Sensation and perception 10th edition goldstein solutions manual

Sensation and Perception 10th Edition Goldstein Solutions Manual Visit to download the full and correct content document: https://testbankdeal.com/dow nload/sensation-and-perception-10th-edition-goldstein-solutions-manual/

CHAPTER 6: VISUAL ATTENTION

Chapter Outline I.

Introduction A. Some Questions We Will Consider

II.

Scanning a Scene A. Demonstration: Looking for a Face in the Crowd B. Mechanics of Scanning 1. Fixation 2. Saccadic eye movement 3. Overt attention 4. Covert attention

III.

What Directs Our Attention?

A. Visual Salience 1. Demonstration: Attentional Capture 2. Saliency maps B. Cognitive Factors 1. Scene Schemas a. Shinoda et al. (2001) traffic sign simulator study 2. Observer Interests and Goals a. Observing eye movements 3. Task-Related Knowledge a. Eye-movements determined primarily by task b. “Just in time” strategy

IV.

What Are the Benefits of Attention?

A. Attention Speeds Responding 1. Speeding Responding to Locations a. Spatial attention b. Method: Precueing i. Valid and invalid trials 2. Speeding Responding to Objects a. Same-object advantage B. Attention Can Influence Appearance 1. Perceptual response 2. Speed of responding 3. Perceived contrast (e.g., Carrasco et al., 2004) C. Attention Can Influence Physiological Responding 1. Attention to Objects Increases Activity in Specific Areas of the Brain 2. Attention to Locations Increases Activity in Specific Areas of the Brain 3. Attention Synchonizes Neural Activity Between Areas of the Brain

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a. Local Field Potential (LFP) V.

Test Yourself 6.1

VI.

Attention and Experiencing a Coherent World 1. Why Is Binding Necessary? a. Binding problem 2. Feature Integration Theory (FIT) a. Preattentive stage b. Focused attention stage c. FIT and Divided Attention i. Illusory conjunctions ii. Balint’s syndrome d. FIT and Visual Search i. Conjunction search ii. Demonstration: Search for Conjunctions e. FIT and Top-Down Control

VII.

What Happens When We Don’t Attend?

A. Inattentional Blindness B. Change Blindness 1. Demonstration: Change detection a. Continuity errors C. Is Attention Necessary for Perceiving Scenes?

1. Evidence That Perception Can Occur Without Attention a. Dual task procedures – Li et al. (2002) b. Central vs. peripheral task 2. Evidence That Perception Requires Attention a. Cohen et al. (2010)

VIII.

Distraction A. Distraction and Task Characteristics 1. Effect of task-irrelevant stimuli B. Attention and Perceptual Load 1. Load theory of attention a. Perceptual capacity b. Perceptual load c. Low- and high-load tasks

IX.

Something to Consider: Distracted Driving A. 100-Car Naturalistic Driving Study (Dingus et al. 2006) B. Cell-phone study (Strayer and Johnston 2001)

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X.

Developmental Dimension: Attention and Perceptual Completion A. Object unity B. Method: Habituation 1. Habituation and dishabituation C. Studies 1. Kelman and Spelke (1983) 2. Slater et al. (1990) 3. Johnson and Aslin (1995) 4. Johnson et al. (2004) a. Perceivers vs. non-perceivers

XI.

Test Yourself 6.2

XII.

Think About It

XIII.

Key Terms

Learning Objectives At the end of the chapter, the student should be able to: 1. Define attention and explain why attention is necessary.

2. Identify the factors that determine where a person looks in a visual scene with supporting examples from research studies.

3. Describe Posner et al.’s (1978) precueing task and what it revealed about attention.

4. Explain the same-object advantage and the implications for attention.

5. Describe the link between neural responding and attention.

6. Define change detection, change blindness, and continuity errors.

7. Describe how the dual-task procedure has been used to determine the role of attention in scene perception; also discuss findings from those studies.

8. Describe the load theory of attention and how it accounts for the interaction between task difficulty and distraction.

9. Compare and contrast feature and conjunction searches.

10. Discuss methods and findings from developmental studies of attention and perceptual completion.

Chapter Overview/ Summary Chapter 6 begins with a discussion of the need for attention to regulate the overwhelming amount of information in the environment. It is necessary to focus on “interesting” or “important” aspects of the environment A brief overview of eye movements follows as they are one observable measure of attention. The factors involved in determining where we look in a visual scene are then discussed. These are: (1) stimulus salience; (2) knowledge about the scene; and (3) task requirements (as exemplified by scanning when making a sandwich) and predictions about dynamic interactions involved in the task (as © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

exemplified by Shinoda et al.’s driving simulation study). The next section of the chapter addresses how attention enhances perception. Responses to attended locations (spatial attention; Posner et al., 1978) are faster as are responses to locations within attended objects (e.g., Egly et al. 1994). Attending to a stimulus can also affect perceived stimulus contrast (Carraasco et al., 2004). In addition to behavioral effects, attention is reflected in physiological responses. First, when images are superimposed, applying attention to one, will lead to increased activation in the relevant brain region. For example, “focusing” on a house that has a face superimposed on it will lead to increased activation in the PPA, but not the FFA. Second, covert “movement” of attention can be used to create an “attention map” corresponding to locations in a scene. Those maps can be used to predict where someone is attending in the scene. Finally, attention can shift the location of a neuron’s receptive field. Perception can also be affected by a lack of focused attention: this is demonstrated by “inattentional blindness” and “change detection.” Inattentional blindness occurs when observers fail to report an unattended stimulus even though they look right at it. Simons and Chabris (1999) demonstrated this by showing a film of people playing basketball, when a person in a gorilla suit walks through. Observers rarely report seeing the “gorilla.” In the change detection task, any difference between two successively presented scenes is reported; the difficulty in doing this is termed “change blindness,” (e.g., Rensink, 2002). Change blindness is related to the concept of continuity errors, evident in many Hollywood films. Even when observers are forewarned that changes in the scenes will occur, change detection is still difficult. With evidence for the importance of attention in stimulus processing, some wonder if attention is required for the perception of any complex stimulus. The dual-task procedure has been used to investigate this question in regards to scene perception (here “scene” is loosely defined).

Results of a series of studies suggest that some attention may be required for scene perception. A discussion of the interaction between task difficulty and the processing of irrelevant stimuli helps explain the mixed results found in scene perception research.

When a task is difficult, irrelevant stimuli are less likely to be detected/distracting than when the primary task is easy. This finding is explained by a load theory of attention and can be related back to the scene-attention research. In addition to being necessary for basic detection and recognition, attention is needed to experience a “coherent” world.

Perception seems to provide a cohesive experience, but that only comes about via the integration of many information sources, this is referred to as the binding problem.

Treisman’s feature integration theory states that features are extracted in a preoperational stage and then “glued” together in the focused attention stage. Illusory conjunctions are used as support for this binding function of attention, as is the functioning of individuals with Balint’s syndrome. Visual search of “real” conjunctions also highlights the importance of binding. The “Something to Consider” section of the chapter addresses research on distracted driving, and the use of cell-phones while driving.

The chapter concludes with a discussion of the relationship between infant movement perception, eye movements/attention, and object perception (perceptual completion). An infant’s ability to perceive objects as unified has been tested using occluded rods as stimuli. The perception of a unified rod does occur by 4 months, but movement of the rod is key to this perception. Johnson showed the importance of eye movements in developing this ability.

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Demonstrations, Activities, and Lecture Topics (1) Video Suggestion: “The Mind’s Eye: How the Brain Sees the World” has a clever example of change blindness. Participants walk up to a counter where the researcher presents the consent form. The researcher then ducks down below the counter to get something, and a second researcher replaces the first. Very few participants notice the change! The film includes the reaction of the participants when they are informed of the change. Video is available from Films for the Humanities & Sciences (KWX11458-KS for DVD).

(2) Attention Operating Characteristics (AOCs): Ronald Kinchla developed a way of analyzing the results of attention experiments that is similar to signal detection theory. If you cover Appendix D earlier in the course, you can show the similarities between the ROCs and the AOCs. The references below expand on Kinckla’s pioneering work.

Kinchla, R.E. (1980). The measurement of attention. In Nickerson, R.S. (ed), Attention and Performance VIII. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Sperling, G., & Melchner, M. J. (1978). The attention operating characteristic: Examples from visual search. Science, 202, 315-318.

Sperling, G., & Dosher, B. A. (1986). Strategy and optimization in human information processing. In K. Boff, L. Kaufman, and J. Thomas (eds.), Handbook of Perception and Performance Vol. 1, 2-1 – 2-65. New York: Wiley.

Sperling, G., Wurst, S. A., & Lu, Z-L. (1993). Using repetition detection to define and localize the processes in selective attention. In Meyer, D. E., & Kornblum, S. (eds.), Attention and Performance XIV. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

(3) How Did They Do That?: Attentional Blink: An additional phenomenon that has generated much research is the attentional blink, in which a second target stimulus is not reported in RSVP (rapid serial visual presentation) tasks. The idea is that attention directed to the first target stimulus uses up attentional resources for about 500 ms, in which time the second target is presented. Jane Raymond is a prominent researcher on the attentional blink. She has graciously submitted a narrative of her discovery of the effect: “At about the time we discovered the ‘attentional blink’ in the lab, I was actually doing a lot of work on visual motion perception, thinking about visual information that changes in both space and time and is perceived in episodes.

Attention research at this time was tightly focused on spatial attention, the spotlight metaphor, and how we select information from static scenes. I wondered if attention, the spotlight, could also operate in a space-time framework like

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motion. Could the spotlight work in episodes, switching on and off? These ideas were the beginning of the conceptual groundwork for the attentional blink.

“During this time period, I was becoming too busy to do my own computer programming in the lab. I had little kids at home, too many students, university committees, etc. My life just wasn’t compatible with zoning out for three or four days at a time writing computer code. So I decided to try one of the new (at that time) high-level software packages that could generate behavioural experiments more easily. As a test, I decided to re-do a simple experiment reported by Wechselgartner and Sperling (1987) that involved presenting a rapid sequence of letters. Moreover, their procedure seemed well suited for looking at how attention is used across time, something I was developing curiosity about. However, their procedure seemed overly complicated to me, so I slimmed it down devising a simple dual task RSVP procedure optimal for probing attention in time. I left it with my student, Karen Arnell, and went off for a holiday. When I can back, she had collected a stunning set of data that we realised very quickly was something important. It turned out that the software package was terrible (its timing was hopeless); we had to redo the programming (back to creating code from scratch) and run the experiments all over again. So much for short cuts! After many hours of discussion with Kim Shapiro and Karen Arnell, we hammered out the critical control experiments and developed an interpretation of what we had found. The name, the attentional blink came to me because we were also doing some eye movement studies of a visual perception task … and noticed that people habitually blink just when a trial ends. It seemed to me that when an attentional episode is over, the attentional system does just what the eyes do—blink!”

Raymond, J. E., Shapiro, K. L., & Arnell, K. M. (1992). Temporary suppression of visual processing in an RSVP task: An attentional blink? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 18, 849-860.

Raymond, J. E. (2003). New objects, not new features, trigger the attentional blink. Psychological Science, 14, 54-59.

Shapiro, K .L., Arnell, K. M., & Raymond, J.E. (1997). The attentional blink.

Trends in Cognitive Science, 1, 291-296.

(4) Feature Integration Theory: The best way for students in understand Treisman’s feature integration theory is to be an observer in a visual search task.

The CD-ROM has a module in which the student can search for different targets, to demonstrate the difference between pre-attentive processes and focused attention.

(5) Brain scanning studies of attention: For a great reference for information on the physiology of attention, get Attention & Performance XX. Part 3 includes many reviews in this area, including a chapter by Hillyard, who is a leading researcher in this field.

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Hillyard, S. (2004). Imaging of visual attention. In Kanwisher, N., & Duncan, J. (eds), Attention & Performance XX. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Osman also has a great chapter on the physiology of attention in a cognitive science book.

Osman, A. (1998). Brainwaves and mental processes: Electrical evidence of attention, perception, and intention. In Scarborough, D., & Sternberg, S. (eds), An invitation to cognitive science, Volume 4: Methods, models, and conceptual issues (2nd edition). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

(6) Annual Reviews of Psychology: A great place to get an overview of the major issues in any topic area is the Annual Reviews of Psychology. Several chapters have been devoted to attention. Some of the topics included in these chapters match the text material, such as early vs. late selection, theories of attention, and processing of non-attended stimuli. Some specific resources are provided below.

Posner, M.I., & Rothbart, M.K. (2007). Research on Attention Networks as a Model for the Integration of Psychological Science. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 1-23.

Pashler, H., Johnston, J.C., & Ruthruff, E. (2001). Attention and Performance.

Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 629-651.

Egeth, H.E., & Yantis, S. (1997). Visual attention: Control, representation, and time course. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 269-297.

Johnston, W. A., & Dark, V. J. (1986). Selective attention. Annual Review of Psychology, 37, 43-75.

Kinchla, R. E. (1992). Attention. Annual Review of Psychology, 43, 711-742.

(7) Eye movements and Attention: The textbook reviews some research on scanning and attention, but instructors may want to expand on this fascinating area of attention. The classic work in this area is by Yarbus (as cited in Chapter 6). Noton and Stark are credited with coining the term “scan paths,” a concept mentioned in Chapter 6. Another major researcher in this area is Eileen Kowler from Rutgers University; a sample of her work is listed below also.

Gersch, T. M., Kowler, E., & Dosher, B. A. (2004). Dynamic allocation of visual attention during execution of saccades. Vision Research, 44, 1469-1483.

Kowler, E. (1995). Eye movements in visual cognition. In Kosslyn, S.M.,& Osherson, D.N. (eds.) An invitation to cognitive science: Volume 2 (2nd ed).

Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Noton, D., & Stark, L. (1971). Scanpaths in saccadic eye movements while viewing and recognizing patterns. Vision Research, 11, 929-942.

Yarbus, A. L. (1967). Eye movements and vision. New York: Plenum.

(8) Pop Culture and Change Blindness: Similar to the concept of continuity errors discussed in the chapter, there are many videos depicting how changes can go undetected. YouTube provides some great examples. The “colour changing card trick,” by “Quirkology” and “Test Your Awareness: Whodunnit?” by “dothetest” are excellent examples with many changes that easily go undetected. Also, puzzle books that require the observer to “spot the differences” between two (or more) pictures are very popular. “Life” magazine’s “Picture Puzzle” books are probably the most popular, and can easily be purchased at amazon.com. Many grocery store check-outs will also carry “Brain Games Picture Puzzles,” published by Publications International Ltd. The underlying challenge here is directly related to change blindness. And lastly, a 2008 New York Times article by Natalie Angier entitled “Blind to Change, Even as It Stares Us in the Face” provides an accessible summary of change blindness research.

Suggested Websites Arrington Research: Eye Tracking Systems If you’re interested in the technical aspect of different types of eye tracking devices, Arrington Research is one manufacturer that gives details about their products.

Bottom-Up Visual Attention Home Page This website provides details about the saliency model, movies demonstrating eye movements in a display, images depicting model results for predicting eye movements in scenes, an interactive version of the model, and relevant research. It is an excellent resource.

Daniel Simons – Home Page Simons’ website contains brief clips of his inattentional blindness research as well as ordering information for DVDs – “Surprising Studies of Visual Awareness” - from Viscog Productions Inc. A short description of Simons’ research and a personal blog are also provided on the site.

Viewable/Downloadable Examples of Change Blindness Ronald Rensink’s website has numerous examples of change blindness. The site also contains descriptions of his research projects and publications.

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