10
TIMES O F OMAN
OMAN: THE LAND OF FRANKINCENSE
THE FRANKINCENSE TRAIL
Land of Frankincense Wadi Dawkah, Shisr, Khor Rori and Al Baleed are the four components known collectively as the Land of Frankincense declared in the UNESCO World Heritage list. They dramatically illustrate the trade in frankincense that flourished in this region for many centuries and constitute outstanding testimony to the civilizations in south Arabia since the Neolithic age.
A network of trade routes had been established between kingdoms for many centuries, carrying goods such as salt, wheat, wine, weapons, dates, and animal skins from one fortified settlement to another. These paths were the basis of the frankincense trade routes between the kingdoms of southern Arabia, which formed the starting point of the route towards the north. Frankincense was a sought after commodity throughout Egypt, Rome, Greece, Persia, Assyria and Babylon and was one of the most prized substances of the ancient civilized world, valued as highly as gold and the gift of kings. For centuries, incense trade routes from Arabia Felix to the Mediterranean where specifically made via camel caravans, although, this was not the only route. Several possible routes varied over time. From the Dhofar region where the frankincense trees were grown, our Arabian ancestors had to make several long journeys trough some hostile territories.
Northward crossing Rub’ Al Khali 2
Shisr
Wadi Dawkah served as one of t main production areas. There w several collection points, such a Andhur and Hanoon.
Wadi Dawkah 1
Inland routes Route 1
Exit to sea r
Route 2
ANCIENT TRADE ROUTES
Route 2A
Route 2B Alternative routes connecting the other main inland routes.
From Hegra, routes went to west via Myos Hormos and Caenopolis, crossing Red Sea, then onwards to Alexandria.
From Petra, the route branched in five directions, most significant was the one heading to Alexandria (or Gaza, Jerusalem, Jerash) then to Damascus.
To E u
rop e
Gaza, the main spice entrepot of the ancient Greco-Roman world, was the final stop on this northward journey. And from Gaza, frankincense was shipped to Mediterranean.
To Greece and Rome
Jerusalem
Gaza
Silk road
Jerash
10 Petra
Palmyra Alexandria
The three ancient routes converged in Palmyra and Petra. Frankincense route was the oldest.
Petra
Aelana
Alexandria
Dhofar
Frankincense road
Alexandria was an important sorting and processing centre for frankincense destined for the Roman Empire since first century CE
Spice road
Domestication
3000
At first, donkey caravans transported the merchandise, but they could carry only small loads for short distances
2000
1000
BCE
It is clear that Nabataea was a bridge for the importation and exportation of frankincense and other highly products. esteemed south Arabian produc
Palmyra Damascus
Alternat goods f
Hegra ensured safe passage of trade caravans in return for large tax which made its people ultra rich.
Cairo
Hegra
(Madine Salah)
Dedan Dedan, the seat of the north Arabian Lihyanite kin
9
Myos Hornos
Luxor Archaeologists believe that the domestication occurred in the 3rd millennium BCE
Petra
FINAL HUB
Leukê Kômê
The theories range from as late as the 9th century BCE (Before Common Era) to as early as the beginning of the 3rd millennium BCE period. Then overland trade routes were vastly extended.
Kho Rori Khor
Al Bal eed d Baleed
From Sumhuram west (inland) to Shabwa, then north through Dedan and Petra until it reaches Gaza and Mediterranean. Also a connection with Route 3, and north to Jabrin linking with Route 1.
The oldest land route. Starts from Ain Humran (Dhofar) and travelling north to Shisr, then across the Empty Quarter to Jabrin, Gerrah, and Mesopotamia.
3
4
was a commercial hub where several trade routes
(Al Ula)
8
Yathrib (Medina)
7
Yathrib, a key trading town and a thriving oasis known for its dates palm produce, was an important stop for the incense caravans and pilgrims
Caenopolis
CE 0
Humans began using camels as a pack animal in this area no later than the 16th century BCE
Mecca
Berenice
Cargo and transportation R
Camels
Load capacity
A north Arabian saddle was more practical to find a way to sit on the hump itself.
Despite the camel’s bad breath and bad temper, it often provided companionship as well as meal-ticket for its driver.
As an average Arabian camel weighs between 880 to 1,320 pounds. Each animal carried somewhere around half to third of its body weight.
Goods on each camel (in pounds) Frankincense Saffron
200
200
1,320 pounds
or 598 kg which is equivalent to 15 junia
E
300 200
North Arabian Creating some framework that shifts the weight to the animal’s ribcage on the sides.
S
300
Orris
D
Saddle
Keeping pace with the frankincense trade, camel caravans were increasing from two to three thousand.
E
Caravan
A
Myrrh
Cassia
It was not a fixed load, this representation is made based on the bibliography consulted.
Junia Each bag contains 40 kg
Size of a 1 kg bag of frankincense
According to Pliny, the expense for each camel before it arrives at the shore of the Mediterranean Sea is 688 denarii
OMR 19,208.96 1 denarii = OMR 27.92 (current amount)
The camels learn to follow implicitly a donkey that heads the procession. A cord is is tied to a ring that is fastened to leather strips on the hips of the donkey.
Courtyard
The caravansary A specific form of architecture evolved in Arabia serving as lodging places for travellers and their animals. Constructed to provide merchants, cameleers and animals with a secure place to rest, and spend a night or longer. Shisr was one of those caravansaries, the most important from Dhofar northward.
Camel types To shuttle the incense from the growing areas to the collection points, camels with small, smooth hooves were employed.
For long journeys, the cargoes were transferred onto large caravans ready to cross the sands on camels with bigger, calloused but soft-soled hooves.
Route elevation and stopovers According to Pliny the Elder, the journey consisted of 65 stages divided by halts and stopovers for the camels, and places for merchants to pay for services. Over sea level
START START
2,000 m 1,500 m
Shisr 283m
Shabwa was the mandatory point of taxation for all the caravans. Every merchant would have had to enter by law, and on pain of death if someone tried to pass another way long, during his journey.
16-30 days The overland journey to Shabwa was a punishing thirty days or more.
In the ground floor, there storerooms, landing dock for animals. Perhaps a fur within the complex.
10 days
Timna 1,035m
Najran 1,700m
Marib 1,080m
6
Shabwa 949m
4 - 5 days 1,000 m
The upper floor was often dormitories, bedrooms, an suites for travellers.
2
FR The Bu in t
3 days
4
3
5
500 m
Arabian Sea 0m
1
Shisr to Shabwa: 643 km
177 km
72 km
105 km
Shisr to Gaza:
Sources: The Incense Trade by Pliny the Elder, cited in Food for the gods by David Peacock & David Williams | Frankincense, Oman's Gift to the World by Juliet Highet | Frankincense and the Nabataeans: Historical and Archaeological Evidence by Zeyad Al-Salameen | Past Scents, Historical Perspectives on Smell by Jonathan Reinarz | Documentary on the Frankinc