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Designing Engineering and Technology
Curricula
Embedding Educational Philosophy
SynthesisLectureson Engineering,Science,and Technology
Eachbookintheseriesiswrittenbyawellknownexpertinthefield.Mosttitlescoversubjects suchasprofessionaldevelopment,education,andstudyskills,aswellasbasicintroductory undergraduatematerialandothertopicsappropriateforabroaderandlesstechnicalaudience. Inaddition,theseriesincludesseveraltitleswrittenonveryspecifictopicsnotcovered elsewhereintheSynthesisDigitalLibrary.
DesigningEngineeringandTechnologyCurricula:EmbeddingEducationalPhilosophy JohnHeywood 2021
IntroductiontoEngineeringDesign
AnnSaterbakandMatthewWettergreen 2021
VisualizingDynamicSystems:VolumetricandHolographicDisplay
MojganM.Haghanikar 2021
BiologicallyInspiredDesgin:APrimer TorbenA.LenauandAkhleshLakhtakia 2021
EngineeringDesign:AnOrganicApproachtoSolvingComplexProblemsintheModern World
GeorgeD.CatalanoandKarenC.Catalano 2020
IntegratedProcessDesignandOperationalOptimizationviaMultiparametric Programming
BarisBurnak,NikolaosA.Diangelakis,andEfstratiosN.Pistikopoulos 2020
The ArtofTeachingPhysicswithAncientChineseScienceandTechnology
MattMarone 2020
ScientificAnalysisofCulturalHeritageObjects
MichaelWiescherandKhachaturManukyan 2020
CaseStudiesinForensicPhysics
GregoryA.DiLisiandRichardA.Rarick 2020
AnIntroductiontoNumericalMethodsforthePhysicalSciences
ColmT.Whelan 2020
NanotechnologyPastandPresent DebNewberry 2020
IntroductiontoEngineeringResearch
WendyC.Crone 2020
TheoryofElectromagneticBeams
JohnLekner 2020
TheSearchfortheAbsolute:HowMagicBecameScience
JeffreyH.Williams 2020
TheBigPicture:TheUniverseinFiveS.T.E.P.S. JohnBeaver 2020
RelativisticClassicalMechanicsandElectrodynamics
MartinLandandLawrenceP.Horwitz 2019
GeneratingFunctionsinEngineeringandtheAppliedSciences
RajanChattamvelliandRamalingamShanmugam 2019
TransformativeTeaching:ACollectionofStoriesofEngineeringFaculty’sPedagogical Journeys
NadiaKellam,BrookeColey,andAudreyBoklage 2019
AncientHinduScience:ItsTransmissionandImpactonWorldCultures AlokKumar 2019
ValueRationalEngineering
ShuichiFukuda 2018
StrategicCostFundamentals:forDesigners,Engineers,Technologists,Estimators, ProjectManagers,andFinancialAnalysts
RobertC.Creese 2018
ConciseIntroductiontoCementChemistryandManufacturing TadeleAssefaAragaw 2018
DataMiningandMarketIntelligence:ImplicationsforDecisionMaking MustaphaAkinkunmi 2018
EmpoweringProfessionalTeachinginEngineering:SustainingtheScholarshipof Teaching JohnHeywood 2018
TheHumanSideofEngineering JohnHeywood 2017
GeometricProgrammingforDesignEquationDevelopmentandCost/Profit Optimization(withillustrativecasestudyproblemsandsolutions),ThirdEdition RobertC.Creese 2016
EngineeringPrinciplesinEverydayLifeforNon-Engineers SaeedBenjaminNiku 2016
A,B,See...in3D:AWorkbooktoImprove3-DVisualizationSkills DanG.Dimitriu 2015
TheCaptainsofEnergy:SystemsDynamicsfromanEnergyPerspective VincentC.PrantilandTimothyDecker 2015
LyingbyApproximation:TheTruthaboutFiniteElementAnalysis
VincentC.Prantil,ChristopherPapadopoulos,andPaulD.Gessler 2013
SimplifiedModelsforAssessingHeatandMassTransferinEvaporativeTowers
AlessandraDeAngelis,OnorioSaro,GiulioLorenzini,StefanoD’Elia,andMarcoMedici 2013
TheEngineeringDesignChallenge:ACreativeProcess
CharlesW.Dolan 2013
TheMakingofGreenEngineers:SustainableDevelopmentandtheHybridImagination AndrewJamison 2013
CraftingYourResearchFuture:AGuidetoSuccessfulMaster’sandPh.D.Degreesin Science&Engineering
CharlesX.LingandQiangYang 2012
FundamentalsofEngineeringEconomicsandDecisionAnalysis
DavidL.WhitmanandRonaldE.Terry 2012
ALittleBookonTeaching:ABeginner’sGuideforEducatorsofEngineeringand AppliedScience
StevenF.Barrett 2012
EngineeringThermodynamicsand21stCenturyEnergyProblems:ATextbook CompanionforStudentEngagement DonnaRiley 2011
MATLABforEngineeringandtheLifeSciences
JosephV.Tranquillo 2011
SystemsEngineering:BuildingSuccessfulSystems HowardEisner 2011
FinShapeThermalOptimizationUsingBejan’sConstructalTheory GiulioLorenzini,SimoneMoretti,andAlessandraConti 2011
GeometricProgrammingforDesignandCostOptimization(withillustrativecasestudy problemsandsolutions),SecondEdition
RobertC.Creese 2010
SurviveandThrive:AGuideforUntenuredFaculty
WendyC.Crone 2010
GeometricProgrammingforDesignandCostOptimization(withIllustrativeCaseStudy ProblemsandSolutions)
RobertC.Creese 2009
StyleandEthicsofCommunicationinScienceandEngineering
JayD.HumphreyandJeffreyW.Holmes 2008
IntroductiontoEngineering:AStarter’sGuidewithHands-OnAnalogMultimedia Explorations
LinaJ.KaramandNajiMounsef 2008
IntroductiontoEngineering:AStarter’sGuidewithHands-OnDigitalMultimediaand RoboticsExplorations
LinaJ.KaramandNajiMounsef 2008
CAD/CAMofSculpturedSurfacesonMulti-AxisNCMachine:TheDG/K-Based Approach
StephenP.Radzevich 2008
TensorPropertiesofSolids,PartTwo:TransportPropertiesofSolids
RichardF.Tinder 2007
TensorPropertiesofSolids,PartOne:EquilibriumTensorPropertiesofSolids
RichardF.Tinder 2007
EssentialsofAppliedMathematicsforScientistsandEngineers
RobertG.Watts 2007
ProjectManagementforEngineeringDesign
CharlesLessardandJosephLessard
2007
RelativisticFlightMechanicsandSpaceTravel
RichardF.Tinder
2006
Copyright©2022byMorgan&Claypool
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmittedin anyformorbyanymeans—electronic,mechanical,photocopy,recording,oranyotherexceptforbriefquotations inprintedreviews,withoutthepriorpermissionofthepublisher.
DesigningEngineeringandTechnologyCurricula:EmbeddingEducationalPhilosophy JohnHeywood www.morganclaypool.com
ISBN:9781636392776paperback
ISBN:9781636392783PDF
ISBN:9781636392790hardcover
DOI10.2200/S01139ED1V01Y202110EST017
APublicationintheMorgan&ClaypoolPublishersseries SYNTHESISLECTURESONENGINEERING,SCIENCE,ANDTECHNOLOGY Lecture#17 SeriesISSN
Print2690-0300Electronic2690-0327
Designing EngineeringandTechnology
Curricula
EmbeddingEducationalPhilosophy
JohnHeywood
TrinityCollegeDublin–UniversityofDublin
SYNTHESISLECTURESONENGINEERING,SCIENCE,AND TECHNOLOGY#17
cLaypool Morgan publishers &
ABSTRACT
Theintentionofthisbookistodemonstratethatcurriculumdesignisaprofoundlyphilosophical exercisethatstemsfromperceptionsofthemissionofhighereducation.Sincethecurriculum istheformalmechanismthroughwhichintendedaimsareachieved,philosophyhasaprofound roletoplayinthedeterminationofaims.
Itisarguedthatthecurriculumisfarmorethanalistofsubjectsandsyllabi,orthatitis theaddition,andsubtraction,ofitemsfromasyllabus,orwhetherthissubjectshouldbeadded andthatsubjecttakenaway.
Thisbookexploreshowcurricularaimsandobjectivesaredevelopedbyre-examining thecurriculumofhighereducationandhowitisstructuredinthelightofitsincreasingcosts, rapidlychangingtechnology,andtheutilitarianphilosophythatcurrentlygovernsthedirection ofhighereducation.
Itisconcludedthathighereducationshouldbeapreparationforandcontinuingsupport forlifeandwork,aconsequenceofwhichisthatithastoequipgraduateswithskillinindependentlearning(anditsplanning),andreflectivepractice.Atransdisciplinarycurriculumwith technologyatitscoreisdeducedthatservesthefourrealitiesoftheperson,thejob,technology, andsociety.
KEYWORDS
ABET,actionresearch,adaptability(-adaptivebehaviour),affective,AI,aims(s) (-ofeducation),alignment,assessment,attitudes,augmentedreality,automation, beliefs,bridgingconcept,cognatework(-studies),cognitive,communicate(ion),community,competence(-professional),concepts,conflict,content,constructivism,cross-domaintransfer,curriculum(-drift,received),design(-ofcurriculum), development(cognitive/affective),disciplines,e-learning,emotion(s),employment, engineering,engineeringeducation,engineeringliteracy,enteringcharacteristics, epistemology,ethicsexamination(s)(-boards),fees(-tuition),flexibility,forecasting,generaleducation,generalisation(-stageof),highereducation,identity,ideologies(learningcentred,scholaracademic,socialefficiency,socialreconstruction, instruction,intelligence(-academic,practical),jobs,keyconcepts,knowledge(circleof,asinformation,asdesign,strategic),labourarena,language(s),learning (-bydoing,depth,independent,organization,surface),liberaleducation,linguistic analysis,literacy(-engineering,technological),logic,logicalpositivism,meaning, middleskilljobs,motivation,non-cognatework,objectives,objectworlds,occupation(s),occupationaltransfergap,outcomes,ontology(-ical),over-archingconcept, overload(-curriculum),philosophy,phronesis,power,precision(-stageof)principles,problem-basedlearning,profession(s)(-al),project-basedlearning,quality (-teaching),realism,reflection(reflectivecapacity),relationships,robotics
2.5TheCurriculumasaMixofIdeologies...............................26
3.7
3.10QuestionsAboutthePurposesofHigherEducation:Technologyand
7.1TheAimsofHigherEducation....................................113
7.2Prospects:DeterminingtheProgramme.............................115
7.3Examplesof“Bridging”KeyConcepts..............................116
7.4The“Over-Arching”ConceptofDesign.............................117
7.5Whitehead’sRhythmicTheoryofLearning..........................118
7.6TheGoalsofaStageof“Romance”inaProgramforEngineeringand TechnologicalLiteracy...........................................120
7.7TheStageofRomanceandContent................................124
Preface
Thefirstpurposeofthisbookistoshowthatthecurriculumisfarmorethanalistofsubjects andsyllabi,orthatcurriculumdesignistheadditionandsubtractionofitemsfromasyllabus,or whetherornotthissubjectshouldbeaddedandthatsubjecttakenaway.Thesecondpurposeis todemonstratethatthedesignanddevelopmentofthecurriculumisaprofoundlyphilosophical exercisethatstemsfromperceptionsofthemissionofeducation,inparticularhighereducation. Sincehighereducationisasub-system,itcannotbeseparatedfromwhathappenstograduates inthefuture,ortowhathashappenedtotheminthepast,orforthatmatter,itsresponsibilityinthatdevelopment.Therefore,thedeterminationofitsaimsisanexerciseoftheutmost significance.Sincethecurriculumistheformalmechanismthroughwhichintendedaimsare achieved,philosophyhasaprofoundroletoplayintheirdetermination(2.3).Thesignificance ofthecurriculumprocessisillustratedthroughtheconsiderationoftheproblemof“curriculum overload”(2.4).
Toillustratetheroleofphilosophyinthecurriculumprocess,attentionisdrawntoitsdemandthattheterminologyusedshouldbeclearand,atthesametime,itshouldhelptoclarify it(1.1).Inspiteofthisthereismuchambiguityineducationalthinkingeveninstatementsof objectives(outcomes)(1.3),andtherearehugedifficultiesindefiningsubjectareaslikeengineeringandtechnologicalliteracywhicharethefocusofthistext(1.4).Mattersarecomplicated bythefactthatengineershavetospeakdifferent“specialist”languagestodifferentpeopleinthe processofdesignandmanufacture(1.5),notwithstandingglobalisation,andthepossibilityof havingtocommunicateinforeignlanguages.
However,JosephPittremindsusthat“philosophyisnotallabouthowlanguageworks, buthowpeopleuseittocommunicatebetterandsolveproblemsaffectingtheirimmediatelives. Itisnotallaboutlogic,butalsoabouthowpeoplereasoninformallyandwhythatis,inthelong run,moreimportantthanproducingaconsistencytheorem.Itisnotjustaboutthestructural flawsinvariousethicaltheories,butaboutwhatkindofaworldweshouldbebuildinginorder trulytolivethegoodlife.Inshort,itisaboutpeople.Itisabouthowallofusrelatetoeachother andtotheworld.Andifitisaboutallofus,thenitnecessarilyincludesengineers.”
AmodelofthecurriculumprocessispresentedinChapter2(2.3).Itillustratestheneed foralignmentbetweenaimsandobjectives,learning,assessment,andthelearningcharacteristicsofthestudents.Attentionisdrawntotheinfluenceofaccreditationandqualityassurance agenciesontheprocess.Thisprocessisillustratedwiththeexampleoftheoverloadedcurriculum(2.4)
Chapter 2 beginsbydefiningoperationalphilosophyasthevaluesystemthatdrivesa particularcurriculum,syllabus,course,orteachingsession.Becausethebeliefswehaveabout
educationdeterminehowwethinkstudentslearnandhowtheyshouldbetaught,theyshould alwaysbesubjecttoscrutiny,philosophicallyandevidentially.Forexample,itseemsthatcurrentresponsestoengineeringneedsasexpressedinthecurriculumstemfromamixofideologies(2.5).Nevertheless,manyengineeringeducatorsstillseethepurposeofthecurriculumas informationgiving.
However,wedoneedtobeabletodefendouraimsand,atthesametime,cometoan agreedstatementofpurpose.Insuchdebatesmanyaimswillbeproposedandinordertoobtain consistencytheyneedtobescreenedforcontradictions,whileandatthesametimecreateasmall butsignificantlistofaims(2.6).Philosophyprovidesthevaluesystemagainstwhichtheaims maybeevaluated.RalphTylerarguedthatthisexercisehadtobefollowedbyasecondscreen usinginstructionalpsychologyandmodelsofcognitiveandpersonaldevelopmentshouldbe added(2.6).Itisarguedherethatthesescreeningprocessesdonotfollowalinearsuccession, buttakeplaceinparallel,andinteractwitheachother.Itisfurtherarguedthatitrequiresthat everyparticipantintheprocessshouldhaveadefensiblephilosophyandpsychologyoflearning anddevelopment.
Giventhatacurriculumisaspecificationforaction,curriculumdesignistheprocess ofinquirythatleadstothatspecification.Itisthereverseofthemorenormalcasewherea designerisgiventhespecification.Thedesignerconsiderstheexternalconstraintsthatbearon thecurriculumconsideredasanopensystem.
Thepurposeofthechaptersthatfollow(3–6)istoillustratescreeningbyre-examiningthe curriculumandstructureofhighereducationinlightof(a)theincreasingcostofhighereducationanditseffectontuition,fees,andquality,(b)rapidlychangingtechnologyonemployment, and(c)theutilitarianphilosophythatcurrentlygovernsthedirectionofhighereducation.
ArgumentsaboutstudentloansinboththeUKandtheU.S.haveledtoquestionsabout thestructureofhighereducation,thequalityofteaching(3.6),thecontentofthecurriculum, theirrelevanceofdegreesincertainsubjects,and,aboveall,thepurposeofhighereducation(3.1 and 3.4).Traditionally,anundergraduatedegreeintheUKtakesthreeyears,whereasinthe U.S.ittakesfour,withstudentsinclassesforjustoverhalftheyear.Yet,thesecurrentstructures havenorealrationale.Therefore,itwouldbeeasytore-organisetheacademicyearsoasto compressthreeyearsintotwoandfouryearsintothree.IntheUK,itwasrecentlyestimated thatthischangewouldreducethecostsoftuitionby20%,whichiswhyuniversitiesarebeing encouragedtoruntwoyearprogrammes(3.5).Inbothcountriesitisdifficulttounderstandwhy itisthatthree-andfour-yearprogrammeshavebecomethenormexceptinsofarasthegeneral curriculum,andwithinsubjectsspecifically.
Atamorefundamentallevel,thechangesthataretakingplaceleadtoquestionsaboutthe purposesofhighereducation:“forwhom?”and“forwhat?”(3.3 and 3.8).
Studiesoftheimpactoftechnology,inparticularAI,producebothoptimisticandpessimisticscenariosofthefutureofemployment(4).Itisclearthat,atalllevels,roleswillchange. Itisalsoclearthatsomejobswillbelostandnotreplacedingeographicalareaswherethey
PREFACExix werelost.Newtypesofmiddleskillworkwillbecreated(4.5),andmanynewtaskswillbehybrid(4.6).Inthelongrun,technologywillprofoundlyinfluenceourunderstandingofwhatit istobeaprofessional(4.4).AsJaronLanierpointedoutin“WhoOwnstheFuture” thechoices thatwemakeabouthowwecontroltechnologyareofprofoundsignificance,especiallyforthose whowillfollowus(5.1).
Technologicalandorganizationaldisplacementswillforcesomeworkers(atalllevels) toseekemploymentinfieldsthatarenon-cognatewiththefieldstheyarecurrentlyin.Itis expectedthateveryonewillhavetobecomemoreadaptablethantheyhavebeeninthepastin orderforthemtomakethecareerchangeslifemaydemand.Morespecifically,theywillrequire skillinnon-cognateorcross-domaintransfer.Thiswillrequireofindividualsnotonlytohave themotivationtotransferacrossdomainsbutskillindevisingprogrammesoflearningthatwill enablethemtomoveforwardwiththeircareers.Abasicaimofhighereducationistherefore toequipgraduateswithskillinindependentlearning,andtheassociatedqualityofreflective practice(7).Suchskillwillenablethegraduatetogainnewspecializationsandexpertiseina systemoflifelonglearningthatisintegraltotheneedsofpersonalandprofessionaldevelopment ratherthananaddendum(6).
Chapter 5 examinesthecriticismsofnewlyqualifiedengineeringgraduatesinparticular andhighereducationingeneralthathavebeenmadebyindustrialists(5.1).Examinationof thesecomplaintsshowthattheyrelateasmuchtotheaffectivedomainastheydotocognitive.Theyhavebeencalled“softskills”butnowmanypeopleusetheterm“professionalskills”. Theyhavealsobeencalled“personaltransferableskills”.Someresponsesofpolicymakersare described.ComparingtheselistswiththeviewsoflaypeopleandexpertsonintelligencecategorisedbyR.J.Sternbergshowsthatmanyofthequalitiesdemandedareverymuchthosethat liberaleducationeducatorsclaimtodevelop(5.3).Ifthereistobechangeitwillhavetohave anadequatephilosophicalframework.Theneedforlifelonglearningisagainstressed
TheutilitarianmodelthatgovernshighereducationinbothUKandtheU.S.isbeginning tobequestioned(5.3).InfocusingontheperceivedeconomicvalueofSTEMdegreesatthe expenseoftheartsandhumanitiesboththepersonandsocietyhavebeenneglected.Anaimof educationis,therefore,todevelopabalancedcurriculumthattakesintoaccounttheeconomy, society,workandtheperson.Inanycase,criticismsofcurrentprogrammesbyindustrialistsare primarilyconcernedwiththelackofdevelopmentof“professional”or“soft”skillswhichbelong primarilytotheaffectivedomain,andthesecanonlybedevelopedbytheinclusionofconcepts fromthearts,humanities,andsocialscience.Thus,solvingcomplexengineeringproblemscontributestoaperson’sliberaleducationsuchasthatconceivedbyJohnHenryNewman,which necessarilyinvolvesthecognitiveandaffectivedomainsofhumandevelopment.
Theothercriticismofindustrialiststhatgraduatesarenotabletoworkimmediatelyin industrialsituationsisshowntobeunrealisticsincemanyofthecompetenciesrequiredbyindustryarespecifictothecontextinwhichtheyarerequired,andtherefore,requiresupportfrom industryfortheirdevelopment(5.4).
Giventhesignificanceofadaptabilityanditsimportancetocross-domaintransfer,the wholeofChapter 6 isdevotedtothistopic.Organizationsthatperceivethemselvestobelearning systemswillnecessarilyorganizethemselvesasacommunityoflearners(6.2).Suchcommunities shouldenhancethedevelopmentoftheindividual(6.5).Theneglectofthepersonalinhigher educationbecomesapparent(6.5).Theabilityforcross-domaintransferisenhancedifaperson hashadabroad-basededucationthatenlargesthemindonwhichtheycanbuildthespecialist studiestheywillneedfromtimetotime(6.3; 6.4).
Chapters 3–6 showhowscreeningusingphilosophyandpsychologyside-by-sidetoderive aimsandobjectiveslinksthemtothetypeofcurriculumthatisrequired.Chapter 7 describes amodelofatwo-yearprogrammetomeettherequirementsofa“basic”highereducationfor preparationforfurtherlearning,living,andworkinginanadvancedtechnologicalsociety.It beginswithareviewoftheprecedingchaptersintermsoftheaimofhighereducationasa preparationfor,andcontinuingsupportfor,lifeandwork.Oneconsequenceisthatithasto equipgraduateswithskillinindependentlearning(anditsplanning),andtheassociatedquality ofreflectivepractice(7.1).
Allofushavetofaceaworldthatisconsiderablychallenged.Solutionstoitsproblems willinvariablyrequireinformationfrommanydifferentknowledgeareas(7.2)buttheywillnot beamenabletoasubject-basedapproachtothecurriculum.Atransdisciplinaryapproachto thecurriculumbasedonA.N.Whitehead’stheoryofrhythminlearning(7.5)focusedonkey concepts(7.3, 7.4),andproblem-/project-basedlearningisproposedtoruninparallelwitha programmeintechnologicalliteracy.Thiscurriculumservesasaframeworkforthefourrealities oftheperson,thejob,technology,andsociety.Withoutsuchaprogrammetheconflictsinherent intheconceptoftechnologicalliteracycannotberesolved.
JohnHeywood November2021
Acknowledgments
TheideasforthistextwereoriginallyconceivedforadistinguishedlectureattheAmerican SocietyforEngineeringEducationin2012.Itwassubsequentlyrevisedandpublishedinthe CambridgeHandbookofEngineeringEducationResearch underthetitle“EngineeringattheCrossroads;ImplicationsforEducationalPolicyMakers”.Apapertitled“TheResponseofHigher EducationtoChangingPatternsofEmployment”wasalsogivenatthesameconference.Since then,severalpapershavebeenpresentedattheseconferences,butofmoresignificancehasbeen acontinuingdiscussionamongmyfriendsandcolleaguesabouthowtheseideasmightbedeveloped.
IamdeeplyindebtedtoAlanCheville,CharlesLarkin,andManiMinawho,intalking withmealmostweekly,helpedmere-shapeanddevelopmythinking.Charleshasoffereda substantialcritique,andManihasbeenthroughthetextword-for-word,butanyerrorsare mine.
ElizabethPluskwikhasalsobeenthroughthescriptandadvisedonwhattoleaveinand whattoleaveout,whatisdifficult,andwhatiseasy.Thankyou.Again,thankyoutoArnold Pearsforinvolvingmeintheexerciseforwhichthescriptwaswritten.
Overtheyearsmanyindividualshavecontributedtomythinkingandsupportedmyefforts.IwouldliketomentionDickCulver,CarlHilgarth,JohnKrupczak,RussellKorte,and KarlSmithintheU.S.,BillGrimsonandMichaelMurrayinIreland,JohnCowaninScotland, GlynPrice,andthelateGeorgeCarterandDerykKellyinEngland
JohnHeywood November2021
C
HAPTER1
The LanguagesWeSpeak
1.1THEMEANINGOFWORDSANDPHRASES
Duringthe1940sand1950s,the“BEEB”(astheBritishBroadcastingCorporationisaffectionatelyknownasinBritain),broadcastaradioshowknownas“TheBrainsTrust.”During eachofthe84broadcasts,apanelof4eruditepersonalitiesattemptedtoanswerquestionsthat wereputtothem.Threeofthemanchoredtheprogrammeandthefourthplacewasoccupied bysomewell-knownintellectual.Oneofthethreerespondentswhoanchoredtheprogramme beganhisresponsetoanyquestionbystatingthat“italldependsonwhatyoumeanby.......” aparticularwordorphrase.HewasC.E.M.Joad,aphilosopherandpsychologistwhohad writtenanexcellentintroductiontophilosophy.Hisphrasebecamepartofeverydaylanguage usageintheBritishIsles:evenchildrenwouldbeheardusingit.Withalaughofcourse!
ManyyearslaterduringaninterviewforasenioracademicpostIusedthesamephrasein responsetoaninterviewerwhowasaskingmetocommentonthephilosophyofR.S.Peters. ProfessorPeterswasresponsibleformakingthestudyofeducationalphilosophysomethingthat hadtobedoneinuniversitydepartmentsresponsiblefortheeducationofteachers.Amongother things,hehadsaidthat“educationwastheinitiationofworthwhileactivity,”orwordstothat effect[1].Forty-fiveormoreyearshavepassedsincethenanditwouldbefoolishtosuggestthat Icanrememberhowthequestionwasput,butIdoknowthatIknewlittleornothingofPeters workandthatmyresponsewastosay“italldependsuponwhatyoumeanbyeducation,”etc. OfcourseIdidnotgetthejob!
Nowadays,Iappreciatethatthephrasemeritssomediscussion.Forexample,itrevolves aroundwhatyoumeanby“worthwhileactivity.”Whatisworthwhileactivity?
Isuspectthatinanygroupofadozenorsopeople,whilesomewouldgivesimilaranswers, otherswouldgivedifferentanswersastowhattheyperceivedworthwhileactivitiestobe.There wouldhavetobesomeclarification,andthedevelopmentoftheabilitytoclarifyissomething thattheactivityofphilosophycanencourage.Butletusstaywiththeissueforaminute.Suppose wefindsomeanswersfocusonworthwhileactivitiesintheclassroomwhileotherresponsesrefer toarangeofactivitiesfromsuchthingsasgardeningtogoingtoapopconcert.Wemightargue thatonlytheformerareeducational.Butwhoarewetosaythatnolearningtakesplaceinthe latter?Soifwechangethemeaningofeducationtolearning,andifwetakeitthatmoreor lesseverythingwehavetodoisworthwhile,bydefinitionwearriveatsomethingweknowto beuniversallytrue,thatis,thatlearningtakesplaceallthetime,contingentthoughitmaybe. Takeanotherstepandwebegintorecognisethatthesystemofformaleducationisasocial
1.THELANGUAGESWESPEAK
artefact.Finally,wefindthatsomeoneelseispreparedtotakealltheseargumentsapart.Thatis whatphilosophersdo.Theytakeeachother’sarguments/systemsapart—thatishowphilosophy movesonbutneverescapesfromtheargumentsofthepast.
Joad,or“ProfessorJoad”ashewasknown,wasbeingaphilosopher.Heshowedusthat manystatementsrequireclarificationiftheirmeaningistobeunderstood.
ReadtheWikipediabiographyofJoad,oranyotherbiographythatyoucancallup,and youwillfinditwasJoadwhopopularisedphilosophy,thathewasasocialist,thatheliked theladies,thathelikedmixingwiththegrandees,thathewroteprolifically,andthatnearhis deathbedhereturnedtoChristianity.However,youwillfindlittleornothingabouthisphilosophicalbeliefs.Yet,amongthelonglistofhispublicationsyouwillfind“CritiqueofLogical Positivism”[2].Thissuggeststhathemayhaveallowedformetaphysicsinhisthinkingwhich logical-positivismdoesnot.
1.2THEVIENNACIRCLE
LogicalpositivismisthedevelopmentofBertrandRussell’s[3]analyticphilosophybyagroup ofpersonswhowereprimarilymathematiciansandscientistsworkinginVienna.Theybecame knownastheViennaCircle[4].Theirbiblewas“TheTractatus,”publishedin1921byLudwigWittgensteinwhohadbeenapupilofRussell’s[5].Theywereconcernedwiththe“true” meaningofstatementswhichitwasarguedcouldonlybediscoveredbyaskingthequestion “whatwouldhehavetodotoestablishthetruthorfalsehoodofthisstatement?”Becausethe formalmethodstheyusedfortheverificationofempiricalquestionsweresimilartothoseused inthesciences,theyarguedthatonlypropositionsinthenaturalsciencesweretrue,andthatit wasimpossibletosayanythingmeaningfulaboutethics,aesthetics,andmetaphysics.Thus,the clarificationofmeaningisconfinedtonaturalscience.Assuch,itwasinthetraditionofBritish empiricismandpositivism[6].
OneofthosewhoaccompaniedJoadasaregularpanellistontheBrainsTrustwas thephilosopherA.J.“Freddie”Ayer.HeintroducedtheBritishpublicto“dogmaticlogicalpositivism”andthephilosophicalthinkingoftheViennaCirclethroughhisbook Language, Truth,andLogic publishedin1936[7].AyerwasthenProfessorofPhilosophyatUniversity CollegeLondon.LikeJoad,hehadsocialistleaningsalthoughhewasnotapacifist.However, hislogicalpositivismwasquiteclear.Onlyscientificstatementscanbeprovedtobeeithertrue orfalseandthisimpliesalimitationonscience,andthereforephilosophy,sincesciencehasto berestrictedtoobservableaspectsofnature.Metaphysicalandtheologicalstatementshaveno meaning,andtheactivitiesofphilosophybecomefocusedonhowtoreplaceordinarylanguage withmorepreciseandstandardisedequivalents.Thisisthereasonformentioningithere,althoughasaphilosophylogicalpositivismisnolongerinthevoguethatitwas[8].Nevertheless, instatingthecaseforapluralisticapproachtoaphilosophyofengineering,CarlMitchamand RobertMackeyarguethatalinguisticphilosophyofengineering,asdistinctfromanalyticphilosophy,hasaroletoplayinthispluralism[9].Inthecontextofengineeringeducation,itis,as
1.3. AMBIGUITYINENGINEERINGEDUCATION3 wouldbeinferredinSection 1.1,concernedwiththepreciseuseoflanguageinthedesignand implementationofthecurriculum.
Althoughtheaveragememberofthepublic,andforthemostpartthatisyouandI, wouldnotwanttoengageintheabstractconversationsofphilosophersonlanguage,somethings havetrickleddownintothepublicarena.Wenowappreciatethatwehavetobeverycarefulin interpretingstatisticsthatwefindinnewspapers.Nearertohome,wehavebecomeincreasingly awareoftheneedtoclarifymeaning:weknowthatiftheassessmentquestionswesetinapublic examinationorthesubsequentgradingproceduresareunclearthereisthepossibilitythatwewill betakentocourt.Morepertinently,weknowthatifaninstructionwegivetoatechnicianis misunderstoodandleadstoanaccidentthatweareultimatelyresponsibleforwhathappened. Soweneedtocheckthatourinstructionsareunderstoodandnotmisunderstood.
1.3AMBIGUITYINENGINEERINGEDUCATION
Sincetheyear2000,engineeringeducatorsintheU.S.havebeenrequiredbytheAccreditationBoardforEngineeringandTechnology(ABET)toensurethattheprogramstheyteach willachievecertainspecifiedoutcomes.Theywererevised,notwithoutconsiderabledebate, in2016.Beforetheywerefirstintroducedintheyear2000,engineeringeducatorswereableto attendmeetingsthatclarifiedthemeaningoftheseoutcomes.Twoengineeringeducators,YokomotoandBostwick,arguedthat“secondarymeaningsofsomewordsaresometimesused,such asusingtheterm‘criteria’todescribethelevelofperformancethatstudentsmustachieveand ‘outcomes’todescribethelearningbehavioursstudentsmustdemonstrate”[10].Amorecommondefinitionof“outcome”is“result”or“consequence,”andanyoneattachingthatmeaning tothewordwillsurelybecomeconfusedinanydiscussionaboutwritingmeasurableoutcomes. YokomotoandBostwicksaidthattheaimslistedbyABET(Exhibit 1.1)wereconsideredtobe toobroadtobeassesseddirectly.Inthetraditionof TheTaxonomyofEducationalObjectives [11], theyrecommendedthatthoseaimsshouldbebrokendownintosmallermoremeasurableunits. Theessenceoftheirargumentwasthataccreditingagenciesshouldexplainthetermsused,and usethemconsistently,andtothisendtheymadeadistinctionbetweencourseoutcomesand courseinstructionalobjectives.Again,suchdistinctionsaredebatable.
Itiseasytofallintothetrapofmakingambiguousstatements.Forexample,recentlyI wroteinachapterofabookamodificationofastatementthatIhadwrittenin1986[12].It wasadefinitionoftechnologyinwhichInowsubstituted“engineering”for“technology.”The revisedstatementwhichrelatedtothemodelisshowninExhibit 1.2 reads,“Engineeringisthe artandscienceofmakingthingsthatmeettheneedsofselfandsociety.Itisbothanactivity andasystemthatservesbothindividualsandsociety thatcreatesnewproblemsforboth.Therefore, engineeringliteracyisnecessarilyinterdisciplinaryandaliberalstudy. Engineeringliteracyisabout theprocessofengineeringwhereasastechnologicalliteracyisabouttheproductsofengineeringandtheir impactonsociety.”Itwasthefirstphraseinitalicsthatbotheredthereviewer.Heorshewrote: “Meaningengineeringcreatesnewproblemsforboth?Orthefactthatitservesbothindividualsand
Engineering programs must demonstrate that their graduates have:
(a) an ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science, and engineering;
(b) an ability to design and conduct experiment, as well as to analyze and interpret data;
(c) an ability to design a system, component, or process to meet desired needs;
(d) an ability to function in multi-disciplinary teams;
(e) an ability to identify, formulate, and solve engineering problems;
(f) an understanding of professional and ethical responsibility;
(g) an ability to communicate effectively;
(h) the broad education necessary to understand the impact of engineering solutions in a global/social context;
(i) a recognition of the need for and an ability to engage in life-long learning;
(j) a knowledge of contemporary issues; and
(k) an ability to use the techniques, skills, and modern engineering tools necessary for engineering practice.
Exhibit 1.1: ThelistofprogramoutcomesinSectionIIofEngineeringCriteria2000.The AccreditationBoardforEngineeringandTechnology(ABET). societycreatesproblems?” [13]Theambiguityisimmediatelyapparent.Iwasintendingtheformer but,isn’tthesecondpointvalid?
Intheoriginalstatementthewordtechnologywasusedbecausethoseofuswhowantedto includesomeengineeringscienceinthemiddleandhighschoolcurriculuminEnglandfailedto getourideaestablished.Westerngovernmentshadbeguntoreplacetheindustrialarts(woodworkandmetalwork)withanapproachthatwasbasedondesignandmakeprojects,anda syllabusbasedonablackboxsystemsapproach.Sincethen,asmembersoftheTechnologicalLiteracyDivisionoftheAmericanSocietyforEngineeringEducationhavepointedout,I haveallowedthetwoliteraciestobecomeinterchangeablewhentherearediscernibledifferences.SomearguedthatIwasconfusingtheissuesoitbecameevidentthattherewasaneedfor clarificationanddefinition.Atthesametime,theDivisionalsoquestionedthemeaningofthe termtechnologyinitstitleinrelationtoitsaims.AgroupledbyJohnKrupczakgaveseparate anddifferentdefinitionsofengineeringandtechnologicalliteracywhichhascausedthedivision tochangeitsnamesoastoembracebothengineeringandtechnologicalliteracy.Thisiswhy Krupczaketal.definitionsaresummarizedinthesecondblockofitalicsinthestatementjust considered[14].
