CONTENT
DETAILED CONTENTS
Preface
Companion Website Acknowledgments About the Authors
PART I PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
Chapter 1 The Selection of a Research Approach
Learning Objectives
Introducing Key Terms in this Chapter
Three Approaches or Methodologies in Research
Three Major Components of a Research Approach
Philosophical Worldviews
The Postpositivist Worldview
The Constructivist Worldview
The Transformative Worldview
The Pragmatic Worldview
Research Designs
Quantitative Designs
Qualitative Designs
Mixed Methods Designs
Research Methods
Interconnecting Worldviews, Designs, and Methods
Criteria for Selecting a Research Approach
The Research Problem and Questions
Personal Experiences
Audience
Summary
Key Terms
Writing Exercises
Additional Readings
Chapter 2 Review of the Literature
Learning Objectives
Introduction
The Research Topic
A Draft Title
A Significant Topic
The Purpose and Organization of a Literature
Review
Purpose of a Literature Review
The Organization of the Literature Review
General Forms
A Qualitative Structure
A Quantitative Structure
A Mixed Methods Structure
Steps in Conducting a Literature Review
Searching the Literature
Computer Databases
Types of Literature
Priority of the Literature
Overall Evaluation Quality
Abstracting the Literature
Components of an Abstract
Theoretical, Conceptual, and Methodological
Abstracts
A Literature Map
Style Manual Use
The Definition of Terms
General Guidelines
Special Terms
► Example 2.2 Defining Terms in a
Dissertation
Summary
Key Terms
Writing Exercises
Additional Readings
Chapter 3 The Use of Theory
Learning Objectives
Introduction
The Varied Use of Theory
Quantitative Theory Use
Definition of a Theory in Quantitative Research
Variables in Quantitative Research
Testing Causal Claims in Quantitative Research
Stating Theories in Quantitative Research
Placement of Quantitative Theories
Writing a Quantitative Theoretical
Perspective
► Example 3.1 A Quantitative Theory Section
Qualitative Theory Use
Variation in Theory Use in Qualitative Research
Locating the Theory in Qualitative Research
► Example 3.2 A Theory Early in a Qualitative Study
► Example 3.3 Theory at the End of a
Qualitative Study
Mixed Methods Theory Use
Types of Mixed Methods Theory Use
Importance of a Theory
Distinctions Between a Theory and a Worldview
A Theoretically Driven Mixed Methods Study What Theory Informs
► Example 3.4 A Discipline-Based Theory in a
Mixed Methods Study
Summary
Key Terms
Writing Exercises
Additional Readings
Chapter 4 Writing Strategies and Ethical Considerations
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Writing the Proposal
Topics Presented in a Proposal A Qualitative Proposal
► Example 4.1 A Qualitative Constructivist or Interpretivist Format A Quantitative Proposal
► Example 4.2 A Qualitative Participatory or Social Justice Format
► Example 4.3 A Quantitative Format A Mixed Methods Proposal
► Example 4.4 A Mixed Methods Format
Designing the Sections of a Proposal
Writing Strategies
The Process
The Habit of Writing
Clear and Concise Writing
Coherence
Voice, Tense, and “Fat”
Ethical Issues
Prior to Beginning the Study
Beginning the Study
Collecting the Data
Analyzing the Data
Reporting, Sharing, and Storing Data
Summary
Key Terms
Writing Exercises
Additional Readings
PART II DESIGNING RESEARCH
Chapter 5 The Introduction
Learning Objectives
Introduction to a Study
The Importance of Introductions
An Abstract for a Study
Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods
Introductions
A Model for an Introduction
An Illustration of an Introduction
The Research Problem
Evidence From the Literature Justifying the Problem
Deficiencies in the Evidence
► Example 5.1 Deficiencies in the Literature— Needed Studies
► Example 5.2 Deficiencies in the Literature—Few Studies
Importance of the Problem for Audiences
► Example 5.3 Significance of the Study
Stated in an Introduction to a Quantitative Study
Summary
Key Terms
Writing Exercises
Additional Readings
Chapter 6 The Purpose Statement
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Significance of a Purpose (or Study Aim) Statement
A Qualitative Purpose Statement
► Example 6.1 A Purpose Statement in a Qualitative Phenomenology Study
► Example 6.2 A Purpose Statement in a Qualitative Case Study
► Example 6.3 A Purpose Statement in a Narrative Study
► Example 6.4 A Purpose Statement in a Grounded Theory Study
A Quantitative Purpose Statement
► Example 6.5 A Purpose Statement in a Survey Study
► Example 6.6 A Purpose Statement in a
Dissertation Survey Study
► Example 6.7 A Purpose Statement in an Experimental Study
A Mixed Methods Purpose Statement
► Example 6.8 A Convergent Mixed Methods
Purpose Statement
► Example 6.9 An Explanatory Sequential
Mixed
Methods Purpose Statement
► Example 6.10 An Exploratory Sequential
Mixed Methods Purpose Statement
Summary
Key Terms
Writing Exercises
Additional Readings
Chapter 7 Research Questions and Hypotheses
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Quantitative Research Questions and Hypotheses
► Example 7.1 Script for a Descriptive
Quantitative Research Question
► Example 7.2 Script for a RelationshipOriented
Quantitative Research Question and Directional Hypothesis
► Example 7.3 Example of Quantitative
Directional Hypotheses
Qualitative Research Questions
► Example 7.4 A Qualitative Central Question in an Ethnography
► Example 7.5 Qualitative Central Questions in a Case Study
► Example 7.6 Qualitative Sub-Questions
Mixed Methods Research Questions and Hypotheses
► Example 7.7 Statement of Objectives in a
Mixed Methods Study
► Example 7.8 Research Questions in a
Mixed Methods Study
Summary
Key Terms
Writing Exercises
Additional Readings
Chapter 8 Quantitative Methods
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Putting Quantitative Research in Context
Quantitative Designs
Components of a Survey Study Method Plan
The Survey Design
The Purpose
Rationale for Using the Survey Method
Type of Survey Method
Specify the Form of Data Collection
The Population and Sample
The Population
Sampling Design
Type of Sampling
Population Stratification
Sample Size Determination
Power Analysis
Instrumentation
The Survey Instruments Used to Collect Data
Instruments and Measures
Validity of Scores Using the Instrument
Reliability of Scores on the Instrument
Inter-Rater Reliability
Sample Items
Content of an Instrument
Pilot Testing
Administering the Survey
Variables in the Study
Data Analysis
Preregistering the Study Plan
Interpreting Results and Writing a Discussion
Section
Reporting Results
Statistical Tests in Survey Research
Practical Evidence
Context of Previous Studies
Components of an Experimental Study
Method
Plan
Participants
Recruiting Participants
Random Assignment
Power Analysis for Sample Size
Formal Design Statement
Variables
Independent Variables
Manipulation Check
Dependent Variables
Other Variables
Instrumentation and Materials
Materials
Cover Story
Experimental Procedures
Type of Experiment
► Example 8.1 Pre-Experimental Designs
► Example 8.2 Quasi-Experimental Designs
► Example 8.3 True Experimental Designs
► Example 8.4 Single-Subject Designs
Threats to Validity
Internal Validity
External Validity
The Procedure
Data Analysis
Reporting the Descriptive Statistics
Preliminary Analysis
Inferential Statistical Tests
Factorial Designs
Single-Subject Designs
Preregistering the Study Plan
Interpreting Results and Writing a Discussion
Section
► Example 8.5 An Experimental Method Plan
Summary
Key Terms
Writing Exercises
Additional Readings
Chapter 9 Qualitative Methods
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Putting Qualitative Research Into Context
Participants’ Meanings
Natural Setting
Researcher as Key Instrument
Multiple Sources of Data
Inductive and Deductive Data Analysis
Emergent Design
Reflexivity
Researcher’s Role
A Complex Account
The Approach or Design
Descriptive Methods
Analytic Frameworks
Data Collection Procedures
Sampling and Recruitment
Permissions
Data Collection Types
Ethical Issues
Data Recording Procedures
Observation Protocol or Guide
Interview Protocol
Data Analysis Procedures
Simultaneous Procedures
Winnowing the Data
Using Qualitative Computer Software Programs Steps in the Analytic Process
Step 1. Organizing and Preparing the Data for Analysis
Step 2. Reading Through All the Data
Step 3. Coding the Data
Step 4. Identifying Themes
Step 5. Developing a Story Line Interpretation
Step 6. Further Analyzing the Data Using an Analytic Framework
Step 7. Representing and Interpreting the Data
Coding the Data
Expected Codes
Surprising Codes
Codes of Unusual or Conceptual Interest
Predetermined Codes
Visual Images as Codes
Interpretation
Validity and Reliability
Defining Qualitative Validity
Validity Strategies
Reliability Strategies
Intercoder Agreement
Qualitative Generalization
Writing the Qualitative Report
Writing Strategies
A Sample Qualitative Method Section
The Qualitative Research Paradigm
The Ethnographic Research Design
The Researcher’s Role
Bounding the Study
Setting
Actors
Events
Processes
Ethical Considerations
Data Collection Strategies
Data Analysis Procedures
Verification
Reporting the Findings
Summary
Key Terms
Writing Exercises
Additional Readings
Chapter 10 Mixed Methods Procedures
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Putting Mixed Methods Research in Perspective
Characteristics of Mixed Methods Research
Justification for Using Mixed Methods
Research
Definitions of Mixed Methods Terms
Open- and Closed-Ended Data
Research Design
Integration
Joint Display
Metainferences
The Process of Conducting a Mixed Methods
Study
Quantitative and Qualitative Data Collection
Core Mixed Methods Designs
The Convergent Mixed Methods Design
Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods
Design
Exploratory Sequential Mixed Methods
Design
Complex Mixed Methods Designs
Types of Complex Designs
Development of Complex Designs
Examples of Complex Designs
Incorporating Core Designs Into Complex Designs
Factors Important in Choosing a Mixed Methods
Design
Choice Based on Intent and Procedures
Other Reasons for Choosing a Design
Popular Designs in a Field or Discipline
The Single Researcher Versus a Team
Choice of Design by Advisers or Mentors
Secondary Reasons for a Choice
Examples of Mixed Methods Procedures
► Example 10.1 A Convergent Mixed
Methods
Design
► Example 10.2 An Explanatory Sequential
Mixed Methods Design
► Example 10.3 An Exploratory Sequential
Mixed Methods Design
► Example 10.4 Social Justice Design
Summary
Key Terms
Writing Exercises
Additional Readings
Glossary
References
Author Index
Subject Index
Part I. Preliminary Considerations
This part of the book discusses preparing for the design of a scholarly study. It contains Chapters 1 through 4.
Chapter 1. The Selection of a Research Approach
In this chapter, we begin by defining quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods approaches. We then discuss how philosophy, designs, and methods intersect when one uses one of these approaches. We review different philosophical stances (postpositivist, constructivist, transformative, and pragmatic); advance types of
qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods designs; and then discuss the methods associated with each design. We also consider the factors for choosing an approach to research. Thus, this chapter should help proposal developers decide whether a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods approach is suitable for their proposed research project.
Chapter 2. Review of the Literature
It is important to extensively review the literature on your topic before you design your proposal. Thus, you need to begin with a researchable topic and a draft topic and then explore the literature using the steps advanced in this chapter.
Realize that literature
reviews differ for quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods projects. The steps call for searching the literature, using computerized databases, locating a small number of studies to review, evaluating the quality of the information sources, developing a literature map, and assembling a summary of the literature. This chapter should help researchers thoughtfully consider relevant literature on their topics and start compiling and writing literature reviews.
Chapter 3. The Use of Theory
Theories serve different purposes in the three approaches inquiry. In quantitative research, they provide a proposed explanation for the
relationship among variables tested by the investigator. Different types of quantitative variables are related in theories and often presented as causal models indicating a time ordering. In qualitative research, they may often serve as a lens for the inquiry, or they may be generated during the study. In mixed methods studies, researchers employ them in many ways, including those associated with quantitative and qualitative approaches. This chapter helps researchers consider and plan how to incorporate theory into their studies.
Chapter 4. Writing Strategies and Ethical Considerations
It is helpful to have an overall outline of topics in a proposal or
research study before you begin writing. Thus, this chapter begins with a general model of questions addressed in a good proposal. It then presents the structure of a proposal for a qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods study with different outlines for writing proposals. Writing clearly and concisely is a necessary part of a good proposal, and the discussion turns to writing strategies. The act of writing helps researchers think through a project. The project needs to be easy to read, coherent with sections tied together, and grammatically correct. Ethical issues that arise in projects also need attention. Strategies need to be developed to attend to issues arising prior to and during the conduct of the study. Ethical issues also arise
in the reporting and dissemination of a study.
PART II. DESIGNING RESEARCH
In Part II, we turn to the components of designing the research proposal. Chapters 5 through 10 address steps in this process.
Chapter 5. The Introduction
It is important to properly introduce a research study. We provide a model for writing a good scholarly introduction to your proposal. The chapter begins with designing an abstract for a study. This is followed by developing an introduction to include identifying the research problem or issue, framing this problem within the existing literature, pointing out deficiencies in the literature, and targeting the study for an audience. This chapter provides a systematic method for
designing a scholarly introduction to a proposal or study.
Chapter 6. The Purpose Statement
At the beginning of research proposals or projects, authors mention the central purpose or study aim. This passage is the most important statement in the entire research process, and an entire chapter is devoted to this topic. In this chapter, you learn how to write this statement for qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods studies. Scripts, to be filled in with your project, provide practical statements that will ease your process of designing a proposal or a research study.
Chapter 7. Research Questions and Hypotheses
The questions and hypotheses addressed by the researcher serve to narrow and focus the purpose of the study. As a major signpost in a project, research questions and hypotheses need to be written carefully. In this chapter, you will learn how to write both qualitative and quantitative research questions and hypotheses as well as how to employ both forms in writing mixed methods questions and hypotheses. Numerous examples serve as scripts to illustrate these processes.
Chapter 8. Quantitative Methods
Quantitative methods involve the processes of collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and writing the results of a study. Specific methods exist
in both survey and experimental research that relate to identifying a sample and population, specifying the type of design, collecting and analyzing data, presenting the results, making an interpretation, and writing the research in a manner consistent with a survey or experimental study. In this chapter, the reader learns the specific procedures for designing survey or experimental methods that need to go into a research proposal. This chapter provides checklists to ensure the inclusion of all steps.
Chapter 9. Qualitative Methods
Qualitative approaches to data collection, analysis, interpretation, and report writing differ from the traditional, quantitative approaches.
Purposeful sampling, open-ended data collection, text or images analysis (e.g., pictures), figures and tables, representations, and personal interpretations of the findings all inform qualitative methods. This chapter advances steps in designing qualitative procedures into a research proposal, and it also includes a checklist for making sure that you cover important procedures. Ample illustrations provide examples from narrative studies, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, case studies, and descriptive studies.
Chapter 10. Mixed Methods Procedures
Mixed methods research involves the collection and “mixing” or integration of both quantitative and qualitative data in a study. It is not
enough to only analyze your qualitative and quantitative data. Further analysis comprises integrating the two databases for additional insight into research problems and questions. Mixed methods research has increased in popularity in recent years, and this chapter highlights important developments and introduces the use of this design. This chapter begins by defining mixed methods research and the core characteristics that describe it. Then it takes the reader through the process of designing a method section for a proposal or plan. This process involves collecting both quantitative (closed-ended) and qualitative (open-ended) data based on research questions or
hypotheses. This is followed by identifying a mixed methods design with the intent and procedures to integrate the two databases. We discuss three core designs and four complex designs. To analyze the integration we suggest using a joint display that arrays the quantitative and qualitative data or results in a table. Then researchers examine the table and draw inferences or insight from integrating the two databases. Choosing a mixed methods design involves considering the intent and the procedures for integrating the data. Flowcharts in the chapter help researchers decide on an appropriate mixed methods design for their studies. Designing a study is a difficult and timeconsuming process. This
book will not necessarily make the process easier or faster, but it can provide specific skills useful in research, knowledge about the steps involved in the process, and a practical guide to composing and writing scholarly research. Before the steps of the process unfold, we recommend that proposal developers think through their approaches to research, conduct literature reviews on their topics, develop an outline of topics to include in a proposal design, and begin anticipating potential ethical issues that may arise in the research.
