https://ebookmass.com/product/senses-cognition-and-ritual-
Instant digital products (PDF, ePub, MOBI) ready for you
Download now and discover formats that fit your needs...
Cognition Marvin Chun
https://ebookmass.com/product/cognition-marvin-chun/
ebookmass.com
eTextbook 978-0205985807 Cognition
https://ebookmass.com/product/etextbook-978-0205985807-cognition/
ebookmass.com
The Tinkering Mind : Agency, Cognition, and the Extended Mind Vierkant
https://ebookmass.com/product/the-tinkering-mind-agency-cognition-andthe-extended-mind-vierkant/
ebookmass.com
The Oxford History of the Archaic Greek World: Volume II: Athens and Attica Robin Osborne
https://ebookmass.com/product/the-oxford-history-of-the-archaic-greekworld-volume-ii-athens-and-attica-robin-osborne/
ebookmass.com
Media & Culture: Mass Communication in a Digital Age
Thirteenth Edition Richard Campbell
https://ebookmass.com/product/media-culture-mass-communication-in-adigital-age-thirteenth-edition-richard-campbell/
ebookmass.com
Once a Monster Robert Dinsdale
https://ebookmass.com/product/once-a-monster-robert-dinsdale/
ebookmass.com
Smoky Mountain K-9: A small-town romantic suspense (Foggy Mountain Intrigue Book 5) Ashley A Quinn
https://ebookmass.com/product/smoky-mountain-k-9-a-small-townromantic-suspense-foggy-mountain-intrigue-book-5-ashley-a-quinn/
ebookmass.com
Principles of Microeconomics, 8e ISE 8th/ISE Edition
Robert H. Frank
https://ebookmass.com/product/principles-of-microeconomics-8e-ise-8thise-edition-robert-h-frank/
ebookmass.com
Evolution and Development: Conceptual Issues Alan C. Love
https://ebookmass.com/product/evolution-and-development-conceptualissues-alan-c-love/
ebookmass.com
Loving the Wolf: A Fated Mates Romance Paige Tyler https://ebookmass.com/product/loving-the-wolf-a-fated-mates-romancepaige-tyler/
ebookmass.com
SENSES,COGNITION,ANDRITUALEXPERIENCE INTHEROMANWORLD Howdothesensesshapethewayweperceive,understand,and rememberritualexperiences?Thisbookappliescognitiveandsensory approachestoRomanrituals,reconnectingreaderswithreligious experiencesasmembersofanembodiedaudience.Theseapproaches allowustomovebeyondtheliterateelitestoexaminebroader audiencesofdiverseindividuals,whoexperiencedritualsasparticipantsand/orperformers.Casestudiesofritualexperiencesfrom avarietyofplaces,spaces,andcontextsacrosstheRomanworld, includingpolytheisticandChristianrituals,staterituals,private rituals,performances,andprocessions,demonstratethedynamic andbroad-scaleapplicationthatcognitiveapproachesofferfor ancientreligion,pavingthewayforfutureinterdisciplinaryengagement.ThistitleispartoftheFlipitOpenProgrammeandmayalso beavailableOpenAccess.CheckourwebsiteCambridgeCorefor details.
blankamisic isInstructorinAncientCivilizationsatChamplain CollegeLennoxville.Sheresearchesandpublishesoncognitiveand sensoryaspectsofreligiousritualsandwasrecentlyawardedthe HORIZONEUMarieSkłodowska-CuriePostdoctoralFellowship atInstitutfürKlassischeArchäologie,UniversitätWien.
abigailgraham isResearchFellowattheInstituteofClassical StudiesattheUniversityofLondonandanhonoraryresearchfellow attheBritishSchoolRome,wheresheisthefounderandcoordinator oftheirPostgraduateCourseinRomanEpigraphy.Sheresearches andpublishesoncognition,epigraphy,andmonumentalityinthe urbanlandscape.
ANCIENTRELIGIONANDCOGNITION SeriesEditors
EstherEidinow, UniversityofBristol ThomasHarrison, UniversityofStAndrews
Thisseriesseekstotakeadvantageofacriticalmomentinthedevelopmentofthe studyofancientreligion.Thisisoneinwhichpreviousmodels(especiallythesharp oppositionsfrequentlydrawnbetweenritualandbelief,orbetweenthesocialand theindividual)areincreasinglybeingquestioned,andinwhichscholarsofthe ancientworldaremoreandmoredrawingoncognitiveapproachesinthesearch fornewparadigms.The ‘cognitivescienceofreligion’ drawsoninsightsdevelopedin awiderangeof fields:cognitiveandevolutionarypsychology,socialanthropology, andneurobiology,amongstothers.Inessence,however,itseekstounderstand religiousexperienceasrootedintheordinarycognitivecapacitiesofthehuman brain.TheseriescoversnotonlyGreekandRomanreligionbutarangeofancient culturesfromtheMediterraneanandNearEast,includingGreece,Rome,Egypt, Babylonia,Persia,andPhoenicia,aswellasculturesfromIronAgeEurope.Itwill alsoexploretheimplicationsforthestudyoftheseculturesofarangeofdifferent cognitiveapproachestoreligionandwillincludeworkbyscholarsfromawiderange ofdisciplinesinanthropology,thestudyofreligion,evolutionarypsychology,and neuroscienceinadditiontothatbyhistoriansandarchaeologistsoftheancient world.
Titlesintheseries:
CognitiveApproachestoAncientReligiousExperience
EstherEidinow,ArminW.Geertz,andJohnNorth
SENSES,COGNITION, ANDRITUALEXPERIENCE INTHEROMANWORLD editedby
BLANKAMISIC
ChamplainCollegeLennoxville
ABIGAILGRAHAM InstituteofClassicalStudies
ShaftesburyRoad,Cambridge cb 28 ea ,UnitedKingdom OneLibertyPlaza, 20thFloor,NewYork, ny 10006 ,USA
477 WilliamstownRoad,PortMelbourne, vic 3207 ,Australia
314 – 321 , 3 rdFloor,Plot 3 ,SplendorForum,JasolaDistrictCentre, NewDelhi – 110025 ,India
103 PenangRoad,# 05– 06 / 07 ,VisioncrestCommercial,Singapore 238467
CambridgeUniversityPressispartofCa mbridgeUniversityPress&Assessment, adepartmentoftheUniversityofCambridge.
WesharetheUniversity ’ smissiontocontributetosocietythroughthepursuitof education,learningandresearchatthehighestinternationallevelsofexcellence.
www.cambridge.org Informationonthistitle: www.cambridge.org/ 9781009355544
doi: 10 1017 / 9781009355513
©CambridgeUniversityPress&Assessment 2024
Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexceptionandtotheprovisions ofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements,noreproductionofanypartmaytake placewithoutthewrittenpermissionofCambridgeUniversityPress&Assessment.
Firstpublished 2024
AcataloguerecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
ACataloging-in-PublicationdatarecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress isbn 978 - 1 - 009 - 35554 - 4 Hardback
CambridgeUniversityPress&Assessmenthasnoresponsibilityforthepersistence oraccuracyofURLsforexternalorthird-partyinternetwebsitesreferredtointhis publicationanddoesnotguaranteethatanycontentonsuchwebsitesis,orwill remain,accurateorappropriate.
ListofFigures page vi
ListofContributors viii Acknowledgements x ListofAbbreviations xi
Introduction:ExperiencingRituals 1 AbigailGrahamandBlankaMisic
1 RememberingtheRites:ReligiousLearningNetworkModeland TransmissionofReligiousRitualsintheWorshipof Nutrices Augustae (Poetovio,PannoniaSuperior) 27 BlankaMisic
2 TheHapticProductionofReligiousKnowledgeamongthe VestalVirgins:AHands-OnApproachtoRomanRitual 59 Emma-JayneGraham
3 HapticColour:ExperientialViewinginGraeco-RomanSacred Spaces 89 VickyJewell
4 NobodyIsGonnaRainonMyParade:ExperiencingSalutaris’ s ProcessionAsaRitualEvent 118 AbigailGraham
5 ObjectsandRitualinEgeria’sFourth-CenturyPilgrimage:The PropsofMyFaith 167 StevenMuir
Conclusion:(Re)CreatingRitualExperiences 200 BlankaMisicandAbigailGraham
1.1 ReligiousLearningNetworktheoreticalmodel:Part 1 page
1.2 ReligiousLearningNetworktheoreticalmodel:Part 235
1.3 NutricesAugustae relief(PMPO,RL 978),heldinPokrajinski muzejPtujOrmož,photoBorisFarič (reproducedwith permissionfromthemuseum)
1.4 NutricesAugustae relief(PMPO,RL 82),heldinPokrajinski muzejPtujOrmož,photoBorisFarič (reproducedwith permissionfromthemuseum)
2.1 DetailofthesmallprocessionfriezeoftheAraPacisAugustae showingsixVestalVirginscarryingobjects
2.2 RestoredfragmentsoftheentablaturefriezeoftheTempleof VestaintheForumRomanumatRome(latesecond centuryCE)
2.3 Bronze simpulum/simpuvium (ladle),late first–earlysecond centuryCE
2.4 DetailofthesmallprocessionfriezeoftheAraPacisshowing the firstthreeVestals,precededbytwomale figures
2.5 DetailofanaltarfromtheVicusSandalarius,Rome(2 BCE)
2.6 DetailfromthenorthfriezeoftheAraPacisshowingacult attendantforthe Septemviriepulones graspingadecorated acerra inhislefthand
2.7 DetailoftheeasternpassagewayfriezeoftheArchofthe Argentarii(Rome),depictinginstrumentsusedinthecult
2.8 DetailofthesmallprocessionfriezeoftheAraPacisshowing the finalthreeVestals,followedbyamale figure
3.1 ReliefofMithraswithatauroctonyfrombeneaththechurch ofSantoStefanoRotondoInv.no. 2005837
3.2 TauroctonyFrescofromtherearwalloftheMithraeumatthe PalazzoBarberini,Rome
4.1 MapofEphesusdepictingtheProcessionalRoute
.4 PhotographoftheSalutarisInscription:ColumnSix:lines 528–536
4.5 PhotographoftheKuretesStreetfromtheEmbolos
4.6 StatuebasefortheTeians. I.Eph
4.7 DiagramoftheatreatEphesuswithaddedarrowsindicating possiblebaselocationsandthesiteofSalutaris’sfoundation onthesouthparodos
5.1 DiagramofPerformanceTheory
5.2 ReconstructionoftheConstantinianChurchoftheHoly Sepulchre
5.3 ReconstructionofEgeria’sprocessionexperience
5.4 ComparisonofCyrilandEgeria’sritualexperience
5.5 ReconstructionoftheNetworkofRitualObjects
Contributors abigailgraham hasbeenalecturerandtaughtarangeofmaterial cultureandhistorycoursesattheUniversityofWarwick(2006–19) andsubsequentlyjoinedtheInstituteforClassicalStudiesinLondon asResearchFellowin 2019.Shespecializesinmonumentalityand epigraphyinRomanAsiaMinorwithafocusonthepresentationof writingand ‘experiencing’ epigraphyintheurbancontext.Shehas publishedonnewapproachesandmethodologiesformonumental writing(AmericanJournalofArchaeology (2013 and 2021),LaSapienza, 2017,andBrill, 2019)includingbilingualism, damnatiomemoriae,recarving,and ‘copies’ ofmonuments.Shealsoistheauthorof The Romans:AnIntroduction (3rdand 4theditions:Routledge, 2014 and 2020).SheisthefounderandcoordinatorofthePostgraduateCoursein RomanEpigraphyattheBritishSchoolatRome,wheresheisalso aResearchFellow.
emma-jaynegraham isSeniorLecturerinClassicalStudiesatThe OpenUniversity.Herresearchfocusesonaspectsofmaterialreligion, thearchaeologyofRomanItaly,mortuarypractices,andancientdisability.Recentpublicationsinclude ReassemblingReligioninRomanItaly (Routledge, 2021)and BodiesofEvidence:AncientAnatomicalVotives Past,PresentandFuture (Routledge 2017,co-editedwithJaneDraycott). Sheisco-founderofTheVotivesProject.organdDeputyDirectorofthe BaronThyssenCentrefortheStudyofAncientMaterialReligionatThe OpenUniversity.
vickyjewell earnedherPhDattheUniversityofWarwick.Herthesis focusedoncolourintheancientGreekworld,exploringboththeways inwhichtheGreekunderstandingofcolourdifferedfromourownand theimplicationsthatcanhavefortheexaminationoftextandart filled withpolychromy.Herresearchinterestsincludecolourcognitionacross culturesandthesynaestheticexperienceoftheancientworldasawhole.
blankamisic isInstructorintheDepartmentofAncientCivilizationsat ChamplainCollegeLennoxville.Herresearchfocusisonreligiouscults inRomanPannoniaefromcognitiveandsensorytheoreticalperspectives.Shehaspublishedoncognitiveapproachestoreligiousrituals (Oxbow, 2015 andArchaeopress, 2022)andfunerarycommemoration (SteinerVerlag, 2019).ShewasrecentlyawardedtheHORIZONEU MarieSkłodowska-CuriePostdoctoralFellowshipatInstitutfür KlassischeArchäologie,UniversitätWien.
stevenmuir isProfessorofReligiousStudiesatConcordiaUniversityof Edmonton.HeresearchesandpublishesinNewTestamentandearly Christianstudies,andclassics.Hisacademicinterestsincluderitual studies,inter-grouprelations,pilgrimageandsacredspace,andhealth andhealingintheancientworld.Heisaco-editorof EarlyChristian RitualLife (Routledge, 2017).
Acknowledgements Westartedworkingonthisvolumeinearly 2020,shortlyaftertheworldcame toanabrupthalt.Weoweourgratitude firstandforemosttoourfamilieswho supported(andendured)ourresearchendeavoursthroughnumerouslockdownsandaglobalpandemic.Thisworkisdedicatedtothem.
Therearemanypeoplewhocontributedtothisvolumeinanumberof ways.ThepastandpresenteditorsoftheAncientReligionandCognition series,EstherEidinowandTomHarrison,supportedusthroughoutthe publicationprocess – wecouldnothaveaskedformorehelpful,dedicated, andkindindividuals.ManythankstoMichaelSharpandKatieIdleat CambridgeUniversityPresswhohavebeenverygenerousandsupportive alongtheway,andtoouranonymouspeerreviewerswhoprovided invaluablefeedback.WearedeeplygratefultoThorstenOpperandthe teamattheBritishMuseum,CarlottaCarusoandtheMuseoNazionale RomanoBathsofDiocletianmuseum,andMojcaVomerGojkovič and thePokrajinskimuzejPtuj-Ormož,whoallowedexcellentaccesstomaterialsintheircollections.
Ourgratitudeisalsoextendedtomanyscholarswhowemaynothave metinperson,butwhohaveinfluencedourownscholarshipandinspired thiswork,notablyArminW.Geertz,DimitrisXygalatas,Harvey Whitehouse,JörgRüpke,AngelosChaniotis,andDouglasCairns.
TheresearchinthisvolumewasoriginallypresentedaspartofaTRAC panelin 2019,andweappreciatedtheopportunitytopresenttosuchan innovativeandengagedaudience.Thepresentchaptershaveevolvedsignificantlybasedonsuggestionsanddiscussionsbetweencontributorsthattook placebothduringandafterthispanel.Thesediscussionsplayedakeyrolein shapingthecontentofthisvolumeandillustratingthestrengthsofdynamic anddiverseapproachestoritualsandlivedexperiences.Wearegreatly indebtedtothecontributorsofthisvolumewithoutwhosekindness, patience,andstellarscholarshipthisvolumewouldnotbepossible.
Lastbutnotleast,wethankyou,dearreader.
Abbreviations AEL’AnnéeÉpigraphique,published in RevueArchéologique andseparately (1888–)
AIJAntikeInschriftenausJugoslavien (1938)
ANFTheAnte-NiceneFathers:TranslationsoftheWritingsofthe FathersDowntoA.D. 325, 10 Vols.
Arist. [Mund.] PseudoAristotle DeMundo Caes. BGall. Caesar BellumGallicum CCSLCorpusChristianorum,seriesLatina (1953–)
Cic. Att. Cicero(MarcusTullius) Epistulaead Atticum
Cic. Brut. Cicero(MarcusTullius) Brutus or De ClarisOratoribus CILCorpusInscriptionum Latinarum (1863–)
CyrilofJerusalem, Myst.Cat. MystagogicCatecheses
DioCass.DioCassius
Dion.Hal. Ant.Rom. DionysiusHalicarnassensis AntiquitatesRomanae
Emped. Frag. Empedocles Fragmenta
Gell. NA AulusGellius NoctesAtticae
Hes. Theog. Hesiod, Theogonia.
Hom. Hom.HymnDem. Homer HomericHymntoDemeter
Hom. HomHymnHel. Homer HomericHymntoHelios
Hom. HomHymnHer. Homer HomericHymntoHermes
Hom. Il. Homer Iliad
Hom. Od. Homer Odyssey
I.Eph. H.Wankel,R.Merkelbach etal., Die InschriftenvonEphesos, I-VIII(Bonn 1979–84)
Joseph. AJ Josephus AntiquitatesJudaicae
Juv.Juvenal
Livy, Epit. Livy Epitomae
Livy, Per. Livy Periochae
Luc. Demort.Peregr. Lucan DemortePeregrini
Mart. Ep. Martial Epigrams
Pind. Pae.
Pindar(ed.B.SnellandH.Maehler, 1987–88) Paeanes
Pl. Ti. Plato Timaeus
Plaut. Truc. Plautus Truculentus
Plin. HN
Pliny(theElder) Naturalishistoria
Plut. Dedef.or. Plutarch Dedefectuoraculorum
Procop. Bell.Pers. Procopius BellaGothica,Persica, Vandalica
Soph. Aj. Sophocles Ajax
Soph. Trach. Sophocles Trachiniae
Strab.Strabo
Tac. Ann. Tacitus Annales
Theophr. Sens. Theophrastus Desensibus
Varro, Ling. Varro, DelinguaLatina
Vitr. Dearch. Vitruvius Dearchitectura
XenEphesXenophonofEphesus
ExperiencingRituals AbigailGrahamandBlankaMisic SeeingIsBelieving?
Plurisestoculatustestisunus,quamauritidecem. Quiaudiunt,auditadicunt:quivident,planesciunt.
Oneeyewitnessweighsmorethantenhearsays. Seeingisbelieving,alltheworldover.
Plautus, Truc. ActII.Sc. 6 line 8
Thewaysinwhichweengagewithritualsaretiedinextricablytocognitive experiences:sound,sight,scent,taste,touch,andspace.Itisthroughthese mechanismsthatanunderstandingandamemoryofaritualexperienceare createdandcodified.Butcanwetrustoursensesorthecognitiveprocess thatencodesexperiencesasmemories?Plautus’sevaluationassumesthatan eyewitnessaccountofaneventismorevaluablethanhearsay;whilethis maybetrue,itdoesnotmeanthatoneperson’sversionofeventsis areliableordefinitiveaccount.Whenassessingtheancientworld,eyewitnessaccountsseldomsurvive(onewouldbeluckytohavetenhearsays)and survivingsourcesmustbeapproachedwithcaution.Ritualsarenotonly scriptedeventsbutperformedexperiences,designedtoensnarethesenses ofperformersandparticipantsalike.Howthesesensesareengagedimpacts theperceptionandmemoryofanevent.Tounderstandhowritualmemoriesweremade,therefore,onemustassessthesensoryengagementand cognitiveprocessesthroughwhichritualmemorieswerecreatedandcodified;namelytheexperienceofrituals.
Throughengagementwithdifferentsensesandcognitiveprocesses, ritualsaretransformedfromaseriesofscriptedactionsinaspecificplace toaninteractiveexperience,whoseoutcomedependsonseveraldifferent factors:theperformance,theaudience,thecontext,andtheatmosphereof theritualevent.Whilethesefactorsoftenservetostrengthentheemotive contextandmeaningofaritual,theycanalsoactasvariables,resultingin apluralityofdifferentoutcomesforaritualevent:somepositive/inclusive,
othersnegativeand/orexclusive.An ‘eyewitnessaccount’ reflectsan embodiedexperience,amultifacetedmemorythatistheculminationof sensoryinterpretations:notonlyseeinganeventbutalsoreadingfaces, speech,tone,gestures,andatmosphere.ForPlautus,this ‘firsthand’ experienceappearstolendvalueandcredulitytoaneyewitnessaccount aswellasanopportunitytoassessthesource.Experience,however,is adouble-edgedsword:whatunitescancreatediscord,whatprovides asenseofbelongingcanalienate,whatismeanttoportraycontinuity canrepresentchange,andwhatismeanttohonourcanbringshame.While aneyewitnessaccountisundoubtedlyvaluable,onemustalsoacknowledge itslimitations:asingleversionofanexperiencecannotcapturetheplurality ofpossibleexperiences,interpretations,oroutcomesofaritual performance.1 Theexperienceofaritualeventisacrucialfactorinthe perceptionandremembranceofritual;buthowcanoneembedthe variabilityofexperience(s)intoapproachesandanalysesofrituals?
Focusingtoomuchonindividualexperiences(ifthereisenoughevidenceinordertodoso),canresultinbecomingmyopictolargersocioculturalfactorswhichinformreligiousexperiencesanddrivereligious change.Ontheotherhand,analysingonlyreligiousritualsandexperiences intermsofcult-wideand/orcollectivephenomena,risksoverlooking localizedreligiouspracticesandofignoringneurodiverseexperiences. Unlikeotherscholarswhoresearchritualsandritualexperiences(in psychologyoranthropology,forexample),scholarsofancientreligions cannotrelyondesigninggroupexperimentsorconductingparticipant interviewstogatherdata.Instead,ourevidenceisoftenincompleteor corruptedandcanbetaintedfurtherbybiasormisinterpretation.Allof theseelementsrenderthetightropebetweenindividual/subjectivist approaches(i.e.wherereligiousexperiencesareseenassubjectiveand highlyindividual)andcollective/constructivistapproaches(i.e.wherereligiousexperiencesareunderstoodtoberootedinculturalandsocialfactors) evenmoreperiloustotread.2 Thecross-andinter-disciplinarycognitive sciences,byviewingcognitionasmultifaceted – embodied,distributed, situated,extended,materialized,andencultured3 – offernewperspectives
1 As Eidinow etal. (2022: 10)haveobserved, ‘humanitiesandsocialscienceaccountshavenotin generalinformedattemptstoidentifythecognitiveandbrainprocessesunderlyingvariationsin experience – inotherwords,thefullsetofprocessesbywhichreligiouslyinterpretedexperiencearises withinspecifichumancontexts.’ Onthelimitationsofhistoricalsourcesinanalysingreligious experiencessee Martin 2022: 218–219
2 Patzelt 2020: 11, 13
3 Geertz(2017: 37)states: ‘cognitionisembodied(i.e.thatitisintegratedinbodyandbrainthrough thenervoussystem),distributed(i.e.thatwesharewithnetworksofotherbrainsandbodies),situated
inunderstanding both individual and collectiveelementsofritualsand ritualexperiences.4
Inthelasttwodecades,spurredbyscientificadvancementsinneuroscienceandthecognitivesciences,agrowingnumberofscholarshavebegun toapplycognitiveandsensorytheoreticalapproachestothestudyof archaeologicalandhistoricalevidence,especiallywithrespecttoancient religionsandrituals.5 Thiseditedvolumeassemblesaseriesofcasestudies frominternationalscholars(atvaryingstagesoftheircareers),which exploreinterdisciplinaryaspectsofreligiousritualandritualexperience intheRomanworld.Focusingoncognitiveandsensoryapproaches,these casestudiescritically(re)examineestablishedviewsandmaterial finds relatingtoritualsandritualexperiences.AsEstherEidinownotes ‘ some currentancienthistoricalresearch hastendedtoprivilegemind or body asitsfocus ... bydistinguishingsensoryfromcognitiveapproaches’ . 6 By understandingsensoryandcognitiveprocessesasinextricablyconnected, andbymergingsensoryandcognitivescholarshipandapproaches,this volumepushesdisciplinaryboundariesandoffersnovelinterpretations. Thecasestudiesinthisvolumewerechosenbecausetheyaddresselements ofbothpolytheisticandChristianrituals,coveringtheperiodfromthelate RepublictolateAntiquity,whileofferingacomprehensiveexaminationof evidence(historical,archaeological,iconographic,andepigraphic)from Italyaswellas(arangeof)Romanprovinces.
Indiscussionsbetweencontributorsofthisvolume,itbecameclearthat thecognitiveapproachesappliedtoancientritualswererelevantnotonly totheancientworld,butreflectanapproachtoritualperformancesand eventsthatcouldbeappliedacrosstime,space,anddisciplinesonabroad scale,includingone’sownpersonalritualexperiences.Whileancient religionisoftenplacedinaseparaterealm,viewedwithvaluesand approachesthataredistinctfrommodernsociety,7 thecasestudiesin thisvolumeemployabroadrangeofcross-andinter-disciplinary
(i.e.thatwelearnfromtheseothers),extended(i.e.thatweexudeouremotions,thoughtsand experiencesintotheworld),materialized(i.e.thatwemateriallymanifestandgroundourcognition inmaterialculture)andencultured(i.e.thatourcognitionisdeeplyanchoredinandrealizedby culturalideas,models,valuesandsoon).’ Seealso Ambasciano 2017: 142, Geertz 2010, Kundtová KlocováandGeertz 2019,and Eidinow etal. 2022: 3–4
4 Anderson etal. (2018: 15)state: ‘notionsofcognitioncanbeshowntobefundamentaltohowwe conceptualisedebatesineverydiscipline – thestudyofcognitivephenomenacannotbeconsidered aspecialistniche,butisratheranecessaryunderpinningofanystudyofhumansintheworld.’
5 Someofthesestudiesinclude: Chaniotis 2006, Chaniotis 2013, Cusumano etal. 2013, Day 2013, Hamilakis 2013, Rüpke 2013, Rüpke 2016, VanderPloeg 2016, CairnsandNelis 2017, Mackey 2017, Driediger-MurphyandEidinow 2019,andPapadopoulos etal. 2019,amongothers.
6 Eidinow 2022: 70, n.4 7 Eidinow etal. 2022: 7
perspectivestoaddressfundamentalanduniversalquestionsaboutreligiousritualandritualexperience.Thesequestionsinclude:
• Whatroledothesensesplayintheperformance/understanding/ rememberingofritual?
• Howdoestheorganizationofphysicalspace(religiousspace,urban spaceetc.)informritualmovement?
• Whatroledoemotionsplayinreligiousrituals/performances?
• Howdoesmaterialculturereflect/informritualunderstanding?
• Howarereligiousritualslearned/remembered/transferred?
CognitiveScienceofReligionandCognitiveHistoriography Thecognitivescienceofreligionispavingthewayfornewexplanationsofreligion.Indeed,CSRhaschangedthewayweviewthe worldandhowweanalyzeit.
Geertz,vanMulukomandLaigaardNielbo8
Theyear 2020 markedthethirty-yearanniversarysincethefoundingof cognitivescienceofreligion(CSR)asadiscipline.9 Tounderstandtheways inwhichcognitivestudieshaveshapedapproachestoreligion,andspecificallytorituals,abriefexplorationofthisemerging fieldanditsmethodologiesisnecessary.Theinterdisciplinary fieldofCSRwasinitially establishedtochallengetheapproachesandtheoriesofculturaldeterminismandextremeculturalrelativism,whichpredominatedinthestudyof religioninthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury,andwhichlacked acomprehensiveexplanationforhowreligiousconceptsareformed, learnedanddiffused.Departingfromearlierapproaches,CSRasserts thatreligionanditscomponentscanbestudiedscientifically;thathumans haveinnateinclinationstoholdcertaincognitivebiases(suchasthe tendencytoanthropomorphise10 divinities);andthatcognitiveprocesses, influencedbyevolutionary,environmental,andculturalfactors,can mouldandconstrainreligiousideas,beliefs,andbehaviours.Assuch, CSRscholarsexplorehowreligionsareformed,andhowreligiousideas,
10 Anthropomorphism(i.e.thetendencytoimagineanddepictdivinitiesinhumanform)hasbeen attestedinculturesthroughouttheworld,datingbacktotheLateStoneAge.TheancientGreeks andRomanswereawareofthiscognitivebias,withtheGreekphilosopherXenophanesofColophon famouslyremarkingthathumanstendtodepicttheirgodslookingandbehavinglikehumans,and thatifhorsescoulddrawtheirgodstheywoulddrawthemashorses(fragmentsB14 andB15).
Introduction:ExperiencingRituals beliefs,andbehavioursarelearned,remembered,andtransmittedbetween individualsandgroups(horizontaltransmission)aswellasthroughgenerations(verticaltransmission).11 AsCSRscholarClaireWhitestates: ‘Atthe core,CSRscholarsacceptthatreligionisaproductofthemindsituatedin itsculturalenvironment.’12 Employingamethodologythatdeconstructs religionintoprincipalcomponents(e.g.religiousritualsandexperiences, supernaturalagents,beliefsabouttheafterlifeetc.),CSRscholarsapply avarietyofinterdisciplinaryapproachestoformulateandempiricallytest theoriesandhypothesesconcerningthesecomponents,inordertoassess cross-culturalpatternsofreligiousthoughtandbehaviour.Thismethodologycontributestoamorecomprehensiveanduniversalunderstandingof religionandreligiousphenomena.13
Thesebottom-up,scientificapproachestoreligionhavebeenespecially lucrativewithrespecttothestudyofreligiousrituals.Oneparticular contributionofCSRisinexplaininghowreligiousideas,beliefs,and practices(includingrituals)aresuccessfullytransmittedandwhyparticular conceptsandpracticesendureacrossculturesandthroughouthistory.14 AlthoughmostCSRscholarsagreethatritualizationinitiallydeveloped amongearlyhumanpopulationsandthathumansarepsychologically predisposedtoritualbehaviour,15 theextenttowhichritualbehaviours areanevolutionaryadaptationoraby-productofcognitiveprocessesisstill debated.16 Whetheroneviewsthesuccessfultransmissionandendurance ofreligiouspracticesasanadaptationoraby-product,itisauniversaltruth
11 White 2021: 1–6 and 20.ForasummaryofkeyCSRstudiesonritualsee White 2021: 255–305
12 White 2021: 28
13 White 2021: 11–15, 32–33, 36–37.Bymergingevolution,culture,andcognitiontoexploreuniversal cognitiveandcross-culturalaspectsofreligion,CSRaimscanbeviewedtoalignwiththeomniculturalismimperative.Fathali Moghaddam(2012: 306)describestheomniculturalismimperative as: ‘Duringthe firststage,the omniculturalismimperative compelsustogiveprioritytohuman commonalities inomniculturalism,thefocusisonuniversalsinhumanbehaviorasestablished byscientificresearch Duringstagetwoofomniculturalism,group-baseddifferencesareintroduced,andthevalueofalsohavingdiversityishighlighted.However,thepriorityremainswith humancommonalities,andgroup-baseddifferencesaretreatedassecondary.Theendresultof omniculturalismisasocietyinwhichpeopleareknowledgeableabout,andgivepriorityto,human commonalities,butalsoleavesomeroomfortherecognitionandfurtherdevelopmentofgroup distinctiveness.’ Theseapproachesshouldbeespeciallyencouragedinthecontextofanalysing Romanreligiousritualsandritualexperiences,giventhediversesocio-culturalcontextofthe Romanempireandtherecentriseofglobalizationandglocalizationtheoreticalapproachesin Romanarchaeology.
14 White 2021: 255–256 15 White 2021: 95,table 4 2,and 312
16 ScholarssuchasRichardSosis,JosephBulbulia,CristineH.LegareandAraNorenzayanproposethat aspectsofritualwhichpromoteindividualhealthand/orgroupcooperationandcohesionmayhave beenselectedforandwerethereforesuccessfullytransmitted,enduringacrossculturesandhistorical periods.However,otherCSRscholars,suchasPascalBoyer,E.ThomasLawsonandRobert N.McCauley,proposethataspectsofreligions(suchasrituals)canbeunderstoodasby-productsof
thatcertainreligiousideas,beliefs,andbehavioursrecuracrosstimeand societies.AsClaireWhitestates ‘Thisisinpartbecauseideasareconstrainedbyourexperienceoftheworld.’17 Thecommonconstraintsof ritualexperiences,whichhavebeenobservedacrosscultures,time,and space,reflecttheilluminatingresultsofcognitiveapproachestorituals: findingcommonalitythroughaseriesofdiverseanddynamicassessments. Byintegratingperspectivesfromevolution,cognition,andcultureintothe studyofreligion,CSRcanprovideuswitharicherunderstandingofhow humancognitiveprocessesmergewithenvironmentalfactorstoproduce andcommunicateritualpractices,andwhyhumanshavecontinuedtoseek outritualexperiences.
CSRapproachesalsoaddresslongstandingchallengesinthestudyof ritualbehaviours,inparticularritualdeviations,emotionalcontexts(e.g. fearofrejectionoranxiety),andgroupdynamics,asisexploredfurtherin AbigailGraham’ s Chapter 4 inthisvolume.Sinceitisnotalwaysclearhow performedritualactionsachievethedesiredritualgoal(i.e.ritualsare causallyopaque)andsinceindividualexperienceislimited,humansare thereforelesspronetodeviatefromritualbehaviourswhichareperceived astraditionalor ‘ correct ’.Fromanevolutionarystandpoint,challenging groupnormsorrefusingtoparticipateingroupactivitiesmayhaveresulted insocialostracismanddeathforourancestors.Therefore,fearofsocial rejectionandthedesiretosignalgroupcommitmentmayalsoexplainwhy individualsarepronetofaithfullyimitateandtransmitritualbehaviours, andwhyaspectsofritualpersistovertime.18
Whyritualspersistcanalsobeexplainedpartlybythebeneficialeffects thattheyproduce.Intermsofeffectsonindividuals,CSRresearchhas shownthatritualscontributetoimprovingthephysicalandmentalhealth ofritualparticipants,suchasreducinganxiety,aswellasproviding asemblanceofcontrolduringtumultuoustimes.19 PascalBoyerand
humancognitiveprocessesandbiases.See Bulbulia 2004, McCauley 2020: 112–115 and White 2021: 66–69, 257,and 315–316.
17 White 2021: 49.
18 See LegareandNielsen 2015 and Watson-Jones etal. 2016. White(2021: 262)states: ‘AsLegareand colleagueshaveargued,fromanevolutionaryperspective,giventhevariabilityandlimitationsof personalexperienceandintuition,andthecognitiveeffortinvolvedininferringintentionsandgoals, naturalselectionoughttofavorasociallearningstrategywhereweimitateritualbehaviorsasclosely aspossible.Inotherwords,whatyouknowabouttheworldislimited,andwhenuncertainabout something,asoundstrategyistocopyotherswhomyouthinkknowbetter.’
19 White 2021: 65, 285.Ontheanxiety-relievingeffectsofritualsandsenseofcontrolsee: Whitsonand Galinsky 2008, SosisandHandwerker 2011, Lang etal. 2015,and Lang etal. 2020,amongothers. McNamara(2014: 162–163)notesthatseveralstudiesinneuroscienceshavefoundthatreligious practiceshavebeneficialeffectsonindividuals,suchasincreasedhappinessandself-control.
PierreLiénard’ s ‘HazardPrecautionSystem’ theorypositsthatwhenfaced withunpredictableorthreateningsituationswespontaneouslyexhibit ritualizedbehaviours,whichprovideananxiety-reducingeffectandreinstilasenseofcontroloverourenvironment.
Anxietyisloweredbysubjectivelycontainingitthroughscriptedaction ... Participantsfocusontheactivitytheyareperforming,notonthegoalof eachbehavior,whichswampsworkingmemory.Thus,attentionisreadily deployedtowardstheconcerntoperformtheactionscorrectly ... These effectsareatleasttemporary,whiletheactsareperformed,andsothe actionsarerepeated ... toreduceanxiety.20
Thewaysinwhichwecognitivelyprocessandexperiencetheworldaround usinfluenceouractions,which,intheirturn,exertaneffectonour cognitiveandaffectivestates.
Atthelevelofthegroup,ritualsservetobuildtrust,cohesion,and cooperationamonggroupmembers,aswellastoinstilandreinforcegroup values(theseeffectsarediscussedinBlankaMisic’ s Chapter 1).21 Participatinginextremeritualscanserveasacostlysignalofgroup commitmentandbelonging,promotingtrustandcooperationbetween groupmembers.22 Forexample,experimentalresearchinCSRindicates thathigh-intensityandpainfulritualscreatestrongerbondsbetweenritual participants.Physiologically,extremeritualscanleadtoincreasedheart ratesandevensynchronizedheartratesamongclose-knitritualparticipants andspectators,inadditiontoinducingfeelingsofeuphoria,whichopens ritualparticipantstosocialbondingaswellasstrengtheningexisting bonds.23 RitualscanalsobecomeCredibilityEnhancingDisplays (CRED) – anindividual’scredibilityisenhancedwithintheirsocialcircle whentheyactivelyparticipateinacostlyritual,withotherindividualsthen beingencouragedtofollowandimitatetheirritualbehaviour,therefore successfullytransmittingritualknowledge.24
AlthoughCSRresearchonthepsychological,physiological,andsocial effectsofritualshasyieldedilluminatingresults,furtherresearchonritual experiencesisstillneeded.OnlyafewCSRresearchershavefocusedon
20 White 2021: 286.OnHazardPrecautionSystemtheorysee: BoyerandLiénard 2006 and Liénard andBoyer 2006
21 White 2021: 288–289, Dunbar 2021: 24, Hobson etal. 2017: 11,and Watson-JonesandLegare 2016
22 White 2021: 293–295.Oncostlysignalingtheorysee Sosis 2004
23 Konvalinka etal. 2011, Xygalatas etal. 2013, Xygalatas etal. 2013b, Fischer etal. 2014, Xygalatas etal. 2019, McCauley 2020: 107,and White 2021: 292–293
24 McCauley 2020: 115–116 and White 2021: 295–296.OnthetheoryofCredibilityEnhancing Displayssee Henrich 2009.OncostlyritualsandCredibilityEnhancingDisplayssee Xygalatas 2022: 198–207
adetailedstudyofritualexperiences,suchasDimitrisXygalatasandhis colleaguesonexperiencesofextreme, fire-walkingrituals(discussedfurther inthe Conclusionchapter).25 AnnTavesandcolleaguesattheUCSanta BarbaraReligion,ExperienceandMindLabGrouphavealsoconducted researchonaspectsofreligiousexperience,suchasnear-death experiences.26 Researchonreligiousexperiencehasfurtherbeeninformed byneuroscientificapproaches.Forinstance,neuroscientistPatrick McNamarahasobservedthatspecificareasofthebrainwhichgenerate andprocessreligiousexperiencesalsoregulateasenseofSelf,therefore arguingthatreligion(andreligiousexperiences)canservetodevelopone’ s self-consciousness.27 However,criticismshavebeenlaidagainstCSR researchforfocusingtoomuchoncognitiveprocessesandnotenough ontherolesofemotion,body,andenvironmentinreligion.28 Certainly, ritualexperiencescannotbestudiedwithoutalloftheseelements – weuse ourbrains,ourbodies,andoursensestoperformritualactions,andthe engagementofourbrains,bodies,andsenseswithourenvironmentand ouraffectivestatesproducesritualexperience.
Onepromisingwaytowardsstudyingritualexperiencesisbyunderstandingindividualbrainsandbodiesasinterconnectedwitheachother andwiththeirenvironments,thereforeviewingcognitionasembodied, distributed,situated,extended,materialized,andencultured.CSRscholar ArminW.Geertzhaschampionedthisviewwithhisbioculturaltheoryof religion ‘whichisbasedonanexpandedviewofcognitionthatisanchored inthebrainandbody,dependentuponculture,andextendedanddistributedbeyondindividualminds ... Geertzproposesthatunderstanding whichmanipulationsareatplayinreligion,andhowtheyimplement culturalvalues,alteremotionalstates,andinteractwithcognitiveprocessingcanenrichourunderstandingofreligion’ . 29 Theaimofthisvolumeis tocontributetoCSRresearchonritualexperiencesandtobuildupon Geertz’ s findingsbyanalysingRomanritualexperiencesasproductsof cognitiveprocesses,affectivestates,andsensoryorgans – allofwhichare influencedbyneurological,environmental,andsocio-culturalfactors.Yet, howcanthesecognitiveapproachesenhanceourunderstandingofthe ancientworld?
Althoughthecross-andinter-disciplinary fieldofCSRisgrowing everyday,itisonlywithinthelast fifteenyearsorsothathistorians,
25 Konvalinka etal. 2011, Xygalatas etal. 2013b,amongothers.
26 Taves 2011 and White 2021: 324 27 McNamara 2014: 246
28 Geertz 2010b,and Gibson 2008 29 White 2021: 318 (quote)and Geertz 2010
classicists,andotherscholarsofancientreligionshavestartedtoengagewith CSRapproaches,creatinganewsubfieldofthedisciplinecalledcognitive historiography.30 InspiredinitiallybythepioneeringworkofCSRscholars suchasanthropologistsPascalBoyer31 andHarveyWhitehouse,32 andphilosophyandcomparativereligionscholarsRobertN.McCauleyand E.ThomasLawson,33 scholarsofcognitivehistoriographyhaveenriched andpushedtheboundariesofthestudyofancientreligions,especially throughtheir(re)examinationofancientreligiousexperiencesandrituals. Forexample,HarveyWhitehouse’ s ‘ModesofReligiosity’ theory,which describesritualandritualexperienceintermsoftwomodes – theimagistic andthedoctrinal – hasbeenparticularlypopularamonghistoriansand archaeologists,resultinginseveralpublicationswhichtestWhitehouse’ s modelwithinvariousancientreligiouscontexts.34 Inadditiontothe ModesofReligiosityapproach,theapplicationofavarietyofothercognitive perspectivestocasestudiesofancientreligionshavefurtherenhancedour understandingnotonlyofritualpracticesandritualexperiences,butalso recastthewaywenowexaminereligioustexts,religiousobjects,religious iconography,andreligiousbeliefsandattitudes.Thesecasestudiesrange fromthestudyofmonotheisticreligions(JudaismandChristianity),35 tothe examinationofselectGraeco-Romanpolytheisticcults(including Asklepios,36 IsisandSerapis,37 Cybele/Attis,38 Dionysos,39 andBona Dea40),beliefsystems,41 andreligiousexperiences.42
Morethanwithanyotherancientcult,theapplicationofcognitive approachestothestudyofthecultofMithrashasyieldedparticularly fruitfulscholarshiptodate.43 Ingeneral,thecultofMithrashasbeen
30 ThecreationoftheInternationalAssociationfortheCognitiveScienceofReligion(IACSR)in 2006,alongsidethecreationofthe JournalfortheCognitiveScienceofReligion andthe Journalof CognitiveHistoriography,whose firstvolumeswerepublishedin 2013 and 2014 respectively,has spurredawiderrangeofscholarstoengagewithcognitiveapproachesinthestudyofreligion; bridgingdisciplinarygapsandencouragingcollaborationamonginternationalscholarsfromthe Humanities,SocialSciencesandNaturalSciences.
31 Boyer 1994.
32 Whitehouse 2000 and 2004,and WhitehouseandLaidlaw 2004,amongothers.
33 LawsonandMcCauley 1990,and McCauleyandLawson 2002.
34 See,forexample, WhitehouseandMartin 2004, MartinandPachis 2009, MartinandSørensen 2011, Martin 2015, Misic 2015 and 2019,and PanagiotidouandBeck 2017,amongothers.Forabrief summaryofWhitehouse’sModesofReligiositytheorysee White 2021: 269–278
35 Lundhaug 2014, Harkins 2015, Feder 2016, HallvardKorsvoll 2017,and Robertson 2017,among others.
36 Panagiotidou 2014 and 2022
37 Pachis 2014 38 Anders 2009
39 Giovanni 2009,and Ulrich 2009 40 Ambasciano 2016 and 2022 41 Larson 2016
42 Ustinova 2009 and 2018
43 Beck 2004 and 2006, Martin 2006, Chalupa 2011, Beck 2014, Griffith 2014, Martin 2015, Misic 2015, PanagiotidouandBeck 2017,and Panagiotidou 2018,amongothers.
approachedfromtwocognitiveperspectives:HarveyWhitehouse’sModes ofReligiositytheoryforthestudyofMithraicrituals,44 andRogerBeck’ s ‘Star-Talk’ forthestudyofmentalrepresentationsandastrological/astronomicalelementsofMithraism.45 LutherH.Martinhasemergedasthe leadingscholarinapplyingcognitiveapproaches,andespecially Whitehouse’sModesofReligiositytheory,toarchaeologicalandiconographicevidencefromthecultofMithras.Martin’swork,amongother contributions,hasarguedfortheimportanceofemotionallyarousingand imagisticaspectsofMithraicrituals,andhashelpedtodispelthe ‘ topdown’ approachtoMithraism(i.e.theviewofacommon,standardized Mithraicmyth-narrativebeliefsystemamongallinitiatesofthereligion).46 Ontheotherhand,RogerBeck’sapplicationofcognitiveapproacheshas helpedMithraicscholarsgainadeeperunderstandingofastrologicaland astronomicalbeliefsystemsofMithraism.His ‘Star-Talk’ concept,asaway tounderstandmentalrepresentationsandtodecodesystemsofsigns,has influencednotonlyMithraicscholarship,47 buthasalsobeenappliedto otherancient ‘ mystery ’ cultssuchasthecultofIsis.48 Inadditiontothese approaches,theever-growingbodyofcognitiveresearchonsocialcohesion andextremerituals,49 aswellasritualencodingandrecall50 ishelpingto opennewpathwaystounderstandingritualbehaviourandritualexperiencesbothinmodernandancientreligions.
Theemergenceofcognitivehistoriographyandthebroaderapplication ofCSRapproachestotheancientworldoffervastpotentialforfurther study.Thisvolumepresentsonesmallstepinapplyingcognitive approaches,includingaspectsofCSR’ssuccessfulframework,toexplore theroleofritualexperiencesintheancientworld.Whileritualcasestudies inthisworkfallacrossabroadrangeoftime,space,andpurpose,they convergeonsimilaraspectsofritualexperience:theroleofrepetition,ritual deviation,groupdynamics,objectagency,andtheevolutionofaritual withinvariousemotional,physical,andspatialcontexts.Howeverdivergenttheresultingritualexperiencesmayhavebeen,thesecomponents continuetoemergeasthefoundationofaritualexperience.
44 Beck 2004, Martin 2006, Misic 2015,and Panagiotidou 2018,amongothers.
45 Beck 2006 and 2014, Panagiotidou 2012
46 Martin 2006.Seealso MartinandPachis 2009 and Martin 2022 47 Panagiotidou 2012
48 Pachis 2012
49 DimitrisXygalatasandhisscholarshipon fire-walkingrituals(see,forexample, Xygalatas etal. 2019) havebeeninstrumentalinunderstandingextremeand/orpainfulritualsfromacognitiveperspective.Specifically,onMithraicritualandsocialcohesionsee Panagiotidou 2018
50 Hobson etal 2017 and vanMulukom 2017,amongothers.
CognitiveExperienceandRituals:History,Memory,andEmotions Thebrain,bodyandmindhaveoftenerroneouslybeenthoughttobe moreorlessindependentorgans.Theyareenmeshed,however,not onlyinternally(embodied)butalsoexternallyinavastnetworkof otherbrains,bodiesandminds(encultured).
ArminW.Geertz51
Therelationshipbetweenrituals,history,andmemoryisclearlyaproductive one,inwhichanunderstandingofpastritualsandperformerscancontribute toabetterunderstandingofritualsinthepresent.52 Howweunderstandand accessritualsasexperiencesandmemoriesinacognitiveframework,however, islessclearlydefinedinclassicalscholarship.SimonPrice,aleadingscholaron ritualandmemoryinancienthistory,hadsetoutfourcontextsforthe constructionofmemory:objects,locations(placeandspace),ritualactions, andtextualnarratives.53 Recentscholarship,suchas DignasandSmith’ s 2012 volume HistoricalandReligiousMemoryintheAncientWorld,dedicatedtothe lateSimonPrice,coversanimpressiverangeofritualsacrosstimeandspace andraisesanumberofquestionsabouthowritualmemoryexistsinthemind: isitstableorunstabledependingontheapproach,doesitexistasonlyan imageinthemind?54 Thesequestionsseemtobemovingtowardstheconcept ofacognitiveframeworkforritualandmemorybut,asobservedbyJulia Shearinherotherwiseglowingreview,engagementwithbroaderinterpretativeframeworksandscholarshiponritualmemoryisneeded:
IfscholarsworkingontheGraeco-Romanworldaretohaveanyimpacton thelarger fieldofmemorystudies,thentheywillneedtostartreadingmore broadlyandtoengagewithstudiesonthecreationofremembranceinmore recentperiods Oneofmemory’sgreatbenefitsasasubjectisitslackof conformationwiththetraditionalsubdivisionsofthe field:weneedto approachitholisticallyandnottoallowthetraditionalboundariesto limitourdiscussionsandthequestionswhichweask.55
Price’scontextsforconstructingmemory(objects,locations,ritualactions, andtextualnarratives)areverysimilartotheinterpretiveframeworksthat havebeenemployedbybroaderdisciplinesinassessingritualperformances; approachingritualsnotonlyasscriptedeventsbutasindividualand
51 Geertz 2017: 35 52 DignasandSmith 2012: 1–2
53 Price ‘MemoryinAncientGreece’ in DignasandSmith 2012: 15–36.Price’sobservations,particularlyhisfouraspectsofritualperception,alignverywellwithassessmentsfromcognitivescienceof religionwhicharediscussedfurtherinBlankaMisic’ s Chapter 1
54 DignasandSmith 2012: 11 55 Shear 2012
interactivecognitive ‘experiences’.Psychologists,philosophers,geographers, anthropologists,andarchaeologistscombinethesecontextsaspartof acognitivenetworkthroughwhichconceptsof ‘place’ and ‘ space ’ aredefined: ‘Placeishowwemaketheworldmeaningfulandthewaythatweexperience theworld’ ; ‘Materiality,meaningandpracticearecombinedintheproductionofaplaceofmemory’ . 56 Anthropologists,psychologists,andscholarsof ‘performancetheory’ haveusedsimilarfactorsasameansofassessinghow cognitiveexperiencesimpacttheperceptionofritualperformancesandtheir codificationinmemory.57 Theseinterdisciplinaryapproachesassessritual performancesasembodiedemotionaleventsthatarenotonlyenhancedby cognitiveexperiencesbutdefinedbythem.58 Studiesofritualspacesand performancesillustratehowtheexperienceofaneventcantransform aviewer’sconceptofself,imbuingobjects,spaces,andplaceswithnew meanings.59 Interdisciplinaryscholarship onritualandmemoryconverge uponasimilarpoint:howoneexperiencesaritualeventimpactsbothits perceptionanditsrecollection.60 Theinextricableconnectionsbetween
56 Creswell 2015: 19 and 128.Seealso HamilakisandTheou 2013: 192: ‘Placeisproducedthrough sensorialpractise,performance,andmemory’,and MoserandFeldman 2014: 1: ‘Sacredspacedoes notexist apriori butistheoutcomeofactions,intentions,andrecollections-itistheresultofpast andpresentinteractionsamonghumans,materialimplements,architectureandlandscape.’ For PlaceTheoryingeographyandphilosophysee: Tuan 1977: 6, Pred 1984, Smith 1987, Casey 2001: 408–9, Cresswell 2015: 15–19.ForPlaceandMemoryseeasummaryofscholarshipin Cresswell 2015: 120–128.Foranoverviewofscholarshiponcognitiveandbioculturalapproachestoreligiousplace/ spacesee Geertz 2017: 48–51.Formulti-temporalapplicationsofPlaceandPerformancetheoriesat archaeologicalsites,see HamilakisandTheou 2013: 181–94.Fortheapplicationof ‘PlaceTheory’ in classicalscholarshipseesummariesprovidedintheintroductionsofthefollowingeditedvolumes: TottenandSamuels 2012, MoserandFeldman 2014, vanOpstall 2018
57 Forritualtheoryincognitivepsychologysee LawsonandMcCauley 1990, McCauleyandLawson 2002 (esp.chapters 1–3), WhitehouseandLaidlaw 2004, Tyng etal. 2017,and KundtováKlocová andGeertz 2019,amongothers.Forritualandmodernperformancetheorysee Schechner 1988, Garner 1994, Sofer 2010 Schechner 1988: 71 figure 30 describesanddepictstheinteractionbetween differentaspectofaperformance(drama,script,location,performance).Forritualperformancesin theancientworldsee Chaniotis 2006: 9–16, Stavrianopoulou 2006, Chaniotis 2011: 211–38, Graff 2011, Chaniotis 2013, Latham 2016,and CairnsandNelis 2017 (allofwhicharediscussedinAbigail Graham’ s Chapter 4).
58 Theroleofcognitivefactorsinperformanceandritualefficacy(Schechner 1988: 102–560)is discussedfurtherinStevenMuir’ s Chapter 5 andAbigailGraham’ s Chapter 4 inthisvolume.
59 Foradiscussionofspace/place,ritualandreligiousexperiencesee WescoatandOusterhout’ s 2012 editedvolume.Fortheroleofpropsasaccessoriesinsensoryexperiencesandmemorysee Sofer 2010 (alsodiscussedinStevenMuir’ s Chapter 5 inthisvolume).Forfurtherreading: Smith 1987, Schechner 1988: 121–160, Schieffelin 1998, GardinerandRichardson-Klavehn 2000, Stavrianopoulou 2006, Chaniotis 2006, 2011, 2013, 2017, Elsner 2007, Hüsken 2007, Moserand Feldman 2014, Cresswell 2015, Dillion,Eidinow,andMaurizio 2016, Latham 2016, Ng 2018, van Opstall 2018,and Driediger-MurphyandEidinow 2019
60 CairnsandNelis 2017: 8 ‘Thetruthestablishedbyemotionalresearchacrossthedisciplinesinwhich itispracticedistheubiquity,persuasiveness,andcentralityofemotionineverythingthathuman beingsdo,andeverythingthattheyhaveeverdone.’
Introduction:ExperiencingRituals cognitiveexperience,theunderstandingofrituals,andtheircodificationin memoryarethefoundingprinciplesofthisvolumeandthetiethatbindsthe individualcasestudiesinthevariouschapterstogether.
Recentscholarshiponritualsinancienthistoryhasbenefittedfrom broaderinterdisciplinaryengagementinmanyways.Ofchiefimportance forthisvolumehavebeenassessmentsofritualsthattranscendtraditional script-basedapproaches.Asnotedbymanyscholars,thelimitationsof ‘ text ’ or ‘script’-basedapproachestoritualaremanifold:thisperspective presentsritualfromasingle(oftenelite)perspective,depictingritualsas static,repeatedeventswithauniversalperception,function,andmeaning, ratherthanassubjectiveexperiences.61 Withoutsituatingritualsinemotionalcontextsorapplyingpracticalhumanconstraints,onerisksdisassociatingtheseexperiencesfromthecognitiveframeworksthatwereusedto createandretrievememories.Script-basedritualsoftenpresentperfectly enactedeventswithpositiveoutcomes,whichstandincontrasttothe elasticityandvariation(inbothexperienceandoutcome)thatpervade performancesinancientandmoderncontexts.62
KeyresearchinitiativesonthistopicincludeAngelosChaniotis’sERC project TheSocialandCulturalConstructionofEmotions whichintegrated text,object,locationaswellasanemotionalcontextintherecreationof aritualevent.63 Thisstudyandthosethathavefollowedtranscendtraditionallimitationsbyincorporatingabroaderschemeofmaterialevidence togetherwithconceptsofobjectagency,embodiedspaces,andsensory experiencestoillustratethedynamicnatureofritualsaseventswith numerouspossibleperceptions,meanings,andoutcomes.64 Similarly,
61 Forlimitationsofscript-basedapproachestoritualseethefollowingworks,whichcovermaterials fromhistoricalandliterarytextstoartandarchaeology: Chaniotis 2007: 49–51, Chaniotis 2012: 85–95, Chaniotis 2013: 216–18, Masseglia 2013: 131–147, MoserandFeldman 2014: 1–2, Latham 2016: 29–32, Rüpke 2016, CairnsandNelis 2017: 13–15,and Driediger-MurphyandEidinow 2019: 2–4
62 Fortheoreticaldiscussionsofritualdevianceandfailuresee Schechner 1988: 151–162, Schieffelin 1998 and Hüsken 2007.Forindividualhistoricalstudiesofritualfailuressee Stavrianopoulou 2006, Chaniotis 2007: 49–51, Graff 2011, MoserandFeldman 2014, Cresswell 2015, Rüpke 2016: 6–10,and Latham 2016: 39–43.
63 Masseglia 2013: 132 states ‘Ifwearetoengagewithemotionsinantiquity ... wemustengageequally withtheirexternalisedexpressionsinformoftextualandmaterialculture,andwithacultural mediumthroughwhichthistransformationoccurred.’ Chaniotis’ projectproducedprolificpublications,thefollowingisaselectionofthosethataremorerelevanttoritualperformancesas experiences: Chaniotis 2007, Chaniotis 2011, Chaniotis 2012, Chaniotis 2013, Chaniotis 2017 as partof CairnsandNelis 2017
64 Cairns 2019: 8 state ‘Epigraphictexts,dedications,religiousarchitectureandtheconfigurationofthe sitemoregenerally,allcontributetothecreationofasharedspaceforemotionalexperience and emotions-awe,fear,wonder,respect,hope,gratitude,andsoon-onwhichreligiousexperience depends.’ Forexpansivestudiesonspecifictypesofritualperformancessee Latham 2016: 39–43 (on pompa inRome)and Driediger-MurphyandEidinow 2019 (ondivination).
