The purpose of this two-part report is to inform and inspire action. The reports, commissioned by the Esmée Fairbairn Foundation, seek to understand how marinerecoverycanbescaledupandsustainedacrosstheUK.Theyexplorethe current landscape of marine conservation and restoration, identify key barriers and opportunities, and provide strategic recommendations for funders, practitioners,andpolicymakers.
This document is the second of two reports. It aims to act as a resource for practitionersseekingtonavigatecomplexregulatorylanguage,buildcommunity partnerships, and deliver impactful projects It also aims to support funders in designingstrategiesthatcatalysesystemicchange.
This Part Two report sets out at a high-level the UK context for the marine environment and aims to be relevant to the full range of practitioners, from new entrants to experienced specialists. This part two report does not attempt to be exhaustiveinitscoverageorcasestudiesbutaimstoactasacompendiumand generalresource.
The separate Part One report provides the results of a series of interviews and workshopwithpractitioners,aswellasafullsetofrecommendationsforfunders, government,practitioners,andcommunities.
Introduction
1930s These losses are not isolated; they reflect broader systemic pressures including pollution, overexploitation, habitat fragmentation, and the accelerating impacts of climate change. The consequencesareecological,economic,andsocial affectingbiodiversity,carbonsequestration,fisheries, floodresilience,andthewellbeingofcoastalcommunities.
Yet, alongside this decline, there is growing momentum for recovery Across the UK, communities, NGOs, scientists, and policymakers are pioneering efforts to restore marine habitats, advocate for better protection, and reimagine the relationship between people and the sea. From kelp rewilding in Sussex to oysterreefrestorationinScotland,andfromcommunity-ledmarineprotectedareasinArrantolarge-scale seascape initiatives in the Solent, these efforts signal a shift toward integrated, place-based, and collaborativeapproachestomarinerecovery
These two reports, commissioned by the Esmée Fairbairn Foundation, seek to understand how marine recovery can be scaled up and sustained across the UK. They explore the current landscape of marine conservation and restoration, identifying key barriers and opportunities, and provides strategic recommendations for funders, practitioners, and policymakers (see Part One) This two-part report is groundedinacomprehensivemethodologythatincludes:
A literature review of UK marine ecosystem recovery efforts, policy frameworks, and funding mechanisms(thisreport).
A national webinar series delivered in partnership with the Environment Agency’s ReMeMaRe initiative andOceanandCoastalFutures,engagingover2,400practitioners
A series of stakeholder interviews, workshops, and informal conversations with experts, community leaders,funders,andgovernmentrepresentatives(thisiscoveredintheseparatePartOnereport).
PurposeandScope
While the report includes analysis of place-based seascape projects, its scope extends beyond individual sites It considers the broader system of marine recovery, including policy advocacy, sector convening, capacitybuilding,andtheintegrationofmarine,freshwater,andterrestrialecosystems.Thegoalistomove from fragmented efforts to a coherent, connected, and resilient marine recovery movement. Data published in 2024 by the Environmental Funders Network states that the ‘coastal and marine ecosystems’ themewithinthebroaderenvironmentumbrellamadeupjust24%ofthetotalgiving
WhyMarineEcosystemRecoveryMatters
Marine ecosystem recovery is not just about reversing ecological decline it is about building a future in whichnatureandpeoplethrivetogether Healthymarineecosystemsprovideessentialservices:theystore carbon, buffer coastlines against storms, support fisheries, and offer cultural and recreational value Protection and restoration enhance these services, strengthens climate resilience, and contributes to nationalandglobalbiodiversitytargets,includingtheUK’scommitmenttoprotect30%oflandandseaby 2030.
Moreover, marine conservation and restoration initiatives offer unique opportunities to empower communities Many of the most successful projects are locally led, rooted in place, and driven by people withdeepconnectionstothesea.Supportingtheseeffortsrequiresnotonlyfunding,butalsotrust,flexibility, andlong-termcommitment.
The author, David Tudor, is a leading marine management expert with over three decades of global experience at the intersection of people and planet. He founded Pelagos, an organisation dedicated to driving positive change. His diverse background spans government agencies, NGOs, and consultancies, andhehasprovidedadvisoryexpertisetogovernmentsworldwide Hiscareerincludesseniorleadershipat The Crown Estate, where he managed portfolios spanning offshore renewable energy and sub-sea infrastructure DavidwasappointedbytheMinisterforClimateChangetoChairtheWalesCoastsandSeas Partnership.
Francesca Read-Cutting is an Ocean Researcher at Pelagos She excels in research and creatively engaging diverse stakeholders across socio-economic and environmental topics Francesca completed herMarineBiologydegreewithFirst-ClassHonours AtPelagos,Francescasupportsthedeliveryofresearch andreports.Additionally,FrancescaisaspokespersonforUKYouthForNatureandaTrusteeforYoungSea ChangersScotland,advocatingfortheinclusionofyouthvoicesinenvironmentaldecisionmaking.
AboutEsméeFairbairnFoundation
Founded in 1961, Esmée Fairbairn Foundation is one of the UK’s largest independent funders. We aim to improve our natural world, secure a fairer future and strengthen the bonds in communities in the UK. We unlock change by contributing everything we can alongside people and organisations with brilliant ideas whoshareourgoals
Climate Change Impacts: Rising sea temperatures are a major driver of change. Studies[ii] have highlightedhowclimatechangeisreshapingUKmarinehabitats,creating"winners"and"losers"among species
"Winners":Somespecies,likebaskingsharks,spurdog,thornbackray,undulateray,andsurprisingly, native oysters (which have seen a 95% decline since the mid-19th century), are projected to find increasedhabitatsuitability,particularlyinnorthernandcentralNorthSeawaters.
"Losers":Staticorslow-movingspeciessuchasseapens,oceanquahogs,seafans,andfanmussels are expected to see significant reductions in their suitable habitat, with sea pens potentially losing upto40%bytheendofthecentury
FishStocks:Whilesomecommerciallyexploitedfishspecieshaveshownrecoveryfromhistoricaloverexploitation, changes in distribution due to warming waters are expected to continue, potentially impactingfoodsecurityandecosystemfunctioning.
Plankton: Long-term monitoring shows an increase in warmer water copepod species and overall phytoplanktonbiomassinUKseas,indicatingsignificantshiftsatthebaseofthemarinefoodweb Marinemammals:OrcapopulationsintheUKareatriskofextinctionduetoseverepollution(PCBs)
StateofHabitats
Poor Condition: Most important habitats for UK nature are in poor condition. The UK has not yet met Good Environmental Status for most indicators, particularly for areas like biodiversity and seabed integrity[iv]
ThreatenedCoastalHabitats:Seagrassmeadowsandsaltmarshes,vitalforcarbonsequestrationand providing nurseries for marine life, are in decline globally, including in the UK. An estimated 7% of seagrasshabitatislostworldwideeachyear,withtheUKseeinghugelossofmanydecades:
Overexploitation: Unsustainable fishing practices, including bottom trawling (which releases significantamountsofcarbonanddamagestheseabed),havehadamajorimpact[viii]
Pollution:
Plastic and Microplastics: An increasing threat, with synthetic microfibres from textiles being a particularconcern.
ChemicalPollution: PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) and PCBs pose significant risks to marinelife
Dischargestowatercourses:Only19%ofestuariesand45%ofcoastalwatersinEnglandachieving "Good Ecological Status," and none meeting "Good Chemical Status" under the Water Framework Directive[ix].
Physical Damage and Disturbance: Activities like dredging, oil and gas extraction, and the development of renewable energy infrastructure can cause physical loss and disturbance to marine habitats and species Coastal development and increased human industrial and recreational uses haveimposedincreasingpressuresoverdecades.
Anthropogenic Sound: Noise from shipping, military operations, and other activities can disturb marinemammalsandotherspecies
ConservationEfforts:
Whilethestateofmanyspeciesandhabitatsremainsconcerning,there'sagrowingunderstandingofthe challenges and a concerted push towards more effective conservation, habitat restoration, and sustainable management practices. Despite the challenges, significant conservation efforts are underway:
MarineProtectedAreas(MPAs):Therearecurrently377MPAscovering38%ofUKseas[x] However,the effectiveness of these MPAs is a key focus for NGOs, with concerns that management measures are not fully implemented in many sites. There's a push for at least 30% of UK waters to be effectively protectedwithsomecallingforareastobehighlyorfullyprotected
SeagrassRestoration: Initiatives are underway to protect and recover seagrass meadows across theUK.
Oyster Reintroduction: Efforts are focused on restoring native oyster beds, for example, in the SolentandDornochFirth
SaltmarshRestoration:Recognisingtheirimportanceforcarbonsequestrationandbiodiversity,as wellascompensatorylandforsea-levelriseandlegaldrivers,saltmarshcreationhasbeentaking place since the 1990s. Creation has sometimes been via large scale managed realignment, such asatSteartintheSevernEstuary.
Policy and Regulation: The UK Marine Strategy aims to achieve a sustainable, balanced level of human activities to allow marine biodiversity to flourish There was a UK government commitment to halvesewagepollutiontoEnglishriversandcoastlinesinthenextfiveyears[xi]
Community Engagement and Citizen Science: Projects are engaging coastal communities and volunteers in conservation efforts, from beach cleans to monitoring marine mammals and microplasticpollution.
PolicyandLegalFrameworkProtectionandManagement
The UK marine environment is governed by a comprehensive policy framework aimed at achieving a shared vision for the four nations as set out in the UK Marine Policy Statement, of "clean, healthy, safe, productive, and biologically diverse seas. " This involves a complex interplay of legislation, strategies, and numerousstakeholdersacrossnationalanddevolvedadministrations.
It is important to understand the interplay of marine and coastal management with initiatives aimed at marine recovery across the UK’s four nations, and whether the similarities and differences in approach and legislation between them lead to the desired outcomes. The policy and legislation laid out below is not all aimed at achieving marine recovery objectives but more broadly aiming to achieve government objectives,sustainabledevelopmentgoals,andwidersocietalneeds
UKandEngland
A)OverarchingPolicyFramework
UKMarinePolicyStatement(MPS): This is the foundation of current UK marine policy and legislation, published in 2011 under the Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009. It provides the high-level policy contextforallmarineplanninganddecision-makingacrosstheUK.Itsprimaryobjectiveistofacilitate sustainabledevelopmentintheUKmarinearea,promotingeconomicdevelopment,transitioningtoa low-carbon economy, ensuring a sustainable marine environment, and contributing to societal benefits.
UK Marine Strategy: Driven by the Marine Strategy Regulations 2010 (implementing the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive), this strategy outlines measures to achieve or maintain "Good Environmental Status" (GES) in UK seas It's an ecosystem-based adaptive management program, involving assessment, monitoring, and action across various descriptors like biodiversity, nonindigenousspecies,contaminants,andmarinelitter Thisstrategyisregularlyreviewedandupdated
B)KeyLegislation
Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009 (MCAA): This Act established a single framework for marine management and licensing, introduced marine planning, created the Marine Management Organisation (MMO) in England, and laid the groundwork for Marine Conservation Zones (MCZs) It requirespublicauthoritiestomakedecisionsinlinewiththeMPSandmarineplans.
Fisheries Act 2020: This Act provides the framework for fisheries management in Great Britain, replacing the EU Common Fisheries Policy post-Brexit It grants powers for the creation of byelaws for marineconservation.
ConservationofHabitatsandSpeciesRegulations2017&ConservationofOffshoreMarineHabitats and Species Regulations 2017: These transposed the EU Habitats and Birds Directives into UK law, establishing the legal framework for Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) and Special Protection Areas(SPAs)–collectivelyknownasEuropeanMarineSites–andguidingtheirprotection Environment Act 2021: This act sets legally binding environmental targets, including for marine protected areas, aiming for a significant percentage of designated features to be in favourable condition.
C)KeyPolicyApproaches
MarinePlanning:TheMPSprovidesthecontextforthedevelopmentofdetailedMarinePlansforspecific areas within UK waters These plans set out how the MPS objectives will be implemented, aiming for a proactive,spatialapproachtomanagingmarineactivitiesandbalancingcompetingdemands
Marine Licensing: A system under the MCAA that requires licenses for various activities affecting the marineenvironment,suchasconstruction,dredging,anddeposits.
MarineProtectedAreas(MPAs):TheUKiscommittedtoestablishingandmanaginganetworkofMPAs, including SACs, SPAs, MCZs, and Highly Protected Marine Areas (HPMAs). These areas are designed to protect important marine species and habitats, with specific management measures and byelaws in placetoachieveconservationobjectives This‘feature-led’approachtomarineprotectionbegantohalt thedeclineinmanyimportanthabitatsandspeciesfollowingtheirintroduction;however,thisapproach has drawn criticism recently as to whether it is still fit for purpose in a world where restoration has becomeincreasinglyimportantintherecoveryofthemarineenvironment.
Ecosystem-Based Approach: A central principle guiding UK marine policy, aiming to manage human activities in a way that ensures the collective pressure remains compatible with good environmental statusandthecapacityofmarineecosystemstorespondtochange
BiodiversityNetGain(BNG):inEngland’sintertidalzoneBNGisamandatoryapproachtodevelopment that aims to leave the natural environment in a measurably better state than it was beforehand. BNG became mandatory for most developments under the Town and Country Planning Act (TCPA) in England, including those within the intertidal zone (down to Mean Low Water), from February 2024 (for major developments) and April 2024 (for small sites) While BNG applies to the intertidal zone, it's important to note that the current framework for BNG applies specifically down to the Mean Low Water mark.
Marine Net Gain (MNG): A developing principle that aims for new marine developments to leave the environment in a measurably better state than before, requiring a holistic approach to managing all marineactivity
Scotland's marine environment, covering 62% of the UK's waters, is managed through a distinct policy framework WhilealigningwithsomeoverarchingUKpolicies,Scotlandhassignificantdevolvedpowersthat shapeitsapproach.
A)OverarchingPrinciples:
Vision: Scotland shares the broader UK vision of set out in the MPS, of "clean, healthy, safe, productive andbiologicallydiverseseas;managedtomeetthelong-termneedsofnatureandpeople"
B)KeyLegislation:
Marine (Scotland) Act 2010: This is the cornerstone of Scottish marine legislation. It provides the legal frameworkfor:
Marine Conservation: Provides powers to protect and manage areas of importance for marine wildlifeandhabitats,includingthedesignationofMarineProtectedAreas(MPAs)
Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009 (MCAA): While a UK-wide act, it also applies to Scotland, particularly for offshore waters (12-200 nautical miles), creating a tiered approach to marine planning acrosstheUK.
Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations 2017 & Conservation of Offshore Marine Habitats andSpeciesRegulations2017: These transposed the EU Habitats and Birds Directives into Scottish law, forming the basis for Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) and Special Protection Areas (SPAs) in Scottishwaters.
Fisheries Act 2020: This UK Act provides the overarching framework for fisheries management postBrexit,andtheScottishGovernmentisresponsibleforregulatinginshorefishingaroundScotland.
Wildlife and Natural Environment (Scotland) Act 2011: Contributes to nature conservation, including provisionsforprotectedspecies
C)KeyPolicyInstrumentsandApproaches:
Scotland'sNationalMarinePlan(NMP):Publishedin2015,thisistheprimaryguidefordecision-making on the use of marine space and resources in Scotland, out to 200 nautical miles It sets out strategic policiesforsustainabledevelopment,ensuringthatdecisionsareconsistentwithitsobjectives TheNMP isregularlyreviewed
Objectives: The NMP's strategic objectives align with the vision for a healthy marine environment, incorporatingeconomic,social,andecosystemgoals,andaddressingclimatechange.
General Policies: Apply to all marine development and use, covering aspects like economic and socialbenefits,co-existence,climatechange,naturalheritage,marinelitter,andwaterquality
Regional Marine Planning: The NMP is supplemented by 11 Scottish Marine Regions, for which Marine PlanningPartnershipsdevelopmoredetailedRegionalMarinePlansforinshorewaters(outto12nautical miles) Thisallowsformorelocalownershipanddecision-making,consideringregionalecosystemsand socio-economiccircumstances
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): Scotland has an extensive network of MPAs, including Nature Conservation MPAs (designated under the Marine (Scotland) Act), SACs, SPAs, and other area-based measures. While Highly Protected Marine Areas (HPMAs) were proposed, the Scottish Government decided in June 2023 not to progress the policy at that time, focusing instead on other management measuresforexistingMPAs
MarineLicensingandConsenting:TheMarineDirectorateoftheScottishGovernmentisresponsiblefor marine licensing for various activities, aiming for a streamlined process that minimizes bureaucracy whileensuringenvironmentalprotection.
ScottishMarineAssessment(SMA): Regular assessments of the condition of the Scottish marine area informpolicydevelopmentandreview,trackingprogresstowardsGoodEnvironmentalStatus(GES).
D)MainPublic-bodyStakeholders:
ScottishGovernment:
Marine Directorate: The lead body responsible for the integrated management of Scotland's seas and freshwater fisheries, covering marine planning, licensing, conservation, fisheries, aquaculture, andmarinescience
ScottishAgenciesandPublicBodies:
NatureScot(formerlyScottishNaturalHeritage): Provides scientific advice on nature conservation, includingtheidentificationandmanagementofMPAs.
Crown Estate Scotland: Manages most of Scotland's foreshore and seabed, including leasing for renewableenergyandaquaculture.
Wales
Wales, with its distinctive coastline and extensive marine area, has a devolved policy framework for its marineenvironment,workinginconjunctionwithbroaderUKlegislationwhereapplicable
Environment (Wales) Act 2016: This act enshrines the Sustainable Management of Natural Resources (SMNR) as a central principle for managing Wales’s natural resources, including the marine environment SMNR aims to use natural resources in a way that maintains and enhances the resilience ofecosystemsandthebenefitstheyprovide,adoptingamoreproactiveandintegratedapproach.
Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009 (MCAA): While a UK-wide act, it granted the Welsh Ministers powerstodevelopamarineplanforWelshwaters(bothinshoreoutto12nauticalmilesandoffshoreout to 200 nautical miles) It also established the marine licensing regime, with Natural Resources Wales (NRW)actingonbehalfofWelshMinistersformostlicensingdecisions
B)KeyPolicyInstruments:
Welsh National Marine Plan (WNMP): Adopted in November 2019, the WNMP is the primary spatial planningdocumentforWales’sseas Itsetsoutpoliciesforthesustainabledevelopmentanduseofthe marineareaforthenext20years.
Purpose: To manage increasing demands on the marine environment, encourage sustainable economic development, and integrate environmental protection and social considerations into marinedecision-making
Scope: Covers all Welsh waters (inshore and offshore) and applies to a wide range of activities, including energy (oil & gas, renewables [note: licensing and strategic policy is reserved by UK governmentinmostcasesoffshore]),fishing,tourism,ports,aquaculture,andtransport.
Implementation:PublicauthoritiesarelegallyrequiredtotaketheWNMPintoaccountwhenmaking decisions that may affect the plan area It also provides guidance for developers and other marine users
Relationship to UK MPS: The WNMP is guided by the UK Marine Policy Statement (MPS), ensuring a consistentapproachacrosstheUKwhileallowingforWelshspecificities.
UK Marine Strategy: Wales contributes to the UK Marine Strategy, which aims to achieve or maintain "GoodEnvironmentalStatus"(GES)initsseas,asrequiredbytheMarineStrategyRegulations2010.
National Natural Resources Policy (NNRP): This policy, underpinned by the Environment (Wales) Act, sets out the Welsh Government's priorities for the sustainable management of natural resources The WNMP is a key mechanism for delivering the NNRP's priorities in the marine area, including a placebasedapproach,increasingrenewableenergy,andoptimisingbenefitsforcoastalcommunities.
Area Statements (Marine): Natural Resources Wales (NRW) produces Area Statements, including one specifically for the marine area These statements provide a more local understanding of natural resources,theirbenefits,andprioritiesforaction,supportingtheimplementationofSMNRandinforming marineplanning
C)KeyPolicyApproaches
Integrated Marine Planning: The WNMP promotes a proactive and integrated approach to managing marineactivities,aimingtoresolveconflictsandpromoteco-existenceamongvarioussectors.
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): Wales has a comprehensive network of MPAs, covering a significant portionofitsinshorewaters(around69%) Thisincludes:
SpecialAreasofConservation(SACs) and SpecialProtectionAreas(SPAs): Designated under the ConservationofHabitatsandSpeciesRegulations2017(transposingEUDirectives).
Marine Conservation Zones (MCZs): Designated under the MCAA (though currently only one fully designatedMCZinWales:Skomer)
Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) and Ramsar sites: Also contribute to the network, particularlyincoastalareas
Management: NRW, in collaboration with partners, is responsible for managing these MPAs, with ongoing assessments to determine their condition and identify actions needed to improve ecosystemhealth.
The Crown Estate: Owns and manages the seabed and foreshore around Wales, playing a key role in offshoredevelopment
NorthernIreland
Northern Ireland's marine environment is managed through a devolved policy framework that seeks to balanceeconomicusewithenvironmentalprotection.WhileNorthernIrelandhasadoptedtheoverarching principlesoftheMPS,liketheotherUKnationsitalsohasitsowndistinctlegislation
A)KeyLegislation:
Marine Act (Northern Ireland) 2013: This is the primary piece of legislation specifically for Northern Ireland'sinshoremarinearea(outto12nauticalmiles).Itprovidesthelegalbasisfor:
Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009 (MCAA): This UK-wide act extends to Northern Ireland's offshore waters(12-200nauticalmiles)andprovidestheframeworkformarinelicensingandthedevelopmentof marine plans in this region. DAERA, as the Marine Plan Authority, works within the context of both the MarineAct(NI)2013andtheMCAA2009.
Conservation (Natural Habitats, etc.) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 1995 (as amended): These regulationstransposedtheEUHabitatsandBirdsDirectivesintoNorthernIrelandlaw,providingthelegal framework for the designation and protection of Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) and Special ProtectionAreas(SPAs)–collectivelyknownasEuropeanMarineSites.
Fisheries Act 2020: As a UK-wide act, it provides the framework for fisheries management post-Brexit. The Northern Ireland Executive, through DAERA, has responsibility for regulating inshore fishing around NorthernIreland
Environmental Liability (Prevention and Remediation) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2009: Aims to make polluters responsible for preventing and remediating environmental damage, including to the marineenvironment.
B)KeyPolicyInstrumentsandApproaches:
Marine Plan for Northern Ireland (Draft): DAERA is mandated to prepare a Marine Plan for Northern Ireland, covering both inshore and offshore regions This plan, once adopted, will be the primary frameworkofpoliciestoguidedecisionsbypublicauthoritiesregardingactivitiesthataffectthemarine area. It will facilitate sustainable development by balancing competing interests. The draft has undergonepublicconsultation,anditsadoptionisakeyongoingprocess.
UKMarinePolicyStatement(MPS): The Marine Plan for Northern Ireland is being developed within the overarching framework of the UK MPS (published in 2011), ensuring consistency with broader UK marine policyobjectives
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): Northern Ireland is committed to establishing and managing an ecologically coherent network of MPAs, including SACs, SPAs, Marine Conservation Zones (MCZs), and coastal Areas of Special Scientific Interest (ASSIs) This network aims to protect a wide range of marine biodiversity and geological features There is ongoing work to assess the effectiveness of the current networkandidentifyanygaps
Marine Licensing: DAERA's Marine and Fisheries Division is responsible for administering the marine licensing regime in Northern Ireland's territorial waters, ensuring that activities requiring a license are assessedfortheirenvironmentalimpactandcomplywithrelevantlegislationandpolicy MarineStrategy(UKandNIContribution):NorthernIrelandcontributestotheUKMarineStrategy,which outlinesmeasurestoachieveGES
Fisheries Management: DAERA is responsible for managing sustainable fisheries in Northern Ireland, working with the fishing industry and other stakeholders to ensure healthy fish stocks and marine ecosystems ThisincludesdevelopingandimplementingfisheriesmanagementmeasureswithinMPAs Marine Litter Strategy: Northern Ireland is actively involved in efforts to reduce marine litter, often in collaborationwithRepublicofIrelandpartnersandbroaderUKinitiatives
C)MainPublic-bodyStakeholders:
DepartmentofAgriculture,EnvironmentandRuralAffairs(DAERA):Theleadgovernmentdepartment in Northern Ireland with responsibility for marine policy, including marine planning, licensing, conservation,fisheries,andtheMarineStrategy ItsMarineandFisheriesDivisionplaysacentralrole Northern Ireland Environment Agency (NIEA): An executive agency of DAERA, responsible for environmentalregulation,includingenforcementofmarinelegislationandmonitoringofenvironmental quality.
Historic Environment Division (Department for Communities): Responsible for the protection and management of marine historic environment assets, including shipwrecks and submerged archaeologicalsites
TheCrownEstate: OwnsandmanagesmostoftheseabedaroundNorthernIreland,playingakeyrole inoffshoredevelopment,particularlyforrenewableenergyprojects RepublicofIrelandAgencies: Due to the shared marine environment, there is often collaboration and coordinationwithagenciesintheRepublicofIrelandontransboundarymarineissues
InternationalCommitments:
TheUK,asanislandnationwithextensivemarinedomesticmarinespaceandhistoricalglobalinfluencevia former colonies and current overseas territories, is party to a wide range of international commitments. Post-Brexit,theUKhaslargelyretaineditsinternationalenvironmentalcommitments,eitherbytransposing former EU directives into domestic law (e.g., the Marine Strategy Regulations) or by continuing its participationininternationalconventionsdirectly management
Someofthekeyinternationalcommitmentsinclude:
UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(UNCLOS):
Foundation of Ocean Governance: The UK ratified UNCLOS in 1997. It is the fundamental international treatygoverningallaspectsofoceanspaceanditsuses
Obligations: UNCLOS establishes the legal framework for coastal state jurisdiction (territorial sea, exclusive economic zone, continental shelf), freedom of navigation, protection and preservation of the marine environment, marine scientific research, and the settlement of disputes. The UK's domestic marinelegislationisdesignedtooperatewithinthisoverarchingframework
Pollution Prevention: UNCLOS places general obligations on states to prevent, reduce, and control pollutionofthemarineenvironmentfromallsources
Biodiversity andConservation
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): The UK is a signatory to the CBD, which aims for the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharingofbenefitsarisingfromgeneticresources
Kunming-MontrealGlobalBiodiversityFramework: As part of the CBD, the UK is committed to the newglobalbiodiversitytargets,includingthe"30x30"target(protectingatleast30%oflandandsea by2030).
Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) Agreement: This agreement aims to ensure the conservationandsustainableuseofmarinebiodiversityinareasbeyondnationaljurisdiction(thehigh seasandtheinternationalseabedarea) Keyaspectsinclude:
Capacity Building and Transfer of Marine Technology: Supporting developing countries in implementingtheagreement.
ConventionontheConservationofMigratorySpeciesofWildAnimals(CMS)(BonnConvention):The UKisaPartytoCMS,whichaimstoconserveterrestrial,aquatic,andavianmigratoryspeciesthroughout their range This includes a number of marine mammals, seabirds, and fish species that migrate throughUKwaters
Agreements under CMS: The UK is also a party to specific agreements under CMS, such as the AgreementontheConservationofSmallCetaceansoftheBaltic,NorthEastAtlantic,IrishandNorth Seas(ASCOBANS)andtheAgreementontheConservationofAlbatrossesandPetrels(ACAP).
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance: The UK has designated numerous RamsarSites,includingmanycoastalandmarinewetlands,recognizingtheirecologicalimportancefor waterfowlandoverallbiodiversity
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES): The UK adherestoCITESregulationstocontrolorpreventinternationaltradeinendangeredmarinespecies.
PollutionPreventionandControl
OSPAR Convention (Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic): The UK is a Contracting Party to OSPAR, a key regional agreement aimed at preventing and eliminating marine pollution and protecting the maritime area against the adverse effects of human activities OSPAR addresses pollution from land-based sources, offshore activities, dumping, and atmospheric emissions, and also works on biodiversity and ecosystem protection (eg, through identifyingthreatenedspeciesandhabitats)
MARPOL(InternationalConventionforthePreventionofPollutionfromShips):Coversvariousforms of pollution from ships, including oil, noxious liquid substances, harmful substances carried in packagedform,sewage,garbage,andairpollution
BallastWaterManagementConvention: Aims to prevent the spread of harmful aquatic organisms andpathogensviaships'ballastwater.
London Convention and Protocol: Regulates the dumping of waste at sea to prevent marine pollution
Anti-FoulingSystems(AFS)Convention:Controlstheuseofharmfulanti-foulingpaintsonships Basel Convention: Controls the transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and their disposal, includingthosethatcouldimpactthemarineenvironment.
FisheriesManagement:
UnitedNationsFishStocksAgreement(UNFSA): The UK is a party to UNFSA, which aims to ensure the long-termconservationandsustainableuseofstraddlingfishstocksandhighlymigratoryfishstocks.
Regional Fisheries Management Organisations (RFMOs): The UK participates in various RFMOs (e.g., NEAFC,ICCAT)tocooperativelymanagefishstocksbeyondnationaljurisdiction.
Whilethereisagrowingrecognitionoftheeconomicandenvironmentalvalueoftheocean,theamountof funding directed towards it is a fraction of what is needed to ensure a recovery to health To illustrate this point, 2021/22 data from the Environmental Funders Network points to a significant increase in environmental giving from foundations since their previous report date; however, the ‘coastal and marine ecosystems’themewithinthebroaderenvironmentumbrellamadeupjust2.4%ofthetotal[xii].
Public-PrivateSourcesofFunding
ScottishMarineEnvironmentalEnhancementFund(SMEEF)
SMEEF is a finance initiative in Scotland that channels voluntary contributions from those who benefit from the country's marine resources into projects that restore and enhance coastal and marine environments Managed by a steering group that includes the Scottish Government's Marine Directorate, Crown Estate Scotland,andNatureScot,SMEEFaimstobridgethefundinggapformarineconservation.Thefundsupports a wide range of projects, from restoring vital habitats like seagrass beds and saltmarshes to managing invasive species and conducting research SMEEF has secured and distributed more than £38 million to restorationandenhancementprojectssinceitslaunchinMay2022[xiii]
MarineRecoveryFund
The Marine Recovery Fund (MRF) is a proposed financial mechanism, consulted on by Defra. Its primary purpose is to deliver strategic, industry-funded environmental compensation for the adverse impacts of offshorewinddevelopmentsonmarineprotectedareas(MPAs) Thefundaimstoprovideamoreeffective and efficient alternative to the current project-by-project approach, where individual developers are responsible for their own compensatory measures. The UK government is working in parallel with the ScottishGovernmentonaseparatebutalignedScottishMRF.
ThekeyaimsoftheMarineRecoveryFundare:
1Tospeeduptheplanningandconsentingprocessforoffshorewindprojects.Byallowingdevelopersto pay into a collective fund, it simplifies the complex process of securing environmental compensation, whichhasoftencauseddelays.
2.To deliver more effective and strategic environmental compensation. Rather than a patchwork of small-scale, individual compensation projects, the MRF aims to fund larger, more impactful measures This allows for the creation of a "library" of approved measures that are pre-vetted by statutory nature conservation bodies These strategic measures can benefit the entire MPA network, even if they don't directlytargettheaffectedfeature,aslongastheyprovideagreaterecologicalbenefitoverall.
The Marine Recovery Fund is currently in the later stages of design A consultation on the establishment of the fund was published by Defra, and a separate, parallel consultation has been launched by the Scottish GovernmentforaScottishMRF
Theconsultationprocesshasgatheredfeedbackonkeyaspectssuchastheapplicationprocess,costsand charges, and the governance of the fund. Updates indicate that Defra expect to publish a summary of responsesandthegovernment'sfinaldecisioninautumn2025,withthefundbecomingoperationalbythe endoftheyear Theoverallgoalistohavethefundrunningsmoothlytohelpunlocksignificantinvestment inoffshorewindwhileensuringtheprotectionandrestorationofthemarineenvironment
MarineFundCymru
AnembryonicfundsimilarinformationtoSMEEFistheMarineFundCymru.ThisisaWelshGovernment-led scheme which aims to strategically invest for the long-term benefit of the marine environment. It is being developed as a "voluntary funding framework" that would attract investments from private businesses, particularlydevelopers Thesevoluntarycontributionswouldthenbeinvestedinprojectsthatenhanceand maintain marine and coastal ecosystems and is explicitly designed to complement government funding, notreplaceit.
The fund's implementation is a collaborative effort, with the Wales Council for Voluntary Action (WCVA) playing a key role in managing and coordinating specific aspects of the funding The intention is for governance and steering to be integrated into the Wales Coasts and Seas Partnership (CaSP Cymru), a body of stakeholders working to improve marine resilience. The intention of this multi-agency approach is to ensure that funding is targeted effectively to deliver tangible outcomes and build capacity for future development efforts in Wales At the time of writing the fund has not yet been fully developed but it is expectedtobecomefullyoperationalin2025/26
PublicFunding-Grants
Thereareseveralsourcesoffundingwhicharisefromgovernmentandotherpublicbodies,withthegrants often targeting specific geographical areas or topics. Below are some illustrative relevant examples of thesegrantsandnumerousothersalsoexist.
UK-WideFunds
TheNationalLotteryHeritageFund:Whilenotexclusivelyformarineprojects,thisisasignificantsource of funding for projects that connect people with their natural heritage, including coastal and marine environments. Their grants can support projects focused on habitat restoration, raising public awareness,andcommunityengagementinmarineconservation.
England
TheMarineManagementOrganisation(MMO):ThispublicbodyadministerstheFisheriesandSeafood Scheme (FaSS) in England. While it primarily supports the fishing and seafood sector, a key objective is tofundprojectsthatcontributeto"cleaninguprivers,lakes,andseasandsupportnaturerecovery."This canincludeinitiativesthatenhancethemarineenvironment
Wales
Welsh Government Funds: The Welsh Government offers the Coastal Capacity Building Fund, which supports projects that improve the sustainability and resilience of coastal communities. The fund's objectives include facilitating action for nature recovery and increasing public understanding of the marineenvironment
The Welsh Government has provided funds for restoration initiatives such as supporting the developmentofSeagrassNetworkCymru’s(SNC)NationalSeagrassActionPlan
NorthernIreland
MarineEnvironmentandFisheriesFund(MEFF):TheDepartmentofAgriculture,EnvironmentandRural Affairs(DAERA)managesthisfundinNorthernIreland Aportionofthefundingisspecificallyearmarked for projects that aim to physically preserve and restore important "blue carbon" habitats, such as saltmarshesandseagrass.
Water Quality Improvement Strand: The fund is used to support local communities, not-for-profit organisations,andcouncilsincarryingoutprojectsthatimprovelocalwaterquality,suchasrivercleanups, habitat restoration, and educational initiatives These primarily have a terrestrial focus but are clearlydirectlyrelevanttothemarineenvironment
Scotland
Marine Fund Scotland (MFS): Administered by the Scottish Government, the MFS provides grants for variousmarineandfisheries-relatedprojects,includingthosefocusedonenvironmentalprotection. AllocationofnetrevenuefromScottishCrownEstatemarineassetstocoastallocalauthorities. Here isabreakdownofhowitworks:
aRevenueGeneration: Crown Estate Scotland manages the seabed and coastline out to 12 nautical miles, and generates revenue from activities such as offshore wind leasing (a major source), aquaculture(fishfarming),andmoorings.
cDistributiontoCouncils: The Scottish Government then allocates 100% of this net revenue from the marineassetsoutto12nauticalmilestocoastallocalauthoritiesinScotland Thisisaspecificpolicy toensurethatcommunitiesdirectlybenefitfromtheassetsontheirdoorstep.
d.Local Authority Discretion: While the funding is a direct result of Crown Estate Scotland's marine activities,thelocalauthoritieshavethefinalsayonhowitisspent.Theexpectationisthatthemoney willbeusedforprojectsthatdeliveradirectbenefittotheircoastalcommunities,whichcaninclude environmentalimprovements,economicdevelopment,andcommunityprojects SustainableCommunitiesFund:CrownEstateScotlandalsorunsitsowndirectgrantprograms,which includes"CommunityCapacityGrants"and"EnvironmentGrants."Thesefundsareaimedatsupporting localregenerationandsustainabledevelopment.
The Scotland Nature Restoration Fund (NRF) is a government-backed initiative aimed at tackling the twincrisesofbiodiversitylossandclimatechange ManagedbyNatureScot,itprovidesgrantstoawide rangeofprojectsthatrestorehabitatsandspeciesacrossScotland Thefund'sscopeisexplicitlybroad, applying to both land and sea, with a strategic priority on coastal and marine initiatives that promote restoration,recovery,andresilience.
Corporate Funding and Finance for Marine Nature and Communities
Historically, corporate engagement was primarily philanthropic, limited to charitable donations or grants. However, a significant shift is underway towards more structured and financially-driven models that integrateconservationgoalswithbusinessobjectives Theconceptof"bluefinance" sometimesdefinedas thepracticeofraisingandinvestingcapitalfortheconservationandsustainableuseofmarineandcoastal resources isanemergingfield
As businesses increasingly recognise the value of healthy marine ecosystems to long-term sustainability andbrandreputation,manyareintegratingocean-positivestrategiesintotheirenvironmental,social,and governance (ESG) frameworks Financial contributions from corporates can take various forms, including direct investment in habitat restoration, sponsorship of community-led marine initiatives, and support for scientificresearchandinnovationinoceanhealth.
Akeydevelopmentistheemergenceofinnovativefinancialinstruments.Mechanismssuchasbluecarbon credits and impact investment funds are gaining traction, enabling companies to align financial returns withecologicaloutcomes Additionally,blendedfinancemodelscombinepublicandprivatecapitaltoderisk projects and attract a broader range of investors, including those focused on impact The private sector's motivation extends beyond corporate social responsibility to include mitigating operational risks andsecuringsupplychains.
Certain financial sectors, such as insurance, are positioned to support investment in marine ecosystems and coastal communities through innovative funding mechanisms and risk-informed strategies As climate-related risks such as coastal flooding, storm surges, and biodiversity loss intensify, insurers are increasingly recognizing the value of nature-based solutions in reducing exposure and enhancing resilience By financing marine restoration projects such as saltmarsh creation and sustainable fisheries insurers can help mitigate physical risks while contributing to long-term environmental and social stability InrecentyearsinsurerssuchasZurichUKandAvivahavepartneredwiththeMarineConservation SocietyandWWTincoastalandmarinefocussedprojects.
Philanthropy
Philanthropic funding for marine and coastal projects in the UK is a small component of the broader, alreadylimited,environmentalfundinglandscape Thesectorischaracterisedbyasignificantfundinggap, arelianceonafewkeyfunders,andagrowingrecognitionoftheneedforgreaterinvestment Whilethereis increasing interest in "blue finance," marine and coastal projects have historically been less funded than otherenvironmentalareasliketerrestrialconservationorbroadclimatechangeinitiatives.
As covered earlier, coastal and marine ecosystems receive just 24% of the total environmental giving The EnvironmentalFundersNetworkreport‘WheretheGreenGrantsWent9’furtherstatesthatwhencomparing thepreviouseditionoftheirresearch,thereisevidencethatthereisadeclineinthelevelsoffundinggoing to the coastal and marine ecosystems theme despite the near tripling of the value of the grants from foundationstoenvironmentalcausesmorewidely.
The Esmée Fairbairn Foundation, The John Ellerman Foundation, the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, and the Endangered Landscapes & Seascapes Programme (ELSP) are among the significant UK funders in the marine and coastal conservation sector, supporting a wide range of projects from local, grassroots initiativestolarge-scale,multi-million-poundrestorationefforts.TogethertheseFoundationsplayapivotal role in driving marine conservation. The ELSP, for example, a programme funded by Arcadia, specialises in funding ambitious, long-term restoration projects across Europe, including a focus on marine and coastal environments, such as its support for the Solent Seascape Project There are also several funds emerging focusedoncommunities,suchastheCommunitySupportFund(operatedbyFauna&Flora),theProtected Areas Foundation’s Community MPA Grants, and the Green Community Grants Programme run by the WildlifeTrusts.
andbusiness
Industry's role in marine ecosystem recovery has evolved from a focus on mitigation to proactive restoration and sustainable practices Many UK offshore industries are looking to move beyond just compliance with environmental regulations to actively investing in "blue economy " initiatives that aim to restore and protect marine environments. For example, the energy sector is exploring the use of offshore wind farm structures as artificial reefs, creating new habitats for marine life. Another example is Ørstedconsidered the largest offshore wind developer in the world – which has partnered with two Wildlife Trusts for the ‘Wilder Humber’ project, which is a five-year programme to restore marine habitats and species throughouttheHumberestuary
The role of industry is a key component of environmental and economic strategies and policies. The approach has shifted towards collaborative, market-driven solutions that complement government regulation The UK government is encouraging this by discussing frameworks for natural capital markets where private finance can invest in projects that demonstrably improve the health of ecosystems This collaborative model, which brings together businesses, conservation groups, and government bodies, is essential for bridging the significant funding gap needed to meet the UK's ambitious nature recovery targets.
With increasing offshore activity in the UK, 'spatial squeeze ' is raised as an issue from many quarters; it referstotheincreasing‘competitionforspace’betweenvariousmarineactivities,withthepushforoffshore renewableenergyandanexpansionofmarineprotectedareascitedbysomeasthemainfactors.
The offshore energy industry, particularly offshore wind, is the largest driver of change in the UK marine environment when considering both the use of physical space and incoming investment While other drivers like commercial fishing, climate change, and pollution are critical, the sheer scale of the UK's offshoreenergyambitionsmakesitthemostsignificantforceforchangeintermsofspaceandinvestment.
OffshoreWind-25yearsofGrowth
As a result of several years of supportive government policy – along with favourable seabed and natural conditions – the UK has established itself a one of the global leaders in offshore wind energy rollout. The developmentofoffshorewindhasbecomeacornerstoneofthecountry’selectricitysupplystrategy
From the turn of the 21 century, the UK began its journey from small test and demonstration sites to the home of many of the largest offshore windfarms in the world. The UK’s first offshore wind farm Blyth Offshore Wind Farm - was commissioned in December2000, made up of two 2mega-watt (MW) turbines. TheUK'sfirstoffshorewindleasinground(Round1),openedbyTheCrownEstatein2001,pavedthewayfor theconstructionoftheUK'sfirstcommercial-scaleoffshorewindfarms Theseprojects,suchasNorthHoyle (commissionedin2003)offthecoastofnorthWales,werelocatedinshallowwaterandclosetoshore This was quickly followed by the commencement of Round 2 in 2004 and then the transformational Round 3 in 2008, which introduced the allocation of significant large-scale seabed development zones rather than individualsites. st
ThefutureforoffshorewindintheUK
The Crown Estate signed agreements for lease for six projects in January 2023 as part of the Round 4 process, with projects located in the North Sea and the Irish Sea. These were expected to become operational by 2030; however, in May 2025, Ørsted announced its decision to stop the development of its Hornsea 4 project "in its current form", due to rising costs and increased risks Despite the cancellation, Ørstedhasstatedthatitwillretaintheprojectrightsandmayseektodeveloptheprojectinamore"valuecreating"wayinthefuture.
TheprojectsfromRound4,alongwiththepipelinesfrompreviousroundsandfromCrownEstateScotland’s ‘ScotWind’ leasing, will add to the push to meet the UK Government’s ambitious targets for offshore wind deployment The ScotWind leasing round awarded 20 projects with seabed option agreements, with 13 of the20projectsbeingforfloatingratherthanfixedturbines[xiv].
The latest UK leasing process is Round 5, which is focused on the South Wales and South West England coasts Theroundaimstoawardseabedrightsforupto45GWofnewfloatingoffshorewindcapacity;this new technology is suited to the deeper waters of the Celtic Sea A key difference of Round 5 compared to previousroundsinEnglandandWales–aswellasthefloatingwindtechnology-istheemphasisonsocial andenvironmentalvalue,alongsidethekeydriverofenergygeneration.
TheUK'scurrentoperationaloffshorewindcapacityisapproximately16giga-watts(GW)[xv],withaproject pipeline consisting of many more projects under construction or committed, which aims to significantly increase this capacity towards 50 GW by 2030[xvi] This proposed ramp up helps to support the UK’s ambitiontodeliveranet-zerotargetby2050.
Offshoreindustries
The Seabed User & Developer Group represents several of the UK's key marine industries The group is an informal coalition of participants which states a shared interest in, and commitment to, sustainable development in the UK's marine environment. Working alongside the government, its agencies, and environmentalNGOs,theyaimtochampionthecreationofmarineregulationsandmanagementpractices thatarebeneficialtobothbusinessandtheenvironment
TheSUDGcommissionedarecentreportwhichprovidesacomprehensiveanalysisofthesocio-economic contributions of UK marine industries. It covers sectors such as offshore wind, oil and gas, ports, subsea cables,recreationalboating,mineralextraction,hydrogen,CCUS,andnuclearenergy.Usingbothtop-down (Office for National Statistics input-output tables) and bottom-up (sector-specific multipliers) methodologies,thereportestimatesthatSUDGindustriescollectivelycontributebetween£65billionto£69 billion in Gross Value Added (GVA), and support between 580,000 to 1 million full-time equivalent jobs Sector-specific analysis reveals that oil and gas, ports, offshore wind, and nuclear energy are the largest contributorsintermsofturnover,GVA,andemployment.
Beyondeconomicmetrics,thereportemphasisesthebroadersocietal,environmental,andculturalbenefits of marine industries These include enhancing energy security, supporting coastal communities, enabling globalcommunications,andfosteringinnovationandeducation.
FisheriesandSpatialsqueeze
Animportantoffshoreactivitythatisn’tapartoftheSUDGisthefishingindustry. Anhistoricindustry,fishing has often been the lifeblood coastal communities, providing food and jobs. To quantify the economic impact of one part of the UK, Cornwall, the regional Producers’ Organisation (CFPO) commissioned the ‘Value of Seafood to Cornwall’ report The analysis revealed Cornwall’s seafood sector contributes £174 million to Cornwall’s gross value added, supporting approximately 8,000 jobs – and stating that for every fishermanatsea,thereare15additionaljobsonshore
TheUKiscurrentlygoingthroughthebiggestshiftinhowitsfisheriesaremanagedinfiftyyears.Thereason for this is the UK's departure from the European Union (EU) and, specifically, the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP),whichhadgovernedUKfishingfornearlyfivedecades
As well as changes in legislation and management post-Brexit, there are other changes happening in the seas around the UK. Fisheries organisations consider ‘spatial squeeze’ a serious threat. They believe[xvii] thattherapidexpansionofoffshorewindfarms,combinedwiththedesignationofMarineProtectedAreas will erode their traditional fishing grounds Fisheries groups feel that they are often an afterthought in marine planning, with government policies prioritising other sectors over their industry, which provides a vitalsourceofdomesticfoodproductionandculturalheritage.
Fishers,particularlythosedeeplyembeddedincoastalcommunities,areoftenseenaskeystewardsofthe sea They possess valuable generational knowledge and have a potentially greater role in collaborative projectswithscientistsandconservationgroupsthaniscurrentlythecase
TheInternationalUnionforConservationofNature(IUCN)–theglobalauthorityonthestatusofthenatural world–neatlydescribe[xviii]MarineProtectedAreas(MPAs)as“areasoftheoceansetasideforlong-term conservation aims” In other words, areas where activities are restricted or prohibited in order to protect marine life or other aspects of the marine environment. The UK has a complicated patchwork of MPA designations,includingHighlyProtectedMarineAreas(HPMAs),MarineConservationZones(MCZs),Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) with marine components, Special Protection Areas (SPAs) with marine components,NatureConservationMPAsandnationalMPAsinScotland Alloftheseprotectvaryinghabitats andspeciesandoffervaryinglevelsofprotection
Official statistics accessed at the time of writing state that there are 377 MPAs in the UK[xix] covering 338,729km or38%ofUKwaters.Includedinthisfigure,78are‘offshore’MPAsprotectingareasofwaterthat aremorethantwelvenauticalmilesfromthecoast,while329[xx]are‘inshore’MPAsextendingouttotwelve nauticalmilesfromland,withadegreeofoverlapatthe12nauticalmilesmark HPMAsareaspecifictypeof MPA,designatedtoreceivethehighestlevelofprotection TherearethreeHPMAsinEnglishwaters Allonby Bay, Dolphin Head, and North East of Farnes Deep which were officially designated in July 2023[xxi]. It's importanttonotethatthenumberofMPAscanchangeasnewsitesaredesignated.
MPA&FisheriesManagement
Responsibility for the management of MPAs in the UK is devolved, with each of the four nations having its ownleadagenciesanddepartments,withtheJNCCcoveringtheUKinwatersbeyond12nauticalmiles.In general,theUKGovernmentisresponsibleforfishinginEnglishwaters,andtheScottish,WelshandNorthern Irish Governments in their territorial waters In England, Inshore Fisheries and Conservation Authorities (IFCAs) manage and regulate fisheries for inshore areas out to six nautical miles from the coast, including within MPAs TheMarine Management Organisation (MMO) manages fisheries within MPAs beyond six nauticalmilesfromthecoastouttotheedgeoftheUK’sexclusiveeconomiczone.
MPACondition
Most restrictions on human activities in UK MPAs have been designed around protecting individual ‘features’. Recent detailed assessments of MPAs in Wales - a total of 85 features designated across 17 marine SACs and SPAs were assessed – reported that more than half of feature level condition assessmentswerefoundtobeinunfavourablecondition[xxii].
The UK government set a commitment in the Environmental Improvement Plan 2023[xxiii], for a target of having70%ofdesignatedfeaturesinMPAsinEnglandin'favourablecondition'by2042 TheEnvironmental Targets (Marine Protected Areas) Regulations (2023) formally established the 2042 target and the explanatory memorandum states that ‘currently 44% of protected features in MPAs are assessed as being inafavourablecondition’[xxiv]
OSPARConvention
TheUKisasignatorytotheOSPARConventionfortheProtectionoftheMarineEnvironmentoftheNorth-East Atlantic, for which member States have agreed to establish an ecologically coherent network of MPAs acrosstheNorth-EastAtlanticandensureitiswell-managed
HMC carried out a “Review and Evaluation of the Marine Protected Area networks in England and Northern Ireland” for the Office of Environmental Protection[xxv], which covered the most recent UK MPA network assessmentsubmissiontoOSPAR(October2023) Thissubmissionstatedthat21%ofMPAswereconsidered tobemovingtowardstheirconservationobjectives(41%partially,17%no,and21%unknown) However,only 10%ofsiteshadmonitoringinplacetoassessifmanagementmeasureswereworking(79%partialand12% none). Subsequently, only 3% of sites had a high level of confidence in the final assessment (i.e., sufficient monitoring data in place to have high confidence in the condition of the protected feature); 39% had moderateconfidenceand44%hadlowconfidence(remaining13%notedasnotapplicable)
Active Restoration Projects and the Need for Habitat Restoration
The term “restoration” is used in an inconsistent way, although more concrete definitions have been proposed,including,undertheUNDecadeonEcosystemRestoration,whereitisappliedas: “theprocessof halting and reversing degradation, resulting in improved ecosystem services and recovered biodiversity Ecosystem restoration encompasses a wide continuum of practices, depending on local conditions and societalchoice”
Restoration is distinct from conservation, often involving different communities of practice, different academicdisciplines,anddifferentadvocatesandsupportingpolicies. Othertermsarealsousedsuchas regeneration, rewilding Additionally, there is often a distinction made between ‘passive’ and ‘active’ restoration - where one primarily uses human intervention to create or restore habitats and species, whereas the other focuses on area-based management tools such MPAs, to close or limit activity and therefore allowing areas to recover, or restore. Therefore, for this report we take ‘passive’ restoration to mean protection and management (most often termed conservation and focused commonly on MPAs) ‘Passive’isnotatermthattheauthorsfeelencapsulatestheactivityinvolvedandcanappearpejorativein contract to ‘active’; however, it is used here as it is a well-known and understood term with practitioners evenifitisimperfect.
ThereisaclearwillingnessacrossallUKnationstodeliverrestoration,butnotallhavesetspecifiedtargets for multiple habitats, instead embedding within broader national strategies focused on achieving the global"30by30"target(protecting30%oflandandseaby2030)andrestoringbiodiversity.Atthetimeof writing, Scotland’s ‘Marine and Coastal Restoration Plan’ will not set targets for restoration nor be prescriptiveinsettingoutspecificareasorfeaturestoberestored’ TheWelshGovernmenthassetatarget to restore 266 hectares of seagrass by 2030. England’s current restoration ambition is to restore 15% of priority coastal habitats by 2043 - seagrass meadows, saltmarshes and native oyster beds and reefsthroughitsRestoringMeadow,MarshandReef(ReMeMaRe)initiative.
SeagrassRestoration
There are two seagrass species found in the UK, Zostera marina (common eelgrass) and Zostera noltii (dwarf eelgrass). Z. marina grows predominantly below the low tide mark, and Z. noltii occurs intertidally. Thesesubmergedfloweringplantscreatedensebeds,coveringanestimated8,500hectaresalongtheUK coastlineandplayingapivotalroleinmarineecosystemhealth(Greenetal.,2021).
Common techniques employed for seagrass restoration in the UK include transplantation of seedlings or mature plants via out-planting or using plugs, or adding seeds into the environment through seed scatteringandseedbags.Asummaryoftechniquescanbefoundin(ToddandRussel,2024[xxvii]).
Several seagrass restoration projects are taking place in the UK, via removal of environmental stressors, suchaswaterpollution,large-scaleseedingprogramsandtheintroductionofmarineprotectedareasand legislation TheseincludeRestorationForthinScotlandaimingtorestore4Haofseagrass,WilderHumberin England aiming to restore 30 hectares of seagrass meadow at Spurn Point and Seagrass Ocean rescue in Walesplanting10HaofseagrassacrosssevensitesinNorthWales.
SaltmarshRestoration
SaltmarshiswidelydistributedaroundtheUKattheinterfaceofmarineandterrestrialenvironments They supportawiderangeofspecialistplants,invertebratesandbirdswitharangeofnationallyandlocallyrare species.ThecurrentestimatedextentofthehabitatintheUKis45,000ha.
CommontechniquesemployedforsaltmarshrestorationintheUKincludemanagedrealignment,Beneficial Use of Dredged Sediment (BUDS) and biodiversity enhancementA recent report titled ‘The State of the Worlds Saltmarshes 2025: A Global Call to Action for Coastal Resilience and Adaptation’ provides a comprehensiveoverviewofsaltmarshrestorationeffortsglobally. Theynotesaltmarshrestorationrequires context-specific approaches that respond to local ecological conditions and landscape dynamics. One increasingly promising technique is the Beneficial Use of Dredged Sediment (BuDS) also known as thin layer placement - repurposing dredged material to restore elevation, reduce erosion, and support plant andfaunalrecolonisation
In the UK, the Solent Seascape Project is trialing BuDS for saltmarsh as part of a broader effort to restore coastal habitats across the Solent Estuary. Collaborating with Land & Water/Earth Change, the team developed a Saltmarsh Restoration Drag Box (SDRB) a novel technique to place consolidated dredged sediment directly onto saltmarsh surfaces without requiring retaining fences or altering ongoing dredging operations Over1,500m³ofsedimentwasplacedwithminimalenvironmentaldisruption,lowsedimentloss, and promising conditions for marsh plant colonisation. Early observations reported rapid sediment stabilisationandevengeeseforagingontherestoredareashortlyafterplacement.
Steart Marshes, a collaboration between the Wildfowl and Wetland Trust (WWT) and the Environment Agency(EA),oneoftheUK’slargestnewwetlandreserves,creatingandrestoring130hectaresofwetlands The marshes, once arable farmland, lie between the mouth of the River Parrett and the Bristol Channel on the Somerset coast. This position attracts migrating birds and has some of the biggest tidal forces in the world.
OysterReefs
The European native oyster, or flat oyster, Ostrea edulis was once found in high densities within UK waters and across its Pan-European range (Airoldi & Beck, 2007, Preston et al., 2020a, Thurstan et al., 2024). This speciesoccupiesarangeofenvironmentsincludingestuaries,bays,shelteredinlets,sealochsandcoastal openseas.
Common oyster restoration techniques employed in the UK include the introduction of an oyster nursery, introducingartificialsubstrateorrecyclingshellstouseassubstrate(Jamiletal.,2024).
Notable oyster restoration projects in the UK include the Dornoch Environmental Enhancement project (DEEP), aiming to restore an extinct oyster reef to the Dornoch Firth in Scotland DEEP transplanted 300 oysters from the UK’s only sizeable wild oyster population in Loch Ryan and is covering the seabed in two locations with waste shell from the scallop and mussel industry The Wild Oysters Project in England and Walesisutilisingoysternurseriesacrosstwomarinasitesandtrialingtheuseofartificialstructures.
KelpRestoration
Kelp restoration techniques can be broadly grouped into four approaches: transplants, seeding, grazer management, and artificial reefs (Wilding, CM et al 2022) In essence a type of transplant, a promising new restoration techniques termed “green gravel” has also recently been developed, but has mainly been trialedinNorway.
In the UK, the Sussex Kelp Recovery Project is followingtheethos of rewilding and adopting a passive restoration approach by removing a key pressure on the kelp (in this case, trawling) They will look to applyingactiverestorationtechniquesiftheyseethatconditionsallowforthekelptore-establish
MarinePolicyandAdvocacytopicsandorganisations
TThere is a myriad of different organisations – large and small – working on policy and advocacy At the national level, the organisations working on marine policy advocacy in the UK are primarily focus on four keyareas:
A)ProtectingandRestoringMarineHabitats
A major focus is the creation and effective management of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) Many of the organisations advocate for stronger regulations of existing sites to ensure these designated areas are not harmed by human activities as well as advocating for new locations and higher levels of protection They alsoworkonspecifichabitatrestorationprojects,suchasrestoringoysterreefsandseagrassbeds
A common focus among many is campaigning for an to end overfishing in UK waters Advocacy groups push the government to set fishing quotas based on scientific advice, rather than exceeding them, which leadstothedepletionoffishstocks.Theyalsocampaigntoreformfishingpractices,particularlybyseeking to ban bottom trawling and other destructive methods that damage the seabed. The goal is to ensure a transitiontomoresustainablefishingthatbenefitsboththeenvironmentandcoastalcommunities.
Sewage and chemical pollution: Urging the government, water companies and others to prevent raw sewageandharmfulchemicalsfromenteringriversandcoastalwaters
Oil and gas pollution: Campaigning for an end to new offshore drilling licences and advocating for policiesthatpreventthereleaseoftoxicchemicalsfromexistingoperations.
D)
Informing Policy with Research
and Public Awareness and to increase Ocean Literacy
Manygroupsplayacrucialroleinprovidingevidence-basedpolicyrecommendationstothegovernment. Theyconductorsupportscientificresearchtoidentifyproblemsandproposesolutions.Theyalsoengagein citizen science projects, such as beach clean-ups and wildlife surveys, to gather data and empower the public Thisgrassrootsinvolvementisacorepartoftheirstrategytocreatepoliticalandsocialchange
Organisationsinvolvedinpolicyadvocacyinclude:
MarineConservationSociety(MCS):AUK-widecharitythatcampaignsforacleaner,better-protected, and healthier ocean. They work to influence policy on issues like plastic pollution, sustainable seafood, andthedesignationandmanagementofMarineProtectedAreas(MPAs)
BlueMarineFoundation:Theorganisationfocusesonsolvingthecrisisintheoceansbycreatingmarine reserves and promoting sustainable fishing practices. They are involved in policy at a global level and havespecificprojectsintheUK,suchastheSolentSeascapeProject
Oceana UK: A branch of the large international ocean advocacy organisation Oceana UK campaigns for the protection of UK seas, with a focus on ending overfishing, protecting habitats from destructive practices like bottom trawling, and calling for an end to new exploration licences or production approvalsforoffshoreoilandgasdevelopments
OceanConservationTrust(OCT): They are also involved in practical conservation and education, the OCT has a dedicated advocacy program. They work to influence policy and encourage individuals, communities,andgovernmentstomakechoicesthatconsiderthehealthoftheocean
TheWildlifeTrusts:Anationwidenetworkofwildlifecharities Their"LivingSeas"programmeisakeypart of their work and the campaign for a national network of effectively managed MPAs. They also work to influence policy on issues such as sustainable fisheries and the environmental impact of marine developmentslikeoffshorewindfarms.
Surfers Against Sewage (SAS) is a UK-based marine conservation charity that campaigns for the protectionoftheocean,rivers,andlakesfrompollution.Theiradvocacyworkfocusesonkeyissueslike sewage and plastic pollution, using a combination of public awareness campaigns, community mobilisation,anddirectlobbyingofgovernmentandcorporationstodrivesystemicchange.
WildlifeandCountrysideLink:ThisisacoalitionofenvironmentalandwildlifeorganisationsinEngland The Marine Policy Group within this coalition advocates for policies that protect and restore marine ecosystems,oftenrespondingtogovernmentconsultationsandbriefingpoliticiansonkeyissues
Greenpeace UK: works to protect oceans from industrial-scale threats such as overfishing, deep-sea mining, and plastic pollution. A core part of their strategy involves campaigning for and creating a networkof"oceansanctuaries"toallowmarinelifetorecoverandthrive
Scottish Environment LINK's Marine Group: a coalition of environmental organisations, works to advocate for the conservation and sustainable management of Scotland's seas The group ' s primary goal is to influence policy and legislation to ensure a healthy marine environment where wildlife and coastalcommunitiescanflourish
WalesEnvironmentLINK'sMarineGroup:acoalitionofenvironmentalnon-governmentalorganizations, advocates for policies to protect and restore the country's marine ecosystems and ensure a healthy ocean The group works to influence Welsh government policy and legislation, with a focus on issues suchasmarineprotectedareas,sustainablefisheries,andtheimpactofoffshoredevelopments.
Northern Ireland Marine Task Force (NIMTF): a coalition of non-governmental environmental organisationsthatservesastheprimaryvoiceformarineconservationinNorthernIreland Itsmembers include major charities like Ulster Wildlife, RSPB NI, and The National Trust NI, along with other organisationslikeKeepNorthernIrelandBeautiful
WWF-UK's advocacy for the ocean is part of a global, integrated strategy They focus on securing healthy ocean ecosystems by influencing policy and market decisions Their key advocacy areas includeClimate-SmartFisheriesandMPAs,alongwithactiveinmarinehabitatrestoration.Theyworkon sustainableoceanfinanceby engagingwiththefinancialsectortoredirectcapitalawayfromactivities thatharmtheoceanandtowardthosethatsupportasustainable"blueeconomy."
Open Seas: a Scottish campaigning charity that works to restore the health of Scotland's seas. They often use legal and investigative methods to advocate for change They campaign for improved fisheries management, Marine Protected Areas, and sustainable seafood choices. They are a key member of the Our Seas Coalition, which calls for the reintroduction of a modern inshore limit on bottom-towed fishing to protect vulnerable seabed habitats and support low-impact, sustainable fisheries
There are many smaller, regional or locally focussed organisations, that are working on policy issues within their locality or represent community groups and coalitions of regional activists. They are too numerous to mention here, but often are part of coalitions like Our Seas or the community focussed CoastalCommunityNetworkinScotland.
In addition, there are other organisations operating in some of the four areas listed above or targeting specific single issues Examples include, among others, the Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA), EnvironmentalJusticeFoundation(EJF)andWhaleandDolphinConservation(WDC).
InternationalorganisationswithapresenceintheUKworkingonpolicyandadvocacy,includeThePew Charitable Trusts, Campaign for Nature, Conservation International, The Nature Conservancy, among others
Nature-BasedSolutions
Beachnourishment
TheLincolnshirecoastbeachnourishmentprojectisalarge-scale,long-termcoastaldefenceschemethat usessandreplenishmenttoprotectthelow-lyingcoastline.Theprojectspansover20kmbetweenSaltfleet and Gibraltar Point, including popular areas like Mablethorpe and Skegness The primary purpose is to reduce the risk of tidal flooding for thousands of homes, businesses, and agricultural land It works by creatingawide,sandybeachthatabsorbstheenergyofwavesandtides,actingasanaturalbufferforthe hard sea defences behind it. This approach is more sustainable than constantly building and maintaining concrete sea walls, as it works with the natural coastal processes and provides a social and economic benefitbymaintainingthesandybeachesfortourism.
The Bacton "Sandscaping" scheme is a landmark coastal management project on the Norfolk coast, inspired by a similar Dutch "Sand Motor" concept The project involved depositing approximately 18 million cubic metres of sand on a 6km stretch of beach between Bacton Gas Terminal and the villages of Bacton and Walcott. Its national importance is twofold: it provides a robust, nature-based defence for the Bacton Gas Terminal, a piece of critical national infrastructure that processes up to one-third of the UK's gas supply
Simultaneously, it provides vital flood and erosion protection for the nearby communities, many of which were at risk of being lost to the sea within a few decades. By using sand as a flexible and self-sustaining buffer, the scheme works with natural coastal processes to protect both critical infrastructure and local populations, demonstrating an innovative and replicable approach to climate adaptation that benefits boththeeconomyandlocalwell-being
EngineeringEcosystems
TheUKisincreasinglylookingatwaystoenhancetraditionalman-madecoastaldefenceswithecological features Projectsarebeingdevelopedtoretrofitexistingseawallswithfeatureslike"vertipools"(smallrock pools) and textured concrete These features are designed to create new microhabitats for marine life, increasingbiodiversityinotherwisesterileurbancoastalenvironments.Engineersareexploringwaystoadd pits, grooves, and other features to rock armour and breakwaters to encourage the growth of species like barnacles, limpets, and seaweeds This provides an ecological benefit to a structure that is primarily for engineeringpurposes
RWE, the energy company, is conducting a pilot study at its Kårehamn offshore wind farm in the Swedish Baltic Sea to assess whether artificial reefs can promote biodiversity. The project involves deploying 180 carbon-neutralplastic-freereefcubesontheseabedtocreatenewmarinehabitats.Thestudywillmonitor howmarinelife,suchasbluemussels,algae,andfish,colonizesthesestructurestogathervaluabledatafor the sustainable design of future wind farms ARC Marine, a company that specialises in Nature Inclusive Design (NID) and manufactures the "reef cubes" used in RWE's project, have also been working with the company on similar initiatives off the south coast of England. ARC Marine have also had experience of deploying reef cubes in a scallop farm based in Torbay, with a focus on creating artificial reefs and enhancing the static gear fishery by boosting biodiversity Other organisations, like the Blue Marine Foundation and The Oyster Restoration Company, have conducted feasibility studies on the potential for oysterrestorationwithinandaroundoffshorewindfarms
Dunemanagement
Sand dunes and shingle ridges are natural coastal defences that can be managed to be more effective. TheDynamicDunescapesprojectisamulti-partnerinitiativesthatfocusesonrestoringsanddunesystems. For example, at Formby, Merseyside, the project involves creating "notches" or gaps in the dunes to allow sandtomovenaturally,whichpreventsthemfrombecomingovergrownandencouragesthedevelopment of the early-stage, bare-sand habitats that are crucial for rare species like natterjack toads and sand lizards.Thisdeliberateinterventionaimstomimicnaturalprocesses.
TheSandsofLIFEprojectledbyNaturalResourcesWalesaimedtorejuvenatesanddunesacrosstensites Theprojectinvolvestechniqueslikere-profilingdunestoallowsandtomoveagain,loweringthesurfaceof dried-out dune slacks (hollows) to re-create wet habitats, and using sustainable grazing by livestock to preventovergrowth.
Restocking
The National Lobster Hatchery in Cornwall and the Lobster Hatchery of Wales in Anglesey are examples of single-species restocking programmes, where they focus on the release of juvenile European lobsters into coastalwaterstoboostwildpopulations.
RestorativeAquaculture&Growers
Restorativeaquacultureisanewwayoffarmingseafoodthataimstohelptheenvironmentandnotharm it.Thisapproachprovidestheindustrywithabetterreputationandusedtheindustry'sknowledgeandtools to not only produce food that makes a profit but also to repair and restore damaged habitats and ecosystems
Câr y Môr in Pembrokeshire, is a prime example of this ethos, described as “Wales’s first regenerative seaweedandshellfishfarm”.Theseaweedandshellfishtheygrowatseaareturnedintobiostimulantsand fertilisers for farms, aiming to reduce the need for agrochemicals as well as supplying consumer items to chefs,shopsandindividuals.
Inadifferentapproach,theWilderHumberprojectisworkingwiththeOysterRestorationCompany,which solely grow native oysters (Ostrea edulis) in land-based aquaculture facilities to be deployed specifically forrestorationpurposes.
CommunityLedProtection
Community of Arran Seabed Trust (COAST) is a community led organisation that has campaigned over the last three decades for the establishment of a MPA and NTZ to protect and restore sea life and sustainable livelihoods around Arran and the Clyde In 2008 they proposed and obtained the first community-led NTZ in Lamlash Bay, covering 267 sq km In 2016, the South Arran Marine Protected Area (MPA) extended this area to nearly 300 sq km to exclude scallop dredging but allow for other, potentially moresustainable,fishingmethodsinvariouszones.
TheProtectedAreasFoundation(PAF) is a new UK charity dedicated to sharing the capacity and skills of coastal communities, mobilising sustainable finance, and enabling co-governance to effectively manage marineprotectedareas(MPAs)
YourShoreNetwork(Cornwall)-Cornwallhasanetworkoflocalmarinevolunteergroupsarounditscoast, whoarestrongadvocatesforprotectingthemarineenvironment.SetupbyCornwallWildlifeTrust,theYour Shore Network consists of 18 community-led marine conservation groups across the county These groups worktogethersharingdata,ideas,andresourcestopresentaunitedvoiceadvocatingforbetterprotection
CommunityledRestoration
TheCoastalCommunitiesNetwork(CCN)isacommunity-lednetworkcomprisinglocalgroupscommitted to the preservation and safeguarding of Scotland’s coastal and marine environments CCN’s mission is to connect and strengthen community-led efforts in protecting, restoring, and sustainably using Scotland’s marine resources for the benefit of people and nature. Notable examples of community led restoration already underway within their network include Seawilding, Clyde Wild Oysters Project, Lochaline Native OysterProjectandProjectSeagrass
TheCommunityAssociationofLochsandSounds(CAOLAS) was established in 2015 by local community members as a way to increase understanding of the marine environment in their locality and involve people in its conservation. In 2017 CAOLAS was formally constituted as a Scottish Charitable Incorporated Organisation (SCIO). CAOLAS aims to work with the local communities of Ardnamurchan, Sunart, Morvern andtheIsleofMulltoencourageandpromotethesustainableuseoflocalwatersforrecreation,fishingand other marine activities As part of the CCN, they achieved the designation of the firstMission Blue Hope SpotintheUK.
Planning,monitoring,data&reporting
There is an abundant amount of publicly available information on the condition of marine habitats and suitableareasforrestorationandprotection Forexample:
JNCC provides spatial data of the boundaries for different types of MPAs, including Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) and Special Protection Areas (SPAs), showing the precise locations of legal designationsacrosstheUK.
The Marine Life Information Network (marlinacuk), hosted by the Marine Biological Association, holds information on the biology and ecology of habitats and species, including sensitivity assessments illustratinghowdifferenthabitatsandspeciesarelikelytobeaffectedbyhumanactivities.
Organisations such as the Marine Conservation Society (mcsuk.org) have dedicated sections on their websitesfordata,reports,andinteractivemaps.
Natural Resources Wales (NRW), have published maps and related data [xxviii] as well as commissioning reports[xxix] on suitable areas for marine and coastal habitat restoration, including for seagrass, native oysters,andsaltmarsh.MuchofthisworkbuildsonpreviousHABMAP[xxx]efforts.
The DataMapWales[xxxi] portal allows users to view data as a map and also download the underlying GIS files for your analysis These resources are a key part of Wales's commitment to nature recovery and are usedtoinformandguiderestorationprojects
JNCC has developed models that predict the suitability of seabed areas for specific habitats, such as Modiolus modiolus (Horse mussel) beds, Sabellaria spinulosa (Ross worm) reefs, and Zostera marina (seagrass)beds
Asuiteof“howto”practicalhabitatrestorationhandbooksforseagrass,saltmarsh,nativeoysterrestoration has been produced. Sitting under the Environment Agency’s ReMeMaRe initiative, these handbooks are supported by a handbook for restoring estuarine and coastal habitats with dredged sediment. Alongside thesehandbooks,asetofrestorationpotentialmapshavebeenproduced Themapsprovideahigh-level, nationalscaleoverviewofsiteswheresuccessfulrestorationofseagrass,saltmarshandnativeoystersmay be possible A similar seagrass handbook with guidance has been produced for Scotland by NatureScot[xxxii].
The Environment Agency and its partner organisations, particularly Natural England and the Marine Management Organisation (MMO), have published maps and datasets on suitable areas for seagrass, nativeoyster,andsaltmarshrestorationinEngland Someoftheseinclude:
SeagrassRestorationMaps
Seagrass Potential Datasets: The Environment Agency and Natural England have collaborated to produce and regularly update a "Seagrass Potential" dataset This GIS layer identifies areas where seagrass restoration may be feasible based on environmental factors like wave and current energy, elevation,andsalinity
National Seagrass Layer (England): This is a separate but related dataset that compiles current and historicseagrasssurveydata.Whileitdoesn'tpredictnewsites,itisinvaluableforunderstandingwhere seagrasshasbeenandwhathasbeenlost,whichhelpsidentifysuitablerestorationareas.
AccessingtheData: These datasets are available on the Defra data services platform and the Natural EnglandOpenDataGeoportal
SaltmarshRestorationMaps
NationalSaltmarshInventory:TheEnvironmentAgencypublishesaninventorythatmapstheextentof saltmarsh in England and tracks changes over time This data is essential for understanding where saltmarshhasbeenlost,whichinturnhelpsidentifypriorityareasforrestoration
MarineScotlanddata:Thereis,forexample,dataandinformationprovidedbytheScottishGovernment, including the ‘Identification and mapping of potential sites suitable for saltmarsh habitat creation in Scotlandthroughmangedrealignmentundercurrentandfuturesealevels’ WWTholddatasetsshowingindicativelocationsoftheUKwheresaltmarshcouldpotentiallybecreated tosequesterbluecarbon
Habitat Creation and Restoration Datasets: The EA maintains a "Priority Habitat Creation and Restoration" GIS dataset. This lists projects they have undertaken, often in partnership, to create new priorityhabitats,includingsaltmarsh.
Coastal Habitat Compensation and Restoration Programmes (HCRPs): The EA has a strategic programme to restore coastal habitats, often through managed realignment schemes Reports from this programme provide details and data tables on habitat gains and losses in different regions and estuaries,highlightingwherefurtherrestorationisneeded
NativeOysterRestorationMaps
Restoring Meadow, Marsh and Reef (ReMeMaRe): The Environment Agency’s ReMeMaRe initiative, an ambitious project aiming to restore at least 15% of lost estuarine and coastal habitats, including native oyster reefs As part of this, the project has produced "restoration potential maps showing where nativeoysterbedrestorationprojectscouldbeundertaken."
Accessing the Data: The ReMeMaRe project outputs are a good source. Reports and data from the MMO's project "Identifying sites suitable for marine habitat restoration or creation (MMO1135)" also contain relevant information for oyster restoration potential These are often found on GOVUK and relateddataportals
GeneralPortals
MAGIC (Multi-AgencyGeographicInformationfortheCountryside):Thisisanexcellentonlinemapping tool that collates authoritative geographic information from various government bodies, including the EA Youcanuseitsinteractivemaptoexploredifferentdatalayersonmarineandcoastalhabitats
DefraDataServicesPlatform&NaturalEnglandOpenDataGeoportal: These are the primary sources for downloading the underlying GIS data for use in your own analysis. They are the go-to places for detailed,up-to-datespatialinformation
In mid-2025 the Environment Agency, funded by Defra and co-funded by The Crown Estate, launched the MarineEnhancementDirectory(MEnD) as a central repository for estuarine, coastal, and offshore habitat creation and restoration projects in the UK Developed by ABPmer, ‘its purpose is to catalogue, map and provide oversight of all marine enhancement activities being undertaken in the UK from highestastronomicaltideoutto200nauticalmiles’
There are other resources which are valuable to practitioners, such as OMREG – a free resource maintainedbyABPmer–whereuserscanviewadatabaseofcompletedcoastalhabitatcreationsites, along with case studies, and conference outputs A further example is the ‘CoastalData&Restoration Hub’fundedundertheCaBAinitiativeandproducedbytheCPN.
ExistingNetworks
ReMeMaRe
Restoring Meadow, Marsh and Reef (ReMeMaRe) is a habitat restoration initiative, so called, as it aims to address baseline shift and reverse centuries of decline of three of the UK’s priority estuarine and coastal habitats,seagrassmeadows,saltmarshesandEuropeannativeoyster(Ostreaedulis)reefs TheReMeMaRe Missionistorestoreatleast15%ofourpriorityhabitatsalongtheEnglishcoastby2043.
NORA&NativeOysterNetwork
According to the Native Oyster Restoration Alliance (NORA)’s mission statement, it supports the protection andecologicalrestorationofthenativeEuropeanoyster,Ostreaedulis,anditshabitatinareasofitscurrent orhistoricaldistribution.
The Native Oyster Network is a community of academics, conservationists, oystermen and NGO’s who are workingtorestoreself-sustainingpopulationsofnativeoysters(O edulis) Theiraimsincludefacilitatingan ecologically coherent and collaborative approach to native oyster restoration in the UK & Ireland, promoting information sharing and effective communication of matters relating to native oyster conservationandincreasingawarenessoftheculturalandenvironmentalvalueofnativeoysters.
TheCoastalCommunitiesNetwork(CCN)isacommunity-lednetworkcomprisinglocalgroupscommitted to the preservation and safeguarding of Scotland’s coastal and marine environments Their purpose is to connectandstrengthencommunity-driveninitiativesaimedatprotecting,restoring,andsustainablyusing Scotland’scoastalandmarineresources Throughfosteringpeer-to-peerexchangeandlearning,CCNhas enabledcommunitygroupstohavecoordinatedstrategicinfluenceonanumberofmarineissues.
RewildingBritain
The Rewilding Network connects amovement of land and marine rewilding projects across England, Scotland andWales. Supported by Rewilding Britain, it’s designed to help rewilding practitioners connect, share experiences, ideas and expertise, from landowners and farmers to charities and national parks. The rapidlygrowingnetworkalreadyconnectsmorethan1,000membersrewildingonlandandatsea,including morethan200larger-scalerewildingprojects,andover20localrewildingnetworks
Here we have selected case studies of marine restoration projects across the UK’s four nations - England, Wales,Scotland,andNorthernIreland,ineachinstancehighlightingtheiruniquecontributionstothemarine recoverylandscape.
England-SolentSeascape
Overview: The Solent Seascape Project, launched in 2022, is a collaborative, long-term initiative aiming to restore and reconnect multiple habitats across the Solent, a diverse estuarine system between the Isle of Wight and mainland England Partners include Blue Marine Foundation, RSPB, Natural England, the Environment Agency, Hampshire & Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust, universities, and community organisations. Restorationactivitiestargetseagrassbeds,oysterreefs,saltmarsh,andseabirdnestingsites.
UniqueContribution: TheSolentSeascapeProjectisthefirstseascape-scalerestorationinitiativeintheUK, and in 2024 gained recognition as a UN Ocean Decade Action, becoming the first UK marine restoration projecttoreceivethisendorsement.
Overview: Seawilding, a community-led charity in Argyll, restores native oyster and seagrass habitats in lochs such as Craignish, while confronting challenges such as pollution, seedling supply, and adverse weather. In parallel, the Scottish Seagrass Restoration Programme, supported by the Scottish Marine EnvironmentalEnhancementFund(SMEEF),isinvesting£24milliontorestore14hectaresofseagrassacross multiplecoastalsites,workingwithregionaltrustsandcommunities
Unique Contribution: Seawilding exemplifies community-driven marine restoration, while the Scottish Seagrass Programme demonstrates how targeted funding can scale up restoration across multiple regions.
Lessons:
Local leadership builds community ownership, while using external technical support, such as the ScottishAssociationofMarineScience(SAMS),addsexpertisewheregapsexist
National funding programmes, when properly coordinated (e.g. NRF, SMEEF and philanthropy) can amplifyimpactbylinkingrestorationacrossmultiplesites.
Overview:UlsterWildlife,withpartnersincludingtheNationalOceanographyCentreandUniversityofHull,is restoring native oysters in Belfast Lough. Since 2022, 24 oyster nurseries have been deployed in Bangor Marina to support population recovery In addition, predictive habitat modelling is being used to identify suitablesitesforfuturebluecarbonhabitatrestoration,includingseagrass,kelp,andsaltmarsh
Overview: The Sussex Kelp Recovery Project followed the introduction of a 2021 bylaw banning trawling across 302 km² of seabed. Once trawling ceased, natural regeneration processes were able to take place. Earlymonitoringhasindicatedrecoveryofkelpforestsalongsideincreasesinbiodiversity,includingspecies suchaslobsters,crabs,seahorses,andtheendangeredangelshark Citizenscienceinitiativesinvolvingover 400volunteersaresupportingmonitoring
Overview:TheIrishSeaNetwork(ISN)isacollaborativepartnershipofconservationorganizationsfromthe six nations that border the Irish Sea: England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man, and the RepublicofIreland.Establishedin2020,theNetwork'sprimarymissionistoaddressthesignificantpressures facing the Irish Sea, including industrial fishing, pollution, and climate change, which have led to a degraded marine environment Recognising that wildlife and ecological issues do not respect national borders, the ISN aims to provide a unified, whole-sea approach to conservation, advocating for better management, policy, and a collective impact for nature across the entire region The project has been supportedbygrantsfromtheEsméeFairbairnFoundation.
Unique Contribution: The Irish Sea Network's core strength lies in its ability to bridge the political and legislativegapsbetweensixdifferentnations,eachwithitsownmarinepoliciesandpriorities Itprovidesa single,cohesivevoiceforconservation,producingjointreportsandvisionsthathighlighttheneedforcrossnational collaboration on issues such as marine protected areas, sustainable fisheries, and spatial planning. This transboundary approach is critical for the effective management of a shared and complex marineecosystem,amodelthatisbothinnovativeandessentialforlarge-scaleconservationefforts
Lessons:
Collaboration among environmental NGOs from different jurisdictions is crucial for tackling transboundaryconservationissueseffectively.
WhileasignificantpercentageoftheIrishSeaisdesignatedasaMarineProtectedArea,theNetworkhas come together as they believe a lack of management and full protection means that these designationsareofteninsufficient
Achieving a healthy sea requires more than just conservation; it demands strategic marine planning that considers all uses and pressures, including renewable energy development and fishing, to ensure spacefornaturetorecover.
ii Couce,E,Pinnegar,JK &Townhill,BL ClimatechangeresilienceofvulnerablemarinespeciesinnorthwestEurope MarBiol172,116 (2025).https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-025-04672-x
iv UKMMAS:SummaryofprogresstowardsGES:https://moatcefascouk/summary-of-progress-towards-good-environmental-status/
v GreenAE,UnsworthRKF,ChadwickMAandJonesPJS(2021)HistoricalAnalysisExposesCatastrophicSeagrassLossfortheUnited Kingdom Front PlantSci 12:629962 doi:103389/fpls2021629962
vi https://wwwcehacuk/sites/default/files/2023-10/Saltmarsh-factsheet-Oct2023pdf
vii https://nativeoysternetworkorg
viii Governmentproposestoextendbanondestructivebottomtrawling:https://wwwgovuk/government/news/governmentproposes-to-extend-ban-on-destructive-bottom-trawling
ix StateofthewaterenvironmentindicatorB3:supportingevidencehttps://wwwgovuk/government/publications/state-of-the-waterenvironment-indicator-b3-supporting-evidence/state-of-the-water-environment-indicator-b3-supporting-evidence
x UKMMAS-Marineonlieassessmenttool:https://moatcefascouk/biodiversity-food-webs-and-marine-protected-areas/marineprotected-areas/#:~:text=As%20of%20May%202024%2C%20the,the%20designation%20of%20MPAs%20differently
xi https://wwwgovuk/government/news/reed-government-to-cut-sewage-pollution-in-half-by-2030
xii ‘WheretheGreenGrantsWent9’ EnvironmentalFundersNetwork https://wwwgreenfundersorg/resources/where-the-greengrants-went-9/
xiv CrownEstateScotland-ScotWindleasinground https://wwwcrownestatescotlandcom/scotlands-property/offshorewind/scotwind-leasing-round
xv TheCrownEstate:OffshoreWindReport2024 https://wwwthecrownestatecouk/our-business/marine/offshore-wind-report-2024
xvi CleanPower2030ActionPlan:Aneweraofcleanelectricity–mainreport DepartmentforEnergySecurity&NetZero https://wwwgovuk/government/publications/clean-power-2030-action-plan/clean-power-2030-action-plan-a-new-era-of-cleanelectricity-main-report
xvii SpatialSqueezeinFisheries–NFFO&SFF June2022 https://wwwnffoorguk/wpcontent/uploads/2022/06/R3900 SpatialSqueeze Final 23Jun2022-part-1pdf
xviii IUCNIssuesBrief MPAsandclimatechange:https://iucnorg/resources/issues-brief/marine-protected-areas-and-climatechange#:~:text=Marine%20Protected%20Areas%20(MPAs)%20are,by%20exclusively%20no%2Dtake%20MPAs
xix UKMMAS Marineonlineassessmenttool https://moatcefascouk/biodiversity-food-webs-and-marine-protected-areas/marineprotected-areas/ Accessed03/07/2025
xx ‘Thetrawledtruth’ AreportbyOceanaUK https://ukoceanaorg/wp-content/uploads/sites/14/2025/05/Oceana-UK-The-TrawledTruth-May-2025.pdf
References
xxi ‘NextstepsformanagingEngland’snewlydesignatedHPMAs’:https://wwwcmscomscom/?p=35721
xxviii RestoringmarineandcoastalhabitatsinWales:identifyingspatialopportunitiesandbenefits NaturalResourcesWales: https://datamap.gov.wales/layergroups/geonode:nrw restoring marine and coastal habitats in wales identifying spatial oppor tunities and benefits#: :text=The%20report%20created%20spatial%20products,and%20horse%20mussel%20bed%20restoration.
