On the way to sustainable mobility! The electric cars that drove around in the first science fiction films seemed to represent life in a society way off into the future. Cars were powered by petrol and later occasionally by LPG and diesel. Now, the fantasy has become a reality. Electric cars have now become so advanced that they have become accessible to the man in the street. Driving electric is good for the environment and good for the economy. Actually making the switch requires cooperation at all kinds of levels – economic, technological, governmental – between commercial and non-commercial parties.
Towards electric mobility in The Netherlands
In this brochure, Essent and Enexis invite you to join them on an accelerated journey towards sustainable mobility and help make the Netherlands a pioneer in the field of electric transportation. Attaining such a position will create opportunities for our knowledge and services economy. Let us together make the most of these opportunities!
An invitation to cooperation
1 Mobility: the key to a sustainable future
1
Mobility is a fast-growing necessity
It is a major factor in both our work and our private
If we want the economy to continue growing and
lives. The fact that the economy is growing and
want to carry on living comfortably, travelling and
足society is becoming more individualised means
engaging in leisure activities, we will have to find
that the need for mobility is also growing.
ways of making our mobility a lot cleaner and
The downside of the increasing number of
more sustainable. By switching to electrically-
kilometres we are travelling are well-documented,
powered cars, we take a huge step towards
namely air pollution, noise nuisance, congested
sustainable mobility and with that towards a
roads and severe dependency on fossil fuels, of
sustainable future in the Netherlands.
which sources are becoming more and more scarce.
Society is becoming more and more individual and that will lead to an additional increase in the need for mobility Share of one-person households per province, 2007 and 2025 Noord-Holland Groningen Zuid-Holland Utrecht
2005
Friesland Limburg
2000
Gelderland Zeeland
1995
Overijssel Noord-Brabant
1990
Drenthe Flevoland
1985 7
8
the Netherlands 0
nsport
50
100
All forms of mobility
150
200
0
5
10
15
2007
20
25
2025
30
35
40
45
50
Cars play an important role in economic and leisure activities.
Mobility motives
Modes of transport Other 1%
Business 3%
Public transport 5% Education 9%
Walking 17% Other 11% Leisure time 38% Car 48% Commuting 17%
Motorcycle/bicycle 28% Shopping 21%
Leisure time Shopping
Commuting
Business
Business
Other
Car
Walking
Motor cycle
Other
Public transport
The number of private cars and the number of kilometres travelled have increased in recent years Number of private cars (in millions of vehicles)
Growth in the cumulative distance travelled per year (in billions of km) Noord-Holland
2005
2005
2000
2000
2005
Noord
Groningen
G
Zuid-Holland
Zuid
Utrecht
2005
Friesland 1995
1995
1990
2000
1990
1985
1995
1985
1980 0
1
2
Private cars
14
25
36
47
Private Lightcars transport
58
6
7
Light transport
50
Overijssel
O
Noord-Brabant
Noord
Drenthe
1985 0 8
Ge
Zeeland
1990
1985 03
Gelderland
1995
1990
1980
Limburg
2000
0
100
50
150
100
200
150
Flevoland
F
the Netherlands
the Net
200
All forms of mobility All forms of mobility
0
5
2 Electricity: the most powerful motor of sustainable mobility
2
Electric transportation: clean, silent and efficient
Electric cars generate the greatest reduction in
Alternative fuels Besides electricity there are
emissions of CO2, fine dust, small particles and
other, alternative fuels on which cars can run,
other hazardous materials. All kinds of sources
such as biofuel, hydrogen and natural gas.
can be used to generate electrical energy. If we
The use of biofuel is subject to limitations.
use sustainably generated energy (solar, wind)
The use of hydrogen requires a lot of research plus
to 足produce electricity, electric cars, and of course
considerable investments. Although natural gas is
electric scooters and buses as well, will even
a lot cleaner than petrol, it is still a fossil fuel and
be completely climate neutral, with no other
is therefore no solution for the long term.
足hazardous materials being emitted.
Electric cars are considerably cheaper to use and
Electric transportation offers high levels of energy
maintain than conventional and hybrid vehicles.
efficiency. The fact that a lot more energy is
The fuel costs and with that the costs per kilo-
足converted into motion rather than into heat means
metre are a lot lower. An electric car has fewer
the yield from electric motors is a lot higher than
moving parts and therefore experiences less wear
in the case of internal combustion engines.
and tear.
On top of this, electric cars are almost silent. Only one conclusion is possible: electricity is the most powerful motor of sustainable mobility.
Cars can run on a number of different energy sources; electric transportation offers considerable possibilities for reducing our dependency on oil. Various engines are needed in order to run a car on different fuels
Various fuels can be used as energy source for an electric car
Petrol Natural gas
Oil
Oil
Biofuel crops
Diesel
Sun
LPG Wind Biofuel crops
Electricity
Ethanol/ petrol Coal
Natural gas/ Green Gas
CNG*
* Compressed Natural Gas
Well-to-wheel analyses have shown that electric transportation is the most energy-efficient and clean form of transport CO2 emission ‘well-to-wheel’ in 2010 in gCO2eq/km
‘Well-to-wheel’ efficiency based on the same fuel (natural gas) in %
Gas oil
Conventional vehicles Conventional vehicles
19%
Hydrogen-powered vehicles (reforming) Hydrogen-powered vehicles (electrolysis) Electric vehicles
2,1x 28%
1,6x
13%
3x 40%
24
140
Diesel 24
128
Worst case
161
Best case
17
Coal (gasification) Hydrogen-powered vehicles Natural gas (reforming)
220
Hydrogen-powered vehicles (electrolysis)
Biofuel vehicles
Electric vehicles Well-to-tank
98
EU mix
196
100% recycled
9
EU mix
60
100% recycled
0
Tank-to-wheel
Well-to-wheel
2
Electric cars generate the greatest reduction in emissions of CO2, fine dust, small particles and other hazardous materials
Sample calculation: one million electric vehicles would reduce energy consumption in the Netherlands by 17-34 PJ per year, and CO2 emissions by 1.5-2.3 Mton per year Saving Electricity
Fuel mix
Petrol
Oil
Electricity
Sustainable
60 g CO2/km 1.2 MJ/km
Comparable with emissions of:
E-car on 100% sustainable fuel CO2: 1.5 Mton/year Energy: 17 PJ/year
1.2 million households
164 g CO2/km 2.4 MJ/km
0 g CO2/km 0 MJ/km fossil energy
E-car on 100% sustainable fuel CO2: 2.3 Mton/year Energy: 34 PJ/year
1.8 million households
Electric transportation produces no local emissions and electric cars contribute to an additional reduction in NOx and PM10 values in cities The top 6 Dutch cities as regards exposure to extreme values PM10 and N02 in proportion to the number of people resident in areas with PM10 and NO2 values above the permitted level in 2006
73 Zaanstad 26 100 Amsterdam The Hague 16 12
40 196
14 Utrecht
Rotterdam
4 Tilburg
Number of residents x1000 of an area with an NO2 value above the permitted level
Number of residents x1000 of an area with a PM10 value above the permitted level
The total number of residents exposed to NO2 above the permitted level is 166,100
The total number of residents exposed to PM10 above the permitted level is 415,100
3 Electric transportation is playing an important role in the future of sustainable energy
3
Driving electric leading to considerable increase in energy storage capacity
In the future we are going to use more and more
Creating storage facilities close to local sources
sustainable energy. After all, sun and wind are
will limit the costs of these investments.
available in abundance. Electric cars mean we are able now and in the future to make optimal use of
More intensive use of capacity
that sustainable energy. Up to now we did not
Intelligent control instruments will mean we can
have the means to realise the flexible storage of
soon respond effectively to the growing need for
- primarily - wind and solar energy despite this
energy and successfully manage its distribution
being necessary given that the yield from these
and delivery. One of those instruments is the
sources cannot be influenced and is subject to
Mobile Smart Grid, a distribution concept with
fluctuations. Electric cars offer the possibility of
which we can use the generating capacity and
flexible storage in their batteries. The more
the capacity of the existing electricity network
electrically-powered cars there are, the more
intelligently and more intensively. This will enable
potential storage capacity there will be, and that is
us to meet the increasing demand for electricity
yet another incentive for the production and use of
with just a limited number of extension investments
sustainable, clean energy.
being required. This will increase the total share of sustainable energy in the total energy mix in the
Storage facilities close to local sources
Netherlands.
Future energy management will be characterised by increasing decentralisation. Small local units will start supplying more and more of the energy
Available peak capacity for electricity generation in the Netherlands (GW)
required. This means there will be plenty of opportunities to generate sustainable energy or
75
Solar
20
Wind
27
Thermal units
use windmills and solar panels. Investments in the network are necessary to distribute the energy generated locally across the regional network.
2 21 2009
12
2050
Sustainable energy sources are not available continually and yields fluctuate. The use of electrical energy can be optimised through flexible storage and control of demand and the electric car plays a key role in this respect (2050). Extreme situation 1: High demand, no wind and solar
Extreme situation 2: Low demand, lots of wind and solar
Fossil sources Solar and wind
Surplus Solar and wind Intermittent sources
Shortage
Fossil Controleerbare sources bronnen Supply
Demand
Options to prevent shortage: 1) construction of more conventional power stations 2) reduce demand 3) take energy from storage
Supply
Demand
Options to prevent surplus: 1) discharge of (excess) wind energy 2) increase demand 3) add energy to storage
The energy landscape Current situation: central generation, local use
Future situation: central and local generation, additional energy exchange at regional level
Network Network
13
3
Ingenuity is the trump card!
Intelligent control mechanisms like the Mobile Smart Grid (MSG) and Demand Side Management (DSM) are meant to ensure the optimal coordination of network and production capacity and demand and vice versa.
Demand from the market
MSG DSM
Network capacity
Production capacity
What is the Mobile Smart Grid?
What is Demand Side Management?
The Mobile Smart Grid (MSG) is the total system of smart interaction between electric cars, network and generating facilities (central and local). The MSG consists of hardware and software for the communication and management of demand, based on the availability of energy and network capacity. The MSG enables power network companies to optimise the capacity of the electricity network.
Demand Side Management (DSM) ensures that demand is influenced on behalf of the network and/or production capacity, possibly with a link to and controlled by a price mechanism. Demand Side Management enables power supply companies to, in cooperation with customers, optimise the use of sustainable energy.
14
Charge electric cars intelligently Charging between 6.00 p.m. and 9.00 p.m. would cause a 13% increase in the current peak in demand
A Mobile Smart Grid can shift most of the demand to non-peak hours
25,000
25,000
Extra demand caused by 0.7 million electric cars in 2020
Extra demand caused by 0.7 million electric cars in 2020
20,000
20,000
15,000
15,000
10,000
10,000
5,000
5,000
1
3
5
7
9
11
Average daily demand
13
15
17
19
21
23
24 (twenty-four hours)
Additional demand EV
Substantial investments of approximately â‚Ź 5 billion are necessary to production and network expansion
1
3
5
7
9
11
Average daily demand
13
15
17
19
21
23
24 (twenty-four hours)
Additional demand EV
Minimum investments required (approx. â‚Ź 300 million)
15
4 Driving electric accessible to all
4
The EV battery is sufficient for five times the average daily distance travelled
Electric cars are now so technologically advanced
travelled. As a result, sufficient driving capacity
that they can easily compete with conventional
is now available to the vast majority of motorists
cars. However, competitive purchase prices are also
(90%!). It takes no more than two hours to charge
needed to make driving electric accessible to the
batteries sufficiently for daily use. In the short to
general public. The government is helping out by
medium term, long distance drivers could use
providing tax incentive schemes. Mass production
plug-in hybrids and other mobility solutions such
is also intended to lead to attractive prices.
as car and train combinations.
Various famous car makers have unfolded plans to bring large numbers of electric cars onto the market
Many-branched network In order to introduce
in the coming years. It is essential that the tax
electric transportation successfully, there must be
incentive measures continue to apply. Significant
sufficient charging possibilities along motorways,
progress has been made in the field of charging
at parking places, at petrol stations and at home.
technology in recent years. With the latest
A many-branched infrastructure which reaches
generation of batteries cars can now be produced
to every corner of our country will make driving
which can travel 5 times the average daily distance
electric accessible to all.
18
Main categories of electric cars Hybrid electric car
Plug-in hybrid electric car
Plug-in hybrid electric car range extender
ICE
ICE
ICE
Regenerative braking system
Regenerative braking system
Regenerative braking system
Regenerative braking system
Electric motor
Electric motor
Electric motor
Electric motor
Batteries
Batteries
Batteries
Fuel tank Petrol/diesel
Fuel tank Petrol/diesel
Fuel tank Petrol/diesel
Electric range: - km
Electric range: 50-70 km
Fully electric car
Batteries
Electric range: 50-70 km
Electric range: ca. 200 km
Daily distances travelled in the Netherlands Daily distance travelled by car in km per segment
Average daily distance travelled
Business
75
2.5 x
(Private) Commuting
41
5x
(Private) Leisure
29
Total average
40
> 150 km 101-150 km 76-100 km
7x
51-75 km
5x
0.1-50 km 0%
200
Average daily distance travelled
The range of an electric VW Golf is 200 km (37 kWh battery)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
91% of all motorists in the Netherlands travel less than 150 km per day
Car costs in 2009 and 2020 Total costs of car ownership 2009 business lease car, in euro
Total costs of car ownership 2020 business lease car, in euro
47 k
38 k
37 k2 33 k
Car
16 k
37 k
Car incl. battery1
16 k
Fuel
6k
Fuel
5k
Maintenance
3k
Maintenance Road tax
3k 3k
25 k
Road tax
3k
Private motor vehicle and motorcycle tax
7k
3k 2k
Private motor vehicle and motorcycle tax
7k
Insurance
3k
5k
Insurance
3k 2k
3k
3 k3
Conventional car
Electric car
The maintenance costs for an electric car are 36% lower than for a conventional car. 1 Car incl. battery is calculated plus interest less residual value.
Conventional car
Car incl. battery1
Electric car
2 Total costs of ownership for conventional cars is lower in 2020 than in 2009 due to the reduction in fuel costs due to internal combustion engine improvements. 3 Electric car insurance is lower in 2020 than in 2009 because the premium is coupled to an increasingly lower purchase value.
19
5 Widespread charging infrastructure
5
Work to be done
The transition to electric transportation presents
plans. For example, Amsterdam has launched a
enormous challenges and opportunities.
plan to construct a comprehensive network of
Where are the charging stations going to be
charging stations. Soon, anyone who enters the
located? Who is going to operate them and what
capital in an electric car will also be entitled to
additional services are to be offered? How are we
preferential parking. In Den Bosch charging
going to pay for the electricity we use in our cars
points are to be set up at central places in the city.
in the future? Petrol station owners, financial and
Ideas are already being put forward to use electric
commercial service providers, network operators
buses for public transport services in and around
and energy suppliers are all going to have work to
the capital of the province of Brabant. Last but not
do to shape the new business.
least, the interests of the car drivers themselves
City councils and provincial and national
are another crucial factor. Those interests have to
government bodies are also going to have important
be analysed and seriously considered in order to
roles to play. After all, they will have to decide on
make everyone enthusiastic about electric
the location and design of the charging stations.
足transportation. Consumer organisations and
Through low emission zones and parking
other pressure groups are going to follow the
足incentives in town and city centres they will leave
development of electric transportation from close
their mark on the development of electric
by. How are they going to be involved in pilot
足transportation and on the image presented to the
projects, how can they ensure that their voice is
public. Various pilot projects are now getting
heard, for example in the context of choosing the
started, generally on the basis of cooperation
locations of charging stations, and how will they
between the government, energy suppliers,
be informed about, for example, the pricing of
network operators, hauliers, fleet managers and
electrical energy for cars? This again presents
car manufacturers. Various large Dutch local
plenty of inviting opportunities.
authorities have developed electric transportation
22
23
6 A pioneering role for the Netherlands
The Netherlands is ideally suited for a pioneering
of fiscal incentives, financial support for pilot
role as regards electric transportation thanks to
projects and other ambitious plans. The government
the relatively short distances travelled by car.
also wants to accelerate the construction of a
Most of the major cities are less than 200 kilometres
national network of charging points. The network
apart. The average distances travelled by car in our
operators in the Netherlands are enthusiastic
country can now easily be covered using electrical
supporters of electric transportation and are
energy. We have a good and modern electricity
keen to get involved. By 2012 they want to have
network which is the essential basis for a many-
constructed around ten thousand charging points.
branched charging infrastructure. What is more,
In short, the Netherlands has all it takes to fulfil
our power companies are leading the way as
the role of electric transportation pioneer.
regards the generation and application of sustainable energy.
Economic benefits Driving electric opens up prospects for innovation, research and development
Public-private cooperation There is a great
and the development and marketing of new
deal of knowledge and innovative strength in the
products and services. This means activities like
energy and car sectors. We have proven convincingly
the optimisation of batteries, charging technology,
that we are strong in public-private partnerships.
the integration of car and batteries, car design and
The transition to electric transportation offers
the layout of charging stations. Sample calculation:
huge opportunities. Cooperation between
If there were a million electric vehicles being used
companies, energy suppliers, universities and
in the Netherlands, electric transportation with all
research institutes is the ideal way to make optimal
the commercial activities related to it, would
use of those opportunities.
generate a turnover of 1.6 billion euros per year.
The government at national, provincial and local
Huge opportunities are therefore going to present
levels approves of electric transportation and is
themselves which will boost our knowledge and
actively supporting its development in the form
services economy.
26
Opportunities for the Dutch knowledge and services economy
Sample calculation: a million electric cars generate a turnover of e 1.6 billion per year € 0.25 billion Electric cars
Battery production • Accu R&D • Oplaadtechnologie R&D
€ 0.4 billion Sales and maintenance
Design and production • Car design • Integration of car and battery R&D • Assembly
• Market research • Maintenance concepts and know how • Battery reuse
€ 0.32 billion Charging infrastructure
• Charging points R&D • Rapid charging technology R&D
• Integration of payment systems and Smart Grid
• Innovative mobility solutions • (Battery) leasing
€ 0.15 billion Installation and service
Production
Lease and financing
• Large-scale roll out of services • Maintenance concepts and know how
Operation • Service concepts • Charging behaviour research • Payment solutions
€ 0.5 billion
Electricity
Generation • Sustainable energy generation
Distribution • Local energy solutions
• Mobile Smart Grid ICT • Mobile Smart Grid network management and regulation • Battery reuse
Sales and service • Product benefits • Payment solutions
27
7 Electric transportation requires close cooperation
7
A consistent incentives policy is essential
The transition to driving electric is based on
convinces companies to commit to and invest in
phases. Various drive technologies will be used in
the development of electric transportation.
parallel until driving electric is implemented on a large scale. Once the industry moves to mass
Cooperation in three areas Close cooperation
production, this will lead to attractive purchase
between numerous commercial and non-
prices, certainly if the government’s fiscal
commercial parties is necessary to get electric
incentive schemes continue to apply. Government
transportation successfully off the ground.
incentive measures are eminently important, not
In this context, there are three distinct areas,
just to boost demand for electric cars among
namely the demand side (affordable electric cars
consumers but also, for example, to stimulate
for consumers), the supply side (production of
research and development. This will accelerate
affordable electric cars by the industry) and a
technical developments - with possible favourable
sustainable infrastructure (network of charging
consequences for production costs. A consistent
points, availability, electricity storage, etc.).
financial incentive policy generates trust and
Various technologies in parallel 100%
Conventional and bio-fuel vehicles (Plug-in) hybrid vehicles Electric vehicles
0% 2009
(Plug-in) hybrid cars play an important role in the conversion to fully electric cars
30
20xx
Cooperation in three areas Create clear and attractive fiscal regulations to compensate the high initial purchase price for consumers.
Demand side Car industry Lease companies Pressure groups Environmental organisations Governments
Guarantee the car industry, car companies and knowledge institutes the possibility to develop and produce electric cars for the Dutch market.
Supply side Car industry Delivery companies Financial institutions Knowledge institutes Governments
Realise, based on a overall vision, the required infrastructure (charging points, payment, control model) including possibilities for using sufficient sustainable energy.
Infrastructure Car industry Owners' parking options Power network companies Commercial power companies ICT companies Governments
The share of electric cars could be 7% in 2020 This insight is based on Essent’s moderately optimistic scenario Expectations of various other parties are predominantly positive but are not always consistent: • according to ECN: 10% in 2020, 45% in 2040 (numbers of cars) • government plan entitled ‘Driving electric action plan’ [Plan van Aanpak Elektrisch Rijden] of July 2009: 1 million by 2025
Expected number of cars per year in millions
2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2010 0
1
2
Total
8
9
10
Electric cars
31
How fast the costs of an electric car decrease depends partly on a consistent incentive policy Sooner or later ownership of an electric car will
production and reduce the purchase price and this
cost less than that of a conventional car. When the
can be heavily affected by a confidence-building
exact turning point is reached depends partly on
incentive policy.
how quickly the industry is able to move to mass
Cost development of car ownership lease segment, in euros
Cost development of car ownership (private) commuting, in euros
50,000
80,000 70,000
40,000 60,000 50,000
30,000
40,000 20,000
30,000 20,000
10,000 10,000 0
0
2008
2010
2012
Electric cars
2014
2016
2018
Conventional cars Hybrid cars
32
2020
2008
2010
2012
Electric cars
2014
2016
2018
2020
Conventional cars Hybrid cars
Booking progress through cooperation 2-4 years Parties involved
Customer demand
Develop fiscal regime (to compensate the high initial purchase price)
Implementation programmes
Monitoring and implementation
Setting up mass production (in selective car types)
Mass production
Proof of concept = pilots
Available EVs
Create conditions for OEMs* to start mass production
Standardisation of the car - charging point communication
Development of market model for charging infrastructure
Design Mobile Smart Grid Implementation of Mobile Smart Grid Design market model and structure of Mobile Smart Grid
Car industry Delivery companies Financial institutions Knowledge institutes Governments
Roll out charging points network (in anticipation of demand)
Proof of concept = pilots
Infrastructure
Car industry Lease companies Pressure groups Environmental organisations Governments
Car industry Owners’ parking options Power network companies Commercial power companies ICT companies Governments
Standardisation
* OEM = Original Equipment Manufacturer
33
34
8 Essent and Enexis invite you to join in!
Electric transportation enables us to go some way
accelerate the transition process by working
to meeting the growing need for sustainable
together, carrying out research, initiating pilot
mobility. Unlike any other development, electric
projects and creating a basis for support.
transportation enables us to create a better
We can only fulfil the promise if we work together.
balance between economic growth and quality
So join us now!
of life. It therefore shows great promise. The transition to electric transportation is a
Additional contact details can be found at
long-term development. We can direct and
www.essent.nl/elektrischrijden.
35
Annex Electric cars are energy efficient Well-to-wheel efficiency based on the same fuel (natural gas) in % Conventional vehicles
Mechanical drive
ICE
H2 production
H2 transport
80%
95%
Hydrogenpowered vehicles (electrolysis)
Electricity production
Transport
Electrolysis
58%
92%
70%
Electric vehicles
Electricity production 58%
36
19%
95%
20% Hydrogenpowered vehicles (reforming)
Well-to-wheel efficiency:
Transport 92%
H2 compression
Fuel cell
76% H2 transport 95%
Battery charger 89%
Electric drive
54% H2 compression
89%
Fuel cell
76%
54%
Li-ion batteries 94%
Well-to-wheel efficiency: 28%
Electric drive
Well-to-wheel efficiency: 13%
89%
Electric drive 89%
Well-to-wheel efficiency: 40%
Sources of graphs, overviews, etc. shown Section 1 Statistics Netherlands [Centraal Bureau voor Statistiek] 2008, 2004 (pag. 2); RWS-AVV MON ’05 2005 (top of pag. 3); Statistics Netherlands 2004 (bottom of pag. 3)
Section 2 IEA 2005, Siemens (pag. 7 - see also annex pag. 36); emissions registration via the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency [Planbureau voor de leefomgeving] (PBL) 2007; TNO (Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research) Air in Research 2009 [Lucht in onderzoek 2009] (bottom of pag. 9)
Section 3 UTCE/SenterNovem (2009): “Towards a sustainable electricity supply” [“Naar een duurzame elektriciteitsvoorziening”]
Publisher’s details
(pag. 12)
Section 4 Honda (top of pag. 19); Statistics Netherlands (CBS), Publisher Essent New Energy and Enexis Editing Albert Vondeling, Leonie Syrier Editing advice Hans Huigen, Wouter Vermeiden,
Goudappel, Netherlands Mobility Centre [Mobiliteit Centrum Nederland] (middle of pag. 19 ); Business model for electric transportation, Essent 2008 (bottom of pag. 19)
Johan Withagen, Harry Oltheten, New Energy Electric Transportation Team
Section 6 Business model for electric transportation,
Design and realisation Wit Creatives, Deventer
Essent 2008 (pag. 27)
The compilers have done their very best to present
Section 7 Business model for electric transportation,
all details carefully.
Essent 2008 (bottom of pag. 31)
If you have any comments please contact us via www.essent.nl/elektrischrijden.
Annex Well to wheel analysis from EIA (2005) without Gasoline production (90%) and Gasoline Transportation (98%); Efficiency of
September 2009
modern gas fired power plant; Source Siemens, Alstom, GE (pag. 36)