An introductory remark on the historical aspects of Medical Scientific Infectious Diseases.

ISSN: 0796-191X Classics Rev. Sci. Med. Classics and Revisits in Scientific Infectious Diseases 2014.

Vaccinology and Immunology Section Institutional Occasional review Paper.

An introductory remark on the historical aspects of Medical Scientific Infectious Diseases.

Guest Editors: Emmanuel Onyekwelu ,Hassan Azadeh et al.

Contributing Editors: Contemporary Medical Scientific Historical Associates &Contemporary Academic Medical Associates.

Micro-organisms are ubiquitous, and found world wide, most of the micro-organisms could be isolated from the frozen wastes at the poles and they have also be found in the hot waters surrounding the deep volcanoes. Most of the most intelligible scholarships of Hippocrates were related to diseases which could today fit into infectious diseases spectrum.

Archeological Features and signs suggestive of tuberculosis and other infective condition of the skeletal organs and the dermatological structures were already identified in Egyptian and Inca mummies as early as 3700 BC [Morse D, Brothwell DR.Ucko PJ.Tuberculosis in Ancient Egypt. Am Rev Resp Dis 1964; 93:524-530.]

Historically, virus infections have been recognized since the dawn of civilization .The ancient Egyptians were stricken with smallpox ,caused by variola virus, and suffered cold sores, as a consequence of herpes simplex virus infection .There are even photographs from the ancient Egyptian civilization that depict people with withered limbs,

such as is typical of poliomyelitis. Despite this the science of virology is relatively modern, even with respect to other aspects of microbiology.

Transmission of the infection from the dog’s saliva was known to the Egyptians at the time of the Pharoahs, and suggested methods of treatment are found in the Chinese manuscripts from the fifth century BC.

[Theordoides J.Historie de la Rage. Cave canem, Paris: Masson, 1986]

Animal rabies was described by Aristotle in the fourth century BC and the Roman Celsius wrote of this human illness in the first century AD, when knowledge and spread of the illness was widespread.

The clinical features of rabies were described by a sixteenth century Italian Physician Fracastoro. [Wilkinson I. The development of the virus concept as reflected in corpora of studies on individual pathogens.4.Rabies-two millennia of ideas and conjecture on the aetiology of a virus disease. Med Hist 1977; 21:15-31] In 1793, John Hunter initiated a scientific approach to the study of rabies, and experiments on the transmission of the infection were carried out in Germany by Zinke and in France by Magendie early in the nineteenth century.

Leeuwenhoek Van is globally and universally acknowledged as the father of microbiology because he was the first to undisputedly discover/observe, describe, study, conduct scientific experiments with microscopic organisms (microbes), and relatively determine their size, using single-lensed microscopes of his own design.

Leeuwenhoek is also considered to be the father of bacteriology and protozoology (recently known as protistology).

ETYMOLOGY

The correct spelling of van Leeuwenhoek's name is exceptionally varied. Although he was baptized and christened as Thonis, but almost always went by Antonj (corresponding with the English Antony).

The final j of his given name is the Dutch tense i. Until 1683 he consistently used the spelling Antonj Leeuwenhoeck (ending in –oeck) when signing his letters.

Throughout the mid-1680s he experimented with the spelling of his surname, and after 1685 settled on the most recognized spelling, van Leeuwenhoek

We may fairly call Leeuwenhoek .The first microbiologist because he was the first individual to actually culture, see, and describe a large array of microbial life. He actually measured the multiplication of the bugs. What is more amazing is that he published his discoveries.

In A Short History of Nearly Everything (p. 236) Bill Bryson alludes to rumors that Vermeer's mastery of light and perspective came from use of a camera obscura produced by van Leeuwenhoek. This is one of the examples of the controversial Hockney–Falco thesis, which claims that some of the Old Masters used optical aids to produce their masterpieces.

Although Leeuwenhoek was also nominated as a corresponding member of the French Academy of Sciences in 1699, but there is no evidence that the nomination was accepted, nor that he was ever aware of it.

The Lens on Leeuwenhoek site, which is exhaustively researched and annotated, prints this letter in the original Dutch and in English translation, with the date 17 September 1683. Assuming that the date of 1676 is accurately reported

from Pommerville (2014), that book seems more likely to be in error than the intensely detailed, scholarly researched website focused entirely on van Leeuwenhoek.

Sixty-two years later, in 1745, a physician correctly attributed a diarrhea epidemic to van Leeuwenhoek's bloodless animals (Valk 1745, cited by Moll 2003).

Moll, Warnar (2003). "Antonie van Leeuwenhoek". Onderzoeksportal [Research Portal]. University of Amsterdam. Archived from the original on 18 February 2004. Retrieved 3 March 2016. Indeed, in this publication "Geneeskundig Verhaal van de Algemeene Loop-ziekte..." [Valk (1745)], the author uses the work of Leeuwenhoek in describing the disease, draws some (preliminary) conclusions about the cause of the disease, he warns "non-believers of Van Leeuwenhoek to use a magnifying glass" and gives commentaries on the work of Anthonie van Leeuwenhoek and his findings.

In the 1880s, Louis Pasteur’s work demonstrated that rabies was an infection of the central nervous system .He repeatedly passaged virulent street virus in rabbits, attenuating it to a fixed laboratory strain used to make the first rabies vaccine. . [Wilkinson I. The development of the virus concept as reflected in corpora of studies on individual pathogens.4.Rabies-two millennia of ideas and conjecture on the aetiology of a virus disease. Med Hist 1977; 21:15-31] Growth of the virus in tissue culture was achieved in the 1930s and the virus was first visualized by electron microscopy in the early 1960s. Pneumocystis carinii was initially identified in 1911 by Chagas in guinea pigs and in man. In the mid 1900s, P.carinii pneumonia is now a major cause of opportunistic infection in patients with human immuno-deficiency virus [HIV] infection. More than seventy years ago, it was first

described in premature babies and malnourished infants as a Pneumocystis carinii pneumoniae and was known as plasma cell interstitial pneumoniae, a descriptive term based on the appearance of the lungs at autopsy.

Patients typically presented with a non-productive cough and relentless progressive dyspnoea, but they rarely had fever. Examination of the chest was usually normal and the chest radiograph frequently showed diffuse bilateral infiltrates. Death due to respiratory failure occurred in the majority of cases. It was not until the mid-1950s that P.carinii was identified as the causative organism. Infective febrile illnesses were intimated and alluded to in the early works and writings of William Shakespeare. Mycology the study of Fungi is one of the oldest discipline in microbiology.

From time immemorial fungi have been exploited for the production of leavened bread, alcoholic beverages and the prolongation of the life of food in general. Indeed, so important are fungal products to humans that bread and wine are two of the principal symbols of the Christian church signifying the blood and the flesh or body of Christ.

For many years, the bacterial morphology was the cornerstone and the foundation stone of bacterial taxonomy, but with the application of genetic and molecular biological techniques to this problem, the shape that bacteria assume is becoming less important.

The word bacterium is derived from the Greek word meaning a small stick.

Plague, typhoid fever, cholera, typhus and smallpox which has now been eradicated were major health problems globally as early as the seventh century.[Singer C and Underwood E.A] A short history of Medicine.2nd edn.Oxford.Oxford University Press,1962:221-223]

However with improved sanitary conditions and hygiene [George WC. Sanitation in Panama .New York and London: D Appleton and Co, 1918:74.] and the introduction of antimicrobials, their incidence declined only to resurface again in towards the end of the 20th century because of the negative impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic.

During the earliest days of bacteriology, the most successful During the development of microbiology .attempts were made to harvest

Infectious particles that were capable of passing through filters, and these were referred to as filterable viruses. The word virus in Latin means a slimy liquid, venom or poison. The prefix filterable was soon dropped and infectious agents smaller than bacteria were simply called viruses. During the early part of the twentieth century, viruses were regarded merely as minutiae versions of other microorganisms, incapable of independence replication. The advent of the animal tissue cultures and the development of the electron microscope were to help change this view. Improved chemical and analytic techniques showed viruses to be distinct entities, quite unlike other micro-organisms.

During the 1960s and the 1970s the new science of virology underwent a rapid expansion as new techniques became available to biologists.

During the 1960s biochemists used bacteriophage systems to elucidate the way that viruses synthesize proteins and replicate their nucleic acids and in the 1970s and the 1980s molecular biologists determined the nucleotide sequence of many virus genomes science of virology underwent a rapid expansion as new techniques.

Unlike the vast majority of bacteria and fungi that could grow on chemically defined media, the cultivation of viruses is complicated by the fact that they are obligate intracellular parasite, their culture therefore requires the exploitation of living cells, which may be bacterial, or derived from fungi,

plants or animals..Previously, it was common practice to use whole animals or plants to cultivate viruses, but with the advances of tissue culture technology this practice is thankfully largely redundant. However, the isolation and growth of viruses in tissue culture are expensive and take up a considerable proportion of the time that plant and animal virologists spend in the laboratory, because of these limitations, many scientists who wanted to study viruses turned their attention to bacteriophages, because the growth and maintenance of bacteria whilst requiring a degree of technical competence, and expertise are usually faster and cheaper than experiments that use plant or animal tissue culture.Bacteriophages could be grown in bacteria maintained either in liquid culture or on a solid medium .Bacteriophage studies therefore dominated many of the early publications on the structure and replication of the viruses. Today viruses are a major cause of diseases in humans, they are responsible for most visits to the doctor’s office than any other condition. Also as intriguing biological tools, they continue to be widely used by molecular biologists in academic research. Recently the beneficial effects of viruses have started to be explored. There are several studies that indicate that viruses may have a novel and innovative role in human gene therapy, Viruses are being proposed as vectors to deliver normal human genes into cells that carry defective copies of particular genes in the hope that the healthy gene will carry out its normal function, thus alleviating the deficiency caused by the abnormal gene. Cystic fibrosis is a disease where considerable progress has been made in this field. Since time immemorial humans have used fire as a purging agent. In biblical times, articles that had been contaminated by lepers were consigned to the flames, this we now know is an

effective means of sterilizing such material. The flaming of a bacteriological loop has the same effect. It is common practice in microbiology laboratories to remove contaminating organisms from the surface of the instruments by dipping the instrument in alcohol and burning off the spirit. Joseph Lister, when he was developing his theories of antisepsis during the latter part of the nineteenth century used highly toxic phenol preparations to prevent wound infections. The original purpose of surgical rubber gloves was to prevent surgeons from suffering phenol burns, the fact that the surgical gloves reduced wound infections were an added benefit and bonus, Interestingly, the benefit has outlived the original purpose of wearing gloves in surgery.

Fabricius Hieronymus [Girolamo Fabrizi of Aquapendente] [1533-1619] Professor of Surgery and Anatomy at Padua described the Bursa in Chickens giving the name to the B lymphocytes known as the Bursa of Fabricius.

On The Landry Guillain Barre Syndrome. Georges Guillain [1876-1961] Parisian neurologist and Jean Alexandre Barre [1880-1967] another Parisian neurologist described the Guillain-Barre syndrome which is a serious immunological disorder affecting nerves in which damage occurs to the insulating fatty sheaths myelin. The condition almost always follows a virus or bacterial infection. There is backaches, tingling and numbness extending from the hands and feet to the other parts of the body and progressive muscle weakness, sometimes amounting to complete paralysis. So long as the breathing is maintained, by artificial means if necessary, even these serious cases usually recover completely within months.

In his article Landry described ten cases of ascending paralysis, of which two died of asphyxiation.

Thomas Sydenham [1624-1689] successfully used tree barks in the management of periodic fevers during the seventeenth century. [Dewhurst K.Dr.Thomas Sydenham [1624- 1689] His life and Original writings .London: Welcome Historical Medical Library, 1966:131-139.]

John Bunyon [1628-1688] was well aware of consumption [tuberculosis] which is still a prevalent disease globally.

Peyer Johann Conrad [1653-1712] Professor of Logic, Rhetoric and Medicine in Schaffhausen, Switzerland discovered and described the aggregated lymphoid follicles in the lower ileum known as the Peyers patches. In about 1666, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek described animalcules following his development of the optical microscope.

Carolus Linnaeus [1707-1778] was a Swedish biologist who described described the concept pertaining to the system of taxonomic classification and the binomial nomenclature widely used in medicine ,in which the name of the genus [generic name] is followed by the name of the species[specific name] .Examples are staphylococcus aureus and Fasciola hepatica.

Sir Percivall Pott [1714-1788] English Surgeon described tuberculosis of the spine otherwise known as Potts disease in which there is collapse of one or more vertebrae with a sharp angulation of the spine and a hunch back. This condition is also known as spinal caries.

Wilheln Friedrich von Ludwig [1790-1865] was a German Surgeon who described the Ludwig’s Angina, which is an acutely spreading bacterial infection of the floor of the mouth and in swallowing .There is some danger That the swelling might extend to the voice box [larynx] and cause asphyxia .The usual cause of infection is a grossly neglected teeth. Antibiotics are necessary.

For centuries, insects were suspected as carriers of diseases, and it took so long for the uncritical acceptance of folk lore beliefs to be supplanted by research-based scientific investigations. This was because early medicine in itself was so imprecise and could not have pursued the subject with any hope of useful results until the last quarter of the 19th century.

A more lucid understanding of the nature of the disease process,[the germ theory of disease ]and improved technology[microscopes and oil-immersion objective lenses with greater resolution and precision power and specific synthetic stains were invaluable in establishing the connection between the parasites and their vectors ,and in the case of the germ theory where specific diseases were caused by specific microorganisms and specific species of parasites require specific species of insect vectors. Edward Jenners work in the eighteenth century started the process of vaccination against small pox, when he inoculated a boy named Phillips with material from a pustule on the hand of a milk maid who had cowpox Later he inoculated the same boy with small pox, but this failed to cause disease in the boy, following this a group of children were vaccinated with material obtained from cows infected with cow pox, and when this children were latter challenged smallpox they too were protected from the disease.

These experiments formed the basis of modern vaccination programmes

The very name vaccination is derived from vassa, the Latin for a cow. These days small pox vaccination uses the vaccinia virus, The exact nature of this virus is still debated, but it appears to be a hybrid between the cowpox virus and the smallpox virus.

Mass vaccination programmes strive to produce large numbers of individuals in populations who are protected from infection, with virus infections, this limits the number of people in whom the virus can replicate, in turn this will limit the spread of the virus. The WHO initiated the vaccination against small pox in 1967, this programme was so successful, that by 1977, the last natural case of this horrendous disease was reported. Because of the vast number of people who were vaccinated in countries where small pox was once a major killer disease, there were so few susceptible individuals that the virus had no where to replicate, In turn this caused the virus to become extinct in the wild, boosted by the success of this programmes of eradication, WHO now have programmes of eradication for other virus infections such as poliomyelitis. The partial success of such programmes was illustrated recently in 1994, when it was announced that poliomyelitis had been eradicated from the Americas, Robert Anderson Aldrich [1817- ] described A sex-linked recessive bleeding disorder of children featuring dermatitis ,Otitis media , a reduction of blood platelets [thrombocytopaenias ] with intestinal bleeding and black stools with associated deficiency of immunoglobulins. So long as the folk lore tale theories on disease causation, or causations by aerial poisons produced by decomposition of animals and vegetable matter and ferments and poisons of unknown composition theories of disease causation were held to, arthropod transmission of disease was unthinkable. Microscopic examination of the blood and bodily fluids were precluded since poisonous aerial ferments were invisible agents. Towards the end of the 19th century, the germ theory of disease causation supplanted these unfounded beliefs principally as a result of the work of Robert Kochs [18431910] a German bacteriologist made indisputable

experiments on anthrax, wound infections, and Tuberculosis which was named after him as Kochs disease. Koch demonstrated that specific species of living microbesnotably bacteria caused specific infectious diseases, thereby placing the germ theory on a robust scientific profile.Kochs postulates states that a set of criteria must be obeyed before it is established that a particular organism causes a particular disease .The organism must be present in every case and must be isolated ,cultured and identified ,it must produce the disease when a pure culture is given to susceptible animals ,and it must be recoverable from the diseased animal[King.L.S.1983, Germ theory and its influence .JAMA 249(6):794-98.]

Scientists eagerly searching for microbes in all kinds of maladies soon found that many other organisms besides bacteria such as protozoans, helminthes, rickettsiae, viruses, and fungi were capable of producing disease in humans and animals.

Modern microscopy began in 1830, when Joseph Jackson Lister [1786-1869] father of Lord Lister [1827-1912] who was famous for his antisepsis theory and practice, invented a lens system that minimized the chromatic and the spherical aberrations that plagued the earlier instruments constructed on trial and error basis.[Bradbury.S.1967.The evolution of the microscope.London.Pergamon.]Objects that were blurred and their images surrounded by color fringes were now clearly distinguishable under Listers microscope .Listers innovations paved the way for the perfection of microscope objectives that were essential for exploring the depths of the microworld.By the mid nineteenth century, microscopy became part of the curriculum at most renowned medical schools, and a decade after the microscope has be come a well established research tool in scientific medical investigations.

The kingdom Protista was introduced in 1866, comprising of the Prokaryotes like the Bacteria without a membrane bound nucleus and Eukaryotes with a membrane bound nucleus.

Anton Ghon [1866-1936] was a Czech pathologist who described the Ghon complex, which is the association of a small focus of Tuberculosis just under the lung covering [pleura] with tuberculosis in the corresponding lymphnodes at the root [hilum] of the lung.

In 1870, the oil-immersion lens, an old idea was reintroduced, allowing the optimal resolution to be achieved with the optical microscope. However, for an enhanced elucidation of the fine structure of the micro-organisms, and its constituent structure, a staining technique was considered appropriate. Picrocarmine stain was introduced in the 1870s and by 1880s was already in use. [Levaran A.1907.Protozoa as causes of disease. In Nobel lectures: Physiology or Medicine 1901-1921, 26471.Amsterda: Elsevier, 1967.]

Hassall Arthur Hill [1817-1894] A Physician and Botanist who practiced in London and later in the Isles of Wight described the Thymic corpuscles which assists in the elaboration of the T-lymphocytes, these are remnants of the epithelium of the third pharyngeal pouch from which the thymus developed from.

Otto Wucherer [1820-1873] was a German Physician, who described the infestation with the parasitic worms Wuchereria bancrofti, a form of microfiliaria infection usually transmitted by mosquitoes and other biting flies in the tropics and the sub-tropics. The insect vector usually, injects large numbers of the microfiliaria into the blood, and these settle in the tissues and grow into adult worms of about 1.5 to 48cm in length .These breed thousands of new microfiliariae which enter the blood and are taken up by insects and carried to other people. The filarial diseases include river blindness [onchocerciasis].Loa loa, Calabar swellings. Repeated

infections with worms that inhabit the lymphatics causes blockage of the lymphatic channels and elephantiasis.

Louis Pasteur [1822-1895] was a French pioneer of bacteriology who described the method of pasteurization which is a method of destroying infective micro-organisms in milk and other liquid foods .The liquid is rapidly heated to about 78 degrees centigrade and maintained at that temperature for fifteen seconds .It is then rapidly cooled to below 10 degrees centigrade.

"Without this work that I was asked to do for the Correspondence of the Institute, I would have stayed in Strasbourg. But you understand that this leave that these missions made me have with full salary is an irregularity that needs to be covered by a health reason." (Pasteur, letter of 25 February 1854 to his father, in Pasteur, Correspondence, t. 1, Paris, 1940, p. 261.)

Pasteur, letter of 8 May 1854 to his father, in Pasteur, Correspondence, t. 1, Paris, 1940, p. 267. This episode in Pasteur's career is noted by Pierre-Yves Laurioz, Louis Pasteur. La réalité après la légende, Paris, 2003, pp. 79–81. On Pasteur's attitude towards money, see Richard Moreau, La Préhistoire de Pasteur, Paris, L'Harmattan, 2000, pp. 257–262.

Pasteur stayed and carried out his scientific work at the magnanerie of Pont Gisquet, on the road to Saint-Jeandu-Pin.See Google Street.

He had known it [= flacherie] for a long time, since his first stay in the South in 1865, where one of the two farms that had served as a starting point departure to his deductions was affected by this disease, at the same time as that of the

corpuscles." Émile Duclaux, Pasteur, Histoire d'un esprit, pp. 218–219, available on Gallica.

This denomination of white-dead, used by the Abbé de Sauvages and several other writers, is inaccurate; this is why I thought it necessary to add that of dead-flats, vulgarly used in several departments, and which designates very well the state of softness and flaccidity in which the worms dead of this disease are found. » Pierre Hubert Nysten, Research on the diseases of silkworms, Paris, 1808, p. 5, available on Google Books.

See account of Quatrefages reproduced in L. Pasteur, Études sur la maladie des vers à soie, Paris, 1870, Complete Works of Pasteur, t. 4, p. 27, online.

But the cases of association were so frequent, precisely because the disease of the corpuscles was so widespread, that Pasteur had thought that the two conditions were linked to each other and should disappear together. » (Émile Duclaux, Pasteur, Histoire d'un esprit, pp. 218–219, online.)

Pasteur expressed this opinion, in particular in « Nouvelles études sur la maladie des vers à soie », Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences, t. 63 (1866), pp. 126–142: “I am very much inclined to believe that there is no actual actual disease of silkworms. The disease complained of seems to me to have always existed, but to a lesser degree. (...) Furthermore, I have serious grounds for believing that most of the diseases of the silkworm which have been known for a long time are linked to the one which occupies us, muscardine and, perhaps, grasserie excepted. (p. 136). Available at Gallica.

Same thing in a letter of June 27, 1866 to Dumas: "all the other so-called ancient diseases of the silkworm, minus the muscardine and perhaps the grasserie, such as the

disease of motrs -flats, petits, passis, arpians, are only forms of the actual disease. » (Pasteur, Correspondance, t. 2, p. 265. Quoted by Ph. Decourt, Les vérités indésirables, Paris, 1989, p. 173, and by P. Pinet, Pasteur et la phiolosophie, Paris, 2004, p. 158.

Sur la maladie des vers à soie. Lettre de M. L. Pasteur à M. Dumas", Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences, meeting of 3 June 1867, t. 64, p. 1113. Available at Gallica.

Philippe Decourt, Les vérités indésirables, Paris, 1989, pp. 165–193, accuses Pasteur of a denial of justice towards Antoine Béchamp, who studied pebrine at the same time as Pasteur and immediately affirmed the parasitic nature of the disease.

Balbiani, Balbiani, « Recherches sur les corpuscules de la pébrine et sur leur mode de propagation », Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, session of 27 August 1866, vol. 63 (1866), pp. 388–391, available at Gallica. Balbiani begins in this manner: "Among all the contradictory opinions which have been expressed on the nature of the corpuscles of the pébrine, the most debatable, in my opinion, is that which consists in assimilating them to anatomical elements either normal, or more or less altered., or to morbid products such as pus globules, etc. This opinion was refuted more than eight years ago by Professor Lebert (...); but I believe I can also bring, against the way of seeing cited above, more decisive proofs, based on the observation of the phenomena which these corpuscles present in their evolution, phenomena which put beyond doubt their close relationship with the parasitic organisms. known under the name of Psorospermia".

As for the opinions expressed by Mr. Balbiani on the nature of the corpuscles, although I do not share them, I will take

great care to examine them, for two reasons: because they are from a skilful observer, and because I still only have preconceived views on the objects they concern, to which I do not agree more than reason.

There is more: I earnestly hope that the ideas of MM. Balbiani and Leydig are true (...)". Pasteur, "Observations au sujet d'une Note de M. Balbiani relative à la maladie des vers à soie", Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, meeting of 10 September 1866, vol. 63 (1866), pp. 441–443.

On 29 May 1867, Pasteur wrote to Dumas again: “Despite all that I would have to say about the notes of Béchamp, Estor, Balbiani and on the articles that the first two insert in the Messager du Midi, I take your advice, I do not answer. If you knew how erroneous it is to say that this disease is not constitutional and only parasitic. Its essential character is precisely its constitutional character. » (Quoted by Ph. Decourt, Les vérités indésirables, Paris, 1989, p. 190.)

P. Debré, Louis Pasteur, Flammarion, 1994, p. 219. In his Études sur la maladie des vers à soie (Studies on silkworm disease), published in 1870 (Pasteur's Complete Works, vol. 4, available at Gallica), Pasteur reports that he consulted Leydig on the question of the living nature of corpuscles. (One of his letters to Leydig is from December 1866.) He admits that "in substance" he adopted the opinions of Leydig and Balbiani, but he contradicts them on the question of the mode of formation of the corpuscles (pp. 135, 137 and 138). In 1884, Balbiani will examine Pasteur's theory on the development of corpuscles and will conclude as follows: "I believe that it is useless to dwell any longer on the observations of M. Pasteur, which I think I can characterize with a single word by saying that their author proves in it how little he is familiar with the researches of

biology. But with this reservation, I do justice to his work, which has rendered sericulture farmers a real service by enabling them to recognize a healthy seed from a diseased seed. » (G. Balbiani, Leçons sus les sporozoaires, Paris, 1884, pp. 160–163, online.) On Pasteur's errors in the study of silkworms and his own judgment on these errors, see Richard Moreau, “Le dernier pli cacheté de Louis Pasteur à l’Académie des sciences”, La vie des sciences, Comptes rendus, série générale, t. 6, 1989, n° 5, pp. 403–434, online.

Louis Pasteur, Études sur la maladie des vers à soie; Œuvres complètes, t. 4, pp. 166–167, available at Gallica.

Pasteur mentions Osimo's ideas in Louis Pasteur, Études sur la maladie des vers à soie, Œuvres complètes, t. 4, pp. 38–39, available at Gallica. Summarizing a development by Émile Duclaux (Émile Duclaux, Pasteur, histoire d'un esprit, Sceaux, 1896, p. 198, available at /bpt6k764468/f203.notice Gallica), P. Debré wrote that Pasteur was “led to propose a seed sorting method almost identical to that recommended a few years earlier by Orcino [read: Osimo]. If the latter had failed, asserts Pasteur, it was through a lack of confidence; which, of course, is not his case. » P. Debré, Louis Pasteur, Flammarion, 1994, p. 210.

"This way, which the genius of Pasteur had opened and which became so fruitful, soon proved to be closed with regard to the anti-pasteurellic vaccination of the hen. Difficulties arose in the regularity of attenuation and maintenance of virulence to a definite and fixed degree." (G. Lesbouyries, La pathologie des oiseaux, Paris, 1941, p. 340; quoted by Hervé Bazin, L'Histoire des vaccinations, John Libbey Eurotext, 2008, p. 155.)

Pasteur Vallery-Radot, Letter to Paul Dupuy, 1939, quoted by Hilaire Cuny, Pasteur et le mystère de la vie, Paris,

Seghers, 1963, pp. 53–54. Patrice Pinet, Pasteur et la philosophie, Paris, 2005, pp. 134–135, quotes analogous assertions of Pasteur Vallery-Radot, with references to Pasteur Vallery-Radot, Pasteur inconnu, p. 232, and André George, Pasteur, Paris, 1958, p. 187. According to Maurice Vallery-Radot (Pasteur, 1994, p. 378), the false quotation appeared for the first time in the Semaine religieuse ... du diocèse de Versailles, 6 October 1895, p. 153, shortly after the death of Pasteur.

Joseph McCabe (1945). A Biographical Dictionary of Ancient, Medieval, and Modern Freethinkers. HaldemanJulius Publications. Retrieved 11 August 2012. The anonymous Catholic author quotes as his authority the standard biography by Vallery-Radot, yet this describes Pasteur as a freethinker; and this is confirmed in the preface to the English translation by Sir W. Osler, who knew Pasteur personally. Vallery-Radot was himself a Catholic yet admits that Pasteur believed only in "an Infinite" and "hoped" for a future life. Pasteur publicly stated this himself in his Academy speech in 1822 (in V.R.). He said: "The idea of God is a form of the idea of the Infinite whether it is called Brahma, Allah, Jehova, or Jesus." The biographer says that in his last days he turned to the Church but the only "evidence" he gives is that he liked to read the life of St. Vincent de Paul, and he admits that he did not receive the sacraments at death. Relatives put rosary beads in his hands, and the Catholic Encyclopedia claims him as a Catholic in virtue of the fact and of an anonymous and inconclusive statement about him. Wheeler says in his Dictionary of Freethinkers that in his prime Pasteur was Vice-President of the British Secular (Atheist) Union; and Wheeler was the chief Secularist writer of the time. The evidence is overwhelming. Yet the Catholic scientist Sir Bertram Windle assures his readers that "no person who

knows anything about him can doubt the sincerity of his attachment to the Catholic Church," and all Catholic writers use much the same scandalous language.

Patrice Debré (2000). Louis Pasteur. JHU Press. p. 176. ISBN 978-0-8018-6529-9. Does this mean that Pasteur was bound to a religious ideal? His attitude was that of a believer, not of a sectarian. One of his most brilliant disciples, Elie Metchnikoff, was to attest that he spoke of religion only in general terms. In fact, Pasteur evaded the question by claiming quite simply that religion has no more place in science than science has in religion. ... A biologist more than a chemist, a spiritual more than a religious man, Pasteur was held back only by the lack of more powerful technical means and therefore had to limit himself to identifying germs and explaining their generation.

Debré, Patrice (2000). Louis Pasteur. Translated by Forster, Elborg. JHU Press. p. 368. ISBN 978-0-8018-65299. Pasteur advocated separation of science and religion: "In each one of us there are two men, the scientist and the man of faith or of doubt. These two spheres are separate, and woe to those who want to make them encroach upon one another in the present state of our knowledge!"Fortunately, Pasteur's colleagues Chamberlain [sic] and Roux followed up the results of a research physician Jean-Joseph-Henri Toussaint, who had reported a year earlier that carbolicacid/heated anthrax serum would immunize against anthrax. These results were difficult to reproduce and discarded although, as it turned out, Toussaint had been on the right track. This led Pasteur and his assistants to substitute an anthrax vaccine prepared by a method similar to that of Toussaint and different from what Pasteur had announced. Friedrich Albert von Zenker [1825-1889] German Pathologist who described the death of segments of muscle cells that

sometimes occurs in prolonged fevers such as typhoid fever or acute infectious hepatitis, pathologically there is a form of acute muscular necrosis with the inclusion of hyaline bodies. Although tetanus was described by Hypocrates, it was in the late nineteenth century that the nature of the disease was elucidated .Pirigov postulated that the cause was an infectious agent, and later a bacillus was described in smears from the wound of a patient with tetanus.

[Bychenko B .Microbiology of tetanus. In Veronesi R[ed]

Tetanus: Important New Concepts Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, 1981:28-39]

In 1884 Rattone demonstrated that the causative agent could be transmitted to rabbits by the inoculation of pus from the mans infected wound.Nicolier found that the inoculation of animals with soil frequently produced the signs of tetanus, and Rosenbach in 1886 described the classical drumstick bacillus in pus from a human case. In 1889, Kitsato succeeded in isolating a pure culture of the organism and subsequently, Behring and Kitasato injected a culture filtrate into animals and produced an antibody that could neutralize the toxic agent.

Tetanus is a highly characteristic disease caused by a potent neurotropic toxin produced by Clostridium tetani, an ubiquitous organism found in soil throughout the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn and the temperate regions of the world. Despite being entirely preventable by immunization with a toxoid, it remains one of the leading causes of death in reduced or compromised environmental hygienic circumstances.

Tetanus usually manifests as a generalized or localized skeletal muscle spasms, frequently accompanied by paroxysmal muscle spasms .Tetanus is derived from the Greek word tetanos meaning a muscular spasm, which is derived from the Greek verb teino which implies to stretch.

Following the inhibition of the effect of GABA by the tetanus toxin in the CNS. Once the tetanus has entered the nervous system it is no longer accessible

To neutralization to anti-toxin administered systemically.However, unbound toxin within the CNS may be accessible to neutralization by antitoxin administered intrathecally. This approach was first used in 1914, abandoned because of dangerous side effects.

[30] Park WH&Nicoll M.Experiments on the curative value of intraspinal administration of tetanus antitoxin.JAMA 1914; 63:235-241]

Its use resurfaced in the 1970s.One trial revealed that the intrathecal administration of equine antiserum, in addition to the systemic route, reduced mortality from 14.5 %to 4.5%.

[Sanders RKM, Joseph R, Martyn B&Peacock ML.Intrathecal human tetanus immunoglobulin in early tetanus.Lancet 1980; ii: 439-440]

Karl Wilhelm von Kupffer [1829-1920] Professors of Anatomy [1867] in Kiel Germany, Professor of Anatomy [1875] in Konigsberg Germany and Professor of histology [1880] in Munich Germany in 1876 described the macrophage like cells with phagocytic properties of some modified liver cells in the hepatic sinusoids now known as the Kupffer cells.

Carlos Finlay [1833-1915] Cuban Physician undertook a seminal work on the transmission of the yellow fever virus.

Vladimir Michailovich Kernig [1840- 1917] was a Russian physician who described the Kerning’s sign an indication of irritation of the membranes surrounding the brain and the spinal cord [the meninges] as in meningitis

Attempts to bend the hip with the knee straight [the straight leg raising test] are strongly opposed because of irritative

spasms in the hamstrings muscles that extend the hip and bend the knee.

In Kernig's original 1882 publication, he stated that in patients with meningitis who are seated upright with hips and knees flexed, extending the knee beyond 135 degrees would be painful. Today patients are placed into a supine position instead of being seated upright.

Sir William Osler [1849-1919] was a Canadian Born British Physician who described the Oslers nodes, which are painful swellings in the skin of the fingertips probably caused by disease of small blood vessels [vasculitis] that occur as an occasional feature of infective endocarditis.

Paul Ehrlich [1854-1915] in 1881 introduced methylene blue a phenothiazide dye with sodium borate as a mordant, relevant for blood cell-micro-organismal differential stainings.This mixture when used together with carbol fuchsin enhanced the technique of differential staining.

Henry Koplik [1858-1927] was an American Paediatrician who described the tiny white spots, surrounded by a red base, occurring on the inside of the cheeks and the inner surface of the lower lip during the incubation period of measles.

Waldemar Haffkines [1860-1930] discovered the new killed bacteria anti-bubonic plague vaccine that assisted in the undertaking of mass immunization activities.

In 1875 eosin was introduced and replaced the sodium borate mordant of the earlier differential staining by Dimitri Romanosky [1861-1921] and this latter stain is known as the Romanowsky dual stains.

Edmund Weils [1880-1922] an Austrian Physician described and Author Felix [1887-1956] a Czechoslovakian bacteriologist co-described a test for rickettsial infections such as Q-Fever, Rickettsial Pox, Rocky Mountain spotted Fever, Trench Fever and Scrub Typhus. The test does not use rickettsial Antigens, but strains of the organisms Proteus

OK 19 and OXX which happen to react with antibodies to rickettsiae.

H.Adolph Weil [1848-1916] a German physician described the highly infectious disease known as Leptospirosis or Weil’s disease, caused by an infection by a small fine spiral-shaped organism [Spirochaete] of the order Spirochaetales.The most common organisms are Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae or L.canicola and are usually transmitted in the urine of rats or dogs to farm or veterinary workers, fish market workers, sewer workers and miners, the organism could penetrate the intact skin and the infection could be mild. Severe cases feature headaches, muscle aches and tenderness, red eyes, bleeding diathesis, loss of appetite, vomiting and sometimes a skin rash, renal failure, hepatic failure, Jaundice, Heart Failure and meningitis may occur and are signs of danger, the mortality in such cases may be as much as one in five instances. Those who recover do so completely, the organisms are sensitive to penicillin and this drug is usually effective.

Eugene Devic [1858-1930] described the Devics disease in which there is an acute nervous system disorder featuring demyelination of the tracts In the nerve tracts in the spinal cord and both optic nerves. The condition usually occurs about one week after an attack of measles or chicken pox or may follow vaccination. There is headaches, vomiting, neck stiffness, paralysis, blindness and the death rate is usually very high.

In those who survive, recovery is often surprisingly complete.

Jean-Hyacinthe Vincent [1862-1950] a Parisian bacteriologist described the Vincent’s disease in which there

is a painful inflammation of the mouth caused by two organisms Bacillus fusiformis and Borrelia vincenti. These are commonly present in the mouth and cause infection only if some other factor, such as immune deficiency or vitamin B deficiency operates. Vincent’s disease features painful ulcers and acute destructive inflammation of the gums called necrotizing gingivitis .It is treated with the antibacterial drug metronidazole, an antiseptic mouth wash and dental scaling to remove calculus .Also known as trench mouth.

Albert Siegmund Gustav Doderlein [1860-1941] was a German gynaecologist who described the Doderleins bacillus, which is a Gram-positive bacillus, a normal flora and inhabitant of the vagina that produces the lactic acid necessary for vaginal health.

Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt [1885-1964] was a German psychiatrist and Alfons Maria Jakob [1884-1931] was a German neurologist described the Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease which is a rapidly progressive transmissible disease of the nervous system affecting middle-aged and elderly people causing death within a few months of onset. It is a Spongiform encephalopathy similar or possibly identical to bovine spongiform encephalopathy, the Kuru, and scrapie in sheep and it is associated with an abnormal protein called a prion.Up to a hundred cases may occur yearly in some countries. There is no effective treatment.

Jules Thomas Freund [1890-1960] a Hungarian born American bacteriologist developed the Freund’s adjuvant which is an emulsion of killed bacteria in oil that induces antibody formation.

During the twentieth century, there were many advances in microscopy including the inception and development of the electron microscope, which enabled a more detailed study of sub cellular structures.

In 1901, further modifications of the Romanowskys stains gave rise to the Leishman stains.

Bela Schick [1877-1967] was a Hungarian-born American Paediatrician who developed a skin test of susceptibility to Diphtheria.

August Paul von Wasserman [1866-1925] a German pathologist described

The complement-fixation test for the diagnosis of syphilis The Wassermann’s test is not entirely specific for syphilis and for a positive diagnosis, tests such as the Treponema pallidium haemmagglutination assay [TPHA] or a flourescein-labelled antibody test [FTA-ABS] are used. Or the VDRL test.

Howard Taylor Ricketts [1871-1910] was an American pathologist who described the micro-organism which is intermediate in size between the largest viruses and the smallest bacteria.Rickettsiae are spread by ticks and small insects, and cause Typhus, Q fever and Rocky Mountain Spotted fever. The eponymous discoverer of the germs died of typhus while investigating the cause.

The Leprosy bacillus was identified in 1874 ,as Mycobacterium leprae,but how ever there was a great uncertainty in the manner in which the disease was transmitted until well into the 20th century and this hindered effective preventive measures until it was postulated that its transmission probably followed aerosolized respiratory droplets.

Hans Christian Joachim Grams [1853-1938] described the first described the Gram stain in 1884 in an effort to differentiate bacteria within tissue sections. This reaction demonstrates a fundamental difference in the structure of the Gram positive and the Gram negative bacteria, particularly with respect to their cell wall structure, and thus forms the basis of several bacteria identification schemes.

However, despite the fact that it is over a century and more, since the Gram stain was first described, its precise mechanism is still not fully understood. However, by this technique, the whole class of medically important bacteria could be neatly classified into a larger and broad gram positive bacteria and a smaller and more restricted gram negative bacteria. This classification still remains an important and significant step in the nosology and classification schemes in extant and modern bacteriology.

Rupert Waterhouse [1873-1958] is an English physician and Carl-Freiderichsen [Born in 1886] was a Danish Paediatrician who described the Waterhouse-Freiderichsens syndrome a rare disorder caused by invasion of the blood by meningococcus organisms of in the cause of an attack of severe meningitis ,there will be bleeding into the adrenal glands causing adrenal failure and shock. Enlarging purple spots appear on the skin and there is rapid collapse and coma. Death is invariable unless effective antibiotic and supportive treatment with steroid is instituted.

George Dick [1881-1967] and Gladys Henry Dick [18811963] were American physicians who described the Dick test, which is a susceptibility test to scarlet fever. A small injection of streptococcal toxin is given .An area of inflammation indicated lack of immunity

Carl Olaf Sonne [1882-1948] was a Danish bacteriologist who described the organism shigella sonnei causing the bacillary dysentery.

Charles Mantoux [1887-1947] was a French Physician who developed the Mantoux test, which is a skin test for resistance to Tuberculosis in which a small quantity of a sterile liquid derived from a culture of tubercle bacilli [tuberculin] is injected into the skin and the local reaction noted. A negative result suggests susceptibility to tuberculosis and may prompt

Vaccination with BCG.The test in now performed by a rapid multiple puncture technique, similar to the Heaf test, but using disposable .multiple-tine test units.

Rebecca Craighill Lancefield [1895-1981] was an American bacteriologist who derived and described the Lancefields streptococcal classification system which was made into four groups on the basis of the antigenic differences in the polysaccharide structure of the cell walls of the organisms. The Group A Streptococcus pyogenes are the most dangerous.

The demonstration in 1909 of Chlamydial inclusions in the cervical scrapings from the mother of an infant with inclusion conjunctivitis and in the scrapings from her male partner laid the basis for an understanding of genital Chlamydial infections, but it was not until it became possible to isolate Chlamydial trachomatis in tissue culture in 1965 that the extent of the morbidity due to this organism became lucid.

1898 was probably the year when medical entomology was founded.

During this period several arthropod borne diseases propagated by mosquitoes, fleas, ticks, triatomine bugs, flies, body lice, and midges were discovered and described. Cecilio Romana [Born 1899] was an Argentinean physician who described Romana’s sign which implies closure of one eye as a result of firm reddish swelling of the upper eyelid in Chagas disease.

Towards the end of the 19th century were seen several transatlantic medical expeditions to the tropics and subtropics. [BMJ Institutional Report: The Medical Expedition to Sierra Leone.BMJ 1899; ii: 167.] In the exact beginning of the 20th century, in 1900, Major Walter Reed [1851-1902] and his colleagues in the U.S.Army Yellow Fever Board in Cuba demonstrated that

Stegomyia fasciata [now Ae.aegypti] transmitted the causative agent [arbovirus:Flaviviridae] of yellow fever. [Philip, C.B.and L.E.Rozeboom.1973.Medico-veterinary entomology: A generation of progress. In History of entomology, ed.R.E.Smith, T.E.Mittler, and C.N.Smith, 33360, Palo Alto: Annual Reviews.]

Albert Bruce Sabin [Born in 1906] was a Russian born American bacteriologist who discovered the Sabin vaccine, which is an effective oral vaccine used to immunize against Poliomyelitis. This vaccine contains live attenuated viruses that spread by the faecal oral route in the manner of the original disease, thus effectively disseminating the protection.

In 1933, Raymond Kelsers [1892-1952] demonstrated that Ae.aegypti was a vector for western equine encephalomyelitis virus. Yellow fever was the first viral disease experimentally proven to exist in humans and this discovery probably represents the first example of the transmission of a neurotropic virus by an insect [Cirillo, V.J.2008.Yellow Fever. In Encyclopedia of pestilence, pandemics, and plagues, ed.J.P.Byrne, 2:779-83.Westport, CT: Greenwood.]

Shope, R.E.1954.Biographical memoir: Raymond Alexander Kelser, 1892-1952, 199-221.Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences.

Gene transfer in bacteria was discovered during the 1940s following the investigations of James.D.Watson, [Born in 1928] American molecular biologist and Francis.H.C Crick [Born in 1916], who was an English biochemist, but now neurophysiologist who were both Cambridge scientists, who in 1953 proposed the double helix concept of the DNA molecule which triggered off a revolution in biology and medicine and led to an explosive succession of advances in genetics, bacterial and viral genetics,PCR,antimicrobial

resistance ,bacterial mutations and phamacogenetics and pharmacokinetics etc.

The DNA story : a documentary history of gene cloning by James D Watson( Book ) 17 editions published between 1981 and 1996 in English and held by 1,411 WorldCat member libraries worldwide241 editions published between 1965 and 2017 in 7 languages and held by 5,889 WorldCat member libraries worldwide This sixth edition of James D. Watson's has been thoroughly revised and updated. Accessible to anyone interested in molecular biology and genetics, the book provides a historical basis for the field, concise descriptions of fundamental chemical concepts, a comprehensive survey of genome maintenance and expression, and a discussion of standard techniques and model organisms commonly used in molecular biology studies. It includes all new chapters on the regulatory RNAs and genomics and systems biology

The double helix : a personal account of the discovery of the structure of DNA by James D Watson( Book ) 230 editions published between 1968 and 2018 in 6 languages and held by 3,481 WorldCat member libraries worldwide

By identifying the structure of DNA, Francis Crick and James Watson revolutionized biochemistry and won a Nobel Prize. All the time Watson was only twenty-four, a young zoologist hungry to make his mark. His uncompromisingly honest account of the heady days of their thrilling sprint against other world-class researchers to solve one of sciences' greatest unsolved mysteries gives a dazzlingly clear picture of a world of scientists with great gifts, very human ambitions, and bitter rivalries. With humility unspoiled by false modesty, Watson relates his and Crick's desperate efforts to beat Linus Pauling to the identification of the basic building block of life

DNA : the secret of life by James D Watson( Book )

41 editions published between 2002 and 2017 in 4 languages and held by 2,916 WorldCat member libraries worldwide

Fifty years ago, James D. Watson, then just twenty-four, helped launch the greatest ongoing scientific quest of our time. Now, with unique authority and sweeping vision, he gives us the first full account of the genetic revolution - from Mendel's garden to the double helix to the sequencing of the human genome and beyond." "But genetics as we recognize it today - with its capacity, both thrilling and sobering, to manipulate the very essence of living things - came into being only with the rise of molecular investigations culminating in the breakthrough discovery of the structure of DNA, for which Watson shared a Nobel prize in 1962. In the DNA molecule's graceful curves was the key to a whole new science." "Watson provides the general reader with clear explanations of molecular processes and emerging technologies. He shows us how DNA continues to alter our understanding of human origins, and of our identities as groups and as individuals. And with the insight of one who has remained close to every advance in research since the double helix, he reveals how genetics has unleashed a wealth of possibilities to alter the human condition - from genetically modified food to genetically modified babies - and transformed itself from a domain of pure research into one of big business as well. It is a sometimes topsy-turvy world full of great minds and great egos, driven by ambitions to improve the human condition as well as to improve investment portfolios, a world vividly captured in these pages."--Jacket

A passion for DNA : genes, genomes, and society by James D Watson( )

50 editions published between 2000 and 2003 in 3 languages and held by 2,089 WorldCat member libraries

worldwide

A principal architect and visionary of the new biology, a Nobel Prize-winner at 34 and best-selling author at 40 (The Double Helix), James D. Watson had the authority, flair, and courage to take an early and prominent role as commentator on the march of DNA science and its implications for society. In essays for publications large and small, and in lectures around the world, he delivered what were, in effect, dispatches from the front lines of the revolution. Outspoken and sparkling with ideas and opinions, a selection of them is collected for the first time in this volume. Their resonance with today's headlines is striking

Reproduces articles, commentary, and correspondence generated by scientific discoveries on genetics and gene cloning, with a final section detailing the scientific background.

Recombinant DNA by James D Watson( Book )

48 editions published between 1983 and 2005 in 3 languages and held by 1,234 WorldCat member libraries worldwide

Shows how recombinant DNA techniques have led to the explosion in our knowledge of fundamental biological processes

Recombinant DNA : a short course by James D Watson( Book )

25 editions published between 1983 and 1993 in English and held by 1,207 WorldCat member libraries worldwide.

Genes within cells - Primary genetic material - Creating recombinant DNA molecules - Cloned genes - Tumor viruses - Genetic diseaseses__

DNA : the story of the genetic revolution by James D Watson( Book )

21 editions published in 2017 in English and held by 865 WorldCat member libraries worldwide James D. Watson, the Nobel laureate whose pioneering

work helped unlock the mystery of DNA's structure, charts the greatest scientific journey of our time, from the discovery of the double helix to today's controversies to what the future may hold. Updated to include new findings in gene editing, epigenetics, agricultural chemistry, as well as two entirely new chapters on personal genomics and cancer research. This is the most comprehensive and authoritative exploration of DNA's impact--practical, social, and ethical--on our society and our world"--Provided by publisher

Origins of human cancer by Howard H Hiatt( Book ) 17 editions published in 1977 in English and Undetermined and held by 618 WorldCat member libraries worldwide

Phage and the origins of molecular biology; [essays] by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory of Quantitative Biology( Book ) 42 editions published between 1966 and 2018 in English and German and held by 577 WorldCat member libraries worldwide This collection of essays, written by pioneers in the field of molecular biology, was first published in 1966 as a 60th birthday tribute to Max Delbruck. A formative influence on many of today's leading scientists, the book was seen not just as a valuable historical record but also as a remarkable portrait of a small, pioneering, close-knit scientific community that transcended age, nationality, and academic discipline to focus intensely on the most important questions in biology. This centennial edition reflects a more personal side of Delbruck, and includes a series of photographs from his family's albums.

On John Hunter,the remarkable, but typical, work of Hunter is based on his own observations during his military experience and is not in any way dependent on any other

concepts. Its approach to physiology and pathology has a definetely modern ring. The book was finished but only onethird through the press (in Hunter's own home) when Hunter died.

Historically, the study of infectious diseases and preventive medicine were so interlinked that they should be taken as subdivisions of one discipline, however, establishing the method by which a disease is transmitted from the sick to the healthy is more important to preventive medicine than identifying its pathogen. In addition preventive medicine involves other aspects such as occupational medicine, sports and aviation medicine.

It appears that preventive medicine attempts to pick up the positive aspects of the Malthusian theory and modifies the theory which states that Populations tends to increase faster than the means of their subsistence so that starvation, poverty and misery are inevitable unless populations are controlled by disease, famine, celibacy, contraception ,infanticide or war the theory was proposed in an essay on the principle of population in 1798 by Thomas Robert Malthus[1766-1834] an English theorist.

Lassa fever was first described in West Africa in the 1950s, an infectious disease caused by an arena virus, in 1969 the virus was isolated. The disease in maintained in the rat population and spread by the rat urine. Lassa fever features a high temperature for 7 to 17 days, slow pulse, sore throat, red eyes, prostration vomiting and pain in the chest wall and abdomen .Yellow spots and ulcers appear on the tonsils. There is a drop in the white blood cell count or leukopenia, internal bleeding and often liver and kidney failure. The most severely affected pass into coma and die of inadequate circulation [shock], respiratory insufficiency or cardiac arrest. The mortality rate may be as high as 50% but many mild cases do occur. Strict isolation is necessary.

The only known reservoir of Lassa Fever virus in West Africa was Mastomys natalensis, one of the most commonly occurring rodents in Africa. The virus is rapidly spread from man to man giving rise to 30 to 60% mortality, consequently knowledge of its pathological features are limited. The highest mortality is encountered in crowded, highly mobile populations.Clinically; infection gives rise to harmorrhage, nephropathy, myocarditis and encephalitis. [McCormick JB, Webb PA, Krebbs JW &Smith ES.A prospective study of the epidemiology and ecology of Lassa fever.J infect Dis 1987; 155:445-455.]

The Bunyaviridae consists of five principal genera of which the Bunyavirus is the most significant .The Bunyaviridae has two important serogroups with regards to induction of human diseases, they include the La Crosse and the California encephalitis virus. The La Crosse virus was isolated from a child in La Crosse, Wisconsin in 1960. [Thompson WH, Kalfayan B&Anslow RO.Isolation of Californian encephalitis group virus from a fatal human illness. Am J Epidemiol 1965; 81:245-253]

The Rift valley fever [RVF] virus is the most notable virus in the genus Phlebovirus.An epidemic outbreak of fever, chills and myalgia, in which a few people developed encephalitis was initially reported in Egypt in 1979.

[Morgan JM.The Rift Valley fever epizootic in Egypt 19771978.I.

Description of the epizootic and virological studies .Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1979; 73:618-623] Additional outbreaks were reported elsewhere in sub-saharan Africa.

Members of the Coronaviridae family of viruses are pleomorphic RNA viruses of 80-130nm diameter which replicate within the cytoplasm .The family includes several animal viruses, including murine virus hepatitis known to induce demyelination in the CNS of infected mice and

several other human serotypes implicated in chronic bronchitis in adults.

The neurotropic strain of mouse hepatitis virus JHM, was first isolated from a spontaneously paralyzed mouse. The virus induces lesions of acute demyelination in the brain and the spinal cord. [Lampert PW, Sims JK&Kniazeff AJ.Mechanism of demyelination in JHM virus encephalomyelitis. Electron microscopic studies.Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1973; 24:76-85]

The virions are observed within the neurons. The relevance of this infection to human disease is the finding of coronaviruses in the brains of patients with multiple sclerosis. [Burks JS, De Vald LD, Jankcvsky LD& Gerdes JC.Two coronaviruses isolated from the central nervous system tissue of two multiple sclerosis patients. Science 1980; 209:933-934] Thus Corona viruses may be involved in the pathogenesis and aetiology of human demyelinating disease.

Formerly classified as Group B arboviruses, the Flaviviridae were reclassified as an independent family by Westaway et al. [Weataway EG, Brinton MA, Gaidamovich S Y et al .Flaviviridae.Intervirology 1985;24:183-192]

The family comprises the largest group of viruses known to induce CNS diseases and contains the yellow fever virus, which, although not implicated in CNS diseases, is the prototype virus. [L.flavus yellow]

A disease resembling Japanese encephalitis was recorded as early as 1871.In 1935, an infectious agent was recovered from the brain of a human in Tokyo and was virologically and serologically established as the prototype [Nakayama] strain. Treatment is with the antiviral drug ribavarin and with plasma from convalescent patients.

St Loius encephalitis [SLE] virus was first identified in Illinois in 1932 and associated with human disease. The virus was later isolated from Monkeys previously infected with human brain tissue. Since the 1930s numerous outbreaks have been described. [Quick DJ, Thompson JM& Bond JO.The 1962 epidemic of St Louis encephalitis in Florida.IV.Clinical features of cases in Tampa Bay area. Am J Epidemiol 1965; 81:415-427]

The SLE virus is transmitted by the mosquitoes Cx.tursalis and Cx.pipiens, giving rise to one of the most common and important epidemic arbovirus infection in the USA. The infectious agent of the Murray Valley encephalitis was isolated following inoculation of monkeys [French E.L.Murray valley encephalitis: isolation and characterization of the aetiological agent. Med J Aust 1952;1:100-103 ] In 1951 Murray Valley encephalitis [MVE] virus was first isolated from the human brain following an outbreak of disease and was referred to as Australian X disease MVE virus is a member of the JE antigenic complex. The virus could be grown and propagated in various cell lines, including primary chick emryo, and continous lines of pig kidney, monkey kidney and human kidney cells. The host range of MVE such as sheep and some birds develop encephalitis after intracerebral inoculation Rocio [ROC] encephalitis virus is typical of Flavi-viruses, being spherically shaped with a diameter of about 43mm and cross reacting with other members of the group, i.e.SLEIlheus, JE and MVE virus. Infection of mice, either intraperitoneally in hamsters induces death. In March 1975, an outbreak of encephalitis was recorded in Sao Paulo, south-east Brasil, from which an epidemic spread between March and June 1975. [de Souza Lopes O, de Abreu Sacchetta L, Coimbra TL, Pinto GH& Glaser CM.Emergence of a new arbovirus disease in Brasil

II.Epidemiological studies on 1975 epidemic. Am J Epidemiol 1978; 108:394-401]

[de Souza Lopes O, Coimbra TL de Abreu Sacchetta L& Calisher CH.Emergence of a new arbovirus disease in Brasil II.Isolation and characterization of the etiological agent.Rocio virus. Am J Epidemiol 1978; 107:444-449]

The Canine distemper virus [CDV] deserves mention in this chapter because of its relationship with the measles virus and implication in the human neurological disease, the multiple sclerosis. This virus gives rise to the chronic relapsing lesions of dogs, in which demyelinating lesions are observed. [Raine CS.On the development of CNS lesions in natural canine distemper encephalomyelitis J Neurol Sci 1976; 30:13-28]

Also several studies have suggested the associations between the incidence of multiple sclerosis and canine distemper in the dog population. [Cook SD, Dowling PC& Russell WC.Neutralising antibody to canine distemper and measles virus in multiple sclerosis.J Neurol Sci 1979;41:6170]

Mumps has been recognized from the fifth century BC when Hippocrates described the disease as swellings behind the ears accompanied by swelling of the testicles .However the first description of neurological involvement of mumps was that by Hamilton in the eighteenth century. [Hamilton R.An account of a distemper, by the common people of England, vulgarly called the mumps. London Med J 1790; 11:190-211.]

Transfer of disease from filtered secretions of an affected patient into experimental animals suggested the disease had a viral aetiology. Mumps infections increase in the winter months. Mortality to mumps is mainly related to the complications of meningoencephalitis and orchitis.

The disease poliomyelitis has existed since ancient times, although the fact that the causative agent was a virus was only first demonstrated in 1909 by Landsteiner and Popper [Landsteiner K&Popper E.Ubertragung der Poliomyelitis acuta and Affen.Z.Immunilatsforsch Orig 1909; 2:377-390] Studies in Monkeys and the adaptation to tissue culture resulted in the development of methods of purification and the production of reliable vaccines through which infection could now be controlled. Poliomyelitis may be caused by one of the three strains of virus: polio types 1, 2 or 3 .Three forms of clinical disease have been recognized they include paralysis, aseptic meningitis and minor febrile illnesses. Poliomyelitis was, until recently, endemic world wide, infecting susceptible infants and producing paralytic poliomyelitis in those that were not protected by maternal antibody. In 1916, a good part of most of the cases about 85% were in the under five year olds. [Lavinder CH, Freeman AW&Frost WH.Epidemiological studies of poliomyelitis in New York City and northeastern United States during the year 1916.Public Health Bull 1981; 91:1-309] The improvement in the standard of hygiene in the late nineteenth century, with industrialization decreased the incidence in infants but resulted in a higher incidence of paralytic poliomyelitis in later childhood due to delay in exposure to the virus .In the epidemics of the of the 1950s, the peak age was 5-9 years, although about one-third of cases and two-thirds of deaths were in those above 15 years of age [Melnick JL.Enteroviruses:polioviruses,coxsackieviruses,echoviruses and newer enteroviruses.In Fields BN,Knipe DM,Chanock RM et al (eds)Virology 2nd edn.New York: Raven Press,1990:549-605].

In the early 1950s Jonas Salk calculated the inactivation kinetics of formalin on poliovirus grown in monkey kidney

cells [Salk J& Salk D Control of influenza and poliomyelitis with killed virus vaccines. Science 1977; 195:834-837]

In 1955 a vaccine was developed and licensed in 1955. Since 1985 most of the cases of polio world wide have been in developing countries although the number of deaths due to other causes may mask the true incidence. Of the non-enteroviruses Coxsackie virus infections, echovirus 9 is the most frequent cause of enterovirus disease and the most common virus to be isolated in epidemics, other neuropathic strains include B1-6 and A-7 and were probably involved in the 1975 Balkan epidemics. Scrapie was observed in the 1930s following the use of louping ill virus vaccine produced in scrapie-contaminated brain tissue, although the disease has been recognized and studies in sheep breeders over two decades. [Stockman S.An obscure disease of sheep.J Comp Pathol 1913; 26:317-327.]

Kuru a form of a subacute spongiform encephalopathy which are slow transmissible non conventional virus infections of the central nervous system are classified as prion disease was described in 1959 by Gajdusek et al[Klatzo I,Gajdusek DC&Zigas V .Pathology of Kuru.Lab Invest 1959;8:799-847 ]

[Gajdusek.D.C.Kuru.Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg.1963; 57:151-169]

The other prion disease which is quite similar to Kuru is the CJD [Creuzfeldt-Jakob disease] Patients with CJD and Kuru present with rapidly progressive dementia and motor dysfunction, like Kuru, it is usually fatal within twelve to twenty-four months.[Gajdusek DC&Gibbs CJ Jr.Transmission of two subacute spongiform encephalopathies of man[kuru and Creuzfeldt-Jacob disease] to the new world monkeys. Nature 1971; 36:49-50]

Similarly, the Bovine Spongiform encephalopathy, initially described in 1986 is possibly a result ingestion of prion scrapie contaminated food substances. [Morgan KL .Bovine spongiform encephalopathy: time to take scrapie seriously. Vet Res 1988; 122:445-446]

The Colorado Tick Fever [CTF] was initially described in the mid-nineteenth century in the Rocky Mountain states. In 1950, Florio et al isolated the virus from the human blood and the tick Dermacentor andersoni respectively. [Florio L&Miller MS.Epidemiology of Colorado tick fever. Am J Public Health 1948; 38:211-216]

Florio L, Miller MS&Mugrege ER.Colorado tick fever. Isolation of the virus from Dermacentor andersoni in nature and a laboratory study of the transmission of the virus in the tick.J Immunol 1950; 64:257-263.]

The CTF is usually associated with a severe form of encephalitis [Fraaer CH&Scheff DW.Colorado tick fever encephalitis. Report of a case. Pediatrics 1962; 29:187-190]

Maedi-Visna is a strain of virus belonging to the subset of lentiviruses of the retroviridae.It was initially isolated studied and investigated by Icelandic investigators. The word Maedi stands for laboured breathing and the word visna represents wasting or paralysis following Icelandic translations. [Sigurdsson B.Observations on three slow infections of sheep, Maedi, paratuberculosis, rida, a slow encephalitis of sheep with general remarks on infections which develop slowly and some of their special characteristics.Br Vet J 1954;110:225-270]

It has been found in other settings with large sheep populations.

[Petursson GL, Nathanson N, Georgsson G,Panitch H&Palsson PA.Pathogenesis of visna.I.Sequential virologic,serologic,and pathologic studies.Lab Invest 1976;35:402-412.]

It is quite similar to the prion disease of the sheep. [Prusiner SB.Novel proteinaceous infectious particles cause scrapie.Science 1982; 216:136-144.]

The patterns of the associated demyelinating lesions in Maedi-Visna was extensively studied by several investigators, preceeding the demyelinations are perivascular inflammatory processes implicating the mononuclear cells and plasma cells predominantly, the demyelinating process could be accompanied by areas of gliosis and necrosis.

[Georgsson G, Martin JR, Klein J, Palsson PA and Petursson GL.

Primary demyelination in visna.An ultrastructural study of Icelandic Sheep with clinical signs following experimental infection.Acta Neuropathol [Berl] 1982; 52:171-178] [Nathanson N, Georgsson G, Lutley R, Palsson PA and Petursson GL.

Pathogenesis of Visna in Icelandic sheep demyelinating lesions and antigenic drift.In Mims CA, Cuzner ML&Kelly RE [eds].Viruses and Demyelinating Diseases.London: Academic Press.1983:111-124.]

Literary references to rabies have infections have been recorded since before the 2000BC and they have been mentioned in a number of historical documents, including those of Democritis, Aristaeus and Artemis. The history of the rabies virus has been punctuated by remarkable events since the 1880s, such as the application of the human rabies vaccine in 1885and the finding of the pathognomonic Negri bodies for the diagnosis of rabies in 1903.[Negri A.Beitrag zum Studium der Aetiologie der Tollwuth.ZHyg Infektionskr 1903;43:507-528.]

In the 1940s, a mass introduction and application of the potent rabies vaccine for dogs was introduced which remarkably diminished the spread of the disease. Also the introduction of oral vaccination of foxes resulted in the virtual

elimination of rabies from certain settings. [Wandeler AI, Capt S, Kappeler A&Hauser R.Oral immunization of wildlife against rabies: concept and first field experiments Rev Infect Dis 1988; 10:649-653]

Rabies hyper immune antiserum was used in addition to the human vaccine regimen in 1954, and the adaptation of rabies virus to cell culture and the development of a fluorescent antibody test for the diagnosis of infected brains in 1958[Goldwasser RA&Kingsling RE.Flourescent antibody staining of street and fixed rabies virus antigens .Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1958; 98:219-233.] has resulted in a dramatic improvement in the control of the disease. The rabies virus is capable of infecting all warm-blooded animals, but there Is a hierarchy for susceptibility [World Health Organisation.Sixth report of the expert committee on rabies. WHO Tech Rep Ser 1973:523.]

The foxes, coyotes, wolves and jackals are the most susceptible animals. The opossum is the least susceptible species. Moderately susceptible animals include the dogs, the most frequent vector for transmission to humans. [Tierkel E.S.Control of urban rabies. In Baer GM[ed] The natural history of Rabies, vol.II.Orlando: Academic Press, 1975:189201] as well as cats, raccoons and skunks. An increasing source of rabies was observed in the bats populations. [Graubelle PC, Baagoe HJ, Fekadu M.Westergaard J&Zoftman N.Bat rabies], and this could account for a considerable proportion of rabies infected animals [Centers for Disease Control. Bat rabiesEurope.MMWR 1986; 35:430]

The affectation of humans and animals by rabies infection appears to progress in unison, although the incidence in humans is higher in regions where public health programmes are not adequately implemented.

Investigations on the pathogenesis and transport to the CNS and incubation period and onset time were somewhat controversially discussed and interpreted. Murphy et al suggests that the following introduction to an animal or man, that the virus replicates in a myogenic milieu, before transport to the peripheral nervous system through the myo-neural junction against the traditional hypothesis of replication in a neurogenic peripheral milieu ab initio.

[Murphy FA, Harrison AK, Winn WC&Bauer SP.Comparative pathogenesis of rabies and rabies like viruses. Infection of the CNS and centrifugal spread of the virus to peripheral tissues. Lab Invest 1973; 28:361-376] However the course of the transport of the virus from the peripheral nervous system to the CNS is well established after its experimental demonstration by DiVesta and Zagari et al, who demonstrated that ligation of sciatic nerve prior to injection of the rabies virus in the foot of an animal prevented disease [Diveistea A&Zagari G.La transmission de la rage par voie nerveuse.Pasteur Ann 1889:237-248]

The incubation period of the disease varies and could be as short as fourteen days, but is more commonly thirty days up to one twenty days,exceptionally,it could be as long as fiftytwo weeks. Although it is traditionally and widely accepted that the incubation period is related to the distance between the site of the bite and proximity to the CNS, a study by Dupont and Earle questioned this view.

[Dupont JR&Earle KM.Human rabies encephalitis: a study of forty-nine cases with a review of the literature. Neurology 1966; 15:1023-1034] In 1992 the WHO expert committee on Rabies has emphasized that rabies must be included in the differential diagnosis of all persons presenting with neurological involvement. Given its immense fatality rate, of almost unity, rabies mortality could be drastically reduced by preventing

exposure to the virus, aborting infection and thereby preventing illness or curing clinical disease. The importance of the adoption and establishment of international and regional surveillance systems in combination with dog control has been stressed by the WHO expert rabies committee. Most all cases of human rabies are transmitted by dogs, as evidenced by a corresponding number of cases of people who receive post exposure treatment for rabies.Theuse of a post exposure treatment that makes use of three vaccines given on both deltoid muscles on day one and a further dose a week thereafter has been described by the WHO expert committee on rabies report. Following this inoculation, there appears to be an increase in both the cellular and humoural immune responses .Such regimen were occasionally combined with topical and parenteral antirabies immunoglobulin. [WHO Expert Committee on Rabies. WHO Tech Rep Ser 1992; 824:1-84]

The Togaviridae family of viruses originally contained the genera of alphaviruses, flaviviruses and rubiviruses, on the basis of various characterizations such as size, mode of replication and transmission by mosquitoes. The name is derived from the structure of the virus, which consists of a ribonucleic acid within a lipid envelope [L.toga coat]

With advances in virology, the structure of the genomes and replication strategies of the genera have become more distinct and the flaviviruses are now classified as a separate family. Several questions on these aspects were extensively answered authoritatively by several reviews such as those by Schlesinger and Schlesinger et al [Schlesinger S& Schlesinger M J.The Togaviridae and the Flaviviridae .New York; Plenum Press, 1986]

The knowledge of the structure and replication of alpha viruses has been based on Sindbis [SIN] and Semliki Forest viruses [SFV], which provide valuable models for the study .Of the alpha viruses that are important encephalitogenic agents, eastern equine encephalitis [EEE], Venezuelan equine encephalitis [VEE] and Western equine encephalitis [WEE] viruses are the most important, although chikung-unya virus infection is also known to induce neurological complications.

[Peters

CJ&Dalrymple JM.Alphaviruses .In Fields BN, Knipe DM, Chanock RM et al (eds) Virology, 2nd edn.New York: Raven Press.1900:713-761.]

The Chikung-unya [CHK] virus was probably responsible for causing the viral epidemic in South-East Asia in the late 18th century and several other epidemics and sporadic occurrences were described elsewhere in Asia and Africa. [Thiruvengadam KV, Kalyanasundaram Z&Rajgopal J. Clinical and pathological studies on Chikungunya fever in Madras city .Indian J Med Res 1965; 53-720]

[Deller JJ Jr&Russell PK.Fever of unknown origin in American Soldiers in Vietnam .Ann Intern Med 1967; 66:1129]

[Halstead SB.Dengue and haemorrhagic fevers in Southeast Asia .Yale J Biol Med 1965; 37:434-437.] [Halstead SB, Nimmanitya S&Margarita MR. Dengue and Chikungunya virus infection in man in Thailand 19621964.Obervations on disease in out-patients. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1969; 18:972-978]

The Chikung-unya [CHK] virus caused an epidemic of a viral disease marked by intense and disabling febrile arthritis

causing distorting postural disabilities in Eastern Africa in the early 1950s. [Weinbren MP, Haddow AJ&Williams MC.The occurrence of chikungunya virus in Uganda I. Isolation from mosquitoes.II.The occurrence of Chikungunya virus in man on the Entebbe peninsula, and III. Identification of the agents.Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1958; 52:253-262]

Retrospective epidemiological studies in virology suggested the occurrence of Eastern Equine Encephalitis [EEE] as early as 1931 , however the virus was first isolated in 1933. [Hayes RO .Eastern and Western encephalitis .In Steele JH&Beran GW (eds) Handbook series in Zoonoses, Section B; Viral Zoonoses, vol 1.Boca Raton FL.CRS Press, 1981:29-57]

Culex species are considered to be the vectors for the transmission of EEE virus. [Downs WG, Aitkin THG&Spence L. Eastern equine encephalitis virus isolated from Culex nigripalpus. in Trinidad Science 1959; 130:1471.]

[Goldfield M, Taylor BF&Welsh JN .The 1959 outbreak of Eastern encephalitis in New Jersey .3.Serological studies of clinical cases. AM J Epidemiol 1968; 87:18-22]

Human and equine cases are seen only when the spread becomes endemic. [Monath TP, LeeVH, Wilson DC, Fagbami A& Tomori O.Arbovirus studies in Nupeko forest, a possible natural focus of yellow fever virus in Nigeria. I Description of the area and serological survey of humans and other vertebrate host’s .Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1974; 68:30-38.]

A vaccine inactivated by formalin treatment is available for use in laboratory workers or others at high risk of exposure. [Inactivated eastern equine encephalomyelitis vaccine

propagated in rolling bottle cultures of chick embryo cells.Appl Microbiol 1971; 22:842-845]

The Venezuelan equine encephalitis [VEE] was initially isolated in 19 by Beck and Wyckoff from equine encephalitis epizootics in Venezuela.

[Beck CE&Wyckoff RWG.Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis .Science 1938; 88-530]

Viral strains belonging to the VEE IABC group are pathogenic for horses and have been involved in human infections. In contrast, other VEE strains [ID-F, II, III, IV, V, and VI] are not known to be virulent in horses. Mosquitoes of both the Aedes and Culex genera are involved in the propagation of the illness. The Deinocereities and the Cx.melanoconion species of the rodents are the main vectors which are involved in the rodent to rodent transmission.

Horses are a major reservoir of infection and transmission of the virus could occur from horse to horse as well as transplacentally.Several animal species, including domestic and wild dogs, and pigs, have been found to be infected with the virus. Birds have a low viraemia, but could infect mosquitoes which may spread the disease to cause new epidemics.

[McConnell S&Spertzel RO Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis, In Steele JH&Beran GW (eds) CRC Handbook Series in Zoonoses, Section B.Viral Zoonoses .Boca Raton,CRC Press,1981-59]

Further sub-classifications of the viruses in this group was undertaken by Young et al using the Haemmagglutination tests

[Young NA, Johnson KM&Gauld LW, Viruses of the Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis complex. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1969; 18:290-296]

The diagnosis of VEE should be evoked, studied and managed in any one presenting with febrile myalgic illness about a week after exposure to an enzootic biotype. Western Equine Encephalitis [WEE] virus is another encephalitic viral disease transmitted by various species of mosquitoe vectors .These include CX trasalis, Culiseta melanura and other mosquitoes of these genera.Aedes and anopheles may be slightly involved. The natural cycle is between Cx tarsalis mosquitoes and wild birds.Culex mosquitoes readily feed on large vertebrates, so equine and human cases occur annually. The number of cases is dependent on rainfall because mosquitoes breeding are mainly on ground pools.

[Hayes RO.Eastern and Western encephalitis.In Steele JH&Beran GW (eds)Hand book series in Zoonoses ,Section B Viral Zoonoses,vol I .Boca Raton ,FL :CRC Press ,1981:29-57]

The pathogenesis of WEE is quite similar to that of EEV except that WEE is less neuroinvasive.

Semliki Forest Virus [SFV] was originally isolated in Eastern Africa in 1944, although the SFV virus was assumed not to infect humans, the death of a scientist from whom SFV was isolated may suggest otherwise.

[Fazakerly JK, Amor S & Webb HE .Reconstitution of Semliki Forest Virus infected mice mediated pathological changes in the CNS.Clin Exp Immunol 1983; 52:115-120]

The large number of studies by German Scientists gave the name German measles to the Rubella virus, although the organism has nothing in common with measles except for the exenthematous morbilliform rash.

Rubella virus, the sole member of the rubivirus genus was initially described in the early 1800s. [Wesselhoeft C.Rubella (German Measles) N Engl J Med 1947; 236:943-950]

Unlike most other togaviruses, rubella has no known vertebrate host and the only natural reservoir is man. The rubella virus infections are encountered globally, and in the temperate regions the epidemics occur in late winter and early spring. Periods of increased incidence occur every decade, with major epidemics every second decade or so. [Witte JJ, Karchmer AW, Case G et al.Epidemiology of Rubella. Am J Dis Child 1969; 118:107-111]

Such epidemics were related to the susceptibility of the individuals and factors which increase the transmission of infections. Infections are generally acquired in childhood and approximately more than one half of the individuals in a given population have antibodies by the age of fourteen. With the introduction of the rubella vaccine in 1969, [Polk BF, Modlin JF&White JA.A controlled comparison of joint reactions among women receiving one of two rubella vaccines .Am J Epidemiol 1982;115:19-25] the incidence of the rubella infection has decreased, although the seroprevalence rate is still high at above ninety percent. The incidence of infection is considerable in the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.

Knowledge of pathological anatomy, gross and microscopic, in S japonicum lags behind that of S.mansoni since autopsy studies are fewer, currently are seldom performed in the endemic countries of S.japonicum and in the broad public health sense,schistosomiasis has been progressively declining as a cause of death for some decades. [Cheng MG&Mott KE.Progress in assessment of morbidity due to Schistosoma japonicum.A review of recent literature. In Progress in assessment of morbidity due to schistosomiasis.From Trop Dis Bull 1988:R1-R45]

In china the Oncomelania intermediate hosts were discovered in 1924

[Faust EC&Meleney HE.Studies on schistosomiasis japonica. With a supplement on the mollluscum hosts of the human blood fluke in China and Japan and species liable to be confused with them, by Nelson Anandale.Am J Hyg[Monogr Ser]1924;3:1-339]and in the Philippines in 1932 [Tubangui MA.The mollluscum intermediate host in the Phillipines of the oriental blood fluke Schistosoma japonicum.Phillipine J Sci 1932; 49:295-304] Schistosoma Mekongi was described initially in the 1978 [ Voge M,Bruckner D&Bruce J I.Schistosoma Mekongi sp.n.from man and animals compared with four geographic strains of Schistosoma japonicum.J.Parasitol 1978;64:577584.]

The parasite caused human schistosomiasis in an, as yet, restricted area of Laos and Kampuchea in Cambodia. The intermediate host, Tricula aperta, is aquatic and is not susceptible to strains of S.japonicum. [Liang YS&Kitikoon V.Susceptibility of Lithoglyphopsis aperta to Schistosoma Mekongi and Schistosoma japonicum.In Bruce JI,Sornmani S,Asch HL&Crawford KA[eds].The Mekong Schistosome .Malacol Rev 1980;supplement 2:53-60]

A monograph provides the most authoritative account of the species to date. [ Bruce JI, Sornmani S, Asch HL&Crawford KA [eds].The Mekong Schistosome.Malacol Rev 1980’supplement 2:282.]

In no other parasitic diseases have there been such a major advance in chemotherapy as have occurred since the 1960s in the treatment of schistosomiasis. Further work between helminthic infestations and immunosuppressive conditions were undertaken by Rogers et al in 1966. [-Rogers WA Jr& Nelson B.Strongyloidiasis and malignant lymphoma Opportunistic infection by a nematode.JAMA 1966; 195:685-687]

By 1943, the antigenic analysis of Trichinella spiralis for diagnostic purposes was already well established by Melcher.

[Melcher LR.Antigenic analysis of Trichinella spiralis.J Infect Dis 1943; 71:31-39]

Further work on Trichinosis was carried on further in 1953. [Link VB.Trichinosis: a health and economic problem. Public Health Rep Wash 1953; 68:417-418.]

Further work on the immunological, serological and biologic aspects of Trichinella spiralis was undertaken by The first case was reported in the United States in 1959 by Kagan.

[Kagan IG .Trichinosis in the United States. US Public Health Rep 1959; 74:159-162]

Maynard et al reported the subsequent cases case seen as an outbreak in the USA in 1962.

[Maynard JE&Pauls EP.Trichinosis in Alaska .A review and report of two outbreaks due to bear meat with observations on serodiagnosis and skin testing .Am J Hyg 1962;76:252261]

[Forrester ATT, Nelson GS&Sander G.The first record of an outbreak of trichinosis in Africa and south of Sahara.Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1961; 33:503-513]

Initial experimental works on Echinococcus multilocularis was undertaken in 1963 by Lubinski et al. [Lubinski G&Desser SS.Growth of the vegetatively propagated strain of larval Echinococcus multilocularis in C57L/J, B6AFI and A/J mice. Can J Zool 1963; 42:12131216]

Further work on the immunological mechanism of Trichinella spiralis was undertaken in 1967, by Larsh et al. [Larsh JE Jr.The present understanding of the mechanism of immunity of Trichinella spiralis .Am J Trop Med Hyg 1967; 16:123-132.]

The fine structure of the hydatid cyst and protoscolex of Echinococcus granulosus was described in 1967 by Morseth. [Morseth DJ.Fine structure of the hydatid cyst and protoscolex of Echinococcus granulosus.J Parasitol 1967; 53:312-325]

The chemical characterizations of the polysaccharides of the hydatid disease organism Echinococcus granulosus was characterized in 1967 by Kore et al. [ Kore K,Hierro J,Lasalvia E,Falco M& Calcagno M.Chemical characterization of the polysaccharide of the hydatid membrane of Echonicoccus granulosus.Exp Parasitol 1967;20:219-224]

Cases of Coenurus cysts in man were reported previously. [Raper AB&Dockeray GC.Coenurus cysts in man; five cases from East Africa. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1956; 50:121-128]

[Templeton AC.Anatomical and geographical location of human Coenurus infection.Trop Geogr Med 1971; 23:105.]

Non-tuberculous mycobacteria infection which include M.kansaii, M avium, M.inercellulare, M.scrofulaceum, M.xenopi, M.malmoense, M.szulgai, M.simiae, cause pulmonary as well as nodal disease, especially the cervical lymphnodes in children between the ages of twelve months to sixty months. The large majority of cases are due to the MAIS complex but M. kansasii may also be responsible.

[Lincoln E M& Gilbert L A. Disease in children due to mycobacteria other than M.tuberculosis Am Rev Respir Dis 1972;105:683-714] Differential tuberculin test with material prepared from appropriate antigens could be helpful in children.

[Hsu K H K.Atypical mycobacterial infections in children .Rev Infect Dis 1981; 3:1075-1080]

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Ehrlich P, Karrer P (1915): Arseno‐Metall‐verbindungen. Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft 48: 16341644.

Ehrlich P, Sachs H (1915): Impfstoffe und Heilsera. Therapeutische Monatshefte 29: 24-35.

Ehrlich P (1914): Deaths after Salvarsan. British Medical Journal 1: 1044-1045.

Ehrlich P (1913): Schlussbemerkungen. Abhandlungen über Salvarsan 3: 545-584.

Ehrlich P, Benda L (1913): Über die Einwirkung von Cyankalium auf Pyronin- und Acridinium-Farbstoffe.

Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft 46: 19311951.

Ehrlich P (1913): Address in Pathology, on Chemiotherapy. British Medical Journal: 353-359.

Ehrlich P (1913): Erinnerungen aus der Zeit der ätiologischen Tuberkuloseforschung Roberts Kochs. Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift: 2444-2446.

Ehrlich P, Gonder R (1913): Chemotherapie. Handbuch der pathogenen Mikroorganismen 3: 337-374. Ehrlich P, Gonder R (1913): Experiementelle Chemotherapie.Handbuch der pathogenen Protozoen: 752779. Ehrlich P, Karrer P (1913): Über Arseno-stibino- und Arsenobismuto-Verbindungen.Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft 46: 3564-3569.

Ehrlich P (1913): Demonstration eines Präparates mit Spirochäten im Gehirn eines Falles von Paralysis progressiva.Münchener medizinische Wochenschrift: 443445.

Ehrlich P (1913): Über Chemotherapie: Die Behandlung der Syphilis mit Salvarsan und verwandten Stoffen. Münchener medizinische Wochenschrift: 1959.

Ehrlich P (1913): Chemotherapie.Soziale Kultur und Volkswohlfahrt während der ersten 25 Regierungsjahre Kaiser Wilhelm II: 345-356.

Ehrlich P (1913): Über den jetzigen Stand der Salvarsantherapie mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Nebenwirkungen und deren Vermeidung. Zeitschrift fuer Chemotherapie und verwandte Gebiete 1 Originale 1: 1-20.

Ehrlich P (1912): Schlussbemerkungen. Abhandlungen über Salvarsan 2: 568-609.

Ehrlich P (1912): Ueber Salvarsan. Abhandlungen über Salvarsan 2: 547-563.

Ehrlich P, Bertheim A (1912): Über das salzsaure 3,3'Diamino-4,4'-dioxyarsenobenzol und seine nächsten Verwandten.Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft 45: 756-766.

Ehrlich P (1912): Über Laboratoriumsversuche und klinische Erprobung von Heilstoffen.Chemiker-Zeitung 36: 637-638.

Ehrlich P (1912): Offener Brief an den Herausgeber. Dermatologisches Centralblatt: 194-195.

Ehrlich P (1912): Diskussion zu dem Referat Nonne und dem Vortrag Benario in der Jahresversammlung Deutscher Nervenärzte in Frankfurt am Main.

Deutsche Zeitschrift fuer Nervenheilkunde 43: 270-276.

Ehrlich P (1912): Diskussionsbemerkungen zu dem Vortrag von Klemperer (Salvarsan bei Scharlach).Verhandlungen des Deutschen Kongresses fuer Innere Medizin 29: 411-412.

Ehrlich P (1912): Diskussionsbemerkungen zu dem Vortrag von Schlecht (Eosinophilie).Verhandlungen des Deutschen Kongresses fuer Innere Medizin 29: 419-421.

Ehrlich P (1912): Berichte über die Tätigkeit des Instituts für experimentelle Therapie zu Frankfurt a. M. im Jahre 1910/11 und 1911/12.Veröffentlichungen aus dem Gebiete der Medizinalverwaltung 1: 49-61 und 65-82.

Ehrlich P (1911): Die Salvarsantherapie. Rückblicke und Ausblicke.Abhandlungen über Salvarsan 1: 375-402.

Ehrlich P (1911): Schlußwort. Bericht ueber die Tagung der Freien Vereinigung fuer Mikrobiologie 50: 125.

Ehrlich P (1911): Ueber Chemotherapie. Bericht ueber die Tagung der Freien Vereinigung fuer

Mikrobiologie 50: 94-108.

Ehrlich P (1911): Richtigstellung zu der Arbeit Fritz Lesser´s. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift: 1090.

Ehrlich P, Bertheim A (1911): Reduktionsprodukte der Arsanilsäure und ihrer Derivate: Zweite Mitteilung: Über p,p'Diaminoarsenobenzol.Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft 44: 1260-1269.

Ehrlich P: Grundlagen und Erfolge der Chemotherapie: mit 13 Tafelabbildungen.Stuttgart: Enke, 1911

Ehrlich P (1911): Aus Theorie und Praxis der Chemotherapie.Folia Serologica 7: 697-714.

Ehrlich P (1911): Ueber Salvarsan. Münchener medizinische Wochenschrift 58: 2481-2486.

Ehrlich P (1911): Pro und Contra Salvarsan. Wiener medizinische Wochenschrift 61: 13-19.

Ehrlich P (1911): Die Chemotherapie der Spirillosen. Zeitschrift fuer Immunitaetsforschung und experimentelle Therapie: 2 (Referate): 1123-1138.

Ehrlich P (1911): Zu den vorstehenden Bemerkungen von Paul Uhlenhuth und Schlußwort. Zeitschrift fuer Immunitaetsforschung und experimentelle Therapie 2 (Referate) 3: 1143-1152.

Ehrlich P (1910): Diskussionsbemerkungen zum Vortrag von Wechselmann (Chemotherapie der Syphilis).Bericht ueber die Tagung der Freien Vereinigung fuer Mikrobiologie 47: 223-224.

Ehrlich P (1910): Nervenstörungen und Salvarsanbehandlung.Berliner klinische Wochenschrift: 2346-2347.

Ehrlich P, Bertheim A (1910): Reduktionsprodukte der Arsanilsäure und ihrer Derivate: Erste Mitteilung: Über pAminophenylarsenoxyd.Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft 43: 917-927.

Ehrlich P (1910): Die Behandlung der Syphilis mit dem Ehrlichschen Präparat 606. Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift: 1893-1896.

Ehrlich P (1910): P. Ehrlich, Anwendung und Wirkung von Salvarsan.Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift: 24372438.

Ehrlich P (1910): Schlußbemerkungen. Die experimentelle Chemotherapie der Spirillosen (Syphilis, Rückfallfieber, Hühnerspirillose, Fambösie): 114-164.

Ehrlich P (1910): Robert Koch : 1843-1910. Frankfurter Zeitung und Handelsblatt : Erstes Morgenblatt.

Ehrlich P (1910): Chemotherapie, ihre Grundlagen und praktische Bedeutung. Handbuch der Serumtherapie und experimentellen Therapie: 316-326. Ehrlich P (1910): Ueber die Behandlung der Syphilis mit Dioxydiamidoarsenobenzol. Klinisch-therapeutische Wochenschrift 17: 1005-1018.

Ehrlich P, Lazarus A: Anaemia, Part I. Volume I. Normal and Pathological Histology of the Blood. New York: Rebman, 1910

Ehrlich P (1910): Bietet die intravenöse Injektion von "606" besondere Gefahren?. Münchener medizinische Wochenschrift 57: 1826.

Ehrlich P (1910): Über die Schlafkrankheit. Offizieller Bericht : Internationaler Kongress zur Fürsorge für Geisteskranke 4: 644-659.

Ehrlich P, Sachs H: Die experimentelle Chemotherapie der Spirillosen (Syphilis, Rückfallfieber, Hühnerspirillose, Frambösie).Berlin: Springer, 1910

Ehrlich P, Sachs H (1910): Ist die Ehrlichsche Seitenkettentheorie mit den tatsächlichen Verhältnissen vereinbar?.Münchener medizinische Wochenschrift 57: 1287-1289.

Ehrlich P: Studies in Immunity.New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1910 Ehrlich P (1910): Allgemeines über Chemotherapie. Verhandlungen des Deutschen Kongresses fuer Innere Medizin 27: 226-234.

Ehrlich P (1910): Die Behandlung der Syphilis mit dem Präparate von Ehrlich-Hata (Bemerkungen zu der Arbeit von Walter Pick).Wiener klinische Wochenschrift: 1486-1488.

Ehrlich P (1910): Ueber Blasenstörungen nach Anwendung des Präparates 606. Wiener klinische Wochenschrift 23: 1131.

Ehrlich P (1910): Die Grundlagen der experimentellen Chemotherapie.Zeitschrift fuer angewandte Chemie und Zentralblatt fuer technische Chemie 23: 2-8.

Ehrlich P (1910): Robert Koch.Zeitschrift fuer Immunitaetsforschung und experimentelle Therapie 16.

Ehrlich P (1909): Über die neuesten Ergebnisse auf dem Gebiet der Trypanosomenforschung. Archiv fuer Schiffs- und Tropenhygiene 13: 91-116. Text

Ehrlich P (1909): Chemotherapeutische Trypanosomenstudien.

Beiträge zur experimentellen Pathologie und Chemotherapie: 97-115.

Ehrlich P (1909): Über athreptische Funktionen.

Beiträge zur experimentellen Pathologie und Chemotherapie: 50-96. Text

Ehrlich P (1909): Über Immunität mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Beziehung zwischen Verteilung und Wirkung der Antigene. Beiträge zur experimentellen Pathologie und Chemotherapie: 3-49.

Ehrlich P (1909): Über den jetzigen Stand der Karzinomforschung.

Beiträge zur experimentellen Pathologie und Chemotherapie: 117-164.

Ehrlich P (1909): Über moderne Chemotherapie.

Beiträge zur experimentellen Pathologie und Chemotherapie: 165-202.

Ehrlich P (1909): Über Partialfunktionen der Zelle. Beiträge zur experimentellen Pathologie und Chemotherapie: 203-247.

Ehrlich P (1909): Über den jetzigen Stand der Chemotherapie. Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft 42: 17-47.

Ehrlich P: Experimental researches on specific therapeutics. New York: Hoeber, 1909

Ehrlich P, Roehl W, Gulbransen (1909): Ueber serumfeste Trypanosomenstämme : Bemerkungen zu der Arbeit von Levaditi und Mutermilch. Zeitschrift fuer Immunitätsforschung und experimentelle Therapie 13: 296-299.

Ehrlich P, Sachs H (1909): Kritiker der Seitenkettentheorie im Lichte ihrer experimentellen und literarischen Forschung. Münchener medizinische Wochenschrift 56: 2529-2532 und 2586-2589. Ehrlich P (1909): Die Trypanosomen und ihre Bekämpfung. 40. Bericht der Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden

Gesellschaft in Frankfurt am Main: 108-111.

Ehrlich P (1909): Chemotherapie von Infektionskrankheiten. Zeitschrift fuer aerztliche Fortbildung 6: 721-733.

Ehrlich P (1908): Referat über die Genese des Carcinoms. Verhandlungen der Deutschen Pathologischen Gesellschaft 12: 13-32.

Ehrlich P (1908): Das Leberglykogen des Frosches betreffendes Schreiben an den Herausgeber. Archiv fuer die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere 121: 236.

Ehrlich P, Bertheim A (1908): Zur Diazoreaktion des Atoxyls. Chemiker-Zeitung 32: 1059.

Ehrlich P (1908): Eugen Albrecht. Frankfurter Zeitung und Handelsblatt : Drittes Morgenblatt.

Ehrlich P (1908): Über Antigene und Antikörper. Handbuch der Technik und Methodik der Immunitätsforschung : Anitgene 1: 1-10.

Ehrlich P (1908): Partial cell functions : Nobel lecture, December 11, 1908. Physiology or Medicine: including presentation speeches

and laureates' biographies ; 1901-1921 (1967): 304-320.

Ehrlich P (1908): Historisches zur Frage der Immunisierung per os. Wiener klinische Wochenschrift: 652. Text

Ehrlich P, Apolant H (1907): Ueber spontane Mischtumoren der Maus. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift 44: 1399-1401.

Ehrlich P (1907): Chemotherapeutische TrypanosomenStudien. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift 44: 233-236, 280-283, 310314 und 341-344.

Ehrlich P, Bertheim A (1907): Über pAminophenylarsinsäure : Erste Mitteilung. Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft 40: 32923297. Ehrlich P, Bertheim A (1907): Zur Geschichte der Atoxylformel. Medizinische Klinik: 1298-1299.

Ehrlich P, Bertheim A (1907): Zur Chemie des Atoxyls. Pharmazeutische Zeitung 52: 344.

Ehrlich P (1907): Biologische Therapie. Internationale Wochenschrift fuer Wissenschaft, Kunst und Technik 1: 125-132.

Ehrlich P (1907): Das Königliche Institut für experimentelle Therapie zu Frankfurt a. M. Medizinische Anstalten auf dem Gebiete der Volksgesundheitspflege in Preußen : XIV. Internationaler Kongreß für Hygiene und Demographie: 87-106.

Ehrlich P (1907): Bemerkungen zu den Aufsätzen des Herrn Dr. Orthner. Wiener klinische Wochenschrift 20: 1529-1530.

Ehrlich P (1907): Experimentelle Studien an Mäusetumoren. Zeitschrift fuer Krebsforschung 5: 59-81. Text

Ehrlich P, Apolant H (1906): Erwiderung auf den Artikel des Herrn Dr. Bashford: Einige Bemerkungen zur Methodik der experimentellen Krebsforschung. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift: 668-670. Text

Ehrlich P, Apolant H, Haaland M: Experimentelle Beiträge zur Geschwulstlehre. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift: 37-40.

Ehrlich P, Apolant H (1906): Zur Kenntnis der Sarkomentwicklung bei Carcinomtransplantationen.

Zentralblatt fuer Allgemeine Pathologie und pathologische Anatomie 17: 513-515. Text

Ehrlich P (1906): Experimentelle Carcinomstudien an Mäusen. Arbeiten aus dem Königlichen Institut für Experimentelle Therapie zu Frankfurt am Main: 75-102.

Ehrlich P (1906): Ueber ein transplantables Chondrom der Maus. Arbeiten aus dem Königlichen Institut für experimentelle Therapie zu Frankfurt a. M: 63-73. Text

Ehrlich P, Bechhold H (1906): Beziehungen zwischen chemischer Konstitution und Desinfektionswirkung : Ein Beitrag zum Studium der inneren Antisepsis. Hoppe-Seyler's Zeitschrift fuer physiologische Chemie 47: 173-199.

Ehrlich P (1906): A general review of the recent work in immunity.Collected studies on immunity: 577-586.

Ehrlich P (1906): Die Aufgaben der Chemotherapie. Frankfurter Zeitung und Handelsblatt: Zweites Morgenblatt 51. Text Ehrlich P (1906): Weigerts Verdienste um die histologische Wissenschaft.

Gesammelte Abhandlungen / Carl Weigert 1: 138-141.

Ehrlich P (1906): Experimentelle Karzinomstudien an Mäusen.

Zeitschrift fuer aerztliche Fortbildung 3: 205-213.

Ehrlich P, Apolant H (1905): Beobachtungen über maligne Mäusetumoren.

Berliner klinische Wochenschrift 42: 871-874.

Ehrlich P, Sachs H (1905): Ueber den Mechanismus der Antiamboceptorwirkung.

Berliner klinische Wochenschrift: 557-558 und 609-612.

Ehrlich P (1904): Vorläufige Bemerkungen zur Mittheilung von Arrhenius: Zur Theorie der Absättigung von Toxin und Antitoxin.

Berliner klinische Wochenschrift: 221-223. Text

Ehrlich P (1904): The mutual relations between toxin and antitoxin.

Boston medical and surgical journal 150: 443-445.

Ehrlich P, Herter CA (1904): Über einige Verwendungen der Naphtochinonsulfosäure.

Hoppe-Seyler's Zeitschrift fuer physiologische Chemie 41: 379-392.

Ehrlich P, Morgenroth J (1904): Wirkung und Entstehung der aktiven Stoffe im Serum nach der Seitenkettentheorie. Handbuch der pathogenen Mikroorganismen 1: 430-451.

Ehrlich P, Sachs H (1904): Über die Beziehungen zwischen Toxin und Antitoxin und die Wege ihrer Erforschung. Chemische Novitäten 1: 33-37, 65-69 und 89-92.

Ehrlich P, Shiga K (1904): Farbentherapeutische Versuche bei Trypanosomenerkrankung. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift 41: 329-332 und 362-365.

Ehrlich P (1904): Über den jetzigen Stand der Lehre von den eosinophilen Zellen. Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte 76. Versammlung: 236-240.

Ehrlich P (1904): Diskussion zu dem Vortrage von Arrhenius über Serumtherapie. Zeitschrift fuer Elektrochemie und angewandte physikalische Chemie 10: 668-679.

Ehrlich P (1903): Quelles sont les meilleures méthodes pour mésurer l'activité des sérums?. Bericht über den Internationalen Kongress für Hygiene und Demographie 13: 30-32.

Ehrlich P (1903): Ueber die Gieftcomponenten des Diphterietoxins.

Berliner klinische Wochenschrift 40: 793-797, 825-829 und 848-851. Text

Ehrlich P (1903): Betrachtungen über den Mechanismus der Ambozeptorwirkung und seine teleologische Bedeutung. Festschrift zum sechzigsten Geburtstage von Robert Koch: 509-526.

Ehrlich P, Lazarus A (1903): Die Anämien. Deutsche Klinik am Eingange des zwanzigsten Jahrhunderts 3: 81-97.

Ehrlich P (1903): Toxin und Antitoxin : Entgegnung auf Grubers Replik.

Muenchener medizinische Wochenschrift 80: 2295-2297.

Ehrlich P (1903): Toxin und Antitoxin : Entgegnung auf den neuesten Angriff Grubers.

Muenchener medizinische Wochenschrift 50: 1428-1432 und 1465-1469.

Ehrlich P, Sachs F (1903): Die Darstellung von Triphenylmethanfarbstoffen aus Brommagnesiumdimethylanilin als Vorlesungsversuch.

Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft 36: 42964299.

Ehrlich P (1903): Diskussionsbemerkungen zum Vortrag von Kaminer (Jodreaktion der Leukocyten).

Verhandlungen des Kongresses fuer Innere Medizin 20: 189-190.

Ehrlich P, Marshall HT (1902): Ueber die complementophilen Gruppen der Amboceptoren.

Berliner klinische Wochenschrift 39: 585-587.

Ehrlich P, Morgenroth J (1902): Die Seitenkettentheorie der Immunität. Anleitung zu hygienischen Untersuchungen : nach den im Hygienischen Institut der königl. Ludwig-MaximiliansUniversität zu München üblichen Methoden zusammengestellt 3. Aufl: 381-394.

Ehrlich P, Sachs H (1902): Ueber den Mechanismus der Amboceptorenwirkung.

Berliner klinische Wochenschrift 39: 492-496.

Ehrlich P, Sachs H (1902): Ueber die Vielheit der Complemente des Serums.

Berliner klinische Wochenschrift 39: 297-299 und 335-338.

Ehrlich P (1902): Diskussionsbemerkungen zum Vortrag von Kaminer (Jodreaktion der Leukocyten).

Verhandlungen des Kongresses fuer Innere Medizin 20: 189-190.

Ehrlich P (1901): Ueber Hämolysine : fünfte Mittheilung. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift 38: 251-257.

Ehrlich P (1901): Die Schutzstoffe des Blutes. Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 27: 865-867, 888-891 und 913-916.

Ehrlich P (1901): Ueber die Dimethylamidobenzaldehydreaction. Die medicinische Woche und balneologische Centralzeitung: 151-153.

Ehrlich P, Lazarus A, Pinkus F (1901): Leukaemie, Pseudoleukaemie und Haemoglobinaemie. Die Anämie : III. Abtheilung ; Leukaemie, Pseudoleukaemie und Haemoglobinaemie: I-VII, 1-185.

Ehrlich P, Morgenroth J (1901): Ueber Haemolysine : sechste Mittheilung. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift 38: 569-574 und 598-604.

Ehrlich P (1901): Die Seitenkettentheorie und ihre Gegner. Muenchener medizinische Wochenschrift: 2123-2124.

Ehrlich P (1901): Schlussbetrachtungen. Specielle Pathologie und Therapie 8: 162-185.

Ehrlich P (1901): Ueber Toxine und Antitoxine. Therapie der Gegenwart: 193-200.

Ehrlich P (1900): Cellularbiologische Betrachtungen über Immunität.

Bericht der Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Frankfurt am Main: 147-150.

Ehrlich P, Morgenroth J (1900): Ueber Haemolysine : dritte Mittheilung. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift 37: 453-458.

Ehrlich P, Morgenroth J (1900): Ueber Hämolysine : vierte Mittheilung. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift: 681-687.

Ehrlich P (1900): Croonian lecture: on immunity with special reference to cell life.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 66: 424-448.

Ehrlich P (1900): La leucocytose. Transactions of the International Medical Congress: 13. Congrès International de Médecine: 255-266.

Ehrlich P (1900): Toxines et Antitoxines.

Transactions of the International Medical Congress (=Verhandlungen des Internationalen Medicinischen Congresses) : XIII. Congrès International de Mèdecine: 28-

33.

Ehrlich P (1899): Diazoreaction und ihre klinische Bedeutung.Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift / VereinsBeilage: 46-47.

Ehrlich P (1899): Mode de production et mécanisme d'action des antitoxinos d'aprés Ehrlich. La Semaine medicale: 411-412.

Ehrlich P, Morgenroth J (1899): Ueber Haemolysine: zweite Mittheilung.

Berliner klinische Wochenschrift 36: 481-486.

Ehrlich P, Morgenroth J (1899): Zur Theorie der Lysinwirkung. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift 36: 6-9.

Ehrlich P, Sachs F (1899): Ueber Condensationen von aromatischen Nitrosoverbindungen mit Methylenderivaten : erste Mittheilung. Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft 32: 23412346.

Ehrlich P (1899): Observations upon the constitution of the diphtheria toxin.

Transactions of the Jenner Institute of Preventive Medicine: 1-16.

Ehrlich P (1898): Diskussionsbemerkungen (Crotin und Tetanolysin).

Berliner klinische Wochenschrift: 273-274.

Ehrlich P (1898): Ueber die Constitution des Diphtheriegiftes.

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 24: 597-600.

Ehrlich P (1897): Zur Kenntnis der Antitoxinwirkung. Fortschritte der Medizin 15: 41-43.

Ehrlich P (1897): Die Wertbemessung des Diphterieheilserums und deren theoretische Grundlagen.Klinisches Jahrbuch 6: 299-326.

Ehrlich P (1896): Die staatliche Controle des Diphtherieserums.

Berliner klinische Wochenschrift: 441-443.

Ehrlich P, Behring E (1894): Zur Diphtherieimmunisirungsund Heilungsfrage.

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift: 437-438.

Ehrlich P, Einhorn A (1894): Ueber die physiologische Wirkung der Verbindungen der Cocainreihe.

Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft 27: 18701873.

Ehrlich P, Hübener W (1894): Ueber die Vererbung der Immunität bei Tetanus.

Zeitschrift fuer Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten, medizinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Virologie 18: 51-64. Ehrlich P (1894): Über die Gewinnung, Werthbestimmung und Verwerthung des Diphtherieheilserums.Hygienische Rundschau 4: 1140-1152.

Ehrlich P, Kossel H, Wassermann A (1894): Ueber Gewinnung und Verwendung des Diphterieheilserums. Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 20: 353-355.

Ehrlich P, Kossel H (1894): Ueber die Anwendung des Diphtherieantitoxins.

Zeitschrift fuer Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten, medizinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Virologie 17: 486-488.

Ehrlich P (1894): Ueber die Behandlung der Diphtherie mit Heilserum.

Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte: 402.

Ehrlich P, Wassermann A (1894): Ueber die Gewinnung der Diphterie-Antitoxine aus Blutserum und Milch immunisirter Thiere.

Zeitschrift fuer Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten,

medizinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Virologie 18: 239-250.

Ehrlich P (1894): Ueber Neutralroth (Über Farbstoffreaktionen).

Zeitschrift fuer wissenschaftliche Mikroskopie und mikroskopische Technik 11: 250.

Ehrlich P, Brieger L (1893): Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Milch immunisirter Thiere.

Zeitschrift fuer Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten, medizinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Virologie 13: 336-346.

Ehrlich P, Cohn G (1893): Die Einwirkung von Säurechloriden auf Nitrosodimethylanilin.

Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft 26: 17561757.

Ehrlich P, Brieger L (1982): Ueber die Uebertragung von Immunität durch Milch.

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 18: 393-394.

Ehrlich P (1892): Bemerkungen über die Immunität durch Vererbung und Säugung.

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 18: 511.

Ehrlich P (1892): Ueber schwere anämische Zustände.

Verhandlungen des Kongresses fuer Innere Medizin: 33-52.

Ehrlich P (1892): Ueber Immunität durch Vererbung und Säugung.

Zeitschrift fuer Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten, medizinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Virologie 12: 183-203.

Ehrlich P (1891): Experimentelle Untersuchungen über Immunität. I. Ueber Ricin.

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 17: 976-979.

Ehrlich P (1891): Experimentelle Untersuchungen über Immunität. II. Ueber Abrin.

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 17: 1218-1219.

Ehrlich P (1891): Zur Geschichte der Granula. Farbenanalytische Studien zur Histologie und Klinik des Blutes: 134-137.

Ehrlich P, Guttmann P (1891): Ueber die Wirkung des Methylenblau bei Malaria. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift 28: 953-956.

Ehrlich P, Guttmann P (1891): Entgegnung auf die Mittheilung über Tuberkelbacillen im Blut nach Koch'schen Injectionen.

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift: 251.

Ehrlich P, Guttmann P (1891): Ueber Anfangs-Behandlung der Lungen- und Kehlkopf-Tuberculose mit Koch'schem Tuberkulin.

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift: 373.

Ehrlich P, Guttmann P (1891): Die Wirksamkeit kleiner Tuberkulindosen gegen Lungenschwindsucht.

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 16: 793-795.

Ehrlich P (1891): Recent experiences in the treatment of tuberculosis (with special reference to pulmonary consumption) by Koch's method.

The Lancet: 917-920.

Ehrlich P (1891): Ueber neuere Erfahrungen in der Behandlung der Tuberkulose nach Koch, insbesondere der Lungenschwindsucht.

Transactions of the Seventh International Congress of Hygiene and Demography 7: 211-222.

Ehrlich P (1890): Studien in der Cocainreihe.

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift: 717-719. Text

Ehrlich P (1890): Ueber schmerzstillende Wirkung des Methylenblau.

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 16: 493-494.

Ehrlich P (1889): Diskussionsbemerkungen zum Vortrage von F. Müller (Perniziöse Anämie). Berliner klinische Wochenschrift: 16-18.

Ehrlich P (1888): Ueber einen Fall von Anämie mit Bemerkungen über regenerative Veränderungen des Knochenmarks.

Charité-Annalen 13: 300-309.

Ehrlich P (1887): Ueber Pleuritis.Berliner klinische Wochenschrift: 578-580.

Ehrlich P (1887): Ueber die Methylenblaureaktion der lebenden Nervensubstanz. Biologisches Zentralblatt 6: 214-224.

Ehrlich P (1887): Ueber die Bedeutung der neutrophilen Körnung. Charité-Annalen 12: 288-295.

Ehrlich P (1887): Zur therapeutischen Bedeutung der substituirenden Schwefelsäuregruppe.Therapeutische Monatshefte 1: 88-90.

Ehrlich P (1886): Beobachtungen über Thallinwirkung. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift: 163.

Ehrlich P (1886): Beiträge zur Theorie der Bacillenfärbung. Charité-Annalen 11: 123-138.

Ehrlich P (1886): Nachträgliche Bemerkungen zur Diazoreaction.

Charité-Annalen 11: 139-142.

Ehrlich P (1886): Discussion über Thallinbehandlung des Ileotyphus.

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift: 899-900.

Ehrlich P (1886): Experimentelles und Klinisches über Thallin.

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 12: 849-851 und 889891.

Ehrlich P (1886): Ueber die Methylenblaureaction der lebenden Nervensubstanz.

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 12: 49-52.

Ehrlich P (1886): Technische Mitteilung über Herstellung des sauren Hämatoxylins und des sauren Eosin-Hämatoxylins. Zeitschrift fuer wissenschaftliche Mikroskopie und (fuer) mikroskopische Technik 3: 150.

Ehrlich P (1885): Demonstration eines Kranken mit tuberkulösem Lippengeschwür. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift: 665-666. Text

Ehrlich P, Laquer B (1885): Ueber continuirliche Thallinzuführung und deren Wirkung beim Abdominaltyphus.

Berliner klinische Wochenschrift 22: 837-841 und 855-858.

Ehrlich P: Das Sauerstoff-Bedürfniss des Organismus : eine farbenanalytische Studie.Berlin: Hirschwald, 1885

Ehrlich P (1885): Antikritische Bemerkungen über Drüsenfunctionen.

Centralblatt für die medicinischen Wissenschaften 23: 161165.

Ehrlich P (1885): Zur biologischen Verwertung des Methylenblau.

Centralblatt für die medicinischen Wissenschaften 23: 113117.

Ehrlich P (1885): Ueber Wesen und Behandlung des Jodismus.

Charité-Annalen 10: 129-135.

Ehrlich P (1885): Zur Physiologie und Pathologie der Blutscheiben.

Charité-Annalen 10: 136-146.

Ehrlich P, Brieger L (1884): Ueber die Ausschaltung des Lendenmarkgrau.

Zeitschrift fuer klinische Medizin 7: 155-164.

Ehrlich P (1884): Zur Kenntniss des acuten Milztumors.

Charité-Annalen 9: 107-114.

Ehrlich P (1884): Diskussion über die Sulfodiazobenzolreaktion.

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift: 430-431.

Ehrlich P (1884): Ueber die Sulfodiazobenzol-Reaction. Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 10: 419-422.

Ehrlich P (1883): Über Diazoreaktion.

Berliner klinische Wochenschrift: 135. Text

Ehrlich P (1883): Über eine neue Methode der Färbung von Tuberkelbacillen.

Berliner klinische Wochenschrift 20: 13.

Ehrlich P (1883): Sulfodiazobenzol, ein Reagens auf Bilirubin.

Centralblatt fuer klinische Medizin: 721-723. Text

Ehrlich P (1883): Ueber eine neue Harnprobe.

Charité-Annalen 8: 140-166.

Ehrlich P (1883): Demonstration eines leukämischen Blutpräparates.

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift: 670-671.

Ehrlich P (1883): Einige Worte über die Diazoreaction.

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 9.

Ehrlich P (1883): Referat und Discussion über die gegen R. Koch´s Entdeckung der Tuberkelbacillen neuerlichst hervorgetretenen Einwände.

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift: 159-162.

Ehrlich P (1883): Ueber das Vorkommen von Glykogen im diabetischen und im normalen Organismus. Zeitschrift für klinische Medicin 6: 33-46.

Ehrlich P (1882): Ueber das Auftreten des malignen Oedems bei Typhus abdominalis.

Berliner klinische Wochenschrift 19: 661-665.

Ehrlich P (1882): Ueber einen Fall von Phosphorvergiftung mit symmetrischer Gangraena pedum.

Charité-Annalen 7: 231-236.

Ehrlich P (1882): Ueber die Pleuritis im Wochenbett, insbesondere über die puerperale hämorrhagische Pleuritis und ihre Beziehungen zu den Mikroorganismen und der Septico-Pyämie.

Charité-Annalen 7: 202-226.

Ehrlich P (1882): Zur Diagnostik der carcinomatösen Pleuritis.

Charité-Annalen 7: 226-230.

Ehrlich P (1882): Diskussion zur Färbung des Tuberkelbazillus.

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift: 365.

Ehrlich P (1882): Über die Färbung der Tuberkelbazillen. Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift: 269-270.

Ehrlich P (1882): Ueber provocirte Fluorescenzerscheinungen am Auge. Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift: 35-37.

Ehrlich P (1882): Ueber eine neue Harnprobe. Zeitschrift fuer klinische Medizin 5: 285-288.

Ehrlich P (1881): Beobachtungen am anämischen Blut. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift: 43-44.

Ehrlich P (1881): Zur Genese der Herzinfarcte. Centralblatt fuer die medicinischen Wissenschaften: 753756.

Ehrlich P (1881): Über paroxysmale Hämoglobinurie. Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 7: 224-225.

Ehrlich P (1881): Ueber das Methylenblau und seine klinisch-bakterioskopische Verwerthung. Zeitschrift fuer klinische Medizin 2: 710-713.

Ehrlich P (1880): Über Regeneration und Degeneration der rothen Blutscheiben bei Anämien. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift: 405.

Ehrlich P (1880): Beobachtungen über einen Fall von perniciöser, progressiver Anämie mit Sarcombildung : Beiträge zur Lehre von der acuten Herzinsufficienz. Charité-Annalen 5: 198-205.

Ehrlich P (1880): Methodologische Beiträge zur Physiologie und Pathologie der verschiedenen Formen der Leukocyten. Zeitschrift fuer klinische Medizin 1: 553-560.

Ehrlich P (1879): Beiträge zur Kenntniss der granulirten Bindegewebszellen und der eosinophilen Leukocythen. Archiv fuer Anatomie und Physiologie: Physiologische Abteilung: 166-169.

Ehrlich P (1879): Ueber die specifischen Granulationen des Blutes. Archiv fuer Anatomie und Physiologie: Physiologische Abteilung: 571-579.

Ehrlich P (1879/80): Ueber syphilitische Herzinfarcte.Zeitschrift fuer klinische Medizin 1: 378-382.

Ehrlich, P: Beiträge zur Theorie und Praxis der histologischen Färbung.

Ehrlich P (1877): Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Anilinfärbungen und ihrer Verwendung in der mikroskopischen Technik. Archiv fuer mikroskopische Anatomie 13: 263-278.

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Haffkine, Waldemar Mordecai Wolff, 1860-1930: Protective inoculation against cholera

By Haffkine, Waldemar Mordecai Wolff, 1860-1930; Royal College of Physicians of LondonPublication date 1913

Topics Asiatic Cholera, Preventive Inoculation

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Haffkine, Waldemar Mordecai Wolff, 1860-1930:Anticholera inoculation : report to the Government of India by Haffkine, W. M. (Waldemar Mordecai), 18601930; Royal College of Surgeons of England:Publication date 1895 :Topics:Cholera, prevention & control, Vaccination, utilization:Publisher:Calcutta : Thacker, Spink Collection:rcseng; ukmhl; medicalheritagelibrary; europeanli braries

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Haffkine, W. M. (Waldemar Mordecai Wolffe), 1860-1930; Remarks on the plague prophylactic fluid by;Haffkine, W. M. (Waldemar Mordecai Wolffe), 1860-1930;Publication date;1897;Topics;Plague, India Publisher;[Place of publication not identified] : [publisher not identified]

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Haffkine W. M. (Waldemar Mordecai Wolffe), 18601930; Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh:Anticholeraic inoculations in India

By Haffkine W. M. (Waldemar Mordecai Wolffe), 18601930; Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh;Publication

date;1895;Topics;Vaccination, Cholera - prevention & control;Publisher;[S.l.] : [s.n.]Collection rcpedinburgh; ukmhl; medicalheritagelibrary; europeanlibrari es

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Publ: "Reprinted from The Indian Medical Gazette, no. 1 (Jan. 1895.)" Bndg: Bound with other works; This material has been provided by the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. The original may be consulted at the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh Notes;No copyright page found. No table-of-contents pages found.Addeddate;2015-03-03 11:57:36.013313

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Haffkine, W. M. (Waldemar Mordecai Wolffe), 18601930; Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh;On preventive inoculation by Haffkine, W. M. (Waldemar Mordecai Wolffe), 1860-1930; Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh;Publication date;1899:Topics;Vaccination;Publisher;London : Harrison and Sons, printers;Collection;rcpedinburgh; ukmhl; medicalheritagelibra ry; europeanlibraries

Digitizing sponsor;Jisc and Wellcome Library ;Contributor;Royal College of Physicians in Edinburgh;Language;English;Publ: "From the Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. 65." Bndg: Bound with other works Note: "The paper as published here, after final revision by the author, differs in some details from what has appeared in the Lancet of 24 June, and British Medical Journal, of July 1, 1899, under the title of A Discourse on Preventive Inoculation, delivered at the Royal Society, London, on June 8, 1899."--p. [252];This material has been provided by the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. The original may be consulted at the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh;Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh:Notes:No copyright page found. No table-ofcontents pages found. Added date:2015-03-03 11:57:58.68544;Associatednames;Haffkine, W. M. (Waldemar Mordecai Wolffe), 18601930; Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh Camera;Camera Model Unknown

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Haffkine, Waldemar Mordecai Wolff (1860-1930); Royal College of Physicians of London:On prophylactic inoculation against plague and pneumonia by Haffkine, Waldemar Mordecai Wolff (1860-1930); Royal College of Physicians of London:Publication date:1914

Topics:Pneumonia, Preventive inoculation, Plague, Preventive Inoculation, Vaccination, Plague, Prevention and Control, Communicable Disease Control, Therapeutics:Publisher;Calcutta : Office of the

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Haffkine, W. M. (Waldemar Mordecai), 1860-1930; Royal College of Surgeons of England A lecture on vaccination against cholera : delivered in the Examination Hall of the Conjoint Board of the Royal Colleges of Physicians of London and Surgeons of England, December 18th, 1895

By Haffkine, W. M. (Waldemar Mordecai), 1860-1930; Royal College of Surgeons of England

Publication date:1895;Topics:Vaccination, Cholera, prevention & control Publisher :London : Printed at the office of the British Medical Association Collection;rcseng; ukmhl; medicalheritagelibrary; europeanli braries

Digitizing sponsor:Jisc and Wellcome Library:ContributorRoyal College of Surgeons of England;Language-EnglishThe Royal College of Surgeons of England; 'Reprinted for the author from the British Medical Journal, December 21st, 1895' - caption This material has been provided by The Royal College of Surgeons of England. The original may be consulted at The Royal College of Surgeons of England Added date:2015-07-16 11:58:51.509604

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Haffkine, W. M; London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.The health of the inoculated by Haffkine, W. M; London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Publication date:1901; Topics-Smallpox;Publisher[India] : Times of India Press Collection;lshtmlibrary; ukmhl; medicalheritagelibrary; europ eanlibraries

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Hassall Arthur Hill [1817-1894] A Physician and Botanist who practiced in London and later in the Isles of Wight described the Thymic corpuscles which assists in the elaboration of the T-lymphocytes, these are remnants of the epithelium of the third pharyngeal pouch from which the thymus developed from.

Hassall Arthur Hill [1817-1894] The Microscopic Anatomy of the Human Body in Health and Disease. S. Highley, London 1846

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Desmidiaceae and Diatomaceae. pp. vi, 462. Atlas, 103 ph. col 8. London, 1845.

Hassall Arthur Hill [1817-1894] Adulterations detected; or, Plain instructions for the discovery of frauds in food and medicine. Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, and Roberts, London 1857.

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Hassall Arthur Hill [1817-1894] By Candlelight: The Life of Dr Arthur Hill Hassall (1817-1894), Ernest A Gray, London: Robert Hale, 1983, Review, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, Volume 76, November 1983

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Hassall, A. H. The Narrative of a Busy Life: An Autobiography. p. 4.

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Peyer Johann Conrad [1653-1712] Prodromus physiologicus naturam explicans humorum nutritioni et generat[ioni] dicatorum ... / [Johann Jacob Harder].Harder, Johann Jacob, 1656-1711Date: 1679

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Peyer Johann Conrad [1653-1712] Parerga anatomica et medica septem. Ratione ac experientia parentibus concepta & edita / [Johann Konrad Peyer].Peyer, Johann Konrad, 1653-1712Date: 1681

Peyer Johann Conrad [1653-1712] The intestines. Engraving, 1686.Date: [1686] Reference: 30018i

Peyer Johann Conrad [1653-1712] Bildnis und Siegel des Arztes Johann Conrad Peyer, 1653-1712 / von Bernhard und Heinrich Peyer.Peyer, Bernhard, 1885-1963Date: 1943

Peyer Johann Conrad [1653-1712] Das "Buch über die Wiederkäuer" ("Merycologia") von Johann Conrad Peyer, eine der geschichtlichen Grundlagen der heutigen Haustierphysiologie / von Nikolaus Mani.Mani, Nikolaus, 1920-Date: 1951.

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The Wassermann’s test is not entirely specific for syphilis and for a positive diagnosis, tests such as the Treponema pallidium haemmagglutination assay [TPHA] or a flourescein-labelled antibody test [FTA-ABS] are used. Or the VDRL test.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: F. R. Schaudinn and P. E. Hoffmann: Vorläufiger Bericht über da Vorkommen von Spirochaeten in syphilitischen Krankheitsprodukten und bei Papillomen. Arbeiten aus dem Kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamte, 1905, 22 (2): 527-534. Schaudinn and Hoffmann discovered the spirochaete causing syphilis in serum obtained from a genital lesion by Hoffmann. Works by August Paul von Wassermann:

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Zur Theorie der Immunität. Zeitschrift für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Über künstliche Schutzimpfung von Thieren gegen Cholera asiatica. Written with Ludwig Brieger (1849-1919). Deutsche medicinische Wochenschrift, Berlin, 1892, 18: 701.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Untersuchungen über Immunität gegen Cholera asiatica.

Zeitschrift für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten, 1893, 14: 35-45.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Untersuchungen über das Wesen der Choleraimmunität.

Written With Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer (18581945).

Zeitschrift für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten, 1893, 14: 46-63.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Über die Gewinnung der Diphterie-Antotoxine aus Blutserum und Milch immunisierter Thiere. Written with Paul Ehrlich.

Zeitschrift für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten, 1894, 18: 239-250.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Über die persönliche Disposition und die Prophylaxe gegenüber Diphterie.

Zeitschrift für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten, 1895, 19: 408-426.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Über tetanusantitoxische Eigenschaften des normalen Centralnervensystems.

Written with T. Takaki. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, 1898, 35: 5-6.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Einige Beiträge zur Pathologie der Influenza.

Deutsche medicinische Wochenschrift, Berlin, 1900, 26: 445-447.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Über eine neue forensische Methode zur Unterscheidung von Menschenund Thierblut.

Written with A. Schütze. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, 1901, 38: 187-190.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Hämolysine, Cytotoxine und Präzipitine. Sammlung klinischer Vorträge, Leipzig, 1902, n. F. 331 (chir Nr. 194): 339-384. 2nd edition, revised by J. Leuchs and M. Wassermann; Leipzig, 1910. Translated into English.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Wesen der Infektion. Handbuch der pathogenen Mikroorganismen, 1st edition, volume 1; Jena, 1903. 2nd edition with Franz Keysser (1885-1942), 1912.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Misch- und Sekundärinfektion. Handbuch der pathogenen Mikroorganismen, 1st edition, volume 1; Jena, 1903. 2nd edition with Franz Keysser, 1912.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Handbuch der pathogenen Mikroorganismen. Written in collaboration with Wilhelm Kolle (1868-1935). 6 volumes; Jena, 1903-1909. Third edition, 10 volumes (in 19), 1929-1931

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Die Bedeutung der Bakterien für die Gesundheitspflege. München, R. Oldenburg, 1905.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Allgemeine Einleitung zu der Lehre von den Infektionskrankheiten. In W. Ebstein and J. Schwalbe, editors: Handbuch der

praktischen Medizin. 2nd edition, 4 volumes. Stuttgart, 1906.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Ueber das Vorhandensein syphilitischer Antistoffe in der Cerebrospinalflüssigkeit von Paralytikern. Written with Felix Plaut (1877-) Deutsche medicinische Wochenschrift, Berlin, 1906, 32: 1769-1772.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Schweinesucheserum. In R. Kraus and Constantin Levaditi (1874-1953), editors, Handbuch der Technik und Methodik der Immunitätsforschung, II. Jena, 1909.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Erbliche Übertragung von Infektionskrankheiten. Handbuch der pathogenen Mikroorganismen, 1st edition, volume 1; Jena, 1903. 2nd edition with Fr. Keysser, 1912.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Bacillus pyocyaneus. Handbuch der pathogenen Mikroorganismen, 1st edition, volume 3; Jena, 1903.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Antitoxische Sera. Handbuch der pathogenen Mikroorganismen, 1st edition, volume 4, 1; Jena, 1904.2nd edition with M. Wassermann, 1913.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Immunität bei Bacillus pyocyaneus. Handbuch der pathogenen Mikroorganismen, 1st edition,

volume 4; Jena, 1904. 2nd edition with M. Wassermann, 1913.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Über die Bildungsstätten der Thyphysimmunkörper. Ein Beitrag zur Frage der localen Immunität der Gewebe. Written with J. Citron. Zeitschrift für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten, 1905; 50: 331-348.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Die Bedeutung der Bakterien für die Gesundheitspflege. Veröffentlichungen des Deutschen Vereins für Volkshygiene, Heft 8, München, 1905.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Eine serodiagnostische Reaktion bei Syphilis. Written with A. Neisser and C. Bruck. Deutsche medicinische Wochenschrift, Berlin, 1906, 32: 745-746. Announcing the test for syphilis.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Antitoxische Sera. Written with M. Wassermann. In: Handbuch der pathogenen Mikroorganismen. 2nd, expanded edition, 1912, volume 2: 242-195.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Serodiagnostik der Syphilis. With Carl Friedrich August Lange (1883-1953). Handbuch der pathogenen Mikroorganismen, 2nd edition, volume 7; Jena, 1913, pp. 951-1044.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Reinkulturen der Spirochaeta pallida in festem und flüssigen Nährboden

sowie Übertragung dieser Kulturen auf Tiere. Written with P. Martin Ficker (1868–).

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Keitner, editor: Menschen und Menschenwerke, I. Wien, 1924: 669-670.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Rudolf Kraus: August von Wassermann 1865-1925. Seuchenbekämpfung und Experimentelle Therapie . . ., 1925, 11: 104-106.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Ernst Friedberger (1875–): August von Wassermann. Zeitschrift für Immunitätsforschung und Experimentelle Therapie, 1925, 43: i-xii.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Fred Neufeld (1869–1945): August von Wassermann. Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift, Stuttgart, 1925,16: 667-668.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Mc. I:August von Wassermann, M.D. British Medical Journal, 1925, 1: 638.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Hans Conrad Julius Reiter (1881-1969):August von Wassermann.Münchener medizinische Wochenschrift, 1925, 72: 813-814.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Hans Sachs (1877-1945): August von Wassermann. Klinische Wochenschrift, Berlin, 1925, 4: 902-903.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: H. Mühsam: Jüdisches Lexikon, IV, pt 2. Berlin, 1930, cols. 1344-1346.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: G. Blumenthal. August von Wassermann zum 25. Todestage. Zeitschrift für Immunitätsforschung und Experimentelle Therapie, 1950, 107: 380-384.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: J. Plesch: János. Ein Arzt erzählt sein Leben. München, 1951, 70, 7476.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Theodor Brugsch (1878-1963): Arzt seit fünf Jahrzehnten. Berlin, 1957: 148-149.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Wassermann: Nachhaltige Reaktion. Selekta, Wiesbaden, 1966, 8: 606.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: K. Gerber: Bibliographie der Arbeiten aus dem Robert Koch-Institut 1891-1965. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Mikrobiologie, und Hygiene, I. Abteilung, Referate. Stuttgart, 1966, 203: 1-274. Listing most of Wassermann’s works

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Wassermann. British Medical Journal, 1966, 1: 436-437.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: H. Mengel: August von Wassermann zum 100. Geburtstag. Münchener medizinische Wochenschrift, 1966, 108: 14341436.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: G. Bako: August von Wassermann (1866-1925).

The Journal of the American Dental Association, Chicago, 1969: 209.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: N. Korken: Jewish physicians. A Biographical Index. Jerusalem, 1973. With references to further literature.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: K.-E. Gilbert: Bibliographie der Arbeiten August von Wassermann’s. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Mikrobiologie, und Hygiene, Stuttgart, 1977, 254: 289-291. Listing most of Wassermann’s works.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: G. H. Schneider: August Paul von Wassermann zum 100. Geburtstag. Berliner Ärzteblatt, 1966, 79: 278-279.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Zum 100. Geburtstag von August von Wassermann. Deutsches Ärzteblatt, 1966, 63: 586.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Persönliche Erinnerungen and August Paul von Wassermann. Deutsche Apothekerzeitung, 1966, 106: 1908-1909.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Ernst Witebsky (1901-1969) and Felix Milgrom: Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: August von Wassermann (1866-1925). Wassermann Reaction. Journal of the American Medical Association, Chicago, 1968, 204: 1000-1001.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Charles Coulston Gillispie, Editor in chief: Dictionary of Scientific Biographies.

New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1970. Volume 15, pp. 521-523.

Wasserman [August Paul von 1866-1925]: Barry G. Firkin and J. A. Whitehead: Dictionary of Medical Eponyms. Parthenon Publishing Group. 1989. Page 564.

Wasson, J; Hopkins, C; Bowdler, D (2006). Did Ludwig's angina kill Ludwig?. The Journal of Laryngology & Otology. 120 (5): 363–365. doi:10.1017/S0022215106000806. PMID 16696873. S2 CID 19264344. Waterhouse Rupert [1873-1958] is an English physician and Carl-Freiderichsen [Born in 1886] was a Danish Paediatrician who described the Waterhouse-Freiderichsens syndrome a rare disorder caused by invasion of the blood by meningococcus organisms of in the cause of an attack of severe meningitis ,there will be bleeding into the adrenal glands causing adrenal failure and shock. Enlarging purple spots appear on the skin and there is rapid collapse and coma. Death is invariable unless effective antibiotic and supportive treatment with steroid is instituted.

Waterhouse R (1911). A case of suprarenal apoplexy. Lancet. 1 (4566): 577–8. doi:10.1016/S01406736(01)60988-7.

Waterhouse Rupert [1873-1958]; The WaterhouseFriderichsen syndrome of adrenal failure due to bilateral adrenal haemorrhage,described in 1911 (Lancet, 1911, 1, 577-8).

Watson, A.M.; Lam, L.K.; Klimstra, W.B.; Ryman, K.D. The 17D-204 vaccine strain-induced protection against virulent yellow fever virus is mediated by humoral immunity and CD4+ but not CD8+ T cells. PLoS Pathog. 2016, 12, e1005786. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] Watson James.D.,Gene transfer in bacteria was discovered during the 1940s following the investigations of Watson James.D., [Born in 1928] American molecular biologist and Watson James D., The Annotated and Illustrated Double Helix, edited by Alexander Gann and Jan Witkowski (2012) Simon & Schuster, ISBN 978-1-4767-1549-0.

Watson, J. D. (1968). The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA. New York: Atheneum.

Watson, J. D. (1981). Gunther S. Stent (ed.). The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-950751. (Norton Critical Editions, 1981).

Watson, J. D.; Baker, T. A.; Bell, S. P.; Gann, A.; Levine, M.; Losick, R. (2003). Molecular Biology of the Gene (5th ed.). New York: Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-4635-X.

Watson, J. D. (2002). Genes, Girls, and Gamow: After the Double Helix. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-37541283-2. OCLC 47716375.

Watson, J. D.; Berry, A. (2003). DNA: The Secret of Life. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-375-41546-7.

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Watson James D :The double helix : a personal account of the discovery of the structure of DNA by James D Watson( Book )

Watson James D :The DNA doctor : candid conversations with James D. Watson by István Hargittai( )

Watson James D :Watson and DNA : making a scientific revolution by Victor K McElheny( Book ) Genes, girls,and Gamow : after the double helix by James D Watson(Book )

Watson James D.Molecular biology of the gene

Watson James D.The double helix : a personal account of the discovery of the structure of DNA.

Watson James D ( Book )DNA : the secret of life

Watson James D (Book)A passion for DNA : genes, genomes, and society

50 editions published between 2000 and 2003 in 3 languages and held by 2,089 WorldCat member libraries worldwide

Watson James D ( Book ):The DNA story : a documentary history of gene cloning

Watson James D ( Book )Recombinant DNA

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Watson James D ( Book )DNA : the story of the genetic revolution Phage and the origins of molecular biology; [essays] by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory of Quantitative

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