BIOS 255 /BIOS255 Final Exam (Latest 2024/ 2025) Anatomy & Physiology III A&P III - Chamberlain

BIOS 255 / BIOS255 Final Exam (Latest 2024/2025): Anatomy & Physiology III / A&P III – Chamberlain Activation of B cells ANSWER: results in the production of antibodies. adaptive immunity ANSWER: immunity or resistance to a specific pathogen; slower to respond, has memory component After the right ventricle where does the blood go? ANSWER: pulmonary arteries airway resistance ANSWER: rate of airflow through airways alveolar macrophages ANSWER: eat fine dust particles and other items that bypass the filtration systems in upper airways anastomoses ANSWER: point where 2 blood vessels merge Anergy ANSWER: absence of the normal immune response to a particular antigen or allergen antibody-mediated immunity ANSWER: chain of events that destroys the target compound or organism antigen presentation ANSWER: The process by which an MHC molecule binds to a fragment of an intracellular protein antigen and carries it to the cell surface, where it is displayed and can be recognized by a T cell. antimicrobial substances ANSWER: interferons, complement, iron-binding proteins, and antimicrobial proteins Capillaries ANSWER: Microscopic vessel through which exchanges take place between the blood and cells of the body cardiac cycle ANSWER: A complete heartbeat consisting of contraction and relaxation of both atria and both ventricles cardiac output ANSWER: volume ejected from the heart per minute cause opening and closing of heart valves ANSWER: contraction cycle

cell-mediated immunity ANSWER: immunity against abnormal cells and pathogens inside living cells Characteristics of lymphatic capillaries ANSWER: Merge to form larger vessels which carry lymph to nodes -can absorb large molecules such as proteins and lipids characteristics of veins ANSWER: Thin walled, highly distensible, contain valves, deep, superficial & perforating have 1 way valves Chemoreceptors ANSWER: respond to chemicals compliance of lungs ANSWER: how much effort required to stretch lungs components of lymphatic system ANSWER: lymph, lymphatic vessels, lymphatic tissue, lymphatic organs conducting zone ANSWER: A series of tubes and cavities that warm, moisten, and provide a pathway for air to get to the respiratory zone -Nose through terminal bronchioles Conduction system of the heart ANSWER: SA node, AV node, Bundle of His, Purkinje fibers Cytotoxic T cells ANSWER: A type of lymphocyte that kills infected body cells and cancer cells -CD8, MHC-1 Dalton's Law ANSWER: Total pressure of gas is sum of partial pressures of gases that compose it -Atmospheric pressure- 760mmHg Define hypercapnia ANSWER: High partial pressure of Carbon Dioxide; associated with acidosis (build up of acid in blood stream) Define hypoxia ANSWER: deficiency in the amount of oxygen reaching the tissues Describe diapedesis ANSWER: Leukocyte (WBC) leaving the blood to accumulate at the site of invasion

Describe the blood supply to and from the lungs ANSWER: Two sets of arteries: Pulmonary and bronchial -Pulmonary arteries divide and go into each lung -Branchiol branch from aorta. deliver oxygenated blood Describe the branching of the bronchiole tree ANSWER: Trachea-> main bronchi ->lobar bronchi->segmental bronchi->bronchioles-> terminal bronchioles Describe the characteristics of hemoglobin ANSWER: -Protein carries oxygen to tissue and approx. 20% of carbon dioxide -Each hemoglobin molecule can carry 4 heme(iron) so they bind to 4 oxygen molecules -nitric acid can bind to them which triggers vasodilation, increase blood flow Describe the characteristics of red blood cells ANSWER: Transport O2 & CO2 -no nucleus -no organelles -Biconcave disc -live for days to weeks Describe the clinical relevancies of high and low white blood cells ANSWER: -High eosinophils can indicate allergic reaction -Neutrophils- High= bacterial infection, burns, stress --Low= drug toxicity, lupus, radiation Lymphocytes -High= viral infections, luekemias -Low= prolonged illness, HIV infection Describe the four different blood types ANSWER: O- Neither A nor B antigens = Has A & B antibodies A- A antigen= B antibody AB- Both A & B antigen = neither antibody B- B antigen = anti A antibody Describe the structural and functional components of the respiratory system. ANSWER: Upper and Lower respiratory -Conduction zone -respiratory zone Describe the transport of O2 and CO2 in the blood ANSWER: -Oxygen is carried both physically dissolved in blood and chemically combined to Hemoglobin -CO2 is carried physically dissolved in the blood, chemically combined to blood proteins, bicarbonates Describe the two laws associated with the exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide? ANSWER: Dalton's Law & Henry's Law

Describe what happens when a mother and baby have different Rh factors ANSWER: Hemolytic disease of Newborn= Agglutination and Hemolysis is brought on by fetalmaternal incompatibility Difference in wall thickness ANSWER: left are much thicker- allows for stronger pumper and great pressure to accommodate systemic pressure different types of shock ANSWER: -anaphylactic -hypovolemic -cardiogenic -septic -neurogenic Differentiate between internal and external respiration ANSWER: External- moves gases from outside of body into lungs, then to blood Internal- gas exchange between blood and tissues differentiate between the structures associated with the upper respiratory system, in comparison to the lower respiratory system ANSWER: Upper respiratory- nose, naval cavity, pharynx Lower respiratory-larynx trachea, bronchi and lungs Discuss the relationship of hemoglobin to nitric oxide? ANSWER: nitric oxide can bind to the hemoglobin molecule which triggers vasoldilation. Increases blood flow, but decreases pressure dorsal respiratory group ANSWER: Active during quiet and forceful breathing.

-Predominant mediator of quiet breathing.

-Innervates diaphragm (phrenic nerve) and external intercostals elastic arteries ANSWER: -Thicker diameter -less smooth muscle, more elastic fibers -function as pressure reservoirs endogenous antigen processing ANSWER: present inside body cells -MHC-1 molecules exogenous antigen processing ANSWER: foreign antigens present in fluid outside body cells -MHC-ll

external respiration ANSWER: exchange of gases between lungs and blood in pulmonary capillaries factors that increase cardiac output ANSWER: Primary factors include blood volume reflexes, autonomic innervation, and hormones. fibrous skeleton of the heart ANSWER: framework of collagenous and elastic fibers flow of lymph ANSWER: blood capillaries --> interstitial spaces --> lymphatic capillaries --> lymphatic vessels --> lymphatic ducts --> junction of internal jugular and subclavian veins forceful breathing ANSWER: When inspiratory area is active -> sends impulses to accessory inspiratory muscles -> forceful inspiration (inhalation) Inspiratory area also sends impulse to the expiratory area.

Expiratory area becomes active ->sends impulses to internal intercostal and abdominal muscles -> forceful expiration (exhalation) formula for cardiac output ANSWER: heart rate x stroke volume (ml/min) formula for stroke volume ANSWER: end diastolic volume - end systolic volume -(ml/beat) Four chambers of the heart ANSWER: right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle Functions of the lymphatic system ANSWER: 1. Drains excess interstitial fluid 2. Transports dietary lipids 3. Carries out immune responses Give a summary of all coagulation factors ANSWER: They all clot blood Helper T cells ANSWER: CD4 activate other T cells ,B cells, macrophages, and NK cells-MHC-2 Memory Helper T-cells: long live cloones that assist in rapid immune response

Henry's Law ANSWER: the quantity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas and its solubility -More CO2 dissolve in plasma hepatic portal circulation ANSWER: Drains nutrient-rich blood from digestive organs Delivers it to the liver for processing Homeostatic imbalance that can occur in immune system ANSWER: -AIDS -Allergic reactions--4 types -Autoimmune diseases -Lymphomas -systemic lupus How are small clots usually dissolved? ANSWER: The fibrinolytic system- dissolves small, inappropriate clots How do arteries regulate diameter ANSWER: due to the smooth muscle How do B cells develop tolerance ANSWER: by clonal deletionm involving apoptosis How do T cells recognize foreign substances? ANSWER: recognize viral antigens on outside of infected cells How does aging affect the immune system? ANSWER: immune responses weaken and the person becomes less able to repair damaged tissue and more susceptible to disease.

How does aging affect the respiratory system? ANSWER: airways and tissues of respiratory tract, including alveoli become less elastic -Decreases lung capacity -Can decrease by 35% at age 70 how does cardiac muscle generate atp ANSWER: Contraction in cardiac muscle occurs due to the the binding of the myosin head to adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ), which then pulls the actin filaments to the center of the sarcomere, the mechanical force of contraction. how does exercise affect heart rate? ANSWER: helps your heart muscle become more efficient and better able to pump blood throughout your body

how does mucous membranes act as line of defense ANSWER: secrete mucus which trap microbes How does skin act as a line of defense? ANSWER: acts as physical barrier, prevents entry How does the blood protect against excessive loss and infection? ANSWER: Immune Response -macrophages -globulins Blood Clotting -fibrinogen -Hemostasis Against Disease -Antibodies -Interferons -Complement system How is BP measured? ANSWER: sphygmomanometer How long do red blood cells live? what happens to dead cells? ANSWER: Can live for days/weeks -Dead RBC go to liver/spleen -> macrophages break down (recycle) -> heme and globulins -> Iron (from heme) and Amino Acids immunoglobulins ANSWER: IgG- Most abundant- placenta-protects against bacteria IgA- Found mainly in sweat/tears- localized protection IgM-causes agglutination, think blood typing IgE- allergic and hypersensitivty Influences on breathing ANSWER: -limbic system stimulation -temperature -pain -stretching anal sphincter muscle -Irritation of airways -Blood pressure innate immunity ANSWER: Present at birth - defense mechanisms that provide general protection against invasion by wide rang of pathogens internal defenses ANSWER: phagocytic cells, natural killer cells, antimicrobial proteins, inflammatory response

Internal Respiration ANSWER: exchange of gases between blood in systemic capillaries and tissue cells Layers of the heart wall ANSWER: 1. Epicardium-outermost 2. Myocardium- pumping action 3. Endocardium-inner lymph trunks ANSWER: drain large regions of the body -Lumbar trunk- lower limbs, kidneys -interstitial trunk- stomach, spleen, liver -bronchomedistinal trunk- heart, lungs Jugular trunk- head & neck lymphatic nodules ANSWER: small, localized clusters of dense tissue formed by lymphocytes and macrophages Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP) ANSWER: diastolic pressure + 1/3 pulse pressure muscular arteries ANSWER: medium diameter -more smooth muscle then elastic fibers -function- delivery of blood to tissue Name all types of leukocytes that fall under the two classes ANSWER: Granular -Neutrophils -Eosinophils -Basophils Agranular -Lymphocytes -Monocytes path of blood through systemic and pulmonary circulations? ANSWER: pulmonary circulation is heart and lungs systemic circulation is heart and rest of body Pathogens ANSWER: disease causing agents phases of phagocytosis ANSWER: chemotaxis, adherence, ingestion, digestion, killing pontine respiratory group ANSWER: involved with switching between inspiration and expiration

primary lymphatic organs ANSWER: red bone marrow and thymus pulmonary circulation ANSWER: Circulation of blood between the heart and the lungs pulmonary ventilation ANSWER: exchange of air between the atmosphere and the lungs Pulse Pressure (PP) ANSWER: systolic pressure - diastolic pressure purjunke fibers ANSWER: send action potentials up the ventricles quiet breathing ANSWER: Eupnea inspiration involves muscular contractions and expiration is passive Resistance ANSWER: ability to ward off disease respiratory zone ANSWER: where gas exchange occurs -respiratory bronchioles -alveolar ducts -alveoli Route of lymph flow through a lymph node ANSWER: Afferent lymphatic vessel > subcapsular sinus > trabecular sinus > medullary sinus > efferent lymphatic vessel secondary lymphatic organs ANSWER: lymph nodes, tonsils (lymphatic nodules), and spleen Stroke Volume (SV) ANSWER: volume ejected per beat structure holds heart in place? ANSWER: Pericardium Structures of the lower respiratory system ANSWER: larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs Structures of the upper respiratory system ANSWER: nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx

structures send blood to right artrium ANSWER: inferior and superior vena cava Surfactant ANSWER: a substance that tends to reduce the surface tension of a liquid in which it is dissolved.

Three layers of blood vessel ANSWER: tunica intima- innermost tunica media- mid layer- smooth muscle and elastic fibers tunica externa- external layer Three type of capillaries ANSWER: continuous discontinuous fenestrated two lines of defense in innate immunity ANSWER: 1. Skin and mucous membranes 2. Internal defenses two types of adaptive immunity ANSWER: cell mediated and antibody mediated type 1 alveolar cells ANSWER: main site of gas exchange type 2 alveolar cells ANSWER: secrete surfactant Vascular resistance depends on ANSWER: Size of the blood vessel lumen Blood viscosity Total blood vessel length venous return ANSWER: the flow of blood back to the heart ventral respiratory group ANSWER: Contains pre-botzinger complex, a cluster of neurons believed to play role in regulating rhythm of quiet breathing -Active during forceful breathing Vessel sends blood to left atrium? ANSWER: pulmonary vein

What are blood groups based on? ANSWER: They are based on the absence or presence of antigens What are characteristics of sickle cell disease? ANSWER: Contain abnormal kind of hemoglobin -sickled cells die in about 10 days --> shortness of breath, fatigue, paleness, delayed growth & development *Is inherited What are cytokines and what do they do? ANSWER: small protein hormones that stimulate or inhibit -Produce interleukins, interferons, macrophages What are epitopes? ANSWER: antibody binding sites What are reticulocytes? ANSWER: Newly produced, relatively immature red blood cells What are the characteristics of leukocytes? ANSWER: WBC -Has nucleus -Has organelles -no hemoglobins -can live for years What are the characteristics of Platelets ANSWER: -Live for 5-9 days -used for blood clotting -mature from megakaryocytes in red bone marrow What are the muscles involved in inhalation and exhalation ANSWER: Inhalation- Diaphragm, external costals, scalens, Pectoralis minor -Exhalation-internal & external costals, internal and external obliques, transverse and rectus abdominis what are the three processes that are required for respiration to occur? ANSWER: -Pulmonary Ventilation -External respiration -Internal respiration What are the two classes of leukocytes ANSWER: granular and agranular What are three stages of coagulation? ANSWER: Extrinsic- happens rapidly Intrinsic- occurs more slowly, several minutes Common Pathways

What are venules? ANSWER: small veins what areas are drained by right lymphatic duct? ANSWER: recevies lymph from upper right quadrant what areas are drained by thoracic duct ANSWER: cisterna chyli receives lymph from right and left lumbar trunks what determines blood pressure ANSWER: cardiac output, blood volume, peripheral resistance What does autorhythmic mean? ANSWER: the heart has the ability to generate its own electrical impulse without the nervous system.

What does pluripotent mean? ANSWER: Ability of a stem cell to develop into many different cell types What drives inhalation and exhalation? ANSWER: Inhalation (inflow) Exhalation (outflow) -Pressure Gradients What factors affect the affinity of HB for O2? ANSWER: If affinity decreases then delivery of O2 increases, shift to the right If affinity increases then delivery of O2 decreases, seen as shift to the left what factors regulate heart rate ANSWER: Autonomic nervous system Hormones Ions Age Gender Physical fitness Temperature What fluid is used by lymphatic system? ANSWER: Lymph= clear fluid Interstitial fluid What is Boyle's Law? ANSWER: P1V1 = P2V2 Pressure & volume & gas have an inverse relationship.

-Increase pressure, you decrease volume -Decrease pressure, you increase volume

**Pulmonary ventilation What is erythropoiesis? where does it take place? ANSWER: Production of Red Blood Cells -Occurs in red bone marrow What is erythropoietin? ANSWER: a hormone released by kidneys in response to hypoxia ( low O2 levels) to stimulate erythropoiesis What is hemopoiesis? ANSWER: Production of ALL blood cells What is hemostasis? ANSWER: prevention of blood loss what is pulmonary perfusion ANSWER: cardiac output riss, blood flow to the lungs, increases What is shock? ANSWER: A life-threatening medical condition whereby the body suffers from insufficient blood flow throughout the body as a result of severe injury or illness What is surface tension of alveolar fluid? ANSWER: must overcome to expand lungs during inhalation What is the function of the pharynx? ANSWER: passageway for air and food, provides a resonating chamber for speech sounds, and houses the tonsils What is the importance of carbonic anhydrase? ANSWER: Present in RBC. Aids in conversion of carbon dioxide to carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions -> reaches lungs to help convert bicarbonate ions back to carbon dioxide What is the longevity of lymphocytes, as compared to other blood cells? ANSWER: They can live several months to years but most live for few days What is the pacemaker of the heart? ANSWER: sinoatrial node What is vasodilation? ANSWER: dilation(widening) of blood vessels What makes up formed elements? ANSWER: erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets

what makes up the boney framework of the nose? ANSWER: The frontal bone. nasal bones, and maxillae What makes up the plasma portion of blood? ANSWER: Plasma is 55% of volume -Albumins- 54%Most abundant- osmostic pressure -Globulins- 38%-immune -Fibringens- 7%- clotting What makes up the respiratory membrane? ANSWER: alveolar and capillary walls and their fused basement membranes What marks the end of the conducting zone? ANSWER: terminal bronchioles What other factors affect pulmonary ventilation? ANSWER: -Surface tension of alveolar fluid -compliance of lungs -Airway resistance what part of brain contains a cardiovascular center? ANSWER: medulla oblongata What processes are involved with Hemostasis? ANSWER: Vascular Spasms- contraction of smooth muscle in blood vessels to close wound -Platelet plug formation -Blood clotting (Coagulation) -Vitamin K- required of synthesis of 4 different clotting factors what role do the central chemoreceptors play in respiration? ANSWER: Located near or in medulla in CNS, respond to changes in H+ Concentrations What role do the peripheral chemoreceptors play in respiration? ANSWER: located in aortic bodies, clusters What structure bifurcates (divides) into the primary right and left bronchi? ANSWER: Trachea what structure connects the pharynx and the trachea? ANSWER: laryngopharynx What structure protects the lungs ANSWER: plural membrane- double layered serous membrane What structures aid in voice production? ANSWER: Vestibular folds- false vocal cords Vocal folds- true vocal cords

Rima Glottidis- space between vocal folds what substance can pass through capillary walls? ANSWER: oxygen, carbon dioxide, glucose, and water What types of substances are transported by the blood? ANSWER: Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Hormones Heat Waste Nutrients what vessels provide nutrients to the myocardium? ANSWER: coronary arteries/veins what vessels remove carbon dioxide and waste from myocardium? ANSWER: arteries What vitamin is needed for normal clot formation ANSWER: Vitamin K Where is largest portion of blood? ANSWER: capillaries Where is the heart located? ANSWER: mediastinum