SUNDERBANS THE LARGEST MANGROVE

SUNDERBANS THE LARGEST MANGROVE PRESERVATION STORY 2

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3 5 ELEZEBETH BAIJU S6- B.Arch KMEA COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE

CONTENT 1.

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CONTENT INTRODUCTION SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS AIM METHODLOGY ACKNOWLEDGEMENT BODY 7.1. HISTORY 7.2. CURRENT SCENARIO 7.3. CASESTUDY 8. CONCLUSION 9. RECCOMENDATIONS 10. APPENDIX 11. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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INTRODUCTION Between the sea and the plains of bengal , on the easternmost coast of India, lies an immense archipelago of islands. Some are vast and some no larger than sandbars, some have lasted through recorded history while others have just washed into being. These are the sunderbans. Here lives the man -eating tigers , crocodiles and other species only specific to this region This ecosystem is on the verge of extinction due to various activities both by human and nature .Tribal people or the real sons and daughters of the forest has developed their livelihood upon this basis of harmony with the forest, they coexist with forest and therefore no/limited harm is done to them from nature ( flora and fauna) Man should learn to live in harmony with the nature and forest, in today's society where deforestation is happening at rapid rate this topic hold its importance , otherwise man will always be in conflict with the nature not knowing one is digging his own pit to destruction.

The Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve calls for immediate attention from its deterioration as it has some very important characteristics distinguishing it from all other mangrove sites in the world which are listed below : • The Sundarbans is the single, largest mangrove forest in the world.

• It is the only marshy mangrove tiger land in the World heritage site.

• This region houses a very high biodiversity with unique flora and fauna.

• The mangrove forest offers effective protection and acts as a natural barrier against storms and erosion.

• Tidal amplitude and fluctuations of the Sundarbans mangroves is very high (7 m).

• Sundarbans mangroves support coastal fisheries in the East Coast of India.

• Sundarban Mangroves is a home to many endangered species like Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris), Estuarine crocodiles (Crocodilus porosus), Marsh crocodiles (Crocodilus palustris), Fishing cat, Wild pig, Deer and Marine turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea, Eretmochelys imbricata and Chelonia (mydas).

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SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

This report deals with the study of human - wildlife conflict in the sunderbans and reasons of its occurrence. History and current situation of the sunderbans is stated . Case studies of different forest and forest settlements around the world is studied and analyzed to develop useful conclusion and recommendations applicable to sunderbans region. Conclusions and recommendations are made mainly on the basis of theoretical study done on that region and a onetime visit made to the sunderban forest area.

This report only studies the periphery of the conflicts faced by human and wildlife. Detailed picture on the conflict is not provided in this report .The ideas and recommendations proposed are only in a conceptual level which is to be detailed for effective implementation and successful running of the proposals.

AIM

The aim of this report is to put forward : 

a study on human - wildlife conflict and reasons for its occurrence

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the way of tribal lifestyle

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case studies on forest settlements around the world

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recommendations and proposals for reducing man - wildlife conflict

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ways to promote eco-tourism in its true sense - in which the indigenous society gets economical benefits , wildlife in natural state is not disturbed , man gets a view of the real forests and habitation and development foster in a eco sensitive manner.

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METHODLOGY

• SITE STUDY • LITERATURE STUDY

REPORT

SITE STUDY

LITERATURE STUDY

• OBSERVATIONS OF MANGROVE FOREST • VERBAL INFORMATION ABOUT MYTHS , HISTORY AND THE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE PLACE.

• THEORETICAL STUDY ON SUNDERBANS • CASE STUDY OF OTHER FOREST TRIBES (ENAWE TRIBE), SUCCESFUL ECOTOURISM PROJECT (KAKDAU NATIONAL PARK) AND ADAPTATION OF TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE IN MODERN HOUSES (IBOS & YORUBAS - WEST AFRICA)

• REASON OF MAN- NATURE CONFLICT • THREATS TO NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS CONCLUSION

PROPOSAL

• FOR FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF ECO-TOURISM • REDUCING MAN- WILDLIFE CONFLICT

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Thanks , To my faculties for their support in this project.

To my guides : Ar. Abishek xavier , Ar. Monlita chatterjee and Ar.shiva namberi for their timely support , patience , guide and assistance in this report .

To the head of the department , Ar. Shyne U. in allowing us to take the first step to this report - the tour. all my classmates and friends.

Above all , the Almighty and my parents.

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BACKGROUND Sundarbans, has about 9,600 sq. Km of mangrove forest and water (of which 40% lies in West Bengal, India and the rest is part of Bangladesh), sunder bans is the world's largest delta (80,000 sq. Km) formed due to sediments deposited by three major rivers, the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna , which converge in the Bengal Basin. "The whole of Sundarban area is intersected by an intricate network of interconnecting waterways, of which the larger channels are often a mile or more in width and run in a north-south direction."* Mangrove trees are the most flourished flora in Sundarbans , out of the 50 species of mangroves recognized world over, over 35 species are known to occur in Sundarbans. Sundarbans is said to have derived its name from a peculiar mangrove species known as Sundari tree (Heritiera fomes) wildly found in these regions.

However, in today's context the Sundari trees are absent in the Indian part of sunderban forest except for a few stunted trees that occur in the core region of the Sundarbans Tiger Reserve.

Human intervention was first spotted in Sunderbans from olden times , in record , exploitation of the forest reserves is believed to have started in 1757 when Mirjafar ( the regent at that period) gave away 24 paraganas to British east India company.

Thereafter, began the never ending season of exploitation of sunderban forests , the main eyes were on timber, honey , fish and other abundant resources of these floating forests.

Large areas of forests were cleared , trees fell which finally resulted in large scale depletion

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of the main forest area and its wealth worth life. Which also lead to serious and grave ecological imbalances.

Due to the continuous destruction of forest for such a prolonged time commencing with the Britishers and which continued until recently made it impossible to locate the natural forest ranges of sunderbans . One can find only an area of 4263sq.km of natural forest range now solely because it is been declared 'Protected'.

History of sunderbans

To understand something completely , one must understand from where it came from , what it went through and how it stood the test of time, this is the relevance of studying the history of sunderbans .

"The history of the area can be rooted back to 200–300 AD. A ruin of a city built by Chand Sadagar has been found in the Baghmara Forest Block. During the Mughal period, the Mughal Kings leased the forests of the Sundarbans to nearby residents. Many criminals took refuge in the Sundarbans from the advancing armies of Emperor Akbar. Many have been known to be attacked by tigers. Many of the buildings which were built by them later fell to hands of Portuguese pirates, salt smugglers and dacoits in the 17th century.

Evidence of the fact can be traced from the ruins at Netidhopani and other places scattered all over Sundarbans. The legal status of the forests underwent a series of changes, including the distinction of being the first mangrove forest in the world to be brought under scientific management. The area was mapped first in Persian, by the Surveyor General as early as 1764 following soon after proprietary rights were obtained from the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II by the British East India Company in 1757. Systematic management of this forest tract started in the 1860s after the establishment of a Forest Department in the Province of Bengal, in British India. The management was entirely designed to extract whatever treasures were available, but labor and lower management mostly were staffed by locals, as the British had no expertise or adaptation experience in mangrove forests. " * "Sunderban Mangroves". Geological Survey of India. Retrieved 21 January 2010 * "Sunderbans". Protected areas and World Heritage sites. United Nations Environmental

Programme.

Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 February 2010. Retrieved 21 January 2010.

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In the pre-independence period the Sundarban mangroves were a part of The Sundarbans forest division, which had its headquarters at Khulna. When Radcliff Commission awarded the western portion of Sundarbans to West Bengal in 1947, this was named as 24 Parganas Forest Division with Headquarters at Alipore, Calcutta. In the year 1973, 2585 sq. Km of this Mangrove forest situated in the eastern part and adjoining Bangladesh was Declared a Project Tiger Area with the objective of protecting and conserving The famous Bengal Tigers of these forests. With this aim in view, a core area Totally protected from all human interference and a buffer area in which Resources could be used in a sustainable basis, were created. The area outside This core and buffer area consisting of about 1678 sq. Km forms the 24 Parganas (South) division, which falls, under the south circle. Within the Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve there are three Wildlife Sanctuaries and the Core area was subsequently declared as a National Park. Within the Core area Of the reserve forest an area of about 124.40 sq. Km was preserved as a "Primitive Zone" to act as "Gene Pool".'*

A chronology of historical event pertaining to Sundarbans is as under: 1. Formation of 24 Parganas Division : 1947 2. Declaration of Project Tiger Area : 1973 3. Formation of Sajnekhali Wildlife Sanctuary : 1976 4. Formation of Lothian Island Sanctuary : 1976 5. Formation of Haliday Island Sanctuary : 1976 6. Declaration of Sundarbans National Park : 1984 7. Recognised as a World Heritage Site : 1989 8. Declaration of Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve : 1989 * Laskar Muqsudur, Rahman. "The Sundarbans: A Unique Wilderness of the World"(PDF). Wilderness.net.

Retrieved 21 January 2010.

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Current scenario in sunderban forest area Socio-economic conditions prevailing in Sundarbans

Approximately, a population of 3.2 million inhabits this vast saline tract, which consists of 54 of low-lying conglomeration of islands interconnected through tidal rivers, creeks and marshes. People are poor and uneducated and they depend on single crop agriculture for their food. fishing, honey and wood collection from form part of their survival. In the absence of an alternate employment and low economic profile, they depend on traditional skills to earn their livelihood and depend largely on forest resources like firewood, timber wood, honey, bee wax, Golpata and tend to resort to illegal practices like poaching and felling which sometimes makes them prone to tiger attacks.

They collect tiger shrimp seeds in large numbers there by causing damage to juvenile fish stock and mangroves.

Fishing hamlets, Pakhiralay Village

Honey collectors in Sundarbans forests

A large pack of people migrate from hooghly-matla estuary during winters near lower zone of the sea to setup fishing camps and participate in this activity from October end to early February.

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Crab fishing in Katuajhuri Forests

tourism done with thehelp of localite

Indian side of Sundarbans measuring around 4000 sq. kms consists of 102 islands just 16 short of the number of islands in the city of Venice. Out of 102 islands of Indian sundarbans, 54 are inhabitated and 48 are forested. Still Indian Sundarban is around 10 times bigger than the city of Venice. village of sunderbans www.gettyimages.com

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ENAWENE NAWE

The Enawene Nawe are a small Amazonian tribe who live in the forests of Mato Grosso state, Brazil. They are a relatively isolated people who were first contacted in 1974, when they numbered only 97 individuals. Today their population is around 500.

The entire tribe lives in one village, in enormous communal houses – each of them home to up to 50 people. The houses are set around a circle in the centre of the village where ritual and communal activities are performed.

A couple of 'malocas' (communal houses) in the Enawene Nawe village

Enawene Nawe men perform the YĂŁkwa ritual, a fourmonth exchange of food between humans and the ancestral spirits

http://www.survivalinternational.org/tribes/enawenenawe/howdotheylive

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The Enawene Nawe Indians are one of the very few tribes in the world who eat no red meat. Their home is a rich and beautiful territory of rainforest and savannah on the edge of Brazil’s Amazon basin. It provides them with everything they need: crops like corn and manioc, honey, and above all, abundant fish. They are divided into clans and live in a dozen large malocas, or communal houses, made of wood and thatch. These are built in a circle extending from ‘the house of the sacred flutes’ in the centre.

Maintaining balance and harmony with nature and the spirit world is essential. The Enawene Nawe universe has two levels and they live between the two.

The upper level is the home of the enore nawe, or celestial spirits, who are the owners of honey and certain flying insects. They accompany the Enawene Nawe on fishing trips and expeditions to gather forest produce, and protect them from the dangers of the world beyond the village.

The subterranean level is the realm of the yakairiti, or spirits of the underworld. Kawari, an elder of the tribe, explains their role: ‘all this land belongs to the yakairiti who are the owners of the natural resources. If you finish off the earth and the fish, the yakairiti will take vengeance and kill all the Enawene Nawe.’

During the fishing season, Enawene Nawe men build wooden dams to catch fish, Brazil.

Rituals and fishing : Enawene Nawe are expert fishermen. In the dry season they catch fish using spears or by stunning them with a poison made from the juice of a forest vine. In the wet season they build intricate wooden dams across rivers to trap large quantities of fish.

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They spend several months camped in the forest, smoking the caught fish in specially built houses and then sending them back to the village by canoe. http://www.survivalinternational.org/tribes/enaw enenawe/howdotheylive

This tribe lives in harmony with the nature but external human factors are now leading into extinction of this tribe. tomorrow this tribe will be only read in books of history , human due to his greed overpower everything and everyone coming in his way which gives way to the war between nature and man , which cause destruction to the human race.

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Man in conflict with nature

Leopard attacks in India http://www.walkthroughindia.com/wildlife/thedeadly-human-wildlife-conflict-in-india-people-andwildlife/

Exposed roots due to extensive soil erosion in the area International Multidisciplinary Research Journal

Man's interference into nature

Wildlife's interference with villages

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Deforestation

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Loss of natural habitat

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Collection of forest goods

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Preying

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Growing human population

5. Terror and fear created in people

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Fishing

6. Wild animals coming into villages

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Industries

as they lack space for natural

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Loud noise and other human

habitation

1. Loss of human life 2. Crop damage 3. Killing of livestock 4. Injuries to humans

activities which disturb wildlife

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MAN EATING TIGERS

from the earliest records itself , it has been stated that the royal bengal tigers of sunderbans had been man-eaters , The various groups of humans falling prey to tigers are predominantly honey collectors, fishermen including crab collectors, tiger prawn seed collectors and Forest department staff.

The main reasons attributed for man eating tendency of Sundarban tigers are as follows:

1. Salinity

Hendrics (1975) was the first to notice an increased percentage of human death by tiger in high salinity zone followe by Siddiqi & chowdhury (1987) also found that human killing is high in high salinity zone when compared to medium and low salinity zone. there are many theories claiming that the physiology of Sundarban Tigers is affected by high salinity which causes irritation resulting in human killing by tiger. But there is no scientific proof of this. It is to be kept in mind that inner organs like liver, kidney etc can be investigated histologically & management authority presently decides to do that in case of any tiger death.

2. Vegetation

Chakrabarty (1978) identified that habitat of pure Ceriops & Phoenix does stand for highest human killing by tiger.

It can be attributed that dense vegetation of Ceriops & Phoneix may influence the tiger to explore different preying strategy which may be successful for killing of human being after following them & assessing the chance of stalking by getting closest to them.

3. Prey density & Biotic interference

personal experiences of people and studies by various experts have made the following conclusions about pre density and biotic interference : 

it is claimed that frequency of human killing is highest in areas with highest human concentration.

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it is proved that the increased utilization of forest by humans result in higher chances of casualties as the man is standing in a tiger territory.

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studied that less prey density might also trigger up high human death if the biotic interference is maximum.

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lack of weapons with people to scare away the tigers is also one of the reason for tiger attack

However, tiger density, prey density, kind & frequency of human activities & human casualties can’t be co-related as long as sufficient data are not available.

4. Tiger straying The major issue in managing Human- Tiger conflict in Sunderbans Tiger Reserve is the straying of tiger into fringe villages & the rescue of the same without causing any harm on either side. It is worth mentioning here that STR’s only north – western boundary has an interface with 25 fringe villages which are densely populated with human & cattle.

Many times it becomes possible for the staff and local villagers to drive the tiger back to the forest by using drums, crackers, fire etc. Sometimes tiger also goes back to the forest on its own. These straying incidents are termed as Temporary Straying, where in case of any repeated phenomenon, trap cage with live bait is being used to trap the tiger & then relocate the same.

In Permanent Straying, the tiger takes refuge in a cattle shed or inside any village hut, when tranquilization is used to rescue the animal. tigers in Sundarban stray into the neighboring villages because they are situated in the reclaimed forest land and in same places the boundary between the forest & agricultural land is even not distinct. Some villages have small patches of mangrove forests so the tiger gets into these forests by losing direction.

Sometimes tiger easily cross the small creek in search of easy prey like cow & goat.

Tigress sometimes litters inside the paddy field as she wants to avoid the danger of male tiger. Old aged & diseased tigers like the ones with broken canine also stray because it is difficult to hunt the prey in forest & finds easy to prey on domestic cattle. (source - control of human tiger conflict in sundarban tiger reserve nilanjan mallick, conservator of forests monitoring circle, west bengal)

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CONCLUSION

Major threats to the Ecosystem 

Waste is been generated by the local population , in addition to that untreated waste of Kolkata region also is dumped in sunderbans.

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Clearance of the forest area due to increase in

Ground after Harvesting in Sundarban http://www.suryamission.co.in/Constrai nts%20of%20Management.htm

demand for fuel wood , construction activities, agricultural expansion and housing needs. 

Highly vulnerable to national disasters : violent storms causing erosion.

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Collection of post larval tiger shrimps causes destruction of finfish and shell fish.

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Discharge of oil from boats and oil tanker leading to pollution.

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Intensive agriculture activities using fertilizer and pesticides.

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increase in population

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single crop harvest : only a single crop can

Oil Spill In Bangladesh's Sundarbans Mangroves Threatens Endangered Dolphins, Wildlife www.ibtimes.com

be grown in an year due to lack of fresh water tapping in the area.

The wildlife i.e. The fauna has started to reciprocate the destruction done to them by humans by killing, stealing away their goods and causing terror in the villages nearby. The natural habitat of inhabitants of forest whether humans (tribal people) or animals are been taken away by local villagers or for their greed of money, comfort

children work in shrimp industry, girl catch shrimp larvae www.alamy.com

and power which leaves the original inhabitants homeless which makes them come into villages and harm the villagers

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RECCOMENDATION TO SAVE THE FOREST AREA AND WILDLIFE In order to preserve this pristine environment and protect it from further depletion , the following rules are set out by the government and the concerned authorities: • As the entire area falls under CRZ I category, all prohibitory and regulatory activities in the zone as recommended under the CRZ Notification should be strictly enforced.

• Reclamation of the forest along the peripheral regions for other developmental activities to be avoided.

• Waste generated should be treated/managed properly before they reach the rivers of Sundarbans.

• Eco-restoration programmes to be popularized among the local population in order to facilitate community based management.

• Eco-Tourism should be encouraged. The efforts should be made to educate the tourists sufficiently, so that they do not damage the Environment in any way.

• Areas of natural mangrove regeneration to be marked and protected. source : No. 25/35/2013-ESZ-RE Government of India Ministry of Environment and Forests Human vs. Nonhuman: Environmental Issues and Concerns in Amitav Ghosh’sThe Hungry Tide

Recommendations based on the study: 

Alternate sources of fuel instead of Mangroves to be provided to the local communities.

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Special policies and measures should be made to address the ecological problems in the Sundarbans.

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Local people need to be sensitized on environmental issues of global warming and its impact on their islands

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Providing basic amenities like water, electricity and health requirements

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Eco-friendly projects to be implemented with the active participation of locals

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To minimize man-animal conflict, and prevent people from entering forests frequently, alternate income and resource should be provided

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Role of government to undertake poverty mitigating activities and programmes

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Developmental activities to be initiated and properly promoted and implemented

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Tourists to the area to be sensitized about the environment

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Tourist awareness, to reduce littering around the area

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Involving educational institutions, industries and NGO‘s to work with the people of the area towards community development and habitat maintenance

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Tapping their ingenious knowledge systems and using it for knowledge production of the region

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groundwater recharging and rainwater harvesting systems to incorporated to tap in fresh water for the people.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR REHABILITATION AND RESTORATION OF PEOPLE AND ADOPTION OF ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY SETTLEMENT PATTERNS

The scope of tribal livelihood comes into importance in this context , by understanding their livelihood and analyzing them , one can improvise it into modern context and adopt a livelihood which coexist with nature . Eco-tourism also to be developed in par with natural song of forest so that people can also get the essence and importance of these largest mangrove forest in India ,importance of preserving such forests and the fruits of eco-living and ecotourism.

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CASE STUDY

Environment and adaptation in architecture planning and building designs; lesson from the forest region of West Africa source :British Journal of Environmental Sciences Vol.2, No.1, pp. 9-20, March 2014

In many regions of the world, the natural environment is sometimes severe.

Traditional architecture is one of the method to suitably adapt to local environment and climate. Variety of traditional architectural house typology can be spotted in west Africa which pertains to different dominant tribes of the region. these typologies have been evolved by them to suit their needs. there are examples ranging from one room designs to community housing complexes with sanitation points, water sources and other facilities. There are also group houses and compounds the characteristics of which reflect the traditions of the various tribes and their family life. Many of the architectural design of these houses reflect the significance of the environment and indicate the need to take advantage of the traditional architecture in modern architecture. In spite of the significance of traditional architecture, particularly for adapting to the environment, not much has been done to examine the characteristics and the need to take the advantage of traditional architecture in modern architecture.

This is for example the case in West Africa where, even in rural areas, the present day architecture have done a lot to alienate traditional cultures in designs, and eliminate local skills, making the local artisans obsolete. Also, most available studies and books discuss mainly modern architecture to the neglect of traditional architecture. Thus, “environmental decay” has been increasing at an alarming rate, and the “abuse of the environment” has become responsible for a lot of major ecological imbalances. Thus, the need to create ‘model’ architecture with improved housing facilities using local resources and involving community participation with strong motivation cannot be over-emphasized. In doing this, the first step of a good knowledge of the ‘concept’ and characteristics of traditional architecture is essential.

Thus, there is an urgent need to have information on the characteristics and usefulness of traditional architecture. The study illustrates these characteristics by using major tribes in West Africa.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE

The Yorubas build courtyard architecture .

The basic form is cuboidal with a rectangular impluvial courtyard, placed in the rectilinear compound. A typical compound has only a single entrance into the compound which leads to the colonnaded courtyard. The rooms are rectangular or square and arranged in a linear pattern to surround the courtyard which acts as the centre of activities or point of focus. The household head occupies the room near the entry gate to provide surveillance and security.

The tribe shows hierarchy from the oldest to youngest. Sometimes two rooms (with one serving as visitor’s room) are provided. The older boys occupy the corner rooms because the rooms are bigger than the other rooms which are allocated to the wives and their children. These rooms have small windows and doors, which open to the verandah and the immediate courtyard.

The corridors of the Yoruba houses run through the inner periphery of the building and enclose the compound in a unifying manner. These architectural characteristics are an excellent solution for air circulation within the

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compound. The spatial flow of the corridors is very well defined by the columns, while the roots which overhang above the corridors tend to reduce the glare from the sun. The colonnaded corridor (oode, odede) allow for visual continuity (defensible space, harmony, surveillance in the adjoining courtyard, while the courtyard is an active social space for commerce, recreation and domestic chores through which members of the family come together. Thus, the corridor represents a strong physical and social centre in inter-family relationship within the strong kinship system. The head being the decision-maker, bears the risks of the compound, and can be likened to an entrepreneur in a business venture. He has his room placed close to the entrance gate for control and restriction of movement in and out of the compound. He is regarded as the first and most important person in the compound; hence his room is first approached. Thus one can identify the front and some part of the back as dwelling/sleeping areas, while in the rear are concentrated domestic arid household activities such as cooking and bathing. The housing organizations simply illustrate the architecture as radiating spatial and orderly arrangements of function and spacesThe core space of the courtyard thus enhances the interaction and sense of unity of the people, which further reinforces the respect and cultural values they have for one another. The basic geometry adopted by the Yorubas in traditional architecture is a manifestation and a good marriage of culture and architecture. Most compounds have wells for domestic water, while recreational activities provide I other social events

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The Ibos

The Ibo build huts of rectangular units of clay (mud) and thatch, both of which are obtained from the environment. Before building a new compound, a man plants stick of the ‘Ogilisi’ tree” .The tree represents the owner’s dead father. Also, in the centre of the compound is the ‘egbo’ tree, which is called Chukwu (god).

This, together with the shrines in the compound represents the Ibo man’s religious peculiarity. The compound is surrounded by a well - about 2-3m in height. The front section of the wall has an entrance with a door. Huts are built individually around the head of the family’s hut (Obi), in a cluster, while ensuring safe distance amongst the other huts for privacy, lighting and ventilation. The villages and the surroundings were harmonious and perfect in their proportions.

Everything was inspired by a certain orderliness. Most people are involved in the erection of their own buildings and labor is drawn from friends and relations. This considerately reduce costs of construction. The walls are usually of clay or with wooden framework in the wattle and daub system. Some construct single room huts with closely packed upright logs. The intervening spaces

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in between serve for ventilation. Puddled clay is usually used for the best houses.

Where rainfall is very heavy, palms leaves are used for roofing because the run-off is faster on palm leaves than on thatch. Thus, the roofs made of palm leaves with high pitch are able to drain off the rainwater more easily.

The mud walls are kept low and the roof overhang the wall, thereby providing protection for the walls. Very old iroko trees with ritual and mystical contents gave grace, a sense of stability and direction to the complex network of the foot-tracks.

These footpaths were of primary importance to the people; they were seen and understood in the content of the region and it tradition. They bore, not only close, but definite relationships to the sacred surroundings, merging and fitting themselves into the landscape.

Generally, the landscape is sufficiently integrated, varied and exciting to give pleasure and relief to the man travelling on foot. To go from a point on an ecological corridor to another is to go through series of experiences. Natural features such as topography, the use of trees as focal point in the open spaces, and the use of rock and earth mound formations in the landscape were seen as symbols of existence. To exist and to continue to exist has always been the cherished hope of the people; therefore, each settlement sought a symbol of its own existence, a centre on which to focus life. While the village square remained the hub of communal life, the Ibo market is an institution, which articulates the dimensions of space and time.

These open spaces are devoted to specific local gods which act as the guardian spirits, and which have to be appeased from time to time with food and drink offerings.

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KAKADU NATIONAL PARK Kakadu National Park is a protected area in the Northern Territory of Australia, 171 km southeast of Darwin. The park is located within the Alligator Rivers Region of the Northern Territory. It covers an area of 19,804 km2 extending nearly 200 kilometers from north to south and over 100 kilometers

Jim Jim Creek

from east to west .The Ranger Uranium Mine, one of the most productive uranium mines in the world, is surrounded by the park The Kakadu National Park is proclaimed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (the EPBC Act) and is managed through a joint management arrangement between the Aboriginal traditional owners and the Director of National Parks. The Kakadu Board of Management, has an Aboriginal majority (ten out of fifteen members),

Aboriginal Rock Art, Ubirr Art Site

representing the Aboriginal traditional owners of land in the park.

The Board determines policy for managing the park and is responsible, along with the Director, for preparing plans of management for the park. Day-to-day management of Kakadu is by the aborigine society itself.

Approximately one-third of the staff in Kakadu are Aboriginal people.

Through a variety of arrangements,

Jim Jim Falls and Crocodile Hotel - Jabiru

aboriginals are involved in the planning and management of

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Kakadu National Park, and their views are obtained in relation to any developments. Senior traditional owners are permanently employed as cultural advisors, other aboriginals are employed as Park Rangers, and special training courses in park management have been developed for young aboriginals. In Kakadu National Park, aboriginal experience has proven to have considerable application to park operations and the protection of wilderness values.Kakadu National Park was born from that vision of compromise and shared land use.

Important aim of the joint management partners is to make sure that traditional skills and knowledge of the aboriginians is kept alive and is used for the benefit of the society and

Aerial - Mount Borradail

country . These traditional knowledge is practiced in weed management, buffalo eradication, fire regimes, management of art sites, interpretation of Aboriginal culture and planning which proved to advantageous.

The traditional owners expect to benefit from their land being managed as a national park through direct employment in the Park and by providing services to the Park management authority. Knowledge generation and education functions are also important benefits

Salt water crocodile

provided by the site alongside its role as a natural laboratory for scientific research The joint management system of the Kakadu National Park showcases how 'joint management' can combine ancient but dynamic culture and modern conservation practice. Bininj landowners have two leading responsibilities – looking after country gunred and looking after people guhpleddi (Gundjemjeihmi Aboriginal Corporation, 2014).

East Alligator River Crossing

1. http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/pages/3f3a19ff-9007-4ce6-8d4fcd8ade380804/files/chap02.pdf 2.http://www.worldheritageoutlook.iucn.org/-/indigenous-lands-joint-management-at-kakadu-national-parkaustralia

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APPENDIX- 1

POSITION OF WEST BENGAL IN INDIA

WEST BENGAL ROUTE MAP : SUNDERBAN FOREST RESERVE IN WEST BENGAL

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APPENDIX -2

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APPENDIX -3

Map of kakadu national park bushbaby.travel.com

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. https://www.google.co.in/search?q=extraordinary+images+of+sunderban S&biw=1366&bih=623&espv=2&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjCub aZ7q3LAhUMT44KHZYSAmAQ_AUIBygB#imgrc=bulUjpQ-rX8CJM%3A 2. shosheecomputer.wordpress.com 3. http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/pages/3f3a19ff-9007-4ce6-8d4fcd8ade380804/files/chap02.pdf) 4. http://topyaps.com/11-amazing-facts-sundarban 5. http://topyaps.com/11-amazing-facts-sundarban 6. .http://www.nairaland.com/1553297/igr-debate-reloaded/1 7. https://arenhistory.wordpress.com/2010/10/05/the-igbo-tribe/ 8. http://www.parksaustralia.gov.au/uluru/index.html 9. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Kakadu_National_Park#/media/File:Jim_Jim_Cr eek.jpg image source - page 31 1. wonderfulsiteoftheworld.blogspot.com 2. www.touropia.com 3. www.tourdesundarbans.com 4. http://topyaps.com/11-amazing-facts-sundarban

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