

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 the significant features and findings of the investigation in a fair and easily read way

 the underlying structure of an investigation in terms of the relationships between and within the variables  the units of measurement  the number of readings (though sometimes these will be in the accompanying text)  the range and interval of readings, where appropriate.

It is good practice (but only a convention) to put the dependent variable on the horizontal (x) axis and the independent on the vertical (y) axis.

Bar graphs. Bar graphs should be used for categoric, ordered, and discrete variables.

If the number of units in a discrete variable is large it may be displayed as a continuous variable. An example is shown below, sourced from

:

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Source: http://hdtvprofessor.com/HDTVAlmanac/?p=1044.

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Line graphs. Line graphs should be used for continuous variables.

Source: http://www.niemanlab.org/2010/05/moderating-declines-parsing-the-naasspin-on-newspaper-circ-data/

Pie graphs. Pie graphs (sometimes called pie or circle charts) are used to show the parts that make up a whole. They can be useful for comparing the size of relative parts. Because it is difficult to compare different circle graphs, and often hard to compare the angles of different sectors of the pie, it is sometimes better to choose other sorts of graphs.

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Source: http://www.dialamerica.com/corporate/thought-leadership/is-social-mediathe-key-to-excellent-customer-service.aspx.

Histograms. Use histograms when y-axis gives the frequency of, or occurrences for continuous data that has been sorted into groups, for example, 20-24 meters. All bars are usually of equal width. They can be turned into line graphs by connecting the middle of the top section of each vertical bar. Histograms are not joined up bar graphs and should not be used for categoric data (unless the number of units in each group is large).

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Source: http://crowdresearch.org/blog/?tag=social-media.

On a graph, you get an overall shape of a variable or the relationships between variables. A line graph represents a numerical or mathematical relationship and so has more information "buried" in it than other graphs. Line graphs can sometimes be used to make predictions for values that were not measured, by interpolating or extrapolating the trend, or by looking at the shape.

Graphs have limitations, which are explained as follows: 1.

Graphs can tell you a lot about the design of an investigation, but they don't tell you everything.

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3.

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The scales on the axes can be stretched or shrunk to emphasise one side of a relationship or to make a point that may not be justified by the data.

A graph implies a relationship but not necessarily a cause.

Some question to guide researchers on the appropriateness of using graphs:   

 





Is the information presented appropriately for the design of the investigation?

What does the table or graph not tell us about the design of the investigation?

What does the information in the table or graph tell us? (Are there any patterns in the data?)

What does the data shown not tell us that might invalidate our interpretation?

Do the patterns suggest an association, a difference, or a change between the variables?

Can we use the pattern in the data to predict and generalize? (This includes being aware of the limitations of the presentation of the data.)

Are there alternative interpretations for the pattern of the data? Might other factors be causing the pattern? Have the limitations of the data been clearly identified?

Adapted from Gott and Duggan (2003)

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Self-Assessment Report 5.2.1

Instruction: Please answer the following questions.  Why do you think researchers subscribing to a positivist paradigm believe in hypothesis testing? What is a hypothesis? Why do hypotheses learn themselves well to a positivist research?  Why do you think researchers subscribing to a positivist paradigm believe in presenting their data in a quantifiable manner? What are the usual quantifiable forms of data display?  In what circumstances do you use tables and graphs? Please explain your answer.

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5.2.2 Results and Discussions using Interpretive and Critical Paradigms

Researchers use a variety of approaches to answer questions. Some rare informal and seek to solve relatively simple problems; some are based on theory and requires formally worded questions. Researchers, however, must start with some tentative generalization regarding a relationship between two or more variables. These generalizations may take the form of an argument or proposition. Unlike the positivist paradigm where a hypothesis is used, researchers in the interpretive and critical paradigm put forward arguments and propositions.

Researchers in the interpretive and critical paradigms often use research questions in problem- or policy-oriented studies and are not specifically interested in testing the statistical significance of their findings. Studies of this nature are sometimes classified as exploratory research because researchers have no idea what may be found. They do not have enough prior information to take predictions.

Exploratory research is intended to search for data indications rather than to attempt to find causality. The goal is to gather preliminary data, to be able to refine research questions, and possibly to develop hypotheses.

Proposition and argument. A proposition is a viewpoint that a researcher creates, defends or destroys. It should be worded as a declarative sentence that unambiguously expresses the researcherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s position. A proposition can be the main point of the researcherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s position. It can also be a single supportive element. It can also be an

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opposing proposition that you will disprove. The following are the attributes of a good proposition:

 Debatable. A proposition should first be debatable in that arguments may be marshaled for and against the proposition. This is important for the persuader, too, as one way of persuading is putting up arguments against the proposition and knocking them down.  Provable. As well as arguing for and against the case, it should be possible to conclusively prove the truth of the proposition.

An argument, on the other hand, is usually a main idea, often called a “claim” or “thesis statement,” backed up with evidence that supports the idea. In the majority of papers, the researcher will need to make some sort of claim and use evidence to support it, and the researcher’s ability to do this well will separate his or her paper from the rest who see assignments as mere accumulations of fact and detail. In other words, gone are the happy days of being given a “topic” about which you can write anything. It is time to stake out a position and prove why it is a good position for a thinking person to hold.

When beginning to write a paper, the researcher should ask oneself, “What is my point?” If your papers do not have a main point, they cannot be arguing for anything.

Asking what your point is can help the researcher avoid a mere “information dump.”

Arguments in academic writing are usually complex and take time to develop. An argument will need to be more than a simple or obvious statement such as “communication leads to learning.” One needs to develop the context of the communication – where is it taking place, who are the actors, what are the messages and what is the effect. Hence, the argument can be something like: rural villages that possessed more complex communication systems are capable of producing more complex knowledge and practice systems of agriculture.

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Writing propositions and arguments. The proposition and/or argument of a research paper needs to be developed. In so doing, the researcher is confirming his or her position, building a case. It uses evidence and appeals to the readers’ rational and logical thinking. The researcher argues the case based on evidence. The success of the proposition or argument depends on the researcher’s skill in convincing the readers—through sound reasoning, persuasion, and evidence—the strength of one’s point of view. There are three fundamental types of appeal in presenting an argument: reason, ethics, and emotion. These types are elaborated as follows:  Reason. Clear thinking requires that the researcher states his or her claim and support it with concrete, specific evidence. This approach appeals to our common sense and rational thinking. Formal reasoning entails following certain established logical methods to arrive at certain pieces of information or conclusions. Generally, these logical methods are known as inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning. When our logical thinking states specific facts (called premises) and then draws a conclusion, a generalization, we call this inductive thinking. Inductive reasoning enables us to examine the specific details in light of how well they add up to the generalization. When we think inductively, we are asking whether the evidence clearly supports the conclusions. In deductive reasoning, our logical thinking starts with the generalization. As we apply our generalization to a specific situation, we examine the individual premises that make that generalization reasonable or not. When our logical thinking starts with the generalization, or conclusion, then we may apply the generalization to a particular situation to see whether that generalization follows from the premises. Our deductive thinking can be expressed as a syllogism or an enthymeme, a shortened form of the syllogism.

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ď&#x201A;ˇ Ethics. Think of ethics as the force of character of the speaker as it is represented in oration or writing. If you misrepresent the evidence or one of your sources, your reader will question your ethics. In any situation where you must rely on your reader's goodwill and common sense, you will lose your reader's open-minded stance toward your argument when you use unethical methods to support your argument. This can happen intentionally, by misrepresenting evidence and experts and by seeking to hurt individuals or groups. You may also undermine your argument by unintentional misunderstanding of the evidence and the implications of your position. This can happen when you don't research the evidence responsibly, preferring instead to express your own and others' unfounded opinions. ď&#x201A;ˇ Emotion. Using emotions as a support for argument can be tricky. Attempting to play on your readers' emotions can smack of manipulation and is often mistrusted. To use emotional appeal successfully, you need to apply discretion and restraint. You need to choose examples that represent and illustrate your ideas fairly and then present your arguments as objectively as possible. The researcher must carefully draw the connections between the ideas and illustrations, choosing diction in such a way that readers don't question motives as manipulative and sensational. Strong evidence accumulated by careful research often addresses this potential problem well.

Presenting qualitative data. As researchers in the interpretive paradigm are more contemplative and researchers in the critical paradigm provide value judgments, a lot of the data provided are qualitative. The following are just of the many ways data can be arranged and presented: ď&#x201A;ˇ Natural. The data are presented in a shape that resembles the phenomenon being studied. For instance, if the data are excerpts from an observation of a

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village meeting, present it in a sequential order or in an order that re-presents the flow of the meeting itself.  Most Simple to Most Complex. For sake of understanding, start the presentation of data with the simplest example found. As the complexity of each example or exemplar presented increases, the reader will have a better chance of following the presentation.

 First Discovered/Constructed to Last Discovered/Constructed. The data are presented in a chronicle-like fashion, showing the course of the researcher's personal journey in the study. This style is reminiscent of an archeological style of presentation: What was the first "relic" excavated, then the second and so forth.

 Quantitative-Informed. In this scheme data are presented according to strategies commonly found in quantitative or statistical studies. Data are arranged along lines of central tendencies and ranges, clusters, and frequencies.

 Theory-Guided. Data arrangement is governed by the researcher's theory or theories regarding the phenomenon being re-presented in the study. For instance, a Marxist-informed researcher might present data from a doctorSukhothai Thammathirat Open University

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patient interview in terms of talk which shows who controls the means for producing information in the interaction, talk which illustrates who is being marginalized, and so forth.

 Narrative Logic. Data are arranged with an eye for storytelling. Researchers plot out the data in a fashion which allows them to transition from one exemplar to another just as narrators arrange details in order to best relate the particulars of the story.

 Most Important to Least Important or From Major to Minor. Like the journalistic style of the inverted pyramid, the most important "findings" are presented first and the minor "discoveries" come last.  Dramatic Presentation. This one is the opposite of the inverted pyramid style.

With the dramatic arrangement scheme, researchers order their data presentation so as to save the surprises and unforeseen discoveries for last.  No Particular Order. As it sounds, data are arranged with no particular, conscious pattern in mind, or the researcher fails to explain how or why the data are displayed the way they are.

Qualitative data display format options. Miles, Huberman and Saldana present two types of qualitative data display format options – matrices and networks. A matrix is School of Communicatio n Arts

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essentially the intersection of two lists, set up as rows and columns. It is in tabular format that collects and arranges data for easy viewing in one place, permits detailed analysis and sets the stage for later cross-case analysis with other comparable cases or sites. Some examples of matrix displays are shown below:

Source: http://squareone-learning.com/blog/2012/05/01/

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Source: http://glendabaker.net/blog/

Networks, on the other hand, is a collection of nodes or points connected by links or lines that display streams of participant actions, events and processes. Network lend

themselves well to a case-oriented approach that re-creates the plot of events over

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time, as well as narratives that tend to get chopped up analytically in matrices. They are helpful in focusing on multiple variables at the same time. They present readily

analyzable information at a glance. Examples of networks are presented below:

Source: Analyzing social network. #Shahbag from Twitter Data. http://technologyandsocialparticipation.blogspot.com/.

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Source: McDonnell, Ciara. http://www.manageprojectsonsharepoint.com/blog/author/cmcdonnell/page/2/.

Self-Assessment Report 5.2.2 Instruction: Please answer the following questions.  Why do you think researchers subscribing to a positivist paradigm believe in hypothesis testing? What is a hypothesis? Why do hypotheses learn themselves well to a positivist research?  Why do you think researchers subscribing to a positivist paradigm believe in presenting their data in a quantifiable manner? What are the usual quantifiable forms of data display?

 In what circumstances do you use tables and graphs? Please explain your answer.

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Assignment for Module 5.

For Module 5 you can choose one of the two following assignments:

Assignment 5.1 Select and read at least two research papers from an Asian communication and/or media journal such as Media Asia and Journal of Asian Communication. For each paper you have read, kindly write the following: ď&#x201A;ˇ A summary of the paper, including title, objectives, theoretical framework and main findings. ď&#x201A;ˇ Identify the communication research paradigm and philosophical domain of the

paper. Please justify your answer.

OR

Assignment 5.2

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 Kindly construct dummy tables using the following variables: (1) exposure to television news and (2) pessimistic outlook of the world of children in various age groups .  Kindly construct a dummy graph (select any of the graph types presented in the discussion) using one or more of the following variables: (1) frequency of rural digital center visits; (2) income class (A, B, C, D and E); and (3) geographic location of respondent (rural, semi-urban and urban).

 Kindly construct a dummy matrix showing the year establish, office location, number of personnel and services offered of advertising agencies based in Bangkok, Thailand. You would need to search this information from the web.  Kindly construct a dummy network analysis of a political icon or celebrity’s life cycle to include his or her transitions, trajectories and turning points. You can base it on his or her life story; taking it from his or her curriculum vitae.

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Bibliography: Austin, R., Holding, B., Bell, J. and Daniels, S. (n.d.). Assessment Matters: No.7.

Patterns and Relationships in School Science. London: SEAC. Ezzy, Douglas. (2002). Qualitative Analysis: Practice and Innovation. Routledge.

London.

Flockton, L., Crooks, T, and Gilmore, A. (2004). Graphs, Tables and Maps: Assessment Results 2003. Dunedin: Educational Research Unit, University of Otago.

Goldsworthy, A. (2004). Acquiring scientific skills (see especially pages 40-49). In Sharp, J. (ed.) (2004). Developing primary science. Exeter: Learning Matters.

Retrieved 10 May 2008, from http://www.learningmatters.co.uk/sampleChapters/pdfs/DPS03.pdf Gott, R. and Duggan, S. (2003). Understanding and Using Scientific Evidence: How to Critically Evaluate Data. London: SAGE Publications.

Ministry of Education (2007). The New Zealand Curriculum. Wellington: Learning Media.

Online Guide to Writing and Research Writing Center, University of Maryland. http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/argument/. Accessed on April 10, 2015.

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Key Readings

Chenail, Ronald J. (1995). Presenting Qualitative Data. The Qualitative Report.

Volume 2, Number 3. December. http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR23/presenting.html. Accessed on April 9. 2015/

Chris Joyce, Alex Neill, Verena Watson, Jonathan Fisher. (2008). Tables and Graphs. http://arb.nzcer.org.nz/supportmaterials/tables.php. Accessed on April 9, 2015.

Miles, M., Huberman, M. and Johnny Saldana. (2014). Qualitative Data Analysis: A Methods Sourcebook. Sage Publication. . http://www.theculturelab.umd.edu/uploads/1/4/2/2/14225661/miles-huberman-saldanadesigning-matrix-and-network-displays.pdf.

Wimmer, Roger and Joseph Dominick. (1997). Mass Media Research: An Introduction. Fifth Edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company. California.

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