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cadets, 75,000 senior cadets, and 55,000 citizen soldiers under 21. The Militia, 25,000 strong, will thenceforth be recruited only from the fully-trained, and will become a corps d'élite."
On this subject of British imperial defence,
See (in this Volume) BRITISH EMPIRE: A. D. 1909.
WAR, THE PREPARATIONS FOR:
New Zealand adoption of Compulsory Military Training.
An Act which establishes compulsory military training in New Zealand, on lines similar to that in Australia, passed the colonial Parliament during its session which closed December 29, 1909.
NAVAL:
WAR, THE PREPARATIONS FOR:
Brazil and Argentina in a "Dreadnought" Competition.
"The controversy between Brazil and Argentina about what is called ‘equilibrium of armament’ is still carried on with much animation in the Press of both countries, but apparently without producing any effect, good or otherwise. The subject of discord is the Brazilian Government’s order for three large battleships of the ‘Dreadnought’ type, which is to be met by an Argentine triplet, for which tenders are urgently called. Fortunately these big ships take a long time to build, and by the time they are ready the Press will probably be commenting upon the entente cordiale in South America and the obsolescence of floating engines of war; but in the meantime taxpayers in both countries are inclined to support the somewhat daring proposal from Buenos Ayres that Brazil should keep the first ‘Dreadnought,’ cede the second to Argentina,
and cancel the order for the third."
Rio de Janeiro Correspondent
London Times, December 22, 1902.
Four months later the same correspondent telegraphed, May 3, 1909, among other statements quoted from the President’s Message to Congress, that day: "In regard to the navy seven vessels would be launched under the new programme. Two-thirds of the total expenditure of £4,500,000 had already been paid from ordinary resources, and this proved that the reorganization of the navy would not be disastrous to the national finances. Tenders would shortly be invited for the construction of a new dry dock."
WAR, THE PREPARATIONS FOR:
British Navy War Council.
The following is from an official statement issued by the British Admiralty, October 11, 1909: "In further development of the policy which has actuated the Board of Admiralty for some time past of organizing a Navy War Council, it has been decided to place on an established footing the arrangements made in previous years for the study of strategy and the consideration and working out of war plans. A new department, called the Naval Mobilization Department, has been formed under the directorship of a flag officer, and there is concentrated in it that part of the business of the Naval Intelligence Department and the Naval War College which related to war plans and mobilization. Under the presidency of the First Sea Lord, the officers directing the Naval Intelligence Department and the Naval Mobilization Department, and the Assistant Secretary of the Admiralty will form the standing Navy War Council."
WAR, THE PREPARATIONS FOR:
The British "Two Power Standard."
During the debate in the British House on the Navy Estimates, in the spring of 1909, the Premier, Mr. Asquith, was called on by the Opposition to define the Government's understanding of the requirements of the "two Power standard" of naval strength, so called (see above). In reply, he laid it down that in dealing with this standard they must not merely take into account the number of Dreadnoughts and Invincibles, but the total effective strength of the British for defensive purposes as compared with the combined effective strength of any two other navy Powers. That was the two-Power standard as understood by successive Administrations, and the present Government had in this matter in no way changed the policy pursued by preceding Administrations. For the moment this question was an academic one, because whatever two Powers might be selected, their combined effective strength for aggressive purposes against Great Britain was far below the defensive strength of the latter. The expression "two-Power standard" was a purely empirical generalization, a convenient rule of thumb, and he should be very sorry to predict that this formula would be an adequate or necessary formula some years hence.
{699}
In measuring the combined effective strength of the two next strongest fleets the power of one powerful homogeneous fleet ought to be borne in mind. Further it had been established that the rule only applied to battleships and ships ejusdem generis. Then in existing conditions "we ought not," he said, "to limit our vision to Europe alone; but at the same time, while considering the combined effective strength of any other two Powers for aggressive purposes against this country regard should be had to geographical conditions." Supposing China had a fleet of Dreadnoughts, no rational Minister would treat that fleet as standing upon the same footing for the purpose of the two-Power standard as the German or French fleet. In the same way, the fleet of the United States could not be put in the same category with the fleets of France and Germany.
WAR, THE PREPARATIONS FOR:
Canadian Share of the Undertakings of British Imperial Defence.
For performance of the share assumed by Canada, of undertakings of British imperial defence agreed to at the Imperial Conference in London, July, 1909 (see above), Sir Wilfrid Laurier brought forward a Bill in the Dominion House of Commons, on the 12th of January, 1910, the essential provisions of which he set forth in a speech from which the following passages are taken:
"The bill is entitled ‘An act respecting the naval service of Canada.’ It provides for the creation of a naval force to be composed of a permanent corps, of a reserve force, and of a volunteer force on the same pattern absolutely as the present organization of the militia force. … Every man who will be enrolled for naval service in Canada will be enrolled by voluntary engagement. There is no compulsion of any kind, no conscription, no balloting. … ‘Active service’ as defined by the act means service or duty during an emergency, and emergency means war, invasion or insurrection, real or apprehended. The act provides also that at any time when the Governor in Council deems it advisable, in case of war, invasion, or insurrection, the force may be called into active service. There is also an important provision that while the naval force is to be under the control of the Canadian Government, and more directly under the control and administration of the Department of Marine, yet in case of emergency the Governor in Council may place at the disposal of his Majesty for general service in the Royal Navy the naval force or any part thereof, and any ships or vessels of the naval service and any officers or men serving on these vessels, or any officers or men of the naval service. There is a subsequent provision that if action is taken by the Governor in Council at a time when Parliament is not sitting, Parliament shall immediately be called. …
"Another important provision of the bill is that it provides for the establishment of a naval college on the pattern of the Military College now in existence at Kingston."
Coming to a statement of the armament contemplated, the Premier said: "Two plans were proposed and discussed, one involving the expenditure of $2,000,000 a year and the other involving an expenditure of $3,000,000. The first one would have consisted of seven ships, the second one would have consisted of eleven ships, namely four Bristols, one Boadicea, and six destroyers. We have determined to accept the second proposition, that is to say, the larger one of eleven ships. That is the force which we intend to create, and to start with four Bristols, one Boadicea and six destroyers. Perhaps it will be interesting to the House to understand what is meant by a fleet unit, by a Bristol, a Boadicea, and a destroyer. The fleet unit, which was suggested and which has been accepted by Australia, and to which the government contributed a certain sum per annum, is to be composed of one armored cruiser of the type of the Indomitable, three protected cruisers, six destroyers and three submarines. Now the fleet which we have agreed to accept is to be composed of four Bristols, one Boadicea, and six destroyers.
"A Bristol is a protected cruiser, which means that it has a steel deck which protects all the vital parts of the ship. It has a tonnage of 4,800 tons, with a speed of 25 knots. The number of guns has not yet been determined, but the largest Indomitable carries eight guns. A Boadicea carries six guns, so that it is probable that the number of guns will be eight. It has a total crew of 391 men, of which twenty are officers. The Boadicea is an unarmored cruiser, with a tonnage of 3,300 tons, and carries six 4-inch guns. It has a crew of 278 men, of whom seventeen are officers. We are to build six destroyers of what is known as the improved river class. …
"The total cost of these eleven ships will be, according to the British figures, £2,338,000, or a little more than $11,000,000. According to Canadian prices, supposing the ships were to be built in Canada, we would have to add at least 33 per cent, to the cost just given. I may say that it is our intention to start at the earliest possible moment with the construction of this fleet, and, if possible, to have the construction done in Canada."
The leader of the Opposition, Mr. Borden, who spoke after Mr. Laurier, endorsed fully the purpose of the Bill, but criticised the proposals of the Government as being inadequate. "They are," he said, "either too much or too little. They are too much for carrying on experiments in the organization of a Canadian naval service; they are too little for immediate and effective aid, and it seems to me that the policy of the Government will be attended with a very great waste of money, with no immediate effective result."
The Bill embodying the naval programme of the Government, as set forth by the Prime Minister, was enacted on the 11th of March, 1910, by 119 votes to 78.
WAR, THE PREPARATIONS FOR: Chilian Navy-building.
It was reported from Santiago de Chile to the English Press, October 21, 1909, that "the Government has decided upon a naval expenditure of £4,000,000, which includes a 20,000 ton battleship, two ocean-going destroyers, and several submarines. Instructions for tenders have been sent to the Commission in London." A later message to the American Press, November 12, stated that "the naval building programme decided upon by the Chilian government, provides for the construction of one battleship, four torpedo boat destroyers, and two submarines at an expenditure of $14,000,000."
WAR, THE PREPARATIONS FOR:
The Chinese Programme.
A Press message from Peking, October 11, 1909, announced that a naval commission, consisting of Prince Tsai-hsun, the Regent’s brother, Admiral Sa Chen-ping, and Sir Chen Tung Liang Cheng, who was secretary to the Special Chinese Embassy to the Diamond Jubilee celebrations in 1897, left that day for Europe. This was understood to be the first step toward the fulfilment of China’s programme for the expenditure of £40,000,000 on the rehabilitation of her army and navy.
WAR, THE PREPARATIONS FOR:
Denmark’s Fortification and Naval Defense.
See (in this Volume)
DENMARK: A. D. 1905-1909.
WAR, THE PREPARATIONS FOR:
The "Dreadnought" Era.
Outclassing of all Battleships built prior to 1906. The New Type. Effects of its Introduction.
The evolution of sea-fighting monstrosities received a startling and revolutionizing impulsion in 1906, when a new Dreadnought (replacing an obsolete battleship of that name) was added to the British navy. In size, plan and armament it embodied naval teachings just taken from the Russo-Japanese War, and was supposed to put every other existing battle-ship into an inferior second class. It brought suddenly a new standard into all comparative measurements of naval power, impairing seriously the worth of the costly monsters then afloat. It signalled, in fact, a start for entirely new racing among the competitors for "sea-power,"
since the prizes of substantial fighting efficiency among the navies must all be won over again, by the quickest builders of the Dreadnought type of ship. England had more reason than any other nation to lament this happening, and her Lords of the Admiralty have been sharply criticised for bringing it about; though the new type of battle-ship would have had creation elsewhere (as still newer types of monstrosity are being created already) if English naval architects had not produced it. Even Admiral Lord Charles Beresford has lashed the naval authorities of his country for bringing on the Dreadnought craze. In a speech at London within the past year he said that "he did not object to Dreadnoughts or improvements in battleships; what he did object to was the advertisement connected with the first Dreadnought. Then they had told another nation that that ship would sink the whole of its fleet, and the result was that that nation set to work upon a definite naval programme of its own. Having given that insane advertisement of their Dreadnought, the British delayed ship-building with the inevitable result that they would have to pay a great deal more than if they had kept up their yearly proportion of ships. The command of the seas was their life, and he believed that they would have to spend £50,000,000 more than they need have spent through that insane advertisement. It would be absolutely impossible for Great Britain alone, under present conditions, to keep up the two-Power standard, and if there were no other alternative, there could only be the prospect of bankruptcy or defeat; but the two-Power standard could easily be kept up with an Imperial Navy."
Similar criticism appeared in a pamphlet published last year by Mr. Carnegie; and when his attention was called to the fact that both Japan and Russia had bigger ships than the Dreadnought on the stocks before the latter was begun, he wrote:
"Britain, having so much larger a Navy compared with any other Power or compared with several other Powers together, should
have adopted the policy of waiting before building a type that rendered most of her ships ineffective. She had nothing to fear from Japan, Russia, nor the United States, and could easily have overtaken Germany if Germany began building the new type. Britain made such a noise about the Dreadnought as to attract the attention of the whole world."
The following account of the Dreadnought and of the interest she had excited in naval circles appeared in a prominent technical magazine while the building of the ship was in progress:
"Not for many years has the building of a man-of-war excited such wide-spread interest as that of H. M. S. Dreadnought. In many respects this ship has assumed a sensational character; she is the largest vessel ever constructed for any war fleet; she was the first to be commenced after the recent great struggle in the Far East; her design, which embodies many new features, has hitherto been kept an official secret, and the work of construction has been pressed forward with so much success that it is hoped she will be in commission within fourteen months of the laying of the keel plates. All these facts have contributed to arouse curiosity, particularly as it is well known that British naval attaches were accorded special privileges by the Japanese and were enabled to watch the progress of the war to greater advantage than the representatives of other powers. Consequently, from the day when the first whispers of the coming of the Dreadnought were heard, an unusual amount of interest has been taken in this ship, not only in the United Kingdom, but in foreign countries, and the influence of the design may be traced in the new programmes of several rival Powers. … The essential feature of the Dreadnought which distinguishes her from all battleships now in commission in the world’s fleets is that she is of huge size and mounts only one type of gun for use in line of battle, instead of three types, as in the 'King Edward
VII.’ class.
"The war between Japan and Russia conclusively showed that the intermediate armament carried by the vessels flying European flags was not effective at modern battle ranges. Even on the partial evidence obtained by the French authorities it has been calculated that the effective ranges for battle have been raised from 3000 yards to 7000 or 8000 yards. Careful calculations show that at such a distance the striking power of 7.5-inch and 6-inch guns, which have been the favourite intermediate weapons in the British Navy hitherto, are comparatively useless. … It is understood that originally the Dreadnought was to have carried twelve guns of the 12-inch type, but difficulties arose in working out the design, and it was eventually decided to drop out two of these weapons in order to mount effectively ten pieces of this colossal striking power, so as to enable eight of them to fire on the broadside, six ahead and four astern, without endangering either the stability of the ship or running any undue risks owing to the blast. … With a broadside of eight 12-inch guns, the Dreadnought is equivalent to any two battleships built for the British fleet prior to the construction of 'King Edward VII.,' and yet her total cost, complete with guns, will be only £1,797,497, while the ships of the ‘King Edward VII.,’ class, carrying only four 12-inch guns and the same number of 9.2-inch guns, represent an outlay of just under a million and a half sterling."
Cashier's Magazine, June, 1906.
{701}
The steadily increasing sine of the Dreadnought ships is shown in the following, reported from Portsmouth, England, September 30, 1909: "Since the launch of the Dreadnought by the King in February, 1906, each