EncyclopediaofLife Launched Maymarkedthelaunchofthe EncyclopediaofLife (EOL),anunprecedented efforttodocumentall1.8millionnamed speciesofanimals,plants,andother formsoflifeonEarth.TheEncyclopedia willgivescientists,students,andcitizens multi-mediaaccesstoallinformationonall knownlivingspecies,eventhosethathave justbeendiscovered.
TheFieldMuseumofNaturalHistory, HarvardUniversity,MarineBiologicalLaboratory, SmithsonianInstitution,andBiodiversityHeritage Libraryjoinedtogethertoinitiatetheproject.The MissouriBotanicalGardenhasalsobecomeafull partner,andaninternationaladvisoryboardofdistinguishedindividualswillhelpguidetheEncyclopedia.
“TheEncyclopediaofLife willprovidevaluable biodiversityandconservationinformationtoanyone, anywhere,atanytime,”saidDr.JamesEdwards, EOLExecutiveDirector.“Throughcollaboration,we allcanincreaseourappreciationoftheimmense varietyoflife,thechallengestoit,andwaysto conservebiodiversity.”
Overthenext10years,EOLwillgenerate Internetpagesforallcurrentlynamedspecies, andwillexpeditetheclassificationofthemillions ofspeciesyettobediscoveredandcatalogued. Pageswillincludewritteninformationaswellas photographs,video,soundclips,locationmaps, andotheravailablemultimediamaterials.
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Whileinitialworkwillemphasizespecies ofanimals,plants,andfungi,thedesigncan beextendedtoencompassmicrobiallife. Toprovidedepthbehindtheportalpagefor eachspecies,theBiodiversityHeritageLibrary (BHL),aconsortiumthatholdsmostoftherelevant scientificliterature,willscananddigitizetens ofmillionsofpagesofthescientificliterature thatwillofferopenaccesstodetailedknowledge. “Idreamthatinafewyearswherevera referencetoaspeciesoccursontheInternet, therewillbeahyperlinktoitspageinthe EncyclopediaofLife,”concludedEdwards. Toviewsamplepages,visitwww.eol.org andclickthe“DemonstrationPages”link.
Source:http://www.eol.org/resources.html
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Palmetto Features 4ANewMethodofPropagationfor Ziziphuscelata Laboratorytechniquescanbeusedtoaidintherecoveryeffortsof manyendangeredplantspecies.ResearchesattheUniversityofFlorida explorethepossibilitieswith Ziziphuscelata,anextremelyrarespecies endemictotheLakeWalesRidge.
8LaurelWilt:ASeriousThreattoRedbay andOtherRelatedNativePlants Laurelwilthasresultedinepidemiclevelsofredbaymortalityin severalstates,includingFlorida.Learnabouttheinsectvectorthat distributesapreviouslyundescribedvascularfungustoredbaysapwood.
12Fox-tailMillets–BristlyFoods Regardlessofwhetheryoucalltheplantsbristle-grasses,fox-tails,millets orfox-tailmillets,rememberthattheseedsareediblewhenyouseeany ofFlorida’s4nativeand10introduced Setaria.Dr.DanAustinshares hisknowledgeofthese“bristlyfoods”includinghowtheytaste.
Images,toptobottom:Ziziphuscelata– photobyShirleyDenton.Xyleborusglabratus– photobyMichaelC.Thomas. Setariamacrosperma– drawingbyEdnaMayWhitehorn
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ONTHECOVER:
Laurelwilthasresultedinepidemiclevels ofredbaymortalityinavarietyofhabitats, includinghardwoodhammocks. PhotobyAlbert(Bud)Mayfield,Florida DepartmentofAgricultureandConsumer Services,www.forestryimages.org
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ByChristine Wieseand
M.E.Kane
Environmental HorticultureDepartment
UniversityofFlorida, Gainesville
Abouttheauthors
Dr.MichaelKane,Professor andAssistantChairof EnvironmentalHorticulture attheUniversityofFlorida, isdirectorofthePlant Restoration,Conservation andPropagationProgram. Hisresearchinvolvesapplication ofeco-physiological,genetic diversity,and invitro propagationtechniques forthereintroduction ofnativeplants.
ChristineWiesereceived aBachelorofSciencein PublicHorticulturefrom PurdueUniversityin1999 andcompletedaMaster ofScienceinEnvironmental HorticulturefromtheUniversity ofFloridain2002.Sheisa biologistintheEnvironmental Horticulturedepartmentatthe UniversityofFlorida.She remainsinterestedinFlorida’s nativeplantsandiscurrently amemberoftheFlorida NativePlantSociety,Paynes PrairieChapter.
ANewMethod ofPropagation for Ziziphuscelata (Floridaziziphus), aFloridaEndangered Species Ziziphuscelata photos(aboveandright)byShirleyDenton
Floridaziziphus(Ziziphuscelata JuddandD.Hall)is afederallyendangeredshrubfoundonlyintwocountiesin centralFlorida(USFWS,1999;Weekleyetal.,1999).This deciduousshrubgrowsto2mtallandproducessolitaryand axillaryflowersbearinggreenishsepalsandfivewhitepetals (Delaney etal.,1989;JuddandHall,1984;Weekley etal., 1999).Leavesarealternate,oblong-ellipticaltoslightlyovate andlessthan25mmlong(JuddandHall,1984).Fruitsare ellipsoiddrupesof10-20mminlengthandturnyellowish whenripe(Delaney etal.,1989;Weekley etal.,1999).[Fig.1]
Floridaziziphusisoneofanincreasingnumberofrare plantspeciesfoundonlyalongtheLakeWalesRidge.The LakeWalesRidgeisaremnantsandbarisolatedbywater fromwhatisnowtheUnitedStateslandmassduringthe Pleistoceneage(Myers,1990;Webb,1990).Duetoitsisolation,uniqueecosystemshavedevelopedalongthissandy ridge.TheLakeWalesRidgeiscomprisedofmostlyhigh pineecosystemsincludingsandpinescrub(Myers,1990).
Floridaziziphusisfoundinthesouthernportionofthe LakeWalesRidgeinamatrixofhighpineandsandpine scrubecosystems(USFWS,1999;Weekley etal.,1999).
Floridaziziphusmayhaveasignificantecologicalroleinthehighpineandsandpine scrubcommunity.Rabbitshavebeenobservedeatingfallenfruits,whichmayalsobeafood sourceforgophertortoisesandsmallrodents.Evidenceofherbivoryhasbeenseenonstems andleaves,whichalsoactascoverforsmallanimalsandbirds(T.Race,Curatorof EndangeredPlants,HistoricBokSanctuary,personalcommunication,2000;USFWS,1999).
Floridaziziphuspopulationshavebeenreducedtojustfivesitesmostofwhichconsistof onlyafewindividuals(USFWS,1999;Weekley etal.,1999).Mostindividualsinthewilddo notproduceviableseedandpopulationsaregeneticallyisolated(Godt etal.,1997).Genetic analysesusingbothallozymeelectrophoresisandRAPDStechniquesindicatedthatfourofthe fiveFloridaziziphuspopulationsconsistofasinglegenotypewhilethefifthpopulationconsists ofsevengenotypes(Godt etal.,1997;C.Weekley,ArchboldBiologicalStation,personal communication,2001).BreedingstudiesconductedatHistoricBokSanctuary,usingplants propagatedfromrootcuttings,indicatethatFloridaziziphusisself-incompatibleandcrossing withinagenotypedoesnotoccur(Burkhardt etal.,1997).
ManagementtasksarecurrentlyundertakenbystaffatHistoricBokSanctuary(LakeWales, FL)andArchboldBiologicalStation(LakePlacid,FL)tokeepwildpopulationsfromdeclining further(Weekley etal.,1999).However,inorderforstablepopulationstoberestored,sexually reproducingpopulationsmustbeestablished.Cross-compatiblegenotypesmustbeestablished withinpopulations.Currentlyhowever,theonlymethodforpropagatingaspecificgenotypeof Floridaziziphusisbyrootcutting,whichisdestructivetothedonorplant.Applicationofmore efficientpropagationmethodsneedstobeexplored.Onesuchmethodismicropropagation.
Micropropagationistherapid invitro productionofplantsonasteriledefinedculture mediumundercontrolledconditionsoflightandtemperature.Thistechnologyhasbeenapplied totheefficientproductionofmanyplantspecies.Onekeyadvantageisthatproductioncan
Floridaziziphus populationshave beenreducedto justfivesitesmost ofwhichconsist ofonlyafew individuals. Fig.1– Mature Ziziphuscelata specimens, BokTowerGardens exsitu collection.
ANewMethodofPropagationfor Ziziphuscelata beinitiatedfromverysmallpiecesofinitial plantmaterialwhichresultsinlittleorno damagetothedonorplantsandproduces plantletsthataregeneticallyidenticalto thedonorplant.Inthisstudyweexplored theuseofmicropropagationasapotential methodforgeneratingspecificgenotypes ofFloridaziziphusforuseinproducing sexuallyreproducingwildpopulations.
Successfulplantmicropropagation requirescompletionofseveralsuccessive stages(Stages0-IV)(Kane,2000b).Thefirst stage(Stage0)involvesselectingandpreparingthedonorplanttoincreasetheprobability
Glossary Exsitu (“off-site”)conservation A conservationmethodwhichentails theactualremovalofgermplasm resources(seeds,pollen,sperm, individualorganisms)fromthe originalhabitatornatural environment.
Invitro (Latinfor"inglass")Living intesttubes,outsidetheorganism orinanartificialenvironment, typicallyinglassvesselsinwhich culturedcells,tissues,organsor wholeplantsmayreside.
Exvitro (Latinfor"fromglass") Organismsremovedfromtissue cultureandtransplanted;generally tosoilorpottingmixture.
Source: FoodandAgriculture Organizationofthe UnitedNations–Glossaryofbiotechnology andgeneticengineering www.fao.org/biotech/index_glossary.asp
weedextract).Plantgrowthregulatorsare frequentlyincorporatedintothemedium. Manyofthesegrowthsubstancesarenaturally producedbyplantsandpromotephysiologicalresponseslikeshootgrowthorroot growthwhenaddedtoculturemedia.
Wedevelopedprocedurestoestablish culturesof Z.celata usingsurfacesterilized nodalsectionsexcisedfromseedlingsgrown undergreenhouseconditions.InMarch, 2001,150seedsweregerminatedina soillesspottingmixandmaintainedunder greenhouseconditionsuntilseedlingshad producedapproximately10nodes.The
ofestablishmentinculture.Theplantmaterial usedtoestablishplantculturesvaries.Excised embryosorseedlingsareoftenusedbecause frequentlyitiseasiertoremovepotential bacterialandfungalcontaminantsfromthem thatcanaffectplantculturegrowth.With Ziziphuscelata,1-yearoldseedproducedin theHistoricBokSanctuaryCenterforPlant Conservation’s exsitu collectionofendangeredplantswereused.Seedswerecleaned oftheirfruit,driedandthenstoredinbrown paperbagsatroomtemperatureuntilexperimentationcommenced.[Fig.2]
Thenextmicropropagationstage(StageI) requiresestablishmentofaseptic(sterile) planttissueinculturevesselsonadefined medium.Theculturemediumusuallyconsistsofmineralsalts,vitamins,andsucrose. Mediaaretypicallygelledwithagar(asea
upper6-7nodeswereremovedfromeach seedlingandcutinto2-nodesections. Nodalsectionsweresurfacesterilizedin dilutebleach(1.5%sodiumhypochlorite), andthenrinsedthreetimesinsterilewater. Thenodalsectionswereplacedonasterile establishmentmediumconsistingofWoody PlantsMedium(WPM)mineralsaltsand vitamins(McCownandLloyd,1981), sucrose,supplementedwiththeplant growthregulatorbenzyladenine(BA)and solidifiedwith7g/LTCagar.
Shootproductionoccurredfromaxillary buds.TheseStageIcultureswereindexedfor thepresenceofbacterialandfungalcontaminantsusingLeifertandWaitessterilitytest medium(PhytotechnologyLaboratories, cat.#L476,ShawneeMission,KS)and proceduresasdescribedbyKane,(2000a).
Fig.2– Cleaned Ziziphuscelata seed.Scalebar=10mm.
Fig.3– StageIIshootproduction of Ziziphuscelata culturedonmedia supplementedwith0.25μMBAand 14.4μMGA3 after28daysculture.
After28days,indexedculturesdeterminedtobecontaminatedwerediscarded.
Thegoalofthenextmicropropagationstage(StageII)israpidclonalshoot multiplication.Consequently,toachieve this,aseriesofexperimentswereconductedtooptimizetheculturemedium, particularlythetypeandconcentration ofgrowthregulators,topromotemaximumshootproduction.Preliminary experimentsindicatedthat,compared toBA,theplantgrowthregulators2iP, kinetin,orzeatindidnotpromoteshoot production(datanotshown).However, thepresenceofBAaloneinthemedium promotedgrowthofveryshortshoots. Sincethegrowthregulatorgibberellic acid(GA3)typicallypromotesshoot elongation,effectsoflowerBAlevels (0,0.25,0.50,0.75,or1μM)withand withoutGA3 wereevaluated.Explants consistedofathreenodestemsegment. Theapicaltipofeachstemsegmentwas removedbeforebeingplacedhorizontallyonthemediumsurface.After28days, culturesweretransferredontofresh mediawithBAandGA3 atthesame concentrationsandcombinations.After 56days,shootnumberandshootlength wererecorded.
Establishmentofculturesusing nodalsectionsfromseedlingsprovedto
beanefficientmethodofcultureinitiation.Contaminationrateswerelowas basedoncultureindexingprocedures. Maximumshootproduction(8shoots /nodalsection)wasobservedonmediumcontaining0.5μMBAand15μM GA3.StageIIculturesconsistedof clustersofsmallaxillaryshoots.[Fig.3] Theseshootcultureswereseparated intoindividualunrootedshootscalled microcuttings.Thesemicrocuttingsare typicallyrootedincultureor,preferably, directlyundergreenhouseconditions.
Resultsofpreliminaryexperiments indicatedthatshootmicrocuttingsof Z.celata couldnotberooted exvitro (StageIV).Consequently,attemptswere madetoinducemicrocuttingrooting inculture(StageIII).Themedium componentsweremodifiedinan attempttoinducerootformation. Variousplantgrowthregulatorscalled auxinswereaddedtothemedium. Althoughafewrootedplantletswere infrequentlyobserved invitro [Fig.4], attemptstodefineamediumfor invitro rootingwereunsuccessful.Theseresults serveasthebasisforfutureresearch including invitro rootingbysubculturingmicrocuttingsontoamedium withoutgrowthregulatorsforseveral weekspriortotransferontorooting medium.Extremelyinfrequentrooting ofmicrocuttingsmaybeduetoa numberoffactors,includinggenetic factorsandshouldbeevaluatedfurther. Clearly,furtherexperimentationneeds tobecompletedtoestablishStageII rootingandStageIVacclimatization proceduresforthemicropropagation of Z.celata
Althoughveryhigh invitro shoot multiplicationrateswerenotachieved for Z.celata,theratesachievedonmediumsupplementedwiththe0.5μMBA (8-foldmonthlyincrease)wereacceptabletofulfilltheobjectivesofthisstudy. Massproductionofthespeciesonascale
requiredformosthorticultural oragronomiccropsisnotrequired. With Z.celata,allthatisrequiredis thatthegenerationofplantnumbers ofeachgenotypesufficientforrestoration projectswithlittleornodamage totheparentplant.
Fig.4– Ziziphuscelata microcuttingsvery rarelyrooted.Microcuttingshownrooted after56dayscultureinthepresenceof 5μMindolebutyricacid(IBA),aplant growthregulator.Scalebar=10mm.
Theseexperimentshaveprovided importantinformationaboutthe challengesandpotentialtopropagate Z.celata usingmicropropagationprocedures.Currently,therearelimitations usingthismethodduetodifficulties withrootingmicrocuttings.Uncertainties alsoremainregarding acclimatization proceduresoncemicrocuttingshave beenrooted.Currently,theonlymethod otherthanmicropropagationforpropagationofaspecificgenotypeof Z.celata neededforrestorationpurposesisby rootcutting.Takingrootcuttingsis destructivetothehostplantfrom whichtheyareremoved.Sincesofew individualsof Z.celata remain,root
LaurelWilt:A SeriousThreat toRedbayand OtherRelated NativePlants ByAlbertE.MayfieldIII
Introduction
Likemanyotherecosystems,our nation’sforestsareincreasinglythreatenedbyinvasiveexoticinsectsand disease-causingpathogens.Toreadeven anabbreviatedlistofforesttreesthat havesustainedsubstantialnegative impactsduetothesenon-nativepestsis disheartening.Suchalistwouldinclude Americanchestnut(ravagedbychestnut blight),Americanelm(Dutchelmdisease),ash(emeraldashborer),American beech(beechbarkdisease),easternhemlock(hemlockwoolyadelgid),butternut (butternutcanker),floweringdogwood (dogwoodanthracnose),andwhitepine (whitepineblisterrust),tonameafew. Unfortunately,oneofthesoutherncoastal plain’smostcommon,attractive,and ecologicallyimportanttreespecieshas becomearecentadditiontothisgrowing listofnativetreesundersiegeby foreigninvaders.
Redbay(Perseaborbonia (L.) Spreng.),anaromatic,broadleaved evergreenfoundinwoodlandhammocks, onbluffsandcoastaldunes,andin residentiallandscapes(Nelson1994),
Figs.1and2 –Lateraland dorsalviewofadult Xyleborus glabratus Eichhoffbeetles. Theredbayambrosiabeetle (orRAB),anativeofAsia, wasfirstdetectedintheU.S. in2002.TheRABintroduces sporesofalethalwiltfungus intothesapwoodofredbays andotherhosttrees. Photos byMichaelC.Thomas,Florida DepartmentofAgriculture andConsumerServices, www.forestryimages.org
InitialDetectionof Xyleborusglabratus– May2002 Port Wentworth,GA
DistributionofCounties withLaurelWilt Disease* Symptoms, by Year ofInitial Detection
* Laurelwiltisafataldiseaseofredbay (Perseaborbonia)causedbyapreviously undescribedvascular wiltfungus(Raffaellea sp.) andassociatedwiththe attacks by the redbay ambrosiabeetle(Xyleborusglabratus).
Informationprovided by:
LaurieReid
BudMayfield
JamesJohnson
Updated April 13, 2007
Fig.3 –Countiesinwhichtreeswithlaurelwiltsymptomshavebeenobserved, byyearofinitialdetection,asofApril2007.
Fig.1Fig.2
isbeingseverelyimpactedbyanewdiseasecalledlaurelwilt. Laurelwiltiscausedbyapreviouslyundescribedvascular fungus(Raffaelea sp.)thatcolonizesthesapwoodofitshost tree,restrictingwaterflowandcausingthetreetowiltand die.ThisfungusisvectoredbyanAsianwood-boringinsect, theredbayambrosiabeetle(Xyleborusglabratus Eichhoff),or “RAB”.[Figs.1and2]TheRABwasfirstdetectedinasurvey trapatPortWentworth,Georgia(nearSavannah)in2002,but itsassociationwiththeunusualandexcessiveredbaymortalityoccurringinthatregionwasnotrecognizeduntillate2004 (Fraedrich etal. 2006).Sincethen,laurelwiltandassociated redbaymortalityhasbeendetectedinmorethan33counties inSouthCarolina,Georgia,andFlorida.Thedistributionof thislethaldiseaseislikelytocontinuetoexpand.[Fig.3]
Treesbecomeinfectedwiththelaurelwiltfunguswhen RABsboreintothesapwood.Ingeneral,ambrosiabeetlesare fungusfarmers:theycreatetunnelsinthewoodofhosttrees, inoculatethosetunnelswithfungalsporestheycarryontheir
Fig.4 –Treesdiseasedwithlaurelwiltinitiallyexhibitdroopingfoliage withareddishorpurplishdiscoloration.
Figs.5and6 –Treesaffectedbylaurelwiltexhibitadark,blackish staininthesapwood.
Fig.7– Asthetreediesfromfungalinfectionandiscolonizedbymore ambrosiabeetles,toothpick-liketubesorpilesoffinesawdustmaybe observedonthebark.
PhotosbyAlbert(Bud)Mayfield,FloridaDepartmentofAgricultureand ConsumerServices,www.forestryimages.org
bodies,andpropagatethefungusasfood.Mostnative ambrosiabeetlesarelimitedtodead,injured,orweakened trees(Wood1982)andgenerallyarenotknowntobedisease vectorsorpestsofhealthytrees.AsanexoticinsectinNorth America,however,theRABiscolonizingapparentlyhealthy redbaytreesinawidevarietyofhabitats,anditsassociated wiltfungusisfunctioningasanaggressiveplantpathogen. TheRABisoneofatleast25newspeciesofbarkandwoodboringbeetlespeciesintroducedintotheU.S.since1985, mostofwhicharebelievedtohavearrivedaccidentallyin untreatedsolidwoodpackingmaterial,suchascratesand palletsusedininternationaltrade(Haack2006).
Symptoms Treesdiseasedwithlaurelwiltinitiallyexhibitdrooping foliagewithareddishorpurplishdiscoloration.[Fig4]This discolorationmayoccurinaportionthecrownatfirst,but graduallytheentirecrownwiltsandreddens.Thefoliage eventuallyturnsbrownandmayremainonthebranchesfor uptoayearormore.Stemcrosssectionsandremovalof barkfromwiltedtreesrevealsadark,blackishstaininthe sapwood.[Figs.5and6]Theextentofthisblackstaining (aresponseofthetreetothefungalinfection)varies dependingonhowlongthetreehasbeeninfected.
Intheearlystagesofdisease,anaffectedredbaymay notshowanyobvioussignsofambrosiabeetleattack,even thoughthetreehasalreadybeenattackedandinoculated withthewiltfungus.Presumably,veryfewRABsareneeded tosuccessfullyinoculatethetree;theseearlyattacksare inconspicuousandmayhappenonbranchesinthecrownor onthestem.Eventually,asthetreediesfromfungalinfection andiscolonizedbymoreambrosiabeetles,toothpick-like tubesorpilesoffinesawdustmaybeobservedonthebark. [Fig.7]ThisdustisproducedbytheRABandmultipleother speciesofambrosiabeetlesthatcolonizethedeadtree.
ImpactonRedbay InareaswheretheRABhasbeenestablishedforseveral years,theimpactoflaurelwiltonpopulationsofmature redbaytreeshasbeendevastating.Inplotsmonitoredon FortGeorgeIsland,DuvalCounty,Florida,redbaymortality associatedwithlaurelwiltincreasedfrom10%to92%injust
Fig.4
Fig.5
Fig.7
Fig.6
Fig.8 –Leavesofredbayandother Persea speciesaretheprimary foodsourceforlarvaeofthepalamedesswallowtailbutterfly. PhotobyJohnnyN.Dell,Retired,www.forestryimages.org
15months,includingthedeathofallredbaysoverfourinches indiameter(A.E.MayfieldandJ.M.Eickwort,FloridaDACS, unpublisheddata).Similarlyhighlevelsofredbaymortality fromotherareasofcoastalSouthCarolinaandGeorgiahave beenreportedbystateforesthealthstaff(J.Johnson,Georgia ForestryCommission,andL.Reid,SouthCarolinaForestry Commission,personalcommunication).Interestingly,seedlingsizedredbaysappeartobelessaffectedbythedisease, presumablybecausetheyarenotasreadilycolonizedby theRAB.Whetherthiswillcontinuetobethecase,or whethertherewillbeanynaturaldiseaseresistancein matureredbaypopulations,remainstobeseen.
Althoughnotprizedforitstimber,redbayisaspecies ofnotableecological,cultural,andaestheticvalue.Redbay producesannualcropsofberry-likedrupesthatareeatenby songbirds,wildturkeys,quail,rodents,deer,andblackbear (Brendemuehl1990,Coder2006).Inadditiontoservingas winterbrowsefordeer,leavesof Persea speciesaretheprimary larvalfoodsourceforthepalamedesswallowtailbutterfly (Papiliopalamedes (Drury))(HallandButler2005).[Fig.8] Culturalusesofredbayhaveincludeditswoodfortrimon boatsandcabinets,itsleavesforflavoringteasandgumbos, andvariousplantpartsforthemedicinalpurposesofNative Americans(Coder2006).Althoughcommonlyasmalltomedium-sizedunderstorytree,redbaycanreach70feetinheight (Brendemuehl1990)andisanimportantshadetreeinsome
residentialneighborhoods,parks,andrecreationalareas.The visualimpactoflaurelwiltinaforestorneighborhoodwhere redbayisabundantisstriking.Althoughdifficulttoquantify, thelossesassociatedwithwidespreadmortalityofredbaydue tolaurelwiltarenumerousanddiverse.
OtherHostSpecies Inadditiontocausingepidemiclevelsofredbaymortality, laurelwilthasalsobeenconfirmedinthefieldaffectingother speciesinthefamilyLauraceae,includingsassafrass(Sassafras albidum (Nuttall)Nees),pondspice(Litseaaestivalis (L.) Fernald),andtheendangeredpondberry(Linderamelissifolia (Walter)Blume)(Fraedrichetal.2006).Laboratorytestshave alsodemonstratedthepathogenicityofthewiltfunguson spicebush(Linderabenzoin (L.)Blume)andswampbay(Persea palustris (Raf.)Sarg.)(Fraedrichetal.2006).Inaddition,both theRABandthelaurelwiltpathogenhavebeenrecoveredfrom diseasedavocado(Perseaamericana Mill.)seedlingsplantednear Jacksonvilleformonitoringpurposes.Whattheimpactoflaurel wiltwillbeontheseandotherLauraceousspeciesisuncertain, butthegrowinglistofhostsseemstowarrantconcernforother membersofthisimportantanddiverseplantfamily.
Management Unfortunately,managementoptionsforlaurelwiltare verylimited,andatthistimetherearenostrategiesthathave actuallybeendemonstratedaseffectiveinpreventingorreducingdiseaseimpact.Thefollowingaresuggestedaspotential managementtactics,basedonapproachesemployedforsimilar wiltdiseasesofothertrees(e.g.,Dutchelmdisease): Avoidtransportofinfestedwood. Perhapsthebest short-termoptionforreducing(oratleastdelaying)theimpact oflaurelwiltistohelplimititsspread,particularlybypreventinghuman-aidedtransportofwoodinfestedwiththeRAB. AlthoughtheRABisundoubtedlyspreadingnaturallyviaflight, geographicallyisolatedoccurrencesofthedisease(likethe discoveriesinDuvalCountyin2005andIndianRiverCounty in2006)suggestthatthebeetlemayalsobereachingnew, distantareasviahuman-aidedtravel.Firewood,logs,other intactwood,ornurserystockofwiltedLauraceoustrees shouldnotbetransportedtounaffectedareas.[Fig.9] Sanitation. Thegoalofsanitationistodestroyinfected hosttreesbeforebroodpopulationsoftheRABemergefrom themandspreadtonewhosttrees,therebyreducingor delayingtheoverallmortalitylevelinalocalarea.Thistreatmentwouldinvolvecuttingandburning,burying,chipping, ortightlycoveringwoodfromwiltedtrees.Althoughindividual beetlesmaytheoreticallybeabletosurviveastandardchipping processduetotheirsmallsize(about2mminlength),chippingmightsufficientlydryoutthewoodtopreventambrosia beetlesurvival,developmentandsubsequentdispersal.
Diseasedtreesthatarecutbutcannotbedestroyedor coveredshouldbelefton-siteordisposedofaslocallyas possible.Tomyknowledge,veryfewsanitationeffortsfor laurelwilthavebeenattempted.Sanitationlikelyhasthe bestchanceofbeingeffectiveifitispursuedveryearlyand diligently,whenonlyoneorafewwiltingtreesarepresent inagivenarea.Sanitationtreatmentsinareaswherelarge percentagesofredbaytreeshavealreadydiedareprobablyof littlevaluetowarddelayingorpreventingadditionalmortality.
Chemicalcontrol. Asyet,therearenopesticidesspecificallylabeledorrecommendedforuseagainstthelaurel wiltfungusortheRAB,orthathavebeendemonstrated topreventlaurelwiltdisease.Researchtrialsevaluatingthe efficacyofcertainfungicidesandinsecticidesinprotecting individualtreeshavebeeninitiated.
Germplasmconservation. Inlightofthepossibilityof drasticreductionsorcompletelossofredbaypopulationsin theSoutheast,redbayseedcollectioneffortsarebeinginitiatedbytheUSDAForestServiceNationalSeedLaboratory. Redbayseedwillbeplacedinlong-termcoldstorageforthe purposeofpotentially reintroducingthe speciesatafuturedate, ifandwhenthedisease vectorandpathogen areeliminatedor controlled.Thistype ofseedcollectionand conservationisalready underwayforother treespeciesthreatened byexoticpests(e.g., seewww.ashseed.org). Biologicalcontrol anddevelopmentof geneticallyresistant
Fig.9 –Posterscautioningcampersnottotransportredbayfirewoodhave beenpostedatcampgroundswithintherangeoflaurelwilt. PhotobyAlbert (Bud)Mayfield,FloridaDepartmentofAgricultureandConsumerServices
References:
Brendemuehl,R.H.1990. Perseaborbonia (L.)Spreng. Redbay.Pp.530-506. In:R.M.BurnsandB.H.Honkala (eds.).SilvicsofNorthAmerica,Volume2,Hardwoods. AgricultureHandbook654,USDAForestService, Washington,DC.
Coder,K.D.2006.Identifyingcharacteristicsofredbay (Perseaborbonia ).OutreachpublicationSFNR06-4, WarnellSchoolofForestryandNaturalResources, UniversityofGeorgia,Athens,GA.5p.
FloridaplantsinthefamilyLauraceae:
•Redbay*– Perseaborbonia
•Silkbay– Perseaborbonia var.humilis
•Swampbay– Perseapalustris
•Avocado*– Perseaamericana
•Sassafras*– Sassafrasalbidum
•Pondspice*– Litseaaestivalis
•Pondberry*– Linderamelissifolia
•NorthernSpicebush– Linderabenzoin
•Lancewood– Ocoteacoriacea
•Lovevine,Devil’sgut– Cassythafiliformis
•Pepperleafsweetwood– Licariatriandra
*indicatesaconfirmedhostoflaurelwiltinthefield.
hostsareamongthepotentiallong-termmanagement strategiesthatcouldeventuallybedevelopedtobattle laurelwilt,butsuchprogramsareverycostlyandtake yearsordecadestodevelop.
Insummary,laurelwiltisadeadlydiseaseofredbay andothervaluablenativetreesinthefamilyLauraceae. Unfortunately,itappearsthatlaurelwiltisheretostay,and hasthepotentialtospreadthroughouttherangeofredbay, whichincludesvirtuallyallofFlorida.Asexemplifiedby thecurrentlaurelwiltepidemic,bythetimeexoticpestsare detectedandidentified,theyareoftenalreadyestablished and“offandrunning”intheirnewenvironmentstoanextent thatprecludestheireradication.Ifwearetobeevenmildly successfulinprotectingournativeforestecosystemsfrom exoticpests,wemustpreventintroductionsratherthan merelyrespondingtothem.Giventheinterconnectedglobal economyinwhichwefindourselves,thisisadauntingtask. Realsuccesswillrequireinternationalcooperationandcommitmenttotheshipmentofpest-freecommodities,strict enforcementofeffectivephytosanitarystandards,andserious consequencesfornon-compliance.Otherwise,thelistof nativeforesttreesundersiegewillcontinuetogrow.
Abouttheauthor
Dr.Albert(Bud)Mayfieldistheforestentomologistfor theFloridaDepartmentofAgricultureandConsumer ServiceDivisionofForestryinGainesville,Florida.
Fraedrich,S.W.,T.C.Harrington,andR.J.Rabaglia.2006. An Ophiostoma speciesand Xyleborusglabratus threatenredbay(Perseaborbonia)andothermembersofthe LauraceaeinthesoutheasternUSA.Posterpresentedat theconference:AdvancesinThreatAssessmentand TheirApplicationtoForestandRangelandManagement, July18-20,Boulder,CO.Accessed27April2007at http://www.urbanforestrysouth.org/Resources/Library/ Haack,R.A.2006.Exoticbark-andwood-boring ColeopteraintheUnitedStates:recentestablishments andinterceptions.CanadianJournalofForestResearch 36:269-288.
Hall,D.W.,andJ.F.Butler.2005.PalamedesSwallowtail, Papiliopalamedes (Drury).UniversityofFlorida,Institute ofFoodandAgriculturalSciencesExtension,Document EENY-060.2p.
Nelson,G.1994.ThetreesofFlorida:areferenceand fieldguide.PineapplePress,Inc.Sarasota,FL.338p.
Wood,S.L.1982.Thebarkandambrosiabeetlesof NorthandCentralAmerica(Coleoptera:Scolytidae),a taxonomicmonograph.GreatBasinNaturalistMemoirs 6:1-1359.
Fox-tailMillets ~ BristlyFoods RayMilleroncewroteofmeinThePalmetto,“hedoesn’tdograsses.”Well,thathaschanged!
ItseemsthatgrowingupintheswampsofwesternKentuckyandthensloggingthrough theEvergladesandBigCypressfor31yearsmadeapermanentimpressiononme.Although nowIliveinadesertgrasslandinsouthernArizona,thereisa ciénega (marsh)about30miles southofmyhome.OftenIfindmyselfthere,lookingattheplantsandmentallycomparing theflorawiththatofFlorida.OneoftheplantsintheArivacaCiénegaisthegrass Setaria parviflora,longcalled S.geniculata.ThatplantissocommonondisturbedsitesinFlorida thatIrarelypaidattentiontoit.HereinArizonaitisnotable,firstbecauseitishere(after all,itisnotadesertplant),andsecondbecauseitissharedwithFlorida.TheFloridaplants of S.parviflora growindisturbedareasofflatwoods,hammockmargins,marshes(brackish andfreshwater),andcoastaldunes andswales.
TomanypeopleFlorida’s S.parviflora isknot-rootfox-tailor rabodezorro (foxtail,Spanish).Otherssaythegrassis cepillo defregarbotellas (bottlebrush,Puerto Rico), deshollinador (thehusker,Puerto Rico), pajitacardosa (littlethistlegrass, Chihuahua), rabodegato (cattail,Cuba), or zacateamarga (bittergrass,Mexico).
TheFloridaplantsof Setariaparviflora growin disturbedareasofflatwoods, hammockmargins,marshes, andcoastaldunesandswales.
WunderlinandHanson’s GuidetotheVascularPlantsofFlorida calls S.parviflora yellow bristle-grass.Thesimilar S.pumila,nativetotheOldWorld,theycallyellowbristle-grass oryellowfox-tail.Namesofthosetwofox-tailsareusedinterchangeablybymanypeople becausetheplantsareincrediblysimilar.Thesetwohaveevenbeenconsideredthesame speciesinspiteoforiginallygrowingondifferentsidesoftheAtlanticOcean.
“Fox-tail”wasusedinthe1300sfortheappendageoftheEuropeanmammalcalledthe redfox, Vulpesvulpes.Theninthemiddle1500s,thename“fox-tail”wasappliedtograsses, alludingtotheflowerandfruitclustersthatarelong,slim,andresemblethatmammal’slong brush.Originally,“fox-tail”wasusedfor Alopecuruspratensis.Bythe1700s,meadowfox-tail
Abouttheauthor:
DanielF.Austin,Ph.DisaResearchAssociateoftheFairchildTropicalBotanicGarden,CoralGables, Florida,andtheArizona-SonoraDesertMuseum,Tucson,Arizona.HeisalsoanAdjunctProfessor, DepartmentofPlantSciences,UniversityofArizona,Tucson;andanEmeritusProfessoratFloridaAtlantic University,BocaRaton.
DanhasaPh.DinBotanyfromWashingtonUniversity,St.Louis,Missouri.HeisaFellowofthe LinnaeanSocietyofLondonandamemberoftheInternationalAssociationofPlantTaxonomistsandthe SocietyforEconomicBotany.
DanresidesinArizonawherehiscurrentresearchfocusesontheethnobotanyofplantspeciesshared betweentheCaribbeanandnorthwesternMexicoandadjacentUnitedStates,andonthesystematicsand evolutionoftheConvolvulaceae.
DanielF.Austin
(A.pratensis)androughearedfox-tail (Setariaitalica)wererecognized. Although“fox-tail”isoftenappliedas asingleword,withmodifiersadded thenamenowincludesseveralspecies ofthegrasses Alopecurus, Bromus, Hordeum, Muhlenbergia, Setaria,and Vulpia.Japaneseusetheword enokoro forall Setaria Enokoro maybea corruptionof inu,dog,and koro, diminutivewhere“inu”referstoboth dogsandfoxes.EventheMayaof Yucatánmakethemammalcomparison bysaying ne-kuuk-suuk (neh,animal’s tail, k’uk’uk,youngpartofaplant, sak,white).SodotheHuastecofSan LuisPotosíwith ehtillweekok (like [a]foxtail)andtheFulaniofMali, whocallit lakidavangel (dog’strail).
Otherpeoplecombinetwonames andcall Setaria “fox-tailmillets.” Setaria isincludedwithtenothergenera (Brachiaria, Digitaria, Echinochloa, Eleusine, Eragrostis, Panicum, Paspalum, Pennisetum, Sorghum, Urochloa)that collectivelyarecalled“millets.”Thename “millet”(fromMiddleFrench millet)was inEnglishbyabout1425whenitwas usedfor S.italica.“Millet”isultimately fromLatin millium (havingathousand grains),awordthatalsoleftcognate namesinItalian miglio,Portuguese milho, andSpanish millo [mijo].Thecombination “fox-tailmillet”wasnotappliedto S.italica untilabout1929.Later,thenamewas expandedtoallofthespeciesin Setaria. “Bristle-grass”wasappliedto Setaria by1840.Thatnamereferstothebristly awnsthatextendoutfrombelowthe seeds.Germansmakethesamecomparison,saying Borstenhirse (bristlegrass). SomeoftheOldWorldspecieshave suchsharpbristlesthatflowerorfruit clustersareputingranariestodiscouragerodentpredation.Bythe1850s, “species”nameswerebeingappliedto distinguishdifferentkinds,asin“rough bristle-grass”for S.verticillata. NotlongaftermovingtoArizonain 2001Ibeganstudyingacanyoninthe
Setariaparviflora (Poiret)Kerguélen. Artist:unknown.FromLeithead,H.L.,L.L.Yarlett, andT.N.Shiflet.1971.100NativeForageGrasses in11SouthernStates.USDA,SoilConservation Service,AgricultureHandbook389,Washington,DC.
BaboquivariMountainssouthwestof myhome.AsIclimbedupthecanyon, Iwouldpasstwooverlappingzonesof fox-tails.Betweenabout3,800and4,200 feetwerepatchesof S.macrostachya (plainsbristle-grass, zacatetempranero [earlygrass]).Above4,200feetthatfoxtaildisappeared,butstillwithmewas S. grisebachii (Grisebach’sbristle-grass, colade ardilla [squirreltail]),justasitislowerin theAltarValleywhereIliveat3,200feet.
Peoplehaveeatentheseeds(caryopses)ofOldWorld S.italica forover 8,000yearsandIstartedwonderingagain ifanyoneeveratethoseofNewWorld Setaria.Idiscoveredthattheseedsare ediblefor S.parviflora andforthespecies nearmyhome.Moreover,theywereformerlyimportantinculturesfromcentral MexicotoNewEnglandandtheupper GreatPlains.EricO.Callencalled Setaria grainsthe“firstNewWorldcereal,”eaten inMexicoforperhaps1,500years.
RichardS.MacNeishandLawrence Kaplanfirstreported S.parviflora asbeing foodforthepeopleintheTehuacánvalley ofMexicoin1960.Thespecieswasthen
discussedbyEricCallenin1963.These grainsappearedinthe 14C-dated40003500B.C.levelsattheOcampoCaves, andfromtheSierradeTamaulipas Cavesdatedatca.3000B.C.Thesedates werebeforethedomesticationofmaize (Zeamays)andfox-tailseedswerethe bestgrassesavailable.Callenfound that S.parviflora seedswerepresentin 71.5-77%ofcoprolitesfromtheearlier levelsinTehuacán.BetweenA.D.7001500, Setaria haddroppedto20%in hissamples,andcontinuedtodecline uptotheSpanisharrival.
Setariaparviflora intheMexicanstate ofTamaulipas,ontheotherhand,wasa moreimportantpartofthehumandiet muchlater.Somehaveexplainedthe differencebynotingthatmaizedidnot appearinTamaulipasuntilabout2200 B.C.Sincemaizearrivedlaterthanin theTehuacánvalley, Setaria remainedan importantcerealforlongerinTamaulipas.
Prehistoricuseofthegenushas nowbeenextendedfromTamaulipas andTehuacántopeoplefarthernorth andsouthinMexico,thesouthwestern, centralandeasternUnitedStates,and theCaribbean.Wehaverecordsthat seedswereeatenbypre-European peoplealongtheRíoGranderiverborder betweenCoahuila,MexicoandTexas, thePecosRiverofsouthernTexas,central ArizonaeastofPhoenix,theBigSandy riverofeasternKentucky,thenorthwesternendofLakeOntario,central Pennsylvania,andnorthwesternIowa. Thereisevenanarchaeologicalsite with Setaria intheCaribbeanonSan SalvadorIsland,Bahamas.Thesepeople representedtheArawakanislanders, Aztecs,theSaladoculture,eastern Woodlandcultures,Iroquoians,and NortheasternPlainsgroups.Thatis adiverseassemblagespanningaseries oflinguisticfamilies.
Thereappeartoberecordsofonly twohistoricAmericantribesconsuming seedsof Setaria –onebytheCocopa alongthelowerColoradoRiver,andthe
Fox-tailMillets~BristlyFoods Setariacorrugata (Elliot)J.ASchultes. Artist:EdnaMayWhitehorn.
Setariamacrosperma (ScribnerandMerrill) Schumann. Artist:EdnaMayWhitehorn.
Setariamagna Grisebach. Artist:EdnaMayWhitehorn.
Source:Hitchcock,A.S.andA.Chase.1950.ManualoftheGrassesoftheUnitedStates.USDAMiscellaneousPublicationNo.200,Washington,DC.
otherbytheSeriofcoastalSonoraalong theGulfofCortez.TheCocopawas experimentingwithcultivatingthe OldWorld S.italica,andtheSeriwere gatheringthenative S.macrostachya Sericallthisgrass xicaquiix (globular things),anditwasanimportantfood tothemintothe1980s.
Whatdomilletstastelike?Well, itdependsonwhomyoutalkwith, andwhichoneyoueat.Ihaveeaten milletraw(Setaria),inmultigrainbread (Panicum),inporridge(Panicum, Pennisetum, Setaria),inEthiopian injera (bread, Eragrostis),andmadeinto rókafarkúköles (Hungariancrepes, Panicum). Raw,thereisasomewhatnuttyflavorso subtlethatitalmostcannotbedetected. Ofcourse,thespeciesItriedfrommy frontyardwasnotoneofthoserecorded asbeingeatenbypeople.Thebread mixtureisexcellent,butwhocouldtaste themillet?Thereareseveralotherkinds ofgrainsinthebread,buttwokindsof wheatandoatsdominate.
Theporridgeiscertainlybetterthan creamofwheatoroatmeal.Ihavenever beenfondofeitherofthose,butmany peoplethinkthosearegreat.Mywife Sandratookonetasteofmilletporridge andrefusedtotouchitagain.Sheisnot likeherScotch-Irishgreat-grandfather whohadabowlofoatmealporridgefor
breakfasteverydayofhislonglife.The lasttimeItriedoatmealwas1996in Scotland.ThedishwastheScottishspecialtyinthebed-and-breakfastwherewe stayed.Theporridgewasnotsweetened, butrevoltinglysaltyandservedwitha traditionalcow-hornspoon.Itastedonly asaltycow-hornandswitchedtoeggs.
OurHungarianneighborIldiko madethe köles foraneveningmeal whenwewerevisiting,andthreatened tothrowoutthewholebatchafter samplingthem.Shemadecrepesof wheatflourforthemeal,butkeptthe köles.Itriedthem,overherobjections, andtheywerenotnearlyasbadasshe portrayedthem.Theywerealotlikethe injera thatourEthiopianfriendNigist madeafewyearsbackinFlorida. Injera isapancake-likebreadmadeofanother millet, Eragrostistef.Bothweredistinctiveintextureandtasteinawaythat cannotbedescribed–ithastobeexperienced.Actually,Ilikedthemillet köles –butnotwellenoughtocompletely substitutethemforthewheatcrepes.
So,whydidpeopleabandon Setaria asfoodsuchthatNewWorldrecords aremostlyburiedinarchaeological literature?Itisnotasimpleansweras therehavebeendifferentreasonsfor diversegroupsindistincttimesand places.SomeofthepeopleintheOld
Worldreallydidnotlikethewaymillet seedstasteanymorethanmywifeor Hungarianfriend.Whendifferentfoods becameavailable,peopleswitchedto those.Rice,ourJapanesefriendKaoru contends,tastesbetter.Otherpeople keptmilletsformakingspecialtyfoods likeJapanese awaokoshi cakesandalcoholicbeverageslikeKorean dongdongju (acountrysake).Therearedistinctive tastesthatthegrainsimparttothese productsthathavecustomary,ceremonial,andgustatoryproponents.Somemay evenjustlikethecheapbooze.Ihave nottriedthericecakesorsake,but theyarerecommendedbymyfriends. Regardlessofwhetheryoucallthe plantsbristle-grasses,fox-tails,milletsor fox-tailmillets,rememberthattheseeds areediblewhenyouseeanyofFlorida’s 4nativeand10introduced Setaria.Still, youmightwanttoletthewildbirdsand mammalseattheirfruits.Asof1951 therewererecordsof67birdsand10 mammalseatingthem;therearemany morenow.Wildlifehasbeeneating Setaria farlongerthanhumans,and theythinktheseedsaredelicious!
Formoreinformationsee:Austin,D.F. 2006.Fox-tailmillets(Setaria:Poaceae) –abandonedfoodintwohemispheres. EconomicBotany60(2):143-158.
TheEvergladesHandbook–UnderstandingtheEcosystem (2ndedition,2005)byThomasE.Lodge,CRCPress.ReviewedbySuzanneKoptur
When TheEvergladesHandbook firstcameout,Iliked it,anduseditasasupplementaltextforthegeneralEcology courseweteachatFloridaInternationalUniversity.Itwas ‘light-hearted,well-rounded,andhighlyreadable’(quoting froma1995reviewIwrote),butalittlelight onthetreatmentofplantsandthehistorical literature.ProfessorsinEnvironmentalStudies useditforthetextbookfortheEcologyof SouthFloridacourse,asitprovidedaconcise introductiontoallthehabitatsaswellasa briefhistoryofthegeologyandclimateofthe area.Iamhappytoreportthatinitssecond edition,ithasgottenevenbetter!
Theauthor,anindependentecologist, agreedtoteachonesemester’sofferingofthat course,andusedhisexperienceinteaching toguidetherevisionofhisbook.Hehasdone awonderfuljob.Thoughstillhighlyreadable, thebookisnowrepletewithreferenceson everytopic,sothatinterestedreaderscangotothesourceshe used,andlearnmoreabouteveryaspectofEvergladesecology. Eachhabitathasaplantlist,andrefersreaderstorelevant, up-to-dateresourcesforplantdistributions,conservation status,andillustrations.Anewsectiononfoodwebshelpsthe readerunderstandtheimportanceofallthedifferenthabitatsto thefunctioningoftheecosystem.Thefinalsectionofthebook reviewstheinfluencesofhumansontheEverglades,including
theimpactsofspecimencollectingandexoticintroductions (plantsandanimals).Wateranditsmovementdetermines whathabitatsexistandwhatorganismslivethere,andnonnativehumanstransformedmuchofFloridaoverthelast centurywithcanalsanddrainingflooded areasforagricultureandhabitation.Theauthor discussesEvergladesrestorationinawayeveryonecanunderstand,especiallyafterhisearlier explanationsofgeologyandtheaquifersystem underlyingthestate.
TomLodgeconfidestohisreadersthathe canunderstandtheurgethatmanypeoplehave tocollectthingsfromnature,butsaysthatonce helearnedtophotographthingsinnature,that urgesubsided.Thebookhasbeautifulphotos, mostlyofanimalsandlandscapes,butthere aresomedistinctiveplants,andthebeautiful diagramsandmapsconveytheorderlycomplexityofhabitatdifferentiationbasedonelevational differencesofafewinches.Afterreadingthisbook,who wouldn’twanttovisitthiswonderful‘riverofgrass’?And formostvisitorstotheEverglades,eco-tourists,ecology students,andlong-timeresidentsofFlorida,abetterbook forunderstandingthehistoryandchallengestothisecosystem hasprobablynotbeenwritten.
SuzanneKopturisProfessorofBiologicalSciencesatFloridaInternational University,Miami,Florida.
ANewMethodofPropagationfor Ziziphuscelata
cuttingsaregenerallytakenonlywhentheparentplant isinseveredecline.Forthesereasons,micropropagation technologystillholdspromisefortherestorationofthe speciesandshouldbeexaminedfurthertodetermine viablerootingandacclimatizationprocedures.
LiteratureCited:
Burkhardt,S.,T.Race.,andC.Weekley.1997.BreedingsystemoftherareFlorida endemic, Ziziphuscelata.ReporttoU.S.FishandWildlifeService;VeroBeach,FL.
Delaney,K.R.,R.P.Wunderlin,andB.F.Hansen.1989.Rediscoveryof Ziziphuscelata (Rhamnaceae).Sida13:325-330.
Godt,M.W.,T.Race,andJ.L.Hamrick.1997.Apopulationgeneticanalysisof Ziziphuscelata,anendangeredFloridashrub.JournalofHeredity88:531-533.
Judd,W.S.andD.W.Hall.1984.Anewspeciesof Ziziphus (Rhamnaceae) fromFlorida.Rhodora86:381-387.
Kane,M.E.2000a.Cultureindexingforbacterialandfungalcontaminants.p.427-431. In:R.TrigianoandD.Gray(eds.)PlantTissueCultureConceptsandLaboratory Exercises,2ndEd.CRCPress,BocaRaton,FL.
Kane,M.E.2000b.Propagationfrompreexistingmeristems.p.75-86. In:R.Trigianoand D.Gray(eds.)PlantTissueCultureConceptsandLaboratoryExercises,2ndEd.CRC Press,BocaRaton,FL.
McCown,B.H.andG.Lloyd.1981.Woodyplantmedium(WPM).Amineralnutrient formulationformicrocultureofwoodyplantspecies.HortScience16:453. Myers,R.L.1990.Scrubandhighpine.p.150-193. In:R.L.MyersandJ.J.Ewel(eds.) EcosystemsofFlorida.UniversityPress,Orlando,FL. UnitedStatesFishandWildlifeService(USFWS).1999.Recoveryplanfor Ziziphus celata (revised).U.S.FishandWildlifeService.Atlanta,Georgia. Webb,S.D.,1990.Historicalbiogeography.p.70-100. In:R.L.MyersandJ.J.Ewel(eds.) EcosystemsofFlorida.UniversityPress,Orlando,FL. Weekley,C.,T.Race,andD.Hardin.1999.SavingFloridaziziphus(recoveryof arareLakeWalesRidgeendemic)ThePalmetto19:2.
Forchaptercontactinformation,pleasevisit http://www.fnps.org/pages/chapters/chaptermap.php
1.Broward .........................MollyTaylor....................................................mollytaylor_piesplants@yahoo.com
2.Citrus ..............................TeddiBierly......................................................................jbierly@tampabay.rr.com
3.Coccoloba ......................DickWorkman................................................................wworkmandick@aol.com
4.Cocoplum .......................JoanBausch.....................................................................................jclb@gate.net
5.Conradina .......................ReneeShaffer.................................................................shaffer_m@bellsouth.net
6.Dade ...............................LynkaWoodbury....................................................lwoodbury@fairchildgarden.org
7.Eugenia ..........................SueThompson....................................................................sue@pa-services.com
8.Heartland .......................AmeeBailey..............................................................ameebailey@polk-county.net
9.Hernando ........................JimClayton......................................................................geoska10@hotmail.com
10.Ixia .................................JakeIngram................................................................jakeingramla@comcast.net
11.Keys ................................LynkaWoodbury....................................................lwoodbury@fairchildgarden.org 12.LakeBeautyberry ..........RonaldPlakke............................................................................flplakke@aol.com 13.LakelasMint ..................RoyceSisson.................................................................roycesisson@hotmail.com 14.LiveOak .........................HalRhodes................................................................rhodeslesstrav2@yahoo.com 15.LongleafPine .................AmyHines.................................................................amy@sidestreamsports.com 16.Lyonia ..............................RayJarrett..............................................................................sjarrett1@cfl.rr.com 17.Magnolia ........................NonaElder.......................................................................nonaelder@pipeline.com 18.Mangrove .......................John&ChristineHolyland.....................................christineholyland@comcast.net 19.Naples ............................RonEchols...................................................................preservecaptains@aol.com 20.NatureCoast ..................SusanVaughn..........................................................................vaughn_s@firn.edu 21.PalmBeach ....................RayMiller................................................................................rmillerj@sfwmd.gov 22.Pawpaw .........................PaulRebmann..................................................................wildflpaul@earthlink.net 23.PaynesPrairie ................ErickSmith..................................................................................edsmith@ufl.edu 24.Pinellas DebbieChayet&RayWunderlichIII.....dchayet@verizon.net;rayrunner@yahoo.com 25.Sarracenia ......................Lee Norris .................................................................................lnorris@ectinc.com 26.SeaRocket ....................PaulaBerntson.......................................................................jepasm.3@juno.com 27.Serenoa ..........................NancyArmstrong..............................................................pinelilywild@yahoo.com 28.SouthRidge ...................StacySmith...............................................................ssmith@archbold-station.org 29.Sumter ............................H.Tuxbury..............................................................................HTuxbury@cfl.rr.com 30.Suncoast .......................JamesWheeler............................................................jamesh-wheeler@msn.com 31.Tarflower ........................RickEhle........................................................................................(407)349-0502
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