Colonial Architecture in the Philippines

To what extent has the Western colonial Architecture been important to the Philippines?

By Erica Alexis Caballero

Figure 0.1

Contents

List of illustrations Abstract and introduction Part One THE SPANISH PERIOD: COLONIAL ERA

1

PRE-COLONIAL PHILIPPINES: THE “BAHAY KUBO” Construction of the Bahay Kubo Living in the Bahay Kubo

13 14 16

2

COLONIAL PHILIPPINES: THE SPANISH INVASION Emergence of the “Bahay na Bato”

19 20

3

THE FALL OF THE SPANISH EMPOWERMENT San Agustin church in Intramuros, Manila

25 26

Part Two THE AMERICAN PERIOD: POST-COLONIAL ERA 4

NEW CITY PLAN OF MANILA The Manila Hotel The Burnham Plan

33 34 36

5

THE NEW MILLENIUM AND GLOBALIZATION Housing communities

41 42

PHILIPPINES TODAY

44

Illustrations Figure 0.1: http://ericcachero.weebly.com/ uploads/8/0/6/9/8069219/5261034_orig.jpg (Accessed: 20 January 2016).

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1: Tinio Jr, M. & Zialcita, F. N. (1980) Philippines Ancestral

Houses, 1810-1930. Quezon City, Philippines : GCF Books Page 10

Figure 1.2: Tinio Jr, M. & Zialcita, F. N. (1980) Philippines Ancestral Houses, 1810-1930. Quezon City, Philippines : GCF Books Page 15 Figure 1.3: Tinio Jr, M. & Zialcita, F. N. (1980) Philippines Ancestral Houses, 1810-1930. Quezon City, Philippines : GCF Books Page 14 Figure 1.4: https://farm9.staticflickr.com/8500/8409627411_ b26c2c580e_b.jpg (Accessed: 20 January 2016).

Figure 1.5: http://images.hibucket.com/0-0000-blog/bayanihan-paintingbotong-francisco-philippine-architecture-nipa-hut.jpg (Accessed:21January 2016).

Chapter 2 Figure2.1:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/ Manila_1851.jpg/1920px-Manila_1851.jpg (Accessed: 8 January 2016).

Figure 2.2 – 2.3: Own images Chapter 3 Figure 3.1: https://c1.staticflickr.com/9/8093/8571561772_cab939fbc0_b. jpg (Accessed: 20 January 2016).

Figure 3.2 – 3.4: Own images Figure 3.5: https://augustinianchurches.files.wordpress.com/2012/08/sanagustin-chuch-intramuros-l.jpg (Accessed: 19 January 2016).

Chapter 4 Figure 4.1: https://c1.staticflickr.com/9/8451/8069733342_0a28e17201 _b.jpg (Accessed: 20 January 2016).

Figure 4.2: http://www.lougopal.com/manila/wp-content/ uploads/2015/08/Manila-Hotel-Lobby-Parsons-architect.jpg Figure 4.3: http://www.lougopal.com/manila/wp-content/ uploads/2013/07/Manila-Hotel-in-the-60s.jpg (Accessed: 20 January 2016 Figure 4.4: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-mcI4dIppdng/Udro-z5MX1I/ AAAAAAAABkw/JGnXp1gobBM/s1600/paris+by+the+pasig.jpg (Accessed:

18 January 2016).

Figure 4.5: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/ BurnhamPlanOf-Manila.jpg (Accessed: 19 January 2016).

Chapter 5 Figure 5.1: https://farm4.staticflickr. com/3809/12563489985_218c9ca97f_b.jpg (Accessed: 19 January 2016).

Figure 5.2: House and lot for sale in Lancaster estates Cavite. Available at: http://www.lancasterestates.com/ (Accessed: 21 January 2016).

Figure 5.3: Jao builders vanessa (no date) Available at: https://www. google.com/

Abstract and Introduction

Being born and raised in Norway with both parents from the Philippines, I feel that values from the different cultures have shaped who I am today.

While growing up, I have been noticing that some values contradict each other. Sometimes the ambiguity of the two terms occurs. I have spent most of my time in Norway whilst Philippines, my second home, as most of my family are there. When choosing a dissertation topic, I wanted to explore something that was meaningful to me. Therefore, I have chosen to specifically look at the Philippines to show how extensive the influence has been from the Western world, namely architecture from Spain and America.

INTRODUCTION The Philippines have often been a country that people generally have less knowledge about, as they do not engage with foreign associations.

They are mostly known for the tropical weather and white beaches around the islands, but Philippines has a long history involving people from the Western world. The encounter between the two would become interesting because of their different cultures. Discovering certain elements about each other can both lead to solutions or problems. I have divided the topic into two parts, separating the Spanish period with the American period. By doing so, it follows a chronological order of various history events.

To understand how the Western colonial architecture influence has been in the Philippines, exploring the pre-colonial era is essential. How did the native people live? How did they construct their houses? Philippines is a country that consists of nearly 7000 islands and within that context, one can imagine how different people were from each other during precolonial period. The houses on stilts were a common dwelling that many Southeast Asian countries shared. It was constructed in a way that fit the local environments using local materials. However, this would change during its colonial period. “Orientalism is fundamentally a political doctrine willed over the Orient because the Orient was weaker than the West, which elided the

Orient’s difference with its weakness. “.1 Said’s connotation about the Orient is what would derive the colonial period in the Philippines that began in 1521. The Spanish settlement soon became evident and changed the social environment. How did the Spanish people establish relationships with the Filipino people? How did they change their dwellings? The Spanish settlement was allocated in Manila, the capital. It became an international trade-post consisting of people from both Eastern and Western countries.

Introducing Catholicism to the Filipino culture would prove to be revolutionary for the native people. In which consequently led to a community for both the Spanish and the Filipino residents. Despite the tensions between the two, we would start to identify how these people emerged into a nation of the country.

In part two, there is a sense of a more refined city when the American people arrived. The Late 19th century was derived by post-colonial thoughts and the Eastern cities began to develop a political view. Introducing an educational system gave the opportunity to build a self-led government that became an important factor for the Filipino people to gain their independence. Architects such as Daniel Burnham and William Parsons envisioned Manila, the capital, as the greatest city in Southeast Asia.

Burnham produced five new outlines for Manila and wanted the city to be portrayed as a Western city. Taking inspiration from European cities such as Rome, Venice and Paris. The Manila Hotel designed by Parsons, became one of the prestigious buildings at that time and people from across the globe travelled to Southeast Asia to experience the colossal hotel.

Throughout the constant change in Manila with its different inhabitants, the city expanded into a more mobilized city. The urban population has grown immensely for the past 100 years and housing communities have developed in the urban-fringe. The New Millennium set its new challenges for Manila with its uneven growth.

1

Said, E. W. (2003) Orientalism (Penguin Modern Classics). London: Penguin Classics. Page 204

PART ONE

The Spanish Period: Colonial era

11

Figure 1.1

Native Filipino children front of the Bahay Kubo, having an extended kitchen to prevent any potential fire from spreading.

12

Chapter 1: Pre-Colonial Philippines: The “Bahay Kubo”

During the last three centuries before Christ, Southeast Asian countries shared many things in common especially within agriculture and formation of communities. People built their houses in the native manner, utilising local materials that emerged into the house of stilts. This construction quickly spread in the Asia Pacific, and the Philippines was no exception.2 The “Bahay kubo” or nipa hut, is referred to as the traditional Filipino house that has been a product of evolution throughout the centuries.

Eventually, the dwellings grew in complexity and became townhouses and palaces surrounding a church.

When we build a house today, we think of it as a permanent structure or at least last a few decades. But one important thing about the “Bahay Kubo” is that it was abandoned just a few years after it had been built.3 The islands was thinly populated with vast forests in the 16th century and villages in Luzon and Visayas preferred the manageable method of cultivation to wet rice. It was easy in the beginning where they burn a tract of woodland, plant with a dibble stick and then wait for the fertile compost to yield a rich bounty.4 However, by doing this method frequently on the same spot, it ended up wearing out the soil. Whenever the soil wore out, the natives would transfer to a different part of the island.5

Tinio Jr, M. & Zialcita, F. N. (1980) Philippines Ancestral Houses, 1810-1930. Quezon City, Philippines : GCF Books Page 11 3 ibid page 12 4 ibid 5 ibid page 13 2

13

CONSTRUCTION OF THE BAHAY KUBO Both then and now, constructing the Bahay Kubo was more or less similar to basketmaking. The parts were woven, fitted, inserted, coiled, tied or stitched together and the materials used was also similar in house and basket: rattan vines6, buri palms7, and bamboos of different thicknesses.

The roofing can be assembled in various ways and depending of the size, it can be joined together on the ground and then mounted up.8 From inside, the roofing resembles a basket cover, as no trusses are supporting these.

Instead, slanted rafters (kilo) are used that cross each other to carry the adequate load of the ridge pole (palupo).9 The rafters are kept in place by having two poles arranged horizontally, parallel to the ridge pole. Down the middle of the rafters, a sikang is attached to cross the rafters together. At the bottom, the rafters are connected altogether. The main support of the roofing material, are bamboo strips (palatpat) that are tied on the rafters with rattan vines. Lastly, a hip roof is achieved by the four corner rafters (kilo mayor) that slope diagonally towards the ridge pole. There were various roofing materials such as cogon grass10, rice straw, sugar cane leaves, split bamboo and black moss. However, the most common were the leaves of the nipa palm. The roof provided good ventilation that allowed warm air inside to escape, simultaneously letting cool air to enter through the porous bamboo walls and floors.11

Figure 1.2

Construction of the Bahay Kubo in native Filipino terminology. thin pliable stems of a palm Corypha palm usually grown in Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia 8 Tinio Jr, M. & Zialcita, F. N. (1980) Philippines Ancestral Houses, 1810-1930. Quezon City, Philippines : GCF Books Page 13 9 ibid 10 Native grass to east and southeast Asia 11 Bahay Kubo (no date) Available at: http://www.aliawanenterprises.com/id69.html (Accessed: 3 January 2016).

6 7

14

For the posts, the most durable wood in the islands was molave12. The posts were arranged in various ways, where holes could be dug and posts inserted in. Placing rocks surrounding the posts that are kept firmly was also another option. Finally, as the posts were in place, held up with temporary beams, the floor could be inserted.13

The walls can come in various kinds, but often assembled on the ground.

Slits of bamboo are woven together to form sawali, or bamboo mats, that are layered together keeping the rain from penetrating in. To keep the walls or sidings firmly in place between the floor sill and the roof beam, lashings of rattan and horizontal bamboo studs are used to clamp the sides together.14 Bamboo poles that are placed between the roof beams and the floor sill, acts as a vertical support. Here, the studs from the wall sidings are entered through its voids. Sometimes the walls can be as tall as they are long, leaving us with rooms of a box-like appearance. That consequently, led to the name “Bahay Kubo”, meaning “the cube-shaped house”.

There is an ambiguity in the Bahay Kubo’s response to stress. Whenever an earthquake takes place, it is held together, as the materials are woven and fitted together. However, it would sway with the shock and even without an earthquake, it sways whenever someone within the dwelling runs or moves vigorously. Through repeated shocks, the Bahay Kubo can easily collapse because of the lightweight material, due to strong typhoons. In addition, nipa and cogon can easily catch fire.15

The lack of durability in the Bahay Kubo became a problem. Bamboo rafters that held the load would rot within five years due to rain and would eventually decay.16 Soon, as the dwellers could afford, they began to build more sustainable houses, of hardwood or stone. This consequently led to fast disappearance of the Bahay Kubo.

Figure 1.3

On-site construction of the Bahay Kubo built like a skelton frame.

A small to large tree reaching a height of 120 ft Bahay Kubo (no date) Available at: http://www.aliawanenterprises.com/id69.html (Accessed: 3 January 2016).

14 ibid 15 Tinio Jr, M. & Zialcita, F. N. (1980) Philippines Ancestral Houses, 1810-1930. Quezon City, Philippines : GCF Books Page 16 16 Bahay Kubo (no date) Available at: http://www.aliawanenterprises.com/id69.html (Accessed: 3 January 2016).

12 13

15

LIVING IN THE “BAHAY KUBO�

The ambience and presence of the Bahay Kubo was different, depending on where the native people settled. Common areas are Laguna de Bay, eastern shores of Manila Bay, northern Mindoro and eastern Cebu. In Cebu, people actively traded with foreign merchants, while Manila prioritized the cultivation of rice in flooded fields. Rice paddies were important for the native population and each of them would be attached to individual families.17 The lack of complexity of spaces in the Bahay Kubo led to limited privacy.

However, as a Filipino concept, it was meant to be a shared space. Usually with no partitions for rooms, it was designed to be a multi-purpose room called bulwagan.18 Household activities such as dining and sleeping would be held at this room. Sometimes the kitchen would be detached to prevent fire from spreading to other parts of the Bahay Kubo. Nevertheless, even the limited amount of privacy, the residents were still able to raise children as well as taking care of sick and elderly. A Filipino household is typically known for the close family ties, not being separated from each other. Even when the children are grown up and married, their families are welcome to stay or construct a Bahay Kubo next to the relatives. The Bahay Kubo was built in a way that there would always be someone present; for coming to an empty house was not done. Therefore, no locks for the entrance door were ever made. 19

Figure 1.4

Native FIlipino families constructed larger Bahay Kubo to accommodate their entire family.

17 Tinio Jr, M. & Zialcita, F. N. (1980) Philippines Ancestral Houses, 1810-1930. Quezon City, Philippines : GCF Books Page 12 18 Bahay Kubo (no date) Available at: http://www.aliawanenterprises.com/id69.html (Accessed: 3 January 2016).

19 ibid

16

Solid communities with neighbours and friends, often considered as relatives, can be relied on whenever the family needs aid to construct a new dwelling or transfer the entire Bahay Kubo. It takes a large amount of people to move the Bahay Kubo. Placing bamboo poles underneath the house, both lengthwise and crosswise forming a frame, would lift the stilts from the ground. The house is carried to its destination where each man has to carry a load that becomes a hero for the rest of the settlers.

Afterwards, an event is held by the moving family to show appreciation for the volunteers that helped them. A fiesta is taken place as a social and festive atmosphere, which is called bayanihyan, or unity and harmony. It demonstrates the Philippine community with uniqueness in their culture and lifestyle that is taken from the word bayan, meaning community, nation or town. In each bayan, people share the same spirit and became strong through cooperation and solidarity.20

“The bahay kubo has been many things to the townsman: he idealizes it as an oasis of peace and quiet, as a house “that though small, has many kinds of edible plants” or as a symbol of the national ideal of free, cooperative labour. During these past four hundred years, it has also inspired a new architecture that is both tropical and urban”21– FNZ

Figure 1.5

The Filipino Bayanihan spirit is demonstrated in this painting by Carlos “Botong” Francisco where neighbors would help one another to carry a nipa hut and move to another place. ibid Tinio Jr, M. & Zialcita, F. N. (1980) Philippines Ancestral Houses, 1810-1930. Quezon City, Philippines : GCF Books Page 19 20 21

17

Figure 2.1

Map of Intramuros, Manila. Showing where the Spanish settlement was more evident. They constructed the town follwing a grid system and was surrounded by tall heavy walls. Intramuros, meaning “within the walls�.

18

Chapter 2: Colonial Philippines: The Spanish Invasion

“Orientals were rarely seen or looked at; they were seen through, analysed not as citizens, or even people, but as problems to be solved or confined or – as the colonial powers openly coveted their territory – taken over.”22 Taken from Edward Said’s book, Orientalism, he describes the Orient as an unknown part of the world, often looked down upon, which then had to be resolved by the Western people. This is the era when colonialism began, where the Western world was hungry for conquests and began farreaching expeditions to the Eastern world to claim their “own” riches. We will start to see the changes and development of the traditional “Bahay kubo” and how Manila, the capital, became a resemblance of the New Spain.

The first explorer who came in the Philippines was Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. He landed in Cebu, claiming them as a part of Spain and naming them Islas de San Lazaro. Magellan managed to establish good relations with the local chiefs and converted some of the local residents to Roman Catholicism. Yet the natives in the island, which was led by the local chief called Lapu-Lapu, who was opposed to foreign tyranny, killed him.23

Over the next few decades, another Spanish expedition was made. This time Miguel Lopez de Legazpi who was from New Spain led it and managed to arrange a Spanish settlement in 1565. He was first established in Cebu where Magellan got killed, but later on went to declare Manila as the capital.24 An expedition was arranged from Cebu in May 1570 consisting of ninety Spaniards and accompanied by three hundred Visayan auxiliaries attempting to make a settlement in Manila that was located at the mouth of the River Pasig in Luzon. A Muslim sultan of Borneo ruled it and it was problematic for the natives to settle down. Therefore, local leaders so called datus, came to an agreement after a year to accept the Spanish rule.25 From then on, the Spaniards authorized civil, military, religious, and economic activity. At that point, the Spanish settlement was secured and in June 1571, Manila was formally constituted as a province of New Spain (Mexico) until 1821.26 Said, E. W. (2003) Orientalism (Penguin Modern Classics). London: Penguin Classics. Page 207 Philippine history Spanish colonization (no date) Available at: http://www.philippinecountry.com/ philippine_history/spanish_colonization.html (Accessed: 2 January 2016).

24 Ibid 25 Kamen, H. (2003) Spain’s Road to Empire: The Making of a World Power, 1492-1763. United Kingdom: Penguin Books.

26 Philippine history Spanish colonization (no date) Available at: http://www.philippinecountry.com/ philippine_history/spanish_colonization.html (Accessed: 2 January 2016).

22 23

19

As the Philippines consists of many thousand islands, it made it less difficult for the Spaniards to settle in and also because of the lack of any extensive political organization. However, the society in the islands was already based on small kin-based units known as barangays, which is still used today. This would consist from thirty to one hundred families that were usually independent. Later on, Spaniards had notably an effect on the environmental aspects. Cities grew bigger and Spaniards were in a higher position than the local natives. However, they were few wwin number so a conquest never actually took place in Philippines and the locals would always fight back.27 They settled mostly in Southern Luzon, Manila where they formed their own community and actively traded between other Southeast Asian countries. Manila became a nation of different people because of the trade post.

“The diversity of the peoples therefore who are seen in Manila and its environs is the greatest in the world; for these include men from all kingdoms and nations”28 EMERGENCE OF THE “BAHAY NA BATO” As the cities and population grew bigger and Spanish settlement became more significant, changes of the construction built became also more evident. The built environment was very diverse than in Spain. It was far too wet and humid to live on the ground in Philippines and even the churches and the cathedral were of wood, bamboo and nipa. The city had to be out of stone and it was harder to get hold of timber as these became more expensive to cut and the forests started to diminish closer to the town.

A Jesuit, Antonio Sedeno explored up the Pasig and found volcanic tuff quarries of San Pedro, Makati.29 He rebuilt a residence for the bishop in stone and taught the local workmen the art of quarrying stone, baking lime, mixing mortar and measuring with the plumb line. In Spain, they would use stone of lime but instead they used shells of large oysters and crushed white corals. Tiles and brick they made were very durable that the imports from Mexico desisted.30Therefore, Manila quickly became a city of stone as the Spaniards built ramparted walls of five metres to protect the city and they extended for four kilometres that rose high around the city. “…

Adorned and furnished with battlements and merlons in modern style; with towers, cavaliers and flankers at intervals; and with two castles and some bulwarks” 31 The houses were arranged in a way, which was very similar to Spain and Mexico. Having a solid square form in the middle that then opened a patio and including colonnaded galleries on both levels that ran around the patios and across the façade. For the windows, iron grilles veiled “the many rows of windows”: huge iron balconies were overhanging to shade the streets 28 Kamen, H. (2003) Spain’s Road to Empire: The Making of a World Power, 1492-1763. United Kingdom: Penguin Books.

29 Tinio Jr, M. & Zialcita, F. N. (1980) Philippines Ancestral Houses, 1810-1930. Quezon City, Philippines : GCF Books Page 24 30 ibid page 25 31 ibid page 27 32 ibid

20

and extensive, tiled roof decks, known as azoteas, gave comprehensive scenery of the city and the river.32 These elements were used as a defence in Spanish Renaissance palaces but here it was more for presentation. “The town of Manila is built like Mexico in New Spain as far as the houses and the city plan is concerned� – Carletti, Florentine merchant (stayed in Manila from 1596-1597)33

Figure 2.2

The opened patio in Casa Manila, Intramuros. Provided a private outdoor space or an entrance for the guests.

Figure 2.3

Showing heavyweight material at the first two floors followed by a colourful lightweight timber material where cool air can easily enter.

33 34

ibid page 27 ibid

21

As for the interior, one can imagine that interiors were roofed and floored over in two ways: Huge beams led directly into the stone walls and rest on the stone corbels or stone vaults shaped like barrel that arched over the halls. Long boards and joists would be laid out perpendicularly with complex carved beams. With a coating of lime plaster on the grey stone halls, it brightened up the spaces in which murals were painted. An example of this would be of San Agustin, Manila.34

Another Spanish innovation applied to the Filipino houses was the open stairwell. They bridged the first two floors and the Spaniards exposed the stairway by having it in a great hall, mounted it up, and halted at a landing, double turn and mount up autocratically to the upper halls. By this, it made the flowing capes and coats of China silk more astonishing by the parade of guests entering. An example of this would also be of the San Agustin church that is the only survival of this stairway made of granite. 600 more Spanish houses were built in the suburbs but they were made of wood, and summerhouses with gardens, orchards and baths could be found along the Pasig in Manila. In total, there were about 3000 Spanish laymen who were merchants, soldiers and officials who came to the Philippines islands to seek their fortune and return wealthy back to their country.35

The architecture became challenging as the Philippine islands are prone to earthquakes. Therefore other built arrangements had to be done. The earthquake in 1621 destroyed the cathedral but the houses and their upper storeys continued to be built out of stone. People from Manila relied on the thickness of the stone walls to prevent the downward buckle of the roof trusses as they despised to have external buttresses in their houses.36 At first, the natives built their houses in a traditional manner, as the Bahay Kubo, due to their knowledge of the environment, materials and method to use. Nevertheless, this changed when the earthquakes occurred more frequently. Selecting out some elements and adding sustainability became vital for the new city in Manila. Houses had to be shorter and only up to about two storeys high on a flat land. Heavyweight material as stone could only be used up to the first landing of the grand stairway and lightweight material as wood, would be used on the second storey walls, same with the second flight of stairs. Due to dangers of an earthquake, the overhanging balconies abate and instead formed “ventanillas� or little windows below the main windows. Roof tiles still remained to be used although they would still collapse when jolted.37 After the numerous earthquakes, the native people did discover that the haligi or wooden pillars that held the roof’s heavy timberwork together, was the solution to have more protection and defence against earthquakes.

The buildings would not collapse and be completely ruined even if the solid mass of masonry would be broken. As long as the height of the building, these pillars would be dug into the earth with over three metres deep then cladded with masonry all the way to the upper storey. The posts held up the ibid ibid page 28 37 ibid page 67 38 ibid page 69 35

36

22

roof trusses and the floors. The result was a giant frame, a skeleton that would still stand even after a shiver. The stonewall that were usually built on top of each other, did not carry any load anymore. It was now a skin that covered the house posts and the shortness of the houses made it less danger of collapsing.38 The skeletal frame of the houses held together the new city of Manila.

At this stage, it is important to note that the changes of architecture were not directly a replica of the Spanish building styles. The Spanish building style was rather a form of inspiration, which was then combined with the local houses in the islands. In the early Renaissance, in Northern Spain, houses were held together using this same method, wooden frames held up the walls of brick and mortar. In the Philippine islands, was the Bahay Kubo that held up during the initial earthquakes. “We all made use of this method of building in these islands�.39 Many advantages were made and therefore the two traditions, the native and the Spanish medieval, emerged into a new style: the Bahay na Bato (house of stone). Soon, the new style from Manila spread to other cities in the island such as Cavite and Cebu.

Even though there were mainly Spaniards who inhabited the new building style, we cannot say that this belonged to them and it was new to the native population. Many people from various parts of the island began to build their houses in this particular form. Mainly for their own interests and gradually became a common building structure of the whole island in 19th century. Therefore, one could argue that the Spanish residents accommodated themselves as true Filipinos and began to adapt to the new environment. They began to see themselves as legitimate hijos del pais (people of the country) and developed new sympathies and habits.

39 40

ibid page 71 ibid page 78

23

Figure 3.1

w

24

Chapter 3: The Fall of the Spanish Empowerment

Through all the changing architecture in Manila and occupancy of Spaniards, the Spaniards acknowledged themselves as the masters of the Philippines in 1570 and their spokesmen were optimistic about conquering the rest of the Pacific and suggested this to Philip II to consider.

“It was a glaring example of the inability of Europeans to understand the complexity of Asia.” Successfully establishing its activity in the Philippines, it led correspondents to overemphasize the potential of Manila. As one seventeenth-century traveller would describe; “so equally situated between wealthy kingdoms of the east and of the west, that it may be accounted one of the greatest places of trade in the world.” 40

Nevertheless, it was not a simple task. The Spanish community were only few in numbers and considering geographically, Spain was beyond distant which restricted the expansion of the Spanish power. Primarily, Philippines consisted of over forty islands, without taking into account the smaller ones and in total counts to about seven thousand islands with active volcanoes.

The Spaniards had to adapt to the tropical climate and one would describe it as; “For months of dust, four of mud, and for of everything”.41 This by all means, included monsoons, earthquakes and typhoons. Since the Filipinos outnumbered the Spaniards, conquests were banned and the local people would always fight back. This led to permanent deficiency of manpower and therefore eliminated all opportunity to occupy or dominate territory beyond the boundary of the town of Manila. They were mainly based in larger islands, such as Luzon in the main capital, Manila.

In the thought of Spaniards, Philippines were highlighted as a part of their ‘empire’ when looking at their maps. Even so, the native people in the islands knew better. They were not as powerful as the Spaniards had no riches as them, but they knew how to manage themselves in their own ways. “Manila is a town of small means, founded by persons most of whom have little income, there are very few men in these islands who know how to manage a musket”.42 Antonio de Morga, 1590s (administrator and soldier in Manila) de Morga explains that native people in Manila are simple people who are not depended upon extensive trading system.

The native population still continued to evolve their own forms of economy in a way it had always possessed. Rice was an important agriculture for the ibid 205 ibid 43 ibid 40

41

25

native people and continued to be produced in Luzon near Manila. However, the Spaniards did not take favourably to it. The agriculture could not be equivalent to Mexico and therefore cattle-raising did not become extensive.

Other approach had to be used which consequently led to importing animals from Asia and Chinese horses eventually became common. However, Philippines ought to be considered of little importance in terms of trading in the international field because the only profit Spaniards could get was cinnamon. Native people lived off with a rather more primitive economy and less exploitable wealth.43 IMPORTANCE OF CATHOLICISM: SAN AGUSTIN CHURCH Nevertheless, the Spanish community was maintained due to common relationships between the different races. Spaniards did succeed to create prudent combination of force and alliances that dominated public life in the area. The biggest change in society was the establishment of Roman Catholicism that spread throughout the islands. This brought people and communities closer as their dwellings surrounded the central church. Usually constructed in Baroque style and High Renaissance, built between 16th and 18th centuries, it adapted to the physical conditions in the Philippines that later became an important influence for new churches. It represented a European church design that was constructed with local materials.

There are four churches in Philippines that are part of UNESCOs World Heritage, one of them is the San Agustin church located at the historic city of Manila, Intramuros (the walled city). It was first built in bamboo and nipa, but it took fire and burned the church completely down. Instead, to make it more sustainable and survive the earthquakes, it was rebuilt out of local stone, adobe.44 The church was completed in 1606 and is considered as the oldest church in the Philippines and mother of all Philippine colonial churches.

The faรงade is a typical copy during the colonial period but the dark stone of the adobe, lacked grace and charm that did not appeal to the Augustinians (founder of the church). Due to frequent earthquakes, the towers only had one body that held the facade, one with church bells and one that kept the symmetry of the faรงade in a High Renaissance style.45 Two sets of Tuscan columns are placed on both sides of the main entrance door, equally followed by another two sets of Corinthian columns at the second level with walls and windows alternating in a simple pattern.46 The two levels are highlighted with horizontal cornices followed by an accentuated rose window. A touch of Baroque is added on the ornately carved wooden doors that illustrate floras and religious images. Chinese elements are added to the faรงade such as Fu dogs that rests between the Tuscan columns that represents as guardians of the church.47 ibid San Agustin Church (Intramuros, manila) (2006) Available at: https://heritageconservation.wordpress.com/2006/07/29/san-agustin-church-intramuros-manila/ (Accessed: 7 January 2016).

45 ibid 46 ibid 47 ibid 43 44

26

Figure 3.2

Figure 3.3 Fu dogs to act as guardians

Figure 3.4

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Internally, one can appreciate the impressive trompe l’oeil barrel vault dome that were done by two Italian painters, Alberoni and Dibella, as they got commissioned to paint the interior of the church in 1875. Only with their paintbrushes, they managed to shape and give life to the ceilings by having floral motifs, geometric patterns and religious themes. The trompe l’oeil vaulting was incorporated within the spatial geometry of the church making it more extravagant. The vaults and the earthy tones create a chiaroscuro effect that makes it more dramatic and a visual play.48

Figure 3.5

Interior of San Agustin church showing similarities to European Catholic churches.

This prestigious church is more than just an architectural icon, as the Spanish Miguel Lopez de Legaspi, founder of Manila, is buried next to the main altar with other Spanish Conquistadors. The church is still extensively used for weddings and mass but a great tourist attraction as well.

As I have described above, are all insights of the Spaniards position in the islands and how they have adapted to the unknown culture. Native people did not take too much of an attention to it and still continued to do what they were familiar with. And the Spaniards did not manage to get anything from the native population. Although, within architecture, the Spaniards did manage to influence the way people lived but not as a ruler or emperor of the islands. I think this is an important notion to point out. Changing the architecture does not necessarily mean that the Spaniards could suddenly conquest the islands and be sovereign as they saw themselves. It was rather more complex than that. Edward Said’s book “Orientalism” explains this notion of Westerners dealing with the East and how this had created a stereotypical idea of the East and West.

Centre, U. W. H. (2013) Baroque churches of the Philippines - UNESCO world heritage centre. Available at: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/677/ (Accessed: 9 January 2016).

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“What seems to have influenced Orientalism most was fairly constant sense of confrontation felt by Westerners dealing with the East. The boundary notion of East and West, the varying degrees of projected inferiority and strength, the range of work done, the kinds of characteristic features ascribed to the Orient: all these testify to a willed imaginative and geographic division made between East and West, and lived through during many centuries.�49 The meeting between the Spaniards and the Filipino native population has brought out different perception of each other. Therefore, it has led to diverse circumstances; tensions or peace between the Spaniards and the native people. Discovering differences and contrasting elements established behaviour towards each other and as a result, it has created a more distinct separation between East and West. During that encounter, one may conclude or discover that Western world is more powerful than the Eastern world and subsequently lived many centuries having that viewpoint.

The fall of the Spanish empowerment became a positive outcome for the Filipinos. They were fortunate enough not to sustain large loss of life from the Spanish invasion and there was no massive demographic change in the islands. A country that consists of nearly 7000 islands, the Spanish settlement only managed to control and influence certain parts of the Philippines such as Manila and Cebu. However, the new building type, Bahay na Bato, spread throughout the country but was built by the local people. The dwelling was more sustainable than the Bahay Kubo and enhanced the living conditions. The native people could finally establish themselves in one place and live there for as long as they wanted to instead of transferring the Bahay Kubo by carrying it.

The native population already had long and good contact with other Southeast Asian neighbouring cultures and the economy was rather primitive. For that reason, the Filipinos did not depend upon the Spanish economy and the local people built their country through their own interest. Strong communities between the Filipino people were still kept from pre-colonial period. In addition, the Spanish population failed to grow. By 1637, there were only 150 Spanish households in Manila for as long as eighty years of colonization. As a result, the Spanish settlers had to marry the local people and the population of both FIlipino and Spanish blood became present. Due to this, the colonial Philippines dissolved in 1821 and later, the American people came.

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Said, E. W. (2003) Orientalism (Penguin Modern Classics). London: Penguin Classics. Page 201

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PART TWO

American Period: Post-colonial era

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Figure 4.1

City of Manila in 1940’s. ww

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Chapter 4: New City plan of Manila

The Spanish-American war led Philippines in a vulnerable position as the Spanish Army in Manila Bay got attacked by the U.S Navy, led by George Dewey in 1898. Due to poor army in Manila, they got defeated by the U.S that consequently led to Spain ceding Philippines. In 1899 The United States paid Spain 20 million dollars to claim Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico.50

The tensions between the American people and the Filipino people became intense as the Americans did not trust the native people and denied them employment. Hierarchy made people feel less worthy and the white inhabitants had more rights. The Filipinos were devastated because they thought the Americans would help them to gain their independence after being colonized by Spain for 300 years. Nevertheless, through all the negativity, the Americans tried to help the Filipinos by establishing an educational system that changed the society rapidly. The shortage of teachers in 1901 led to bring more teachers from the United States, which counted to more than one thousand teachers.51 They were then scattered throughout different parts of the islands and established to a so-called, barangay schools. It was important to introduce the English language because the Philippines consisted of nearly five hundred different languages.52 This was due to the long-distances betwwen the islands. All schools were therefore taught in English and almost became a lingua franca. As of today, schools are still profoundly taught in English and professions in the Philippines are required to use this language.

In parallel with the educational system, the changes of the city became evident, especially in Manila as the population grew. The American people wanted to build a new planned town for Manila and constructed many Art Nouveaux buildings. Judge William Howard Taft became the Philippines’ first civilian Governor-General, and hired Daniel Hudson Burnham as architect and city planner whom had built Union Station and the post office in Washington.53 In Manila, Burnham wanted to design a tree-lined boulevard along the bay that would then begin at a park with The Philippines during the American period (2010) Available at: http://www.scribd.com/ doc/27594134/The-Philippines-During-the-American-Period#scribd (Accessed: 8 January 2016).

51 Philippines has A ‘love-hate relationship’ with U.S (2013) Available at: http://www.npr. org/2013/11/15/245369744/philippines-has-a-love-hate-relationship-with-u-s (Accessed: 5 January 2016).

52 ibid 53 Philippine architecture during American colonization - level C - teacher Jane (no date) Available at: http://tx.english-ch.com/teacher/jane/level-c/philippine-architecture-during-american-colonization/ (Accessed: 7 January 2016).

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a colossal hotel. Taft then, hired another architect, William E. Parsons to design the hotel.54 Parsons envisioned a grand hotel that was comfortable and was originally designed as an H-shaped plan that took into account good ventilation in the two wings. Providing a good panoramic view of the harbour, Luneta and Intramuros. At the top floor, would be a deck that could be used for various events.55 Both Burnham and Parsons visualised Manila as a beautiful city that would stand out in Southeast Asia.

THE MANILA HOTEL William Parsons wanted to design the first grand hotel in Manila that took inspiration from Californian style, built in white-washed concrete with a green tile roof that would allow cool air to flow.56 It first opened its doors in 1914 and the first five-star hotel was established in Manila. People appreciated the new hotel that showed class and elegance that inhabited both Americans and the local elite class.

The lobby was grand with twin Doric columns with arches that created a colonnaded hallway, and double elegant stairways leading to the mezzanine floor with various activities.

Manila Hotel became a famous holiday stay-in, as people from across the globe came to visit the hotel. In the hallways, one could encounter people wearing kimonos, saris and satins.

Figure 4.2

Lobby of the Manila Hotel showing the Doric comlumns that are arranged with native furniture.

54 Posts about American architecture in the Philippines on traveler on foot (no date) Available at: https://traveleronfoot.wordpress.com/tag/american-architecture-in-the-philippines/ (Accessed: 5 January 2016).

55 innid 56 lougopal (2015) Manila hotel: The golden years. Available at: http://www.lougopal.com/manila/?p=3330 (Accessed: 9 January 2016).

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Figure 4.3

Facade of the Manila Hotel.

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THE BURNHAM PLAN While William Parsons designed the colossal Manila Hotel, he worked closely with Daniel Burnham, who was in charge for creating a new plan for Manila. Burnham produced five outlines for Manila; firstly, was to allocate and develop parks, parkways and also the waterfront. This would give the opportunity to balance out the busy urban fabric and to allow more breathing spaces. Here, he wanted to design an evocative city of Rome and create fountains around the city and Luneta would be on reclaimed land, further out from Manila Bay. Secondly, these focused more on the formation of the streets and create an easy and direct route to the other parts of the city, to its other sectors or districts. Burnham planned out the requirements for the future and not just for the present needs. Therefore, to create denser communities, he introduced a rectangular block system that allowed sunlight to enter through the building on all sides. Thirdly, this focused on the placement of buildings sites depending on the activities.

A world-class hotel was envisioned with resort and casino, and boat clubs was allocated alongside of the new Luneta. The universities, most importantly, would be sited at Sta. Mesa Heights for a more useful learning and Intramuros, the historic city, should be preserved. Fourthly, this dealt with developing Manila’s waterways for transportation. Burnham took inspiration from Venice, Paris and Naples and anticipated the same concept for the Pasig River. Binondo canal would also act as a large transport system. Lastly, Burnham took also into account summerhouses. As he saw provinces like Laguna and Bataan as an excellent place for summer resorts.

Parsons’ responsibility was to provide designs, drawings, arrangements and a measure for the public buildings in the city. These designs resembled the Greek and Roman temples that represented the monumentality, simplicity, and formality.57

Figure 4.4

The new built Post Office in Manila by the Pasig River. Burnham visualised a Parisian bridge would connect the two lands.

Revisiting Daniel Burnham’s plan for manila and Baguio (1) | the manila times online (no date) Available at: http://www.manilatimes.net/revisiting-daniel-burnhams-plan-manila-baguio-1/117058/ (Accessed: 4 January 2016).

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Figure 4.5

Burnham wanted to create an effective transporation system within the grids. Notice how the layout of the plan is similar to European cities by having a central monument that configurates to several roads.

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Clearly, as both Parsons and Burnham developed and constructed the new city of Manila, they visualised it as a Western city, taking inspiration from Europe and America. Philippines being a post-colonial country, the city of Manila was reconstructed and reconfigured in a Western ideal. It became a notion of global urbanism, that other cities in Southeast Asia also followed the uniform and homogeneous product of Europe and America.58 What seemed to emerge was urbanism that tended to be international and created equivalence between the two places.59 “One of the consequence of global modernity that every state has to see itself in contexts of other states’ so, inherent in the same process, every ‘real’ or aspiring world city strives to define itself in the context of other world cities”60

For Philippines, during its colonisation, Spanish people settled mostly in Manila and started to manipulate the land with its residents into an international trade post, which the Americans built on top. Global urbanism requires history and cross-cultural trade that would eventually build up as a mobilized city, as what Manila began to do. Post-colonial Manila became marginalized by the absorption of the West and the traditional “Bahay Kubo” and “Bahay na bato” soon became extinct, as new modern houses emerged in the new millennium.

58 Yeo, W.-W.- (2003) Postcolonial Urbanism: Southeast Asian Cities and Global Processes. Edited by Ryan Bishop, John Phillips, and Yeo Wei Wei. New York, NY: Routledge Member of the Taylor and Francis Group.

59 King, A. D. (2004) Spaces of global cultures: Architecture, cities and Globalisation. New York: Taylor & Francis.

60 Yeo, W.-W.- (2003) Postcolonial Urbanism: Southeast Asian Cities and Global Processes. Edited by Ryan Bishop, John Phillips, and Yeo Wei Wei. New York, NY: Routledge Member of the Taylor and Francis Group. Page 117

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Figure 5.1

Skyline of today’s Manila.

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Chapter 5: The New Millennium and Globalization

Manila at this rate has changed immensely since the Philippines gained their independence in 1945. After the American period, the judicial power has been handed over to the local people that led to self-government.

Manila has then become a much larger region, as some suburbs are part of this district and has reached nearly 50 percent of the urban population growth since 1950. By 2050, Manila would be considered as one of the World’s largest urban area if this rate still continues, that would account to 45 to 50 million people. The city itself is far more complex whereas highrising commercial buildings are being built each year for businesses and substantial amount of housing communities have developed, especially within the urban-fringe. Manila brings out the best and the worst of what a city can offer, with its high population density of 15,000 people per square kilometer, traffic and pollution is an increasing problem. However, if dense areas are located near offices, schools and shops with an effective public transport, it can lead to more sustainable urban area by incorporating well-designed walkways and bicycle lanes.

There is an uneven coordination of Manila´s urban growth as Metro Manila is compromised within 17 different local governments. In fact, looking at the new urban expansion, most of it took place outside the boundaries of Metro Manila and took part of up to 85 different local governments. Clearly, this large urban region needs to be tackled by a coordinated approach and many cities around the globe, like United States, have managed to create different organizations to coordinate various services, like transportation.

Manila draws now inspiration from other Western cities to adapt this coordination to their institutional and political context.

Manila is still growing as a Westernized city, whereas all new housing communities, offices and shopping malls are taken from Western inspiration. As mentioned earlier, the European and American cities have become a uniform for many post-colonial cities. The new era has developed Manila into a global urbanism because of its long history with the Western world during its colonial and post-colonial period.

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HOUSING COMMUNITIES Housing communities in Manila are often built between the suburban and urban area. This is to avoid any heavy traffic and also provide a safer community that is ideal for growing families. School, church and shopping malls are usually located near the area and provide certain activities for children and adults. Therefore, housing communities has appealed to many modern Filipinos, as these are often safe communities within private subdivisions. Often, they are divided into different villages that provide various types of layout and design of houses. Lancaster Estates (hence the name) is one of Manila´s popular growing housing communities. The image shows the villages and different styles. However, what is interesting to see, is how the villages has names that are associated in the Western world, or UK for instance. Thus the houses are not identified as British houses but more of an American style.

Figure 5.2

In Manila, the term “Western� has become a mixture of different countries.

There is no clear indication to separate American from European. Therefore, it has generated a stereotypical image of the West in Manila.

Another example I want to include is through my own experience when visiting the Philippines. My parents and I also live at the urban-fringe of Manila in a private subdivision. However, it was a lot in the beginning and we had to arrange and contact architects ourselves. We came across an architecture firm that provided finished designs and layouts in various sizes and chose one that would fit well within the dimensions of the house lot.

Whilst we were discussing about price and materials, the architect gave us a leaflet of our chosen design asking which style we wanted.

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Figure 5.3

The image shows the leaflet he gave us, with the exact same plans. I was surprised myself, because you do not usually get to see this type of opportunity. Instead of asking what type of design you want, one can understand this as; how would you like to live? Us, as clients had the opportunity to whether we wanted to “live” the Mediterranean life, or the Asian life, that are completely different from each other.

These housing communities are an example of how globalization is taking place in Manila and in Philippines in general. Being a post-colonial country, Manila is developing into a global urbanism as most of the Western influences have taken its place here. However, globalization is a vast term and has various definitions, depending on the circumstances.

By understanding this notion, Anthony D. King’s book Spaces of Global Cultures goes into detail of how architectural transition is closely linked to history and other cultural factors by examining other statements of theorists’ as well as his own. Pieterse, a professor of Global Studies and Sociology, states that globalization is a “long-term historical process involving ancient population movements, long distance cross-cultural trade, the spread of world religions and the diffusion and development of technologies due to intercultural contact.”61 Therefrom, it is safe to say that Philippines, in affect, were a part of a globalization process soon as the first Spanish fleet came to Philippines in 1521. Colonisation is fundamental to globalization processes and is the underlying reason for why globalization exists.

The same effect has happened to the architecture, according to Iberlings; “Globalization, affects architecture in that increased mobility and telecommunications after the experience of time and space and therefore 61 King, A. D. (2004) Spaces of global cultures: Architecture, cities and Globalisation. New York: Taylor & Francis.

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affect the way that architecture and urban planning are undertaken.”62 He also takes emphasis on history and communications across different cultures to then influence the architectural culture. Architecture is always an affect of socio-cultural factors and during the Spanish colonisation; we saw how they actively traded with other countries.

PHILIPPINES TODAY It is clear that the Spaniards and Americans have changed Manila as a driven city but they may have influenced it in different notions. In the early colonial period, the Spanish people introduced new ways of constructing buildings and the expansion of townhouses became evident in Manila as well as catholic churches that is one of the biggest influences from Spain.

From Americans, it started to form into a refined city where Daniel Burnham suggested a new city plan for Manila. By introducing an educational system and the Philippine commission, the local people gained more confidence and learned how to govern their own country.

The Spaniards influenced Philippines in a more cultural way, by establishing a strong Catholicism and developing relationships between Filipinos and Spaniards. As result, it changed the values of the Filipinos and people from the different islands became more integrated in their country, sharing the same beliefs. The church became a central point within the townhouses where people gathered together. However, the strong relationship between neighbours was still maintained since the post-colonial period. Manila began to grow as a city when the Spaniards made it into a trade post and was an early stage of globalization. The nation became a mixture of SpanishFilipino people that soon shared the same values.

The Americans only arrived in late 19th century and stayed for about 50 years, in the beginning of the post-colonial era. Therefore, they did not manage to establish strong relationships with the Filipino people, as the Spaniards did. Nonetheless, they influenced Philippines in a more political way by establishing an educational system that led to a stronger nation and increased Manila’s mobility. Unfortunately, the Burnham plan did come into reality but it served as an inspiration to local the architects.

It is important to emphasize that the Spaniards came in the colonial era that mainly changed the socio-cultural factors and the history of the crosscultural trading was mainly longer than the American´s. Post-colonial Philippines accentuated the current values and culture that it had formed in the colonial era. We can understand this notion by relating it to classic orientalism and modern orientalism. Edward Said highlights aspects of orientalism, mainly the classic. He describes the Orient as “otherness” which is a contrasting element from the Western view as we have seen in former chapters.

62 King, A. D. (2004) Spaces of global cultures: Architecture, cities and Globalisation. New York: Taylor & Francis.Page 42

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The classic form of orientalism falls into Western power that had authority of the East, by building it, teaching it, and settling in as the Spanish people did. However, the modern orientalism reconstructed its lost values in the East and gained political and cultural strength but still through the Western model, as when the Americans came. Philippines gained their independence, but they will always be considered as a post-colonial country. Through the history of expansion and authorization of the West, it also helped Philippines to free themselves because, thanks to the West, they learned how to reconstruct their cities. “The modern Orientalist was, in his view, a hero rescuing the Orient from the obscurity, alienation, and strangeness which he himself had properly distinguished. His research reconstructed the Orient’s lost languages, mores, even mentalities.”63

However, what does it mean that the Filipino culture have been accentuated?

How can colonialism enhance a country’s own culture when all we hear about colonialism is taking people’s freedom? Bhabha explains through his book that “culture as a strategy of survival is both transnational and translational”64 Bhabha emphasizes that it is transnational because postcolonial modernity are linked to specific histories of cultural displacement, that we have witnessed through Spanish and American settlement in the Philippines. The translational are through such displacements in history such as migration and relocation that makes the process of cultural translation a complex issue. Distinguishing the similarities between diverse cultural experiences, becomes vital, such as literature, art, music, ritual, life and death. It is important to understand the meaning of these productions as they circulate within different contexts. The cultural translation would form a signification that would then unify a nation or certain traditions.

By these notions, we can understand certain elements of how a culture is constructed. Also, understand why the Spanish and the American influence became an important factor for the Philippines, within its architectural and cultural context.

The old town of Manila where the Spanish people resided, has now become a tourist attracion. The “Bahay Kubo” is indeed a product of evolution that have experienced all the challenges of changes in the construction built, but has now a more meaningful notion for the Filipino people. In the same way as how the Filipinos experienced its own challenges dealing with the Western people.

63

Said, E. W. (2003) Orientalism (Penguin Modern Classics). London: Penguin Classics. 121

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